quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular … · 2020. 3. 5. · manobo tribe...

RESEARCH Open Access

Quantitative ethnopharmacologicaldocumentation and molecular confirmationof medicinal plants used by the Manobotribe of Agusan del Sur, PhilippinesMark Lloyd G. Dapar1,3*, Grecebio Jonathan D. Alejandro1,2,3, Ulrich Meve3 and Sigrid Liede-Schumann3

Abstract

Background: The Philippines is renowned as one of the species-rich countries and culturally megadiverse inethnicity around the globe. However, ethnopharmacological studies in the Philippines are still limited especially inthe most numerous ethnic tribal populations in the southern part of the archipelago. This present study aims todocument the traditional practices, medicinal plant use, and knowledge; to determine the relative importance,consensus, and the extent of all medicinal plants used; and to integrate molecular confirmation of uncertain speciesused by the Agusan Manobo in Mindanao, Philippines.

Methods: Quantitative ethnopharmacological data were obtained using semi-structured interviews, groupdiscussions, field observations, and guided field walks with a total of 335 key informants comprising of tribalchieftains, traditional healers, community elders, and Manobo members of the community with their medicinalplant knowledge. The use-report (UR), use categories (UC), use value (UV), cultural importance value (CIV), and usediversity (UD) were quantified and correlated. Other indices using fidelity level (FL), informant consensus factors(ICF), and Jaccard’s similarity index (JI) were also calculated. The key informants’ medicinal plant use knowledge andpractices were statistically analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics.

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* Correspondence: [email protected] Graduate School and Research Center for the Natural and AppliedSciences, University of Santo Tomas, España Boulevard, 1015 Manila,Philippines3Department of Plant Systematics, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstr. 30,95440 Bayreuth, GermanyFull list of author information is available at the end of the article

Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:14 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-00363-7

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Results: This study enumerated the ethnopharmacological use of 122 medicinal plant species, distributed among108 genera and belonging to 51 families classified in 16 use categories. Integrative molecular approach confirmed24 species with confusing species identity using multiple universal markers (ITS, matK, psbA-trnH, and trnL-F). Therewas strong agreement among the key informants regarding ethnopharmacological uses of plants, with ICF valuesranging from 0.97 to 0.99, with the highest number of species (88) being used for the treatment of abnormal signsand symptoms (ASS). Seven species were reported with maximum fidelity level (100%) in seven use categories. Thecorrelations of the five variables (UR, UC, UV, CIV, and UD) were significant (rs ≥ 0.69, p < 0.001), some beingstronger than others. The degree of similarity of the three studied localities had JI ranged from 0.38 to 0.42,indicating species likeness among the tribal communities. Statistically, the medicinal plant knowledge amongrespondents was significantly different (p < 0.001) when grouped according to education, gender, social position,occupation, civil status, and age but not (p = 0.379) when grouped according to location. This study recorded thefirst quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation coupled with molecular confirmation of medicinal plants inMindanao, Philippines, of which one medicinal plant species has never been studied pharmacologically to date.

Conclusion: Documenting such traditional knowledge of medicinal plants and practices is highly essential forfuture management and conservation strategies of these plant genetic resources. This ethnopharmacological studywill serve as a future reference not only for more systematic ethnopharmacological documentation but also forfurther pharmacological studies and drug discovery to improve public healthcare worldwide.

Keywords: Agusan Manobo, Cultural importance value, Ethnopharmacology, Mindanao, Molecular confirmation, Usediversity

IntroductionThe application of traditional medicine has gainedrenewed attention for the use of traditional, complemen-tary, and alternative medicine (TCAM) in the developingand industrialized countries [1, 2]. Conventional drugsthese days may serve as effective medicines and thera-peutics, but some rural communities still prefer naturalremedies to treat selected health-related problems andconditions. Medicinal plants have long been used sincethe prehistoric period [3], but the exact time when theuse of plant-based drugs has begun is still uncertain [4].The WHO has accounted about 60% of the world’spopulation relying on traditional medicine and 80% ofthe population in developing countries depend almostentirely on traditional medical practices, in particular,herbal remedies, for their primary health care [5]. Esti-mates for the numbers of plant species used medicinallyworldwide include 35,000–70,000 [6] with 7000 in SouthAsia [7] comprising ca. 6500 in Southeast Asia [8, 9]. Inthe Philippines, more than 1500 medicinal plants usedby traditional healers have been documented [10], and120 plants have been scientifically validated for safetyand efficacy [11]. Of all documented Philippine medi-cinal plants, the top list of medicinal plants used forTCAM has been enumerated by [12]. Most of these Phil-ippine medicinal plants have been evaluated to scientific-ally validate folkloric claims like the recent studies of[13–20].Because of the increasing demand for drug discovery

and development of medicinal plants, the application ofa quantitative approach in ethnobotany [21] and

ethnopharmacology [22] has been rising continuously inthe last few decades including multivariate analysis [23].However, few studies of quantitative ethnobotanical re-search were conducted despite the rich plant biodiversityand cultural diversity in the Philippines. In particular,the Ivatan community in Batan Island of Luzon [24] andthe Ati Negrito community in Guimaras Island ofVisayas [21] have been documented, while Mindanaohas remained less studied. Despite the richness of indi-genous knowledge in the Philippines, few ethnobotanicalstudies have been conducted and published [25].The Philippines is culturally megadiverse in diversity

and ethnicity among indigenous peoples (IPs) embracingmore than a hundred divergent ethnolinguistic groups[26, 27] with known specific identity, language, socio-political systems, and practices [28]. Of these IPs, 61%are mainly inhabiting Mindanao, followed by Luzon with33%, and some groups in Visayas (6%) [29]. One of theselocal people and minorities is the indigenous group ofManobo, inhabiting several areas only in Mindanao.They are acknowledged to be the largest Philippine eth-nic group occupying a wide area of distribution thanother indigenous communities like the Bagobo, Higao-non, and Atta [30]. The Manobo (“river people”) was theterm named after the “Mansuba” which means riverpeople [19], coined from the “man” (people) and the“suba” (river) [31]. Among the provinces dwelled by theManobo, the province of Agusan del Sur is mostlyinhabited by this ethnic group known as the AgusanManobo. The origin of Agusan Manobo is still uncertainand immemorial; however, they are known to have

Dapar et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2020) 16:14 Page 2 of 60

Butuano, Malay, Indonesian, and Chinese origin occupy-ing mountain ranges and hinterlands in the province ofAgusan del Sur [32].Manobo indigenous peoples are clustered accordingly,

occupying areas with varying dialects and some aspectsof culture due to geographical separation. Their historiclifestyle and everyday livelihood are rural agriculture andprimarily depend on their rice harvest, root crops, andvegetables for consumption [33]. Some Agusan Manoboare widely dispersed in highland communities abovemountain drainage systems, indicating a suitable area fortheir indigenous medicinal plants in the province [34].Every city or municipality is governed with a tribal chief-tain known as the “Datu” (male) or “Bae” (female) withhis or her respective tribal healer “Babaylan” and the tri-bal leaders “Datu” of each barangay (village) leading theircommunity. Their tribe has passed several challengesover the years but has still maintained to conserve andprotect their ancestral domain to continually sustaintheir cultural traditions, practices, and values up to thispresent generation. This culture implies that there is richmedicinal plant knowledge in the traditional practices ofAgusan Manobo, but their indigenous knowledge hasnot been systematically documented. Furthermore, thereare no comprehensive ethnobotanical studies of medi-cinal plants used among the Manobo tribe in thePhilippines to date.Documenting the ethnomedicinal plant use and know-

ledge, and molecular confirmation of species using inte-grative molecular approach will help in understandingthe true identity of medicinal plants in the treatment ofhealth-related problems of the people of Agusan del Sur.This will also help the entire Agusan Manobo commu-nity to implement conservation priorities of their indi-genous plant species. Furthermore, the provincialgovernment of Agusan del Sur may enforce the properutilization of their plant resources from IPs. Ideas andknowledge about ethnomedicinal use and practices ofmedicinal plants give credence to the traditionalmethods and preparation of herbal medicine by ethnicgroups.Despite the limited funds and qualified personnel in

the region, it is very relevant to recognize the role ofethnopharmacology and species identification in theconservation of these plant genetic resources with medi-cinal properties. With the introduction of the applicationof molecular barcodes for species identification by [35],the problem of unauthenticated medicinal species cannow be resolved [19, 36–43].Significantly, researchers have recently developed the

application of ethnopharmacological study into a quanti-tative approach with measuring values and indices toquantify the relationship between plant species andhumans [44–48].

This study, therefore, aims to (1) conduct quantitativeethnopharmacological documentation of traditionaltherapy, (2) evaluate the medicinal plant use and know-ledge, and (3) utilize integrative molecular approach forspecies confirmation of medicinal plants used by theManobo tribe in Agusan del Sur, Philippines.

Materials and methodsStudy areaFieldwork was conducted in the province of Agusan delSur, Philippines (8° 30′ N 125° 50′ E), bordered fromthe north by Agusan del Norte, to the south by Davaodel Norte, and from the west by Misamis Oriental andBukidnon, to the east by Surigao del Sur. Agusan del Suris bounded with mountain ranges from the eastern andwestern sides forming an elongated basin or valley in thecenter longitudinal section of the land. The province issubdivided into 13 municipalities (from the largest tosmallest land area): La Paz, Esperanza, Loreto, San Luis,Talacogon, Sibagat, Prosperidad, Bunawan, Trento, Ver-uela, Rosario, San Francisco, and Sta. Josefa; and theonly component city, the City of Bayugan (Fig. 1). For-estland comprises almost two thirds (74%) of the prov-ince of Agusan del Sur, while alienable and disposable(A&D) areas constitute around one-third (26%) of thetotal land area [49]. Every city or municipality has a re-spective community hospital and health center with lim-ited doctors and rural health workers. Typically, localpeople only visit the hospitals or health centers for surgi-cal and obstetric emergencies. Most residents rely ontheir medicinal plants for disease treatment and medica-tion due to cost and poor access to healthcare services.This study purposively covered areas of selected city andmunicipalities (Bayugan, Esperanza, and Sibagat) for ac-cessibility, availability, and security reasons to barangays(villages) with Certification of Ancestral Domain Title(CADT) as endorsed by the National Commission on In-digenous Peoples—CARAGA Administrative Region(NCIP-CARAGA).

Sampling and interviewFieldwork was undertaken from March 2018 to May2019. It consisted of obtaining free prior informed con-sents, observing rituals, acquiring resolutions, certifica-tions, and permits, conducting semi-structuredinterviews, focus group discussions, plant and field ob-servations, and medicinal plant collections in selectedbarangays (villages) of Bayugan, Sibagat, and Esperanza(Fig. 1). This study was initiated in coordination with thelocal government unit (LGU), NCIP-LGU, and Provin-cial Environment and Natural Resources Office(PENRO) of Agusan del Sur. Consultation meetings anddiscussions were carried out together with the con-cerned parties (tribal leaders, tribal healers, and NCIP


Fig. 1 Study sites (barangays) from the only city (Bayugan), and the two selected municipalities (Esperanza and Sibagat) in the province ofAgusan del Sur


officers) to discuss research intent as purely academicand to acquire mutual agreement and respect to conductthis study. As approved, the research intent was certifiedthrough resolution and certification duly signed by thetribal council of elders following the by-laws of NCIP forthe welfare and protection of indigenous peoples, and fi-nally certified by NCIP-CARAGA.Ethnopharmacological data were collected through

semi-structured interviews with Manobo key informantsthrough purposive and snowball sampling who were cer-tified Agusan Manobo. A sampling of these key infor-mants was coordinated with the provincial and localgovernment administration together with the assistanceof the tribal leaders and NCIP focal persons in every cityor municipality to each of the barangays in selectingthose who have knowledge of their medicinal plants andpractices. The respective barangay tribal leaders assistedinterviews among respondents with no appointmentsmade prior to the visits. The semi-structured question-naire used was modified and adapted from the Trad-itional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) template, assuggested by the Department of Health—Philippine In-stitute of Traditional and Alternative Health Care(DOH-PITAHC) (see Additional file 1). The Ethics Re-view Committee of the Graduate School, University ofSanto Tomas (USTGS-ERC), approved the study and thequestionnaire used with a valid translation to Manobodialect (Minanubu) with the help of a community mem-ber and NCIP officer. It has series of questions about thecommon health problems encountered by the respon-dents; the actions undertaken to address such problems;the medicinal plants they used (local or vernacularname); the plant’s part(s) used, forms, modes, quantityor dosage, and frequency of administration; the sourceor transfer of knowledge; and the experienced adverse orside effects. Interviews were accompanied by nurses andallied workers as coordinated by the rural health centerto verify reported diseases accurately by the informants.Meetings and focus group discussions were also per-

formed to review the accuracy of acquired data amongthe respondents with the help of guided questionsamong the tribal council of elders comprising the NCIP-recognized indigenous peoples mandatory representa-tives (IPMRs), the tribal chieftains, the tribal healers, andthe respective tribal leaders of every barangay tribalcommunities together with the NCIP officer.

Plant collection and identificationThe collection of plant specimens was conductedthrough guided field walks with the aid of the traditionalhealers, expert plant gatherers, and members within thetribal community. The plant habit, habitat, morpho-logical characteristics, vernacular names, and some indi-genous terms of their uses were documented. Leaf

samples were placed in zip-locked bags containing silicagel for molecular analysis [50] in preparation for furthermolecular confirmation. Voucher specimens were depos-ited in the University of Santo Tomas Herbarium(USTH). Putative plant identification using vernacularnames was compared to the reference of local names,Dictionary of Philippines Plant Names by [51]. Plantidentification was assisted by Mr. Danilo Tandang, abotanist and researcher at the National Museum of thePhilippines. Specimens unidentifiable by morphologywere selected for molecular confirmation. All scientificnames were verified and checked for spelling and syno-nyms and family classification using The Plant List [52],World Flora Online [53], The International Plant NamesIndex [54], and Tropicos [55]. The occurrence, distribu-tion, and species identification were further verifiedusing the updated Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines[56].

DNA extraction, amplification, and sequencingCollected plant specimens with insufficient material foridentification due to lack of reproductive parts and un-familiarity were subjected to molecular confirmation.The total genomic DNA was extracted from the silicagel-dried leaf tissues of samples following the protocolsof DNeasy Plant Minikit (Qiagen, Germany). The ITS(nrDNA), matK, trnH-psbA, and trnL-F (cpDNA)markers were used for this study. Primer informationand PCR conditions used for amplification using Biome-tra T-personal cycler (Germany) can be found in Table 1for future parameter reference. PCR amplicons werechecked on a 1% TBE agarose to inspect for the pres-ence and integrity of DNA. Amplified products weresent to Eurofins Genomics (Germany) for DNA sequen-cing reactions. Sequences were then assembled and edi-ted using Codon Code Aligner v4.1.1. All sequenceswere then evaluated and compared using BLASTnsearch query available in the GenBank (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov). The BLASTn method estimates the reliabilityof species identification as a sequence similarity searchprogram to determine the sequence of interest [62] re-gardless of the age, plant part, or environmental factorsof the sample [63].

Quantitative ethnopharmacological analysisThe use-report (UR) is counted as the number of timesa medicinal plant is being used in a particular purposein each of the categories [21, 24]. Only one use-reportwas counted for every time a plant was cited as beingused in a specific disease or purpose and even multipledisease or purpose under the same category [64]. Mul-tiple use-reports were counted when at least two inter-viewees cited the same plant for the same disease orpurpose. The use value (UV) developed by [45] is used


http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.govhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

to indicate species that are considered highly importantby the given population using the following formula: UV= (ΣUi)/N, where Ui is the number of UR or citationsper species and N is the total number of informants [47,48]. High UV implies high plant use-reports relative toits importance to the community and vice versa. How-ever, it does not determine whether the use of the plantis for single or multiple purposes [21, 24]. The relativeimportance of the plants was also determined by calcu-lating the cultural importance value (CIV) by using theformula: CIV = Σ[(ΣUR)/N], where UR is the number ofuse-reports in use category and N is the number of in-formants reporting the plant [48]. The use diversity(UD) of each medicinal plant used was determined usingthe Shannon index of uses as calculated with the R pack-age vegan [65].The ICF introduced by [66] was used to analyze the

degree of informants’ agreement based on their medi-cinal plant knowledge in each of the categories [21, 24].This is computed using the formula: ICF = (Nur − Nt)/(Nur − 1), where Nur is the number of UR in each cat-egory, and Nt is the number of species used for a par-ticular category by all informants. Fidelity level (FL)developed by [67] is calculated using the formula: FL (%)= (Ip/Iu) × 100, where Ip is the number of informantswho independently suggested a given species for a par-ticular disease, and Iu is the total number of informantswho mentioned the plant for any use or purpose regard-less of category. The maximum value (1.00) means ahigh degree of informant agreement showing the effect-iveness of medicinal plants in each ailment category

[68]. However, a minimum value (0.00) implies no infor-mation exchange among the informants [69]. Jaccard’ssimilarity index (JI) by [70] was calculated to evaluatethe similarity of medicinal plant species among the threestudied areas. The formula of JI is represented as fol-lows: J = C/(A + B), where A is the number of speciesfound in habitat a, B is the number of species found inhabitat b, and C is the number of common species foundin habitats a and b. The number species present in eitherof the habitats is given by A + B (Jaccard).

Statistical toolsThe plant URs were computed and analyzed using IBMSPSS Statistics software v.23 [71]. Descriptive and non-parametric inferential statistics Mann-Whitney U andKruskal-Wallis tests were employed to test for significantdifferences at 0.01 level of significance. These two statis-tical analyses measure and compare the medicinal plantuse and knowledge of informants when grouped accord-ing to location, education, gender, social position, occu-pation, civil status, and age. The basic values and indices(UR, UC, UV, CIV, UD) were correlated using the Spear-man correlation coefficient to compare variables that arenot distributed normally.

Integrative molecular confirmationSelected plant samples unidentifiable by morphologywere subjected to an integrative molecular identificationapproach as previously recommended by [42] for accur-ate species identification of plant samples. Selected plantsamples were compared with the available morphological

Table 1 Gene regions, primers and amplification protocols used for polymerase chain reaction

Gene region Primername

Reference Primer sequence (5′ ➔ 3′) PCR Protocol

ITS (ITS1, 5.8S gene,and ITS2)

p17F [57] 5′-CTACCGATTGAATGGTCCGGTGAA-3′

94 °C 5 min; 28 cycles of 94 °C 1 min, 48 °C 1 min, 72 °C 1 min; 72 °C 7min; 10 °C paused

26S-82R 5′-TCCCGGTTCGCTCGCCGTTACTA-3′

5 [58] 5′-GGAAGTAAAAGTCGTAACAAGG-3′

94 °C 5 min; 30 cycles of 94 °C 1 min, 55 °C 1 min, 72 °C 1 min, 45 s;72 °C 10 min; 10 °C paused

4 5′-TCCTCCGCTTATTGATATGC-3′

matK 3F_kimF [59] 5′-CGTACAGTACTTTTGTGTTTACGAG-3′

98 °C 45 s; 35 cycles of 98 °C 10 s, 52 °C 30 s, 72 °C 40 s; 72 °C 10 min;10 °C paused

IR_kimR 5′-ACCCAGTCCATCTGGAAATCTTGGTTC-3′

psbA-trnH psbA_F [60] 5′-GTTATGCATGAACGTAATGCTC-3′

95 °C 4 min; 35 cycles of 94 °C 30 s, 55 °C 1 min, 72 °C 1 min; 72 °C 10min; 10 °C paused

trnH_R 5′-CGCGCATGGTGGATTCACAATCC-3′

trnL-F c [61] 5′-CGAAATCGGTAGACGCTACG-3′

94 °C 3 min; 30 cycles of 93 °C 1 min; 55 °C 1 min, 72 °C 2 min; 10 °Cpaused

f 5′-ATTTGAACTGGTGACACGAG-3′


characteristics, interview data on vernacular names andtraditional knowledge, determining scientific namesbased on reference of local names using the Dictionaryof Philippines Plant Names by [51], and utilizing mul-tiple molecular markers, ITS (nrDNA), matK, trnH-psbA, and trnL-F (cpDNA) for sequencing and BLASTmatching. Two sequence similarity-based methods usingBLAST [72] were applied for molecular confirmation.BLAST similarity-based identification was adapted fromthe study of [42] with a slight modification. Thisidentification involved using the simple method takingthe top hits and optimized approach. All successfullysequenced samples were sequentially queried usingmegablast [72] online at NCBI nucleotide BLASTagainst the nucleotide database. For the simplemethod, all top hits within a 5-point deviation downof the max score were considered. If the max score(− 5 points) showed only a single species, then a spe-cies level identification was assigned. On the other

hand, if the max score (− 5 points) showed severalspecies but similar genus, then a genus level identifi-cation was assigned. However, if the max score (− 5points) showed multiple species in several genera ofthe same family, then a family level identification wasassigned. In addition, within a 5-point deviation downof the max score, the highest max score and thehighest percent identity were also determined. Fromthe top 5 hits down of the max score, an optimizedmethod using the formula, [max score (query cover/identity)], was calculated.The integrative molecular confirmation combined the

simple and optimized BLAST-based sequence matchingresults with reference of local names, and comparativemorphology. As a result, all species identity and genericand familial affinity were further confirmed from the re-corded occurrence and distribution of putative species inthe study area based on the updated Co's Digital Flora ofthe Philippines [56].

Table 2 Sociodemographic profile of the Manobo key informants in Sibagat, Esperanza, and Bayugan City, Agusan del Sur

Category Subcategory No. of informants % of informants

Location Bayugan City 150 44.8

Sibagat 90 26.9

Esperanza 95 28.4

Education level Primary 57 17.0

Secondary 167 49.9

Higher education 111 33.1

Gender Male 229 31.6

Female 106 68.4

Social Position Tribal chieftain (Datu) 45 13.4

Tribal healer 3 0.90

Tribal IPMR 6 1.80

Tribal leader 31 9.30

Manobo NCIP focal person 4 1.20

Manobo council of elders 7 2.10

Manobo members 239 71.3

Occupation Farming 205 61.2

Animal husbandry 47 14.0

Employed 49 14.6

Unemployed 16 4.80

Others 18 5.40

Civil Status Single 187 55.8

Married 133 39.7

Others 15 4.50

Age 18–34 years old 142 42.4

35–49 years old 103 30.7

50–65 years old 53 15.8

More than 65 years 37 11.0


ResultsDemography of InformantsA total of 335 Agusan Manobo key informants (morethan 10% of the total Manobo population of selectedbarangays) including traditional healers, leaders, council,and members were interviewed comprised with 106 fe-male and 229 male individuals in an age range from 18–87 years old (median age of 42 years). We considered keyinformants those who are certified Agusan Manobo andknowledgeable with their medicinal plant uses and prac-tices, may it be tribal officials, elders, and members ofthe community. Demographics by location, educationallevel, gender, social position, occupation, civil status, andage of participants are summarized in Table 2.

Medicinal plant knowledge of Agusan ManoboThe majority of the respondents (90.45%) cited their ac-quisition of medicinal plant knowledge from their par-ents. They also mentioned other sources of knowledgelike fellow tribe band (67.76%), relatives (64.48%), com-munity (61.49%), and through self-discovery (47.76%).However, the descriptive and inferential statistics re-vealed varying factors affecting the medicinal plantknowledge among the sampled key informants.When grouped according to location, there was no sig-

nificant difference on their medicinal plant knowledge asrevealed in Kruskal-Wallis test (p = 0.379) where the cityof Bayugan had the highest number of UR (Md = 112, n= 150), followed by the two municipalities, Esperanza(Md = 111, n = 95) and Sibagat (Md = 108, n = 90).These results showed an exchange of information onthese adjacent localities among the Manobo communitymight it be the council of elders and members who aremedicinal plant gatherers, peddlers, and traders.However, when grouped according to education, re-

spondents who had secondary level as their highest edu-cational attainment (Md = 116, n = 167) showed thetopmost medicinal plant knowledge when compared toprimary (Md = 105, n = 57) and tertiary (Md = 92, n =111) as revealed by the highly significant difference pre-sented in Kruskal-Wallis test (p < 0.001). These resultsimplied that respondents who finished tertiary weremore educated with modern medicine and highlyacquainted with commercial drugs available over-the-counter for immediate treatment and therapy of theirhealth problems. On the other hand, members withlower educational levels had more medicinal plantknowledge, and most traditional healers, gatherers, andpeddlers finished at most on the secondary level.When grouped according to gender, non-parametric

tests revealed that men (Md = 116, n = 229) had moremedicinal plant knowledge than women (Md = 104, n =106), as demonstrated by the significant difference inboth Mann-Whitney U test (p < 0.001) and Kruskal-

Wallis test (p < 0.001). It can be observed that men hadmore medicinal plant knowledge in Agusan Manobo cul-ture, an observation supported by the fact that in two ofthe three selected localities, the tribal healers weremales, and most of the tribal officials were also males.These results revealed contrary to the previous statisticalfindings of [21] in the Ati culture of Visayas wherewomen were more knowledgeable than men becausethey were more involved in medicinal plant gatheringand peddling, and women also played a big role in caringfor their sick children.Also, knowledge of the participants when grouped ac-

cording to social position varied significantly, as revealedby the Kruskal-Wallis test (p < 0.001). These resultsshowed that the tribal healers remained the mostknowledgeable (Md = 189, n = 3), followed by the Man-obo tribal officials (Md = 172, n = 93) with more medi-cinal plant knowledge when compared to othermembers of the community (Md = 104, n = 239). Themedicinal plant knowledge also varied among the Man-obo tribal officials, namely tribal leaders (Md = 178, n =31), tribal IPMRs (Md = 177, n = 6), tribal chieftains(Md = 172, n = 45), Manobo tribal council of elders (Md= 164, n = 7), and Manobo NCIP focal persons (Md =160, n = 4).When grouped according to the occupation, non-

parametric Kruskal-Wallis test also significantly revealed(p < 0.001) that informants with occupation in farming(Md = 118, n = 205) and animal husbandry (Md = 116,n = 47) had more medicinal plant knowledge comparedto employed (Md = 98, n = 49) and unemployed (Md =96, n = 16) informants. These results suggested thatManobo people working in line with agriculture weremore exposed to medicinal plant knowledge. They werefarming crops or raising animals in hinterlands andmountainous areas where most medicinal plants werelocated. Also, when grouped according to civil status,married informants (Md = 136, n = 147) showed highermedicinal plant knowledge than single ones (Md = 92, n= 188) as revealed by the very high significant differencein both Mann-Whitney U test (p < 0.001) and Kruskal-Wallis test (p < 0.001). These results implied that mar-ried respondents were more exposed during communitygatherings, which involved discussions about medicinalplants with regard to their uses and applications. Ex-change of information could be observed when coupleswere present during the scheduled tribal meetings.Finally, when grouped according to age, descriptive

and inferential statistics revealed that respondents fromthe age group of more than 65 years old had the highestmedicinal plant knowledge (Md = 173, n = 37), followedby 50–65 years old (Md = 155, n = 53), 35–49 years old(Md = 102, n = 103), and 18–24 years old (Md = 96, n =142), as revealed by the highly significant difference


manifested in Kruskal-Wallis test (p < 0.001). These re-sults corresponded to our expectation because older in-formants most likely had more knowledge of medicinalplant uses and practices based on their long-term experi-ence. These results may also imply that younger genera-tions were becoming more acquainted and educatedwith modern therapeutic treatment making them morereluctant in their traditional medicinal plant practiceslike gathering and peddling. This transforming aware-ness, social, and cultural experiences could influencetheir medicinal plant interest, traditional knowledge, andattitudes among the Agusan Manobo. Younger genera-tions are becoming more privileged to be educated aspart of the government scholarship programs for indi-genous communities resulting in migration to urbancommunities.

Medicinal plants usedA total of 122 reported medicinal plant species belong-ing to 108 genera and 51 families were classified in 16use categories, as shown in Tables 3 and 4. All infor-mants interviewed agreed about the healing power ofmedicinal plants, but only 58.5% of the informants usemedicinal plants to treat their health conditions. Whilesome respondents (30.75%) directly relied on seeking fortribal healers in their community, still all these Babay-lans utilized their known medicinal plants for immediatetreatment and therapy. The Agusan Manobo communitybelieved that the combined healing gift and prayers oftheir Babaylans could increase the healing potential oftheir medicinal plants. However, the minority (10.75%)of the key informants depended on seeing a medicalpractitioner and allied health workers in the treatmentof their health conditions at a nearby hospital or healthcenter.

Integrative molecular approachDue to inconclusive morphological identification, un-familiarity, and confusing species identity because oflocal name similarity, a total of 24 medicinal plant spe-cies were confirmed by DNA sequencing and by com-paring the sequences with those present in theGenBank. This method supported ethnopharmacologicaldata to be deposited in a repository, which is essentialand helpful for future researchers and investigators foruse by data mining approaches [73]. The molecular datacan also be useful to the growing barcoding studies ofmedicinal plants. Putative identification based on litera-ture, comparative morphology, and molecular sequencesusing the BLAST search query were tabulated (Table 5).The integrative approach combined with a priori datafrom putative identifications based on the interview dataon local or vernacular names, local plant name diction-ary, and assessment of available morphological

characteristics along with a posteriori data from multipleuniversal markers, occurrence, and distribution of puta-tive species in the Philippines. This paper applied a moredetailed taxonomic identification since all reported me-dicinal plant taxa were identified (nearly all to specieslevel), as shown in Table 4. While all generic and familialaffinities of medicinal plants were confirmed, four medi-cinal plants were not identified up to species level due tolack of morphological characteristics, concerning espe-cially the reproductive parts of Piper and Ficus species,several cultivars and hybrids of Rosa species, and severalspecies and varieties of Bauhinia species. Nevertheless,all generic and familial affinities of the medicinal plantsdocumented here were verified combining similaritymatching and a priori and a posteriori data as recom-mended by [42] to reduce ambiguity and to make it pos-sible assigning a single species identification of theirunidentifiable specimens. All determined plant sampleswith confusing identity having local name similarity andlocal species pairing, including plant samples with incon-clusive morphological identification due to lack of repro-ductive parts upon collection, were accurately verifiedusing an integrative molecular approach (Table 5).

Plant local name similarityMost notable medicinal plants of Agusan Manobo haveconfusing species identity bearing similar local names,gender identity, and local species pairing. It is popular touse medicinal plants known as “Lunas” (meaning “cure”)with several plants associated under its name. For in-stance, the top three medicinal plants in terms of usevalue and cultural importance value have local namesimilarity, namely Lunas tag-uli (Anodendron borneense(King & Gamble) D.J.Middleton), Lunas bagon tapol(Piper decumanum L.), and Lunas kahoy (Micromelumminutum (G.Forst.) Wight & Arn.), respectively. Thesethree medicinal plants with the initial word named“Lunas” had almost similar use-reports in nine use cat-egories with high use diversity (UD > 2.0). Other“Lunas”-named specimens such as Lunas bagon puti(Piper nigrum L.), Lunas pilipo (Acmella grandiflora(Turcz.) R.K.Jansen), Lunas buyo (Piper aduncum L.),and Lunas gabi (Alocasia zebrina Schott ex Van Houtte)also shared similarities from the top three mentionedsamples in terms of ethnomedicinal properties as a treat-ment for cuts and wounds. Also, another three medicinalplants were locally classified with the initial word named“Talimughat” (meaning “recover”), namely “Talimughatlingin” (Grewia laevigata Vahl), “Talimughat taas” (Frie-sodielsia lanceolata (Merr.) Steen.), and “Talimughatpikas” (Bauhinia sp.). These three medicinal plants werenoted with high fidelity for postpartum care and recov-ery. Plant samples with high fidelity for anemia alsohad similar local names which were found to be same


species, namely “Mayana kanapkap” (Coleus scutellar-ioides (L.) Benth.) and “Mayana pula” (Coleus scutellar-ioides (L.) Benth.).Some medicinal plants also have attached “genders”

(male or female) in their local names, which specify themore effective plant “gender” for a specific medicinal useor purpose. Examples are “Kapayas laki” (Carica papaya

L., male), “Dupang bae” (Urena lobata L., female), and“Gapas-gapas bae” (Erechtites valerianifolius (Link exSpreng.) DC., female) as effective treatments for denguevirus, postpartum care and recovery, and gas pain andflatulence, respectively. Besides, most species with highuse values had local species pairing which were classifiedby the tribe according to distinct white and red

Table 3 Use-reports (URs), use values (UVs), and informant consensus factors (ICFs) in every use category (UC).

UCNo.

UC names andabbreviations

Reported diseases or uses under each UC No. ofuse-report

% of alluse-reports

No. ofspecies

% ofallspecies

UV ICF

1 Diseases caused bybacterial, viral, and parasiticinfections (BVP)

Ascariasis, chicken pox, herpes simplex, scabies, jaundice(hepatitis), mumps (parotitis), athlete's foot, warts, amoebiasis,white spot (tinea flava), impetigo, measles, colds (influenza),dengue fever, malaria, typhoid fever, ringworm

3588 8.70 61 9.49 3.04 0.98

2 Tissue growth problems(TGP)

Cancer, cyst, tumor (myoma) 991 2.40 18 2.80 0.95 0.98

3 Endocrine, nutritional, andmetabolic (ENM)

Diabetes, tonic, beriberi, hormonal imbalance, goiter 1367 3.31 36 5.60 1.03 0.97

4 Diseases of the nervoussystem (DNS)

Migraine, Parkinson's disease, nervous breakdown (depression,anxiety, mental stress, nervousness)

239 0.58 7 1.09 0.19 0.97

5 Diseases of the eye (EYE) Sore eyes, cataract, eye problem (blurred vision, conjunctivitis,eye infection)

308 0.75 8 1.24 0.25 0.98

6 Diseases of the ear (EAR) Ear congestion, ear infection, discharging ear (otorrhea) 410 0.99 8 1.24 0.36 0.98

7 Diseases of the circulatorysystem (DCS)

Anemia, hypertension, varicose veins, heart problem(enlargement), internal bleeding, hemorrhage

1333 3.23 31 4.82 0.92 0.98

8 Diseases of the respiratorysystem (DRS)

Asthma, pneumonia, emphysema, pulmonary tuberculosis, nasalcongestion, lung nodule, cough, cough with phlegm, respiratorydisease complex (rhinitis, tracheitis, bronchitis), sore throat(tonsillitis)

3896 9.44 67 10.42 2.66 0.98

9 Diseases of the digestivesystem (DDS)

Constipation, diarrhea, stomach trouble (dysentery, stomachache,bloating), vomiting (nausea), peptic ulcer, toothache, gumswelling, indigestion (dyspepsia), mouth sore (canker sore),stomach acidity (gastritis), swollen/bleeding gums (gingivitis),pancreatitis, liver problem (fatty liver), hemorrhoids, appetiteenhancer

6322 15.33 82 12.75 4.64 0.99

10 Diseases of the skin (DOS) Boils (furuncle/carbuncle), skin eruptions, skin rashes anditchiness (eczema, dermatitis), psoriasis, pimple and acne, hairloss, dandruff

2563 6.21 40 6.22 2.10 0.99

11 Musculoskeletal system andconnective tissue problems(MCP)

Joint pain (arthritis, gout), rheumatism, sprain, tendon massnodule, swollen muscles/swellings, muscle pain

2597 6.30 42 6.53 2.23 0.98

12 Genito-urinary problems(GUP)

Urination difficulty, kidney stones, kidney problem (high uric acidand creatinine), urinary bladder swelling, dysmenorrhea, delayedor irregular menstruation, urinary tract infection

2358 5.72 39 6.07 1.72 0.98

13 Uses in pregnancy todelivery, maternal andinfant care (PMI)

Pregnancy (impotence and sterility), abortifacient, labor anddelivery enhancer, childbirth tool, miscarriage, maternal care,postpartum care and recovery, new-born baby care, milk pro-duction enhancer

1914 4.64 40 6.22 1.25 0.98

14 Abnormal signs andsymptoms (ASS)

Abdominal pain, backache, body ache, headache, fever,weakness and fatigue (asthenia), baby teething, childsleeplessness, malaise and fatigue, “pasmo” (cramp and spasm),“bughat” (relapse), skin numbness (paresthesia), dizziness andfainting, body chills, gas pain and flatulence, hangover

8133 19.72 88 13.69 5.84 0.99

15 Other problems of externalcauses (OEC)

Allergy, burns, cuts and wounds, fracture and dislocation, bruisesand contusions, animal bites (snake, dog), insect bites (mosquito,wasp, scorpion), poisoning, contacts with plant or animal parts

5023 12.18 70 10.89 3.98 0.99

16 Other uses (OTU) Circumcision antiseptic and anesthetic 205 0.50 6 0.93 0.27 0.98


Table

4Med

icinalplantsused

bytheAg

usan

Man

oboin

Agu

sande

lSur,Philippine

s

Plant

no.

Scientificname

Family

Localn

ame

Vouche

rno

.UR

UC

UV

CIV

UD

Disease

orpu

rpose

Parts

used

aPrep

aration

and

administrationb

Quantity

ordo

sage

Adm

inistration

frequ

ency

Expe

rienced

adverseor

side

effects

1An

drograph

ispaniculata

Nees

Acanthaceae

White

flower

USTH

015616

480

91.43

3.07

2.09

Jaun

dice,colds,

malaria;cancer;

diabetes;

hype

rten

sion

,he

art

enlargem

ent,

athe

rosclerosis;

coug

h,respiratory

diseasecomplex,

sore

throat;

diarrhea,ulcer,

dyspep

sia,liver

prob

lem;

abortifacient;

fever,gaspain

andflatulence

Lf,Rt

IDrin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Onceto

thrice

adayor

asne

eded

Can

cause

abortio

nin

preg

nant

wom

en

Boils,skinrashes

anditchine

ss,

derm

atitis

Wh

EApp

lyde

coction

aswash

3–5glasses

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

2Rhinacan

thus

nasutus(L.)Ku

rzAcanthaceae

Marvelosa

orSerpen

tina

USTH

015622

583

61.74

2.90

1.74

Colds;d

iabe

tes,

berib

eri;ne

rvou

sbreakdow

n;hype

rten

sion

;diarrhea,

stom

achache;

weaknessand

fatig

ue,cramp

andspasm

LfI

Drin

kde

coction

1–3glasses

Onceadayfor

3–5days

Non

e

3Am

aran

thus

spinosus

L.Amaranthaceae

Kudyapa

USTH

015589

211

90.63

2.75

2.06

Diabe

tes;anem

ia;

coug

h,bron

chitis;

dysentery,

constip

ation;

urinarytract

infection;fever

LfI

Drin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Thriceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Labo

rand

deliveryen

hancer

SdI

Drin

kwater-

infused

powde

red

seed

s

1–3glasses

Twiceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Boils,p

soriasis,

skin

rashes,

eczema,pimple,

acne

;snake

and

scorpion

bite

LfE

App

lyleaves

aspo

ultice

3–5leaves

Thriceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

4Man

gifera

indica

L.Anacardiaceae

Mangg

aUSTH

222

50.66

2.85

1.47

Con

stipation

FrI

Eatfre

sh1–3fru

itsThriceadayor

Non

e


Table

4Med

icinalplantsused

bytheAg

usan

Man

oboin

Agu

sande

lSur,Philippine

s(Con

tinued)

Plant

no.

Scientificname

Family

Localn

ame

Vouche

rno

.UR

UC

UV

CIV

UD

Disease

orpu

rpose

Parts

used

aPrep

aration

and

administrationb

Quantity

ordo

sage

Adm

inistration

frequ

ency

Expe

rienced

adverseor

side

effects

015591

fruitdirectly

asne

eded

Cou

gh,cou

ghwith

phlegm

,sore

throat

LfI

Drin

kho

twater-

infused

leaves

orde

coction

3–5glasses

Twiceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Diarrhe

a,stom

ach

trou

ble;he

adache

BkI

Drin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Twiceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Scabies;cutsand

wou

nds

Bk,Lf

ERu

bcrushe

dleaves

orscrape

dbark

3–5leaves,

1palm

-sizedbark

Twiceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

5Spon

dias

pinn

ata

(L.f.)Ku

rzAnacardiaceae

Abihid

USTH

015599

372

41.11

2.33

1.39

Colds;d

iabe

tes;

coug

h;fever

Bk,Lf

IDrin

kde

coction

ofleaves

and

scrape

dbark

3–5glasses

Onceor

twice

adayfor3

days

oras

need

ed

Non

e

Colds;fever

Bk,Lf

EBath

water-

infused

leaves

and

scrape

dbark

1pail

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

6An

nona

muricataL.

Ann

onaceae

Guyabano

USTH

015593

209

80.62

2.17

2.02

Cancer;diabetes;

hype

rten

sion

;dysentery

FrI

Eatfre

shfru

itdirectly

3–5glasses

Onceor

twice

aweekor

asne

eded

Inexcess

can

causebloo

dviscosity

Ascariasis;coug

h;stom

achtrou

ble,

stom

achacidity;

urination

difficulty,urin

ary

tractinfection

LfI

Drin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Skin

erup

tions,

eczema

Lf,Sp

EApp

lyleaf

sapor

crushe

dleaves

aspo

ultice

3–5leaves

Asne

eded

Non

e

7Ca

nang

aodorata

(Lam

.)Hoo

k.f.&

Thom

son

Ann

onaceae

Anang

ilanor

Ilang

-ilang

USTH

015577

358

71.07

2.47

1.85

Colds;cou

gh;

stom

achtrou

ble,

ulcer;fever,bo

dychills

Bk,Lf

IDrin

kde

coction

5–7glasses

Onceor

twice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Scabies,athlete's

FlE

App

lyoil

Com

pletely

3–5tim

esa

Non

e


Table

4Med

icinalplantsused

bytheAg

usan

Man

oboin

Agu

sande

lSur,Philippine

s(Con

tinued)

Plant

no.

Scientificname

Family

Localn

ame

Vouche

rno

.UR

UC

UV

CIV

UD

Disease

orpu

rpose

Parts

used

aPrep

aration

and

administrationb

Quantity

ordo

sage

Adm

inistration

frequ

ency

Expe

rienced

adverseor

side

effects

foot;p

imple;

rheumatism,

swollenmuscles

orsw

ellings,

musclepain;

insect

bites

from

steamed

flowers

onaffected

part

dayor

asne

eded

8Friesodielsia

lanceolata

(Merr.)

Steen.

Ann

onaceae

Talim

ughat

taas

USTH

015558

198

30.59

2.08

0.90

Musclepain;labor

andde

livery

enhancer,

postpartum

care

andrecovery;

backache

,bod

yache

,weakness

andfatig

ue,

cram

pandspasm,

relapse

Bk,

Lf,Rt

IDrin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Onceto

thrice

adayup

to3

days

oras

need

ed

Non

e

9Uvaria

zschokkei

Elmer

Ann

onaceae

Bigo

USTH

015662

195

50.58

0.70

1.56

Amoe

biasis;

hype

rten

sion

;fever,weakness

andfatig

ue

StI

Drin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Onceto

thrice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Hairloss;insect

bites

St,Sp

EApp

lystem

sap

1/2–1cup

Asne

eded

Non

e

10Alston

iamacroph

yllaWall.

exG.Don

Apo

cynaceae

Dita

USTH

015546

386

91.15

2.71

2.04

Tonic;ear

cong

estio

n;coug

h;stom

ach

trou

ble,

toothache;urinary

tractinfection;

abdo

minalpain,

weaknessand

fatig

ue,hango

ver

Bk,Lf

IDrin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Onceto

thrice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Cutsandwou

nds,

bruisesand

contusions,sprain

LfE

App

lycrushe

dandhe

ated

leaves

aspo

ultice

3–5leaves

Onceor

twice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Scabies,im

petig

o,rin

gworm;b

oils

BkE

App

lywater-

infused

powde

red

bark

1glass

Onceor

twice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Stom

achache,

snakebite

BkE

Drin

klocal

alcoho

l-tin

ctured

bark

1/2to

1glass

Asne

eded

Non

e


Table

4Med

icinalplantsused

bytheAg

usan

Man

oboin

Agu

sande

lSur,Philippine

s(Con

tinued)

Plant

no.

Scientificname

Family

Localn

ame

Vouche

rno

.UR

UC

UV

CIV

UD

Disease

orpu

rpose

Parts

used

aPrep

aration

and

administrationb

Quantity

ordo

sage

Adm

inistration

frequ

ency

Expe

rienced

adverseor

side

effects

11An

odendron

borneense(King&

Gam

ble)

D.J.Middleton

Apo

cynaceae

Lunastag-uli

USTH

015639

1134

123.39

3.68

2.22

Cancer;diabetes;

earinfections;

diarrhea,stomach

trou

ble,ulcer,

toothache;

arthritis,

rheumatism;

preg

nancy;bo

dyache

,weakness

andfatig

ue,

cram

pandspasm,

relapse;po

ison

ing

Sp,St

IDrin

kstem

sap

1–3glasses

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Colon

and

prostate

cancer,

cyst,tum

or;

diabetes;

hype

rten

sion

;pu

lmon

ary

tube

rculosis;

diarrhea,stomach

trou

ble,ulcer,

toothache,

swollengu

ms;

arthritis,

rheumatism;

impo

tenceand

sterility,

postpartum

care

andrecovery;

body

ache

,weaknessand

fatig

ue,cramp

andspasm,

relapse,gaspain,

andflatulence;

sprain;p

oisoning

StI

Drin

klocal

alcoho

l-tin

ctured

orde

cocted

stem

1/2to

1glass

Onceor

twice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Scabies,warts,

impe

tigo,typh

oid

fever;bo

ils,skin

erup

tions,skin

rashes,and

itchine

ss;arthritis,

rheumatism,

swellings,m

uscle

pain;b

ackache,

body

ache

,weaknessand

StE

App

lycoconu

tor

Efficascent

oil-infused

stem

Com

pletely

onaffected

part

Onceor

twice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e


Table

4Med

icinalplantsused

bytheAg

usan

Man

oboin

Agu

sande

lSur,Philippine

s(Con

tinued)

Plant

no.

Scientificname

Family

Localn

ame

Vouche

rno

.UR

UC

UV

CIV

UD

Disease

orpu

rpose

Parts

used

aPrep

aration

and

administrationb

Quantity

ordo

sage

Adm

inistration

frequ

ency

Expe

rienced

adverseor

side

effects

fatig

ue,cramp

andspasm,

relapsegaspain

andflatulence;

allergy,bu

rns,

cutsandwou

nds,

sprain,animaland

insect

bites,

contactswith

plantsandanim

alparts

12Hoyaimbricata

Decne

.Apo

cynaceae

Pikot-pikot

USTH

015618

572

0.17

0.86

0.69

Boils;cutsand

wou

nds

LfE

App

lycoconu

toil-infused

burned

and

powde

red

leaves

Com

pletely

onaffected

part

Asne

eded

Non

e

13Alocasiazebrina

Scho

ttex

Van

Hou

tte

Araceae

Lunasgabi

USTH

015614

441

0.13

0.60

0.00

Allergy,cutsand

wou

nds,snake

andinsect

bite,

poison

ing

Lf,

Sp,St

EApp

lystem

orleaf

sap

Com

pletely

onaffected

part

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

14Hom

alom

ena

philippinensis

Engl.

exEngl.&

K.Krause

Araceae

Payaw

USTH

015597

466

71.39

2.00

1.83

Colds;b

odyache

,he

adache

,fever

Lf,St

I/ ESniff

sliced

and

poun

ded

leaf

and

stem

ortie

leaf

and

stem

arou

ndthe

neck

1–3leaves

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Tonsillitis;

preg

nancy,

impo

tenceand

sterility,labor

and

deliveryen

hancer

RzI

Drin

kextracted

juicefro

mcrushe

drhizom

e

1–3cups

Onceto

thrice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Rheumatism;cuts

andwou

nds

RzE

App

lyextracted

juicefro

mcrushe

drhizom

e

Com

pletely

onaffected

part

Asne

eded

Non

e

Hem

orrhoids

LfE

Insert

heated

youn

gleaf

1leaf

Onceor

twice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

15Hydrocotylevulgaris

L.Araliaceae

GotoKo

laUSTH

015563

263

40.78

1.78

1.39

Diabe

tes;

hype

rten

sion

;Lf

IEatfre

shleaves

3–5leaves;

1cup

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Inexcess

can

causeanem

ia,


Table

4Med

icinalplantsused

bytheAg

usan

Man

oboin

Agu

sande

lSur,Philippine

s(Con

tinued)

Plant

no.

Scientificname

Family

Localn

ame

Vouche

rno

.UR

UC

UV

CIV

UD

Disease

orpu

rpose

Parts

used

aPrep

aration

and

administrationb

Quantity

ordo

sage

Adm

inistration

frequ

ency

Expe

rienced

adverseor

side

effects

fever

directlyor

drink

decocted

leaves

dizzinessand

weakening

Cutsandwou

nds

Lf,Sp

EApp

lyleaf

sapor

crushe

dleaves

aspo

ultice

1–3leaves

Asne

eded

Non

e

16ArecacatechuL.

Arecaceae

Huling-hu

ling

USTH

015610

421

0.13

0.70

0.69

Breastcancer

RtI

Drin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Onceor

twice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

17Ca

lamus

megaphyllusBecc.

Arecaceae

Kapi

USTH

015608

168

40.50

1.65

1.28

Hypertension;

asthma;diarrhea,

dyspep

sia,

gastritis,

indige

stion;

arthritis,

rheumatism

RzI

Drin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Twiceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

18Thotteaaffinis

(Planch.ex

Rolfe)

ined

.

Aristolochiaceae

Salim

bagat

USTH

015643

278

30.83

1.75

1.10

Amoe

biasis;

cancer;too

thache

Lf,Rt

IDrin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

19Dracaena

roxburgh

iana

(Schult.f.)Byng

&Christenh

.

Asparagaceae

Espada-

espada

USTH

015647

782

0.23

0.67

0.69

Boils;snake

bite

LfE

App

lyleaf

sapor

poun

ded

leaves

aspo

ultice

5–7drop

sAsne

eded

Non

e

20Acmellagran

diflora

(Turcz.)R.K.Jansen

Asteraceae

Lunaspilipo

USTH

015548

396

41.18

2.40

1.33

Toothache;

anesthetic

FlI

App

lyfre

shflower

directly

1–3flowers

Asne

eded

Non

e

Skin

rashes

and

itchine

ss,p

soriasis;

cutsandwou

nds;

anesthetic

Fl,Lf

EApp

lycrushe

dflower

orleaves

aspo

ultice

1–3flowers,

5–7leaves

Asne

eded

Non

e

21Ag

eratum

conyzoides

L.Asteraceae

Albahaca

USTH

015602

773

0.23

1.89

1.10

Abo

rtifacien

t;weaknessand

fatig

ue

LfI

Drin

kde

coction

1–3cups

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Can

cause

abortio

nin

preg

nant

wom

en

Cutsandwou

nds

EApp

lypo

unde

dleaves

aspo

ultice

1–3leaves

Onceor

twice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

22ArtemisiavulgarisL.

Asteraceae

Helbas

USTH

365

41.09

1.60

1.24

Asthm

a,coug

h,Lf

IDrin

k1–3glasses

Thriceadayor

Inexcess

can


Table

4Med

icinalplantsused

bytheAg

usan

Man

oboin

Agu

sande

lSur,Philippine

s(Con

tinued)

Plant

no.

Scientificname

Family

Localn

ame

Vouche

rno

.UR

UC

UV

CIV

UD

Disease

orpu

rpose

Parts

used

aPrep

aration

and

administrationb

Quantity

ordo

sage

Adm

inistration

frequ

ency

Expe

rienced

adverseor

side

effects

015619

coug

hwith

phlegm

;diarrhe

a,dyspep

sia;

delayed

men

struation;

relapse

decoction

asne

eded

causeanem

ia,

dizzinessand

weakening

Abd

ominalpain,

body

ache

,fever,

cram

p,andspasm

LfE

App

lycrushe

dleaves

aspo

ultice

3–5leaves

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

23Bidens

pilosa

L.Asteraceae

Tuway-tuw

ayUSTH

015582

218

50.65

1.67

1.26

Colds;d

iarrhe

a;musclepain;

backache

,bod

yache

,fever,

weaknessand

fatig

ue,cramp

andspasm,

relapse,gaspain,

andflatulence

RtI

Drin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Onceor

twice

adayup

to3

days

oras

need

ed

Non

e

Cutsandwou

nds,

anim

alandinsect

bites

LfE

App

lycrushe

dleaves

aspo

ultice

3–5leaves

Onceto

thrice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

24Blum

eabalsa

mifera

(L.)DC.

Asteraceae

Gabon

USTH

015573

412

61.23

2.60

1.58

Hypertension;

coug

h,coug

hwith

phlegm

;urination

difficulty;

postpartum

care

andrecovery;

body

ache

,he

adache

,fever,

weaknessand

fatig

ue,g

aspain

andflatulence

Lf,Rt

IDrin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Onceor

twice

adayfor3

days

oras

need

ed

Non

e

Headache

LfE

App

lysteamed

orpo

unde

dleaves

inthe

forehe

ad

1–3leaves

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Boils,skinrashes

LfE

App

lyleaves

aspo

ultice

1–3leaves

Onceor

twice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

25Ch

romolaena

Asteraceae

Hagon

oyUSTH

448

51.34

2.50

1.56

Tumor;

LfI

Drin

k3–5glasses

Onceadayfor

Non

e


Table

4Med

icinalplantsused

bytheAg

usan

Man

oboin

Agu

sande

lSur,Philippine

s(Con

tinued)

Plant

no.

Scientificname

Family

Localn

ame

Vouche

rno

.UR

UC

UV

CIV

UD

Disease

orpu

rpose

Parts

used

aPrep

aration

and

administrationb

Quantity

ordo

sage

Adm

inistration

frequ

ency

Expe

rienced

adverseor

side

effects

odorata(L.)

R.M.King&H.Rob

.015632

hemorrhage;fever

decoction

3days

oras

need

ed

Boils;b

urns,cuts,

andwou

nds

LfE

App

lyleaf

sapor

crushe

dleaves

aspo

ultice

3–5leaves

Asne

eded

Non

e

26Cyan

thillium

cinereum

(L.)H.Rob

.Asteraceae

Kand

ing-

kand

ing

USTH

015587

476

51.42

2.78

1.42

Colds,m

alaria;

pulm

onary

tube

rculosis;d

ogbite

Lf,Rt

IDrin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Thriceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Chicken

pox,

herpes

simplex,

measles;b

oils,

skin

erup

tions,

skin

rashes

and

itchine

ss;

weaknessand

fatig

ue,cramp

andspasm

Fl,Lf,

RtE

Bath

water-

infused

leaves

and

rootsor

burn

leaves

androots

asincense

1pailas

bath

or1

bowlas

incense

Onceor

twice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

27Erechtites

valerianifolius(Link

exSpreng

.)DC.

Asteraceae

Gapas-gapas

bae

USTH

015666

208

30.62

2.25

1.01

Stom

achache,

dyspep

sia;bo

dyache

,headache,

gaspain,and

flatulence

LfI

Drin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Onceor

twice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Cutsandwou

nds

Lf,Sp

EApp

lysap

orleaves

aspo

ultice

3–5leaves

Asne

eded

Non

e

28Gynuraprocum

bens

(Lou

r.)Merr.

Asteraceae

Ashitaba

USTH

015645

215

40.64

2.50

1.33

Emph

ysem

a,coug

h;diarrhea,

stom

achtrou

ble;

kidn

eyston

es;

abdo

minalpain

LfI

Drin

kbrew

edtea-

prep

ared

leaves

orde

coction

3–5cups

Onceor

twice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

29Mikan

iacordata

(Burm.f.)B.L.Ro

b.Asteraceae

Moti-m

oti

USTH

015543

397

61.19

2.75

1.67

Cou

gh;ulcer

LfI

Drin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Twiceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Sore

eyes

Lf,Sp

IDropleaf

sap

Com

pletely

onaffected

part

Asne

eded

Non

e

Skin

rashes

and

itchine

ss;cutsand

wou

nds,snake

andscorpion

LfE

App

lyleaf

sapor

crushe

dleaves

as

5–7leaves

Asne

eded

Non

e


Table

4Med

icinalplantsused

bytheAg

usan

Man

oboin

Agu

sande

lSur,Philippine

s(Con

tinued)

Plant

no.

Scientificname

Family

Localn

ame

Vouche

rno

.UR

UC

UV

CIV

UD

Disease

orpu

rpose

Parts

used

aPrep

aration

and

administrationb

Quantity

ordo

sage

Adm

inistration

frequ

ency

Expe

rienced

adverseor

side

effects

bites;circum

cision

antisep

ticpo

ultice

30Pseudeleph

antopus

spicatus

(Juss.)

Rohr

Asteraceae

Kukogbano

gUSTH

015564

500

51.49

2.50

1.44

Urin

ation

difficulty,kidne

yprob

lem,urin

ary

bladde

rsw

elling,

delayed

men

struation,

urinarytract

infection;fever,

weaknessand

fatig

ue,cramp

andspasm

Lf,Rt

IDrin

kbrew

edtea-

prep

ared

leaves

orde

coction

3–5glasses

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Sore

eyes;

eczema,skin

rashes,and

itchine

ss;cutsand

wou

nds,sprain,

snakebite

Lf,Sp

EApp

lydrop

sof

leaf

sap

Com

pletely

onaffected

part

Thriceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

31Diplazium

esculentum

(Retz.)

Sw.

Athyriaceae

Pako-pako

USTH

015545

212

50.63

1.92

1.56

Colds;cou

gh;

diarrhea,

dysentery;labo

randde

livery

enhancer,

postpartum

care

andrecovery;

body

ache

,he

adache

,fever

ShI

Drin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Twiceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

32Begoniacontracta

Warb.

Bego

niaceae

Budag-bu

dag

USTH

015654

852

0.25

1.33

0.64

Pimple,dand

ruff;

burns

Fl,Lf

EApp

lycrushe

dflower

and

leaves

aspo

ultice

1–3flowers,

1–3leaves

Onceto

thrice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

33Ceibapentan

dra(L.)

Gaertn.

Bombacaceae

Doldo

lUSTH

015535

140

50.42

2.14

1.55

Diabe

tes;

pulm

onary

tube

rculosis;

diarrhea,

dysentery;

rheumatism,

swollenmuscles;

snakebite

Bk,Rt

IDrin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Onceto

thrice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

34Ehretia

microph

ylla

Lam.

Boraginaceae

Alang

itngitor

Tsaang

-Gub

atUSTH

015638

336

41.00

2.60

1.39

Diabe

tes;ne

rvou

sbreakdow

n;stom

achacidity;

food

anddrug

LfI

Drin

ktea-

prep

ared

leaves

1/2to

1cup

Onceadayfor

3days

oras

need

ed

Non

e


Table

4Med

icinalplantsused

bytheAg

usan

Man

oboin

Agu

sande

lSur,Philippine

s(Con

tinued)

Plant

no.

Scientificname

Family

Localn

ame

Vouche

rno

.UR

UC

UV

CIV

UD

Disease

orpu

rpose

Parts

used

aPrep

aration

and

administrationb

Quantity

ordo

sage

Adm

inistration

frequ

ency

Expe

rienced

adverseor

side

effects

allergy

35An

anas

comosus

(L.)

Merr.

Brom

eliaceae

Pinya

USTH

015667

226

70.67

1.71

1.85

Ascariasis,

amoe

biasis;

cancer;d

iabe

tes;

hype

rten

sion

;constip

ation,

stom

achacidity

FrI

Eatfre

shfru

itdirectly

1–3slices

Onceto

thrice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Headache,fever,

weakness,and

fatig

ue

Lf,Sh

EApp

lycrushe

dshoo

tor

leaves

aspo

ultice

Com

pletely

onaffected

part

Asne

eded

Non

e

Cancer;sw

ellings

LfI/ E

Drin

kde

coction

orapply

decocted

leaves

3–5leaves

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

36Ab

romaaugusta(L.)

L.f.

Byttne

riaceae

Sambo

ligaw

nUSTH

015637

329

80.98

2.69

1.98

Diabe

tes,tonic;

bron

chitis;

stom

achache;

dysm

enorrhea,

irreg

ular

men

struation;

sterility

Bk,

Lf,Rt

IDrin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Scabies;bo

ils,skin

erup

tions,

derm

atitis;cuts

andwou

nds

Bk,Lf

EApp

lyde

coction

aswash

1–3glasses

Onceor

twice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

37Kleinh

oviaho

spita

L.Byttne

riaceae

Bitan-ag

USTH

015631

146

60.44

2.50

1.70

Tumor;asthm

a,pn

eumon

ia,

coug

h;dyspep

sia,

liver

prob

lem;

headache

;baby

teething

LfI

Drin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Thriceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Scabies;psoriasis

LfE

App

lycrushe

dleaves

aspo

ultice

3–5leaves

Onceto

thrice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

38Melochiaum

bellata

(Hou

tt.)Stapf

Byttne

riaceae

Banitlo

ngUSTH

015649

265

40.79

1.76

1.24

Rheumatism;

backache

,bod

yache

,headache

LfI

Drin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Onceto

thrice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Cankersore;

burns

LfE

App

lyleaves

as3–5leaves

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e


Table

4Med

icinalplantsused

bytheAg

usan

Man

oboin

Agu

sande

lSur,Philippine

s(Con

tinued)

Plant

no.

Scientificname

Family

Localn

ame

Vouche

rno

.UR

UC

UV

CIV

UD

Disease

orpu

rpose

Parts

used

aPrep

aration

and

administrationb

Quantity

ordo

sage

Adm

inistration

frequ

ency

Expe

rienced

adverseor

side

effects

poultice

39Hippobrom

along

iflora(L.)G.Don

Cam

panu

laceae

Elep

anteng

puti

USTH

015583

213

50.64

1.83

1.56

Toothache

LfI

App

lychew

edor

poun

ded

leaves

1–3leaves

Onceor

twice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Nervous

breakdow

n;asthma,

bron

chitis;fever

LfI

Drin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Onceto

thrice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Cutsandwou

nds

LfE

App

lyde

coction

1glass

Asne

eded

Non

e

40Ca

ricapapaya

L.Caricaceae

Kapayaslaki

USTH

015668

659

61.97

2.92

1.64

Con

stipation,

dyspep

sia;milk

prod

uctio

nen

hancer

FrI

Eatfre

shfru

itdirectly

1–3slices

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Tonic;asthma;

stom

achprob

lem

Lf,Rt

IDrin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Den

guefever

Lf,Sp

IDrin

kleaf

sap

5–7leaves

Thriceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Body

ache

,fever,

cram

p,andspasm

LfI

App

lycrushe

dandhe

ated

leaves

aspo

ultice

1–3leaves

Twiceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

41Cratoxylum

sumatranu

m(Jack)

Blum

e

Clusiaceae/

Guttiferae

Bansilay

USTH

015541

964

0.29

2.33

1.33

Colds;cou

gh;

dysentery

Bk,

Lf,Rt

IDrin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Onceto

thrice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Toothache

LfI

App

lychew

edor

poun

ded

leaves

3–5leaves

Onceto

thrice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Impe

tigo;cuts

andwou

nds

LfE

App

lypo

unde

dleaves

aspo

ultice

3–5leaves

Onceto

thrice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

42Helleniaspeciosa

(J.Koe

nig)

Govaerts

Costaceae

Tambabasior

Tawasi

USTH

015578

744

82.22

2.58

2.03

Diabe

tes,go

iter;

migraine;ear

cong

estio

n;coug

h,lung

nodu

le;urin

ation

difficulty,kidne

yprob

lem;

Lf,Rz

IDrin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Onceto

thrice

adayup

to3

days

oras

need

ed

Non

e


Table

4Med

icinalplantsused

bytheAg

usan

Man

oboin

Agu

sande

lSur,Philippine

s(Con

tinued)

Plant

no.

Scientificname

Family

Localn

ame

Vouche

rno

.UR

UC

UV

CIV

UD

Disease

orpu

rpose

Parts

used

aPrep

aration

and

administrationb

Quantity

ordo

sage

Adm

inistration

frequ

ency

Expe

rienced

adverseor

side

effects

headache

,fever

Diarrhe

a,stom

achache,

dysentery

StI

Drin

kstem

sap

1/2cup

Asne

eded

Non

e

Sore

eyes

LfI

App

lyleaf

sap

Com

pletely

onaffected

part

Asne

eded

Non

e

43Kalancho

epinn

ata

(Lam

.)Pers.

Crassulaceae

Hanlilika

USTH

015584

486

121.45

2.88

2.21

Diabe

tes;anem

ia,

hype

rten

sion

;asthma;coug

h;constip

ation,

diarrhea,stomach

trou

ble,

hemorrhoids;

kidn

eyston

e;labo

randde

livery

enhancer;fever

LfI

Drin

kde

coction

3–5leaves

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Herpe

ssimplex;

hemorrhoids;

boils,eczem

a;sw

ellings;b

urns,

cutsandwou

nds,

bruisesand

contusions,insect

bites

LfI

App

lyde

cocted

leaves

aswash

1–3leaves

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Abd

ominalpain,

body

ache

,he

adache

,fever

LfE

App

lyhe

ated

leaves

asho

tcompress

1–3leaves

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

44Rhynchospora

colorata

(L.)H.Pfeiff.

Cyperaceae

Busikad

USTH

015571

254

60.76

1.38

1.61

Chicken

pox,

measles;cancer;

coug

h;stom

ach

acidity;fever,

relapse,gaspain

andflatulence;

sprain

Wh

IDrin

kde

coction

1–3glasses

Onceto

thrice

adayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Baby

teething

FlI

Drin

kwater-

infused

flower

1/2–1glass

Onceto

thrice

aday

Non

e

45Stenom

eris

borneensisOliv.

Dioscoreaceae

Banag

USTH

015537

540

61.61

2.36

1.70

Myoma;migraine;

arthritis,

rheumatism;

RtI

Drin

kde

coction

3–5glasses

Onceor

twice

adayfor3

days

oras

Non

e


Table

4Med

icinalplantsused

bytheAg

usan

Man

oboin

Agu

sande

lSur,Philippine

s(Con

tinued)

Plant

no.

Scientificname

Family

Localn

ame

Vouche

rno

.UR

UC

UV

CIV

UD

Disease

orpu

rpose

Parts

used

aPrep

aration

and

administrationb

Quantity

ordo

sage

Adm

inistration

frequ

ency

Expe

rienced

adverseor

side

effects

urination

difficulty,urin

ary

bladde

rsw

elling;

postpartum

care

andrecovery;

headache

,cramp

andspasm,

relapse

need

ed

46Euph

orbiahirtaL.

Euph

orbiaceae

Tawa-tawa

USTH

015665

305

70.91

2.80

1.85

Colds,d

engu

efever;asthma;

diarrhea,

vomiting

;fever

Wh

IDrin

kde

coction

ofwho

leplant

except

flowers

5–7glasses

Thriceadayor

asne

eded

Inexcess

can

cause

thrombo

cytope

nia

Ring

worm;sore

eyes;b

oils,skin

rashes,and

itchine

ss;cutsand

wou

nds

LfI/ E

App

lyleaf

sapor

decocted

leaves

5–7leaves

Thriceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

47Jatropha

curcas

L.Euph

orbiaceae

Tuba-tub

apu

tiUSTH

015595

495

71.48

2.66

1.79

Colds;p

ulmon

ary

tube

rculosis;

diarrhea;arthritis,

rheumatism;

backache

,bod

yache

,fever,

weaknessand

fatig

ue,cramp

andspasm,

relapse,gaspain,

andflatulence

Lf,Rt

IDrin

kde

coction

1–3leaves

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Scabies,

ringw

orm;ear

infection,

dischargingear;

toothache;

swollenmuscles

andsw

ellings;

cutsandwou

nds,

fractureand

dislocation,

anim

alandinsect

bites

Bk,Rt

I/ EApp

lyde

coction

orpo

unde

dscrape

dbark

aspo

ultice

1–3palm

-sizedbarks,

1/2–1arm-

sizedroots

Asne

eded

Non

e

48Jatropha

gossypifolia

L.Euph

orbiaceae

Tuba-tub

atapo

lUSTH

015586

810

92.41

2.83

1.94

Colds,m

alaria,

typh

oidfever;

pulm

onary

tube

rculosis;

Lf,Rt

IDrin

kde

coction

1–3leaves,

1/2–1arm-

sizedroots

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e


Table

4Med

icinalplantsused

bytheAg

usan

Man

oboin

Agu

sande

lSur,Philippine

s(Con

tinued)

Plant

no.

Scientificname

Family

Localn

ame

Vouche

rno

.UR

UC

UV

CIV

UD

Disease

orpu

rpose

Parts

used

aPrep

aration

and

administrationb

Quantity

ordo

sage

Adm

inistration

frequ

ency

Expe

rienced

adverseor

side

effects

diarrhea;arthritis,

rheumatism;

dysm

enorrhea,

irreg

ular

men

struation;

backache

,bod

yache

,fever,

weaknessand

fatig

ue,cramp

andspasm,

relapse,gaspain,

andflatulence

Ring

worm;b

oils,

carbun

cles,

derm

atitis;

swollenmuscles

andsw

ellings,

musclepain;

backache

,bod

yache

,fever;cuts

andwou

nds

LfE

Bath

orwash

decocted

leaves

1–3leaves

Onceadayor

asne

eded

Non

e

Scabies,

ringw

orm;ear

infection,

dischargingear;

toothache,mou

thsore;cutsand

wou

nds,fracture

anddislocation,

anim

alandinsect

bites

Bk,Rt

I/ EApp

lyde

coction

orpo

unde

dscrape

dbark

aspo

ultice

1–3palm

-sizedbarks,

1/2–1arm-

sizedroots

Asne

eded

Non

e

49Melan

olepis

multigland

ulosa

(Reinw

.exBlum

e)Rchb

quantitative ethnopharmacological documentation and molecular … · 2020. 3. 5. · manobo tribe...

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