quantitative ranking (1)

7/24/2019 Quantitative Ranking (1)

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Quantitative Ranking: 1

Chronological Ranking: 24

Article Title: The Science of "Muddling Through"

Author: Charles E. Lindblom

First Appeared In: Public Administration Review !#

Brief !nopsis of the Article:

Lindblom uses this article as a forum for e$%laining the governmental %rocess of

ma&ing %olic' and decisions. Through definition of two different wa's of reaching adecision and e$%lanation and e$am%les of both he %oint out that decision ma&ing and

%olic' ma&ing are never able to be trul' "rational" or based on all of the facts(

decision and changes are based on small incremental ste%s and stages in the evolution

of a %olic'. This theor' is what he has named "Muddling Through."

Lindblom analogi)es the two %rocesses as the Root Program *com%rehensive rational

%rocess+ and the ,ranch Program. -e concludes that the ,ranch Program is the one

efficient wa' to both ma&e decisions and actuall' o%erate in the bureaucrac'. t would

be im%ossible to tr' to ma&e %olic' "from the ground u%" as he defines the Root%rocess. This is tr' in government situations due to the %eriodic changes in %olitical

climate as well.

"hat All the Fuss "as #riginall!:

Lindblom was not %ainting a ros' %icture of himself or his contem%oraries with the

writing of this article. -e was %ulling off the shee%s clothing of a "rationalit' and

highl' conscious decision/ma&ing %rocedures" image to reveal a time/%ressed ris&/

avoiding %oliticall' influenced wolf concerned with maintaining e$%ectations as wellas em%lo'ment footing in an ever/changing %olitical environment. 0nce defroc&ed

however he defended the animal as a trul' beneficial being considering the

circumstances it has to live in and call home.


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This article defines and identifies the two %rocesses for decision/ma&ing and change.

The articles influence *as e$am%le of its own theor'+ became felt more over time as

other have had the o%%ortunit' to build on it and write follow/u% to the article *as

others venture into the "theor' muddle"+.

"h! It Is till a ignificant Article Toda!:

Theorists are constantl' referring to this article as a defining moment in %olitical

decision/ma&ing. Lindblom re/em%hasi)es the reason government changes in wa's

different from the %rivate sector b' defining the wa's decisions to change can be

made. -e is stating the obvious 'es but in a dramaticall' clear and concise format.

,' doing so he not onl' defines the change %rocesses but also what it is to be a

%ublic administratorsomeone who can live in a world where "muddling through"

and incremental change *do in %art to %olitical influences+ are the norm.



Article Title:The Stud' of Administration

Author:1oodrow 1ilson

First Appeared In: Political Science 2uarterl' 3olume 4 5une !667


1oodrow 1ilson saw %ublic administration as a "detailed and s'stematic e$ecution of

%ublic law" in which %ublic administrators e$ercise their own discretion to carr' out

the elected officials %olicies. -e saw %ublic administration as a%olitical because %ublic

administrator merel' too& orders from legislatures and im%lemented theselegislators %olicies. -e therefore believed that administration not onl' couldbe

a%olitical and neutral butshouldbe a%olitical and neutral. 1ilson called for %ublic

administration to focus on effectiveness and efficienc' not 8ust %ersonnel reform.

1ilson stressed that administration must focus on the e$ecutive method and the

a%%lication of the law. -e advocated that "the field of administration is a field of


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business." Probabl' most im%ortantl' 1ilson also established the

%olitics9administration dichotom' viewing the two as se%arate and divided.


1ilsons article reall' wasnt "rediscovered" until :; 'ears after it was written

when it was re%ublished b' Political Science 2uaterl' in !:!. So originall' there

was ver' little fuss. n fact 1ilsons article was not cited in %olitical or social

science wor&s at all between !6; and 11 and onl' s%aringl' between 11 and

11. ,eginning in !:! however this article has mar&ed the stud' of %ublic

administration as a uni


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Quantitative Ranking: $


Article Title: The Princi%les of Scientific Management

Author: Frederic& 1inslow Ta'lor

First Appeared In: ,ulletin of the Ta'lor Societ' *!!?+


>rederic& 1inslow Ta'lors organi)ational theor' of scientific management centered

on the e$amination of the wor&mans %rocesses and the active role that managers

should ta&e in develo%ing those %rocesses. n his article "Princi%les of ScientificManagement" Ta'lor identified the wor&ers belief that it is in his own best interest

to move as slow as %ossible and constrict out%ut. Ta'lor believed that the introduction

of scientific management into all business would result in higher %roduction no labor

stri&es and a better relationshi% between labor and management that would result in

increased efficienc'. According to Ta'lor scientific management re


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Ta'lor e$%lains that this t'%e of management "re%resents a democrac' co/

o%eration a genuine division of wor& which never e$isted before." -e goes on to

e$%lain that the wor&men would be consistentl' monitored and when one did not

%erform u% to standard he would not be fired but instead be ta&en aside to review his

methods %in%oint his mista&es and be shown the correct method.


At the time of Ta'lors article management did not focus on how the wor&er did his

wor& 8ust that the tas&s were com%leted. There was also a ver' wide hierarchical

se%aration between management and the wor&er that resulted in distrust and man'

labor stri&es. The organi)ational theor' of scientific management was revolutionar'

because it called for initiative on the %art of the manager to full' understand and stud'

the wor& of ever' em%lo'ee in the organi)ation and convert that &nowledge into amore efficient %rocess.

"h! It Is till a ignificant Article Toda!: Ta'lors %rinci%les re


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Luther ulic&s article e$%ressed the theor' of organi)ation as it has to do with the

structure of co/ordination im%osed u%on the wor& division units of an enter%rise.

ulic& e$%lains that wor& division is the reason for organi)ation. =ivision of wor& isre


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As our societ' grows so do our organi)ations and bureaucracies. t is im%ortant to

&ee% in mind ulic&s basis for subdivision of wor& and the e


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>ollett offers three fundamental statements on this sub8ect@

!. that the order should be the law of the situation(

4. that the situation is alwa's evolving( and

. that orders should involve circular not linear behavior.

She goes on to indicate that she has merel' brushed the surface on the sub8ect of

organi)ational theor' and that man' other areas are left to be e$%lored.


>ollett a%%lied %s'cholog' to the wor&%lace.The article focused on the feelings

bac&ground and attitudes of the individual wor&er and how these factors effect thewor&ers %erce%tion and reaction to orders. The behavior of the manager was also

focused u%on in intricate detail for e$am%le the %lace the order was given the

language of the manager and o%%ortunit' for feedbac& from the wor&er.


Managers and e$ecutives loo& closel' at %s'cholog' and sociolog' when determining

the effectiveness of certain %rocedures. The stud' of organi)ational behavior is

common in schools of business and %ublic administration. A direct correlation is madebetween the wor&ers attitudes and feelings and the success of the business.

Quantitative Ranking: %

Chronological Ranking: 1'

Article Title: The Lac& of A ,udgetar' Theor'

Author: 3. 0. De' 5r.

First Appeared In: American Political Science Review =ecember !:;



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De' is calling for refinement in the budget allocation %rocess. -e %oints out that

funding is based greatl' on assum%tion of need and %olitical %ressure and that

s'stems for evaluating the value of %rograms %olicies and agencies as well as

evaluating the efficienc' in which funds are used as needed. This article is famous for

%rom%ting the %hrase "on what basis do we decide to allocate dollars to Activit' Aversus Activit' ,."

There must be %laced more of an economic em%hasis on efficienc' in budgeting and

not 8ust bean counting of %olitical swa's. Are alternative %rograms being weighedF

Are costs to other %rograms being factored into the budget allocation %rocessF

De' recogni)es the fact that the %ublic sector answers to a different call than the

%rivate sector does when it comes to allocating resources. -e is encouraging the

develo%ment of a theor' that will envelo%e both the realities of %olitical %ressure inbudgeting with the efficienc' theories used in economics( basicall' a call for

develo%ing


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Quantitative Ranking: (


Article Title:A Theor' of -uman Motivation

Author: Abraham -. Maslow

First Appeared In: Ps'chological Review 3ol. #; *!:+


n his article "A Theor' of -uman Motivation" Abraham -. Maslow outlines ahierarch' of human "needs" that he believes are essentiall' what motivates human

beings to act. The most basic human needs are the %h'siological needs such as hunger

and thirst. A %erson who has absolutel' nothing in life will focus on satisf'ing his

hunger or


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Maslow stresses that this hierarch' of needs must be met in the same order. Therefore

a human must have his %h'siological needs met before he reali)es that he has safet'

needs and those must be met before he reali)es that he needs love esteem and self/

actuali)ation.


Maslow was the first to ta&e such a com%rehensive loo& at organi)ational behavior

and the im%ortance of human needs. -is ideas were revolutionar' for his time and

hel%ed evolve organi)ational theor' from its scientific management beginnings.


Maslows hierarchical structure of human needs is still used in develo%ing

organi)ational theories and %atterns. t is hard to imagine that there would be time

when his self/actuali)ation theor' would not be im%ortant. >or that to ha%%en humans

would have to be removed from the wor&%lace.

Quantitative Ranking: )


Article Title: The Proverbs of Administration

Author: -erbert A. Simon

First Appeared In: Public Administration Review *!:?+


-erbert Simon in "The Proverbs of Administration" directl' addresses the sub8ect of%rinci%les in %ublic administration and %rovides a basis that the' are merel' %roverbs.

Simon %oints out that %roverbs rationali)e behavior and 8ustif' action but the' cant

be used to %rove scientific theor' because the' alwa's %rove a truth and never what is

false. -is %ur%ose with the article is to substantiate criticisms of administrative theor'

and %resent suggestions. Simon begins with four acce%ted %rinci%les of

administration. The' state that administrative efficienc' is increased b' !+


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s%eciali)ation 4+ Arranging a determined hierarch' of authorit' to %reserve unit' of

command + limiting s%an of control to small number and :+ grou%ing wor&ers b'

%ur%ose of control a+ %ur%ose b+ %rocess c+ clientele or d+ %lace.

S%eciali)ation seems li&e a sim%le %rinci%le but Simon %oints out that this isdece%tive. S%eciali)ation he asserts is not a condition of efficienc' but a characteristic

of grou% effort that will lead to administrative efficienc'. Gnit' of Control the second

%rinci%le is incom%atible with s%eciali)ation according to Simon. The %remise of

s%eciali)ation is to %rovide e$%erts in a s%ecific area for use in decision ma&ing.

-owever if that e$%ert is a subordinate of someone not in the same s%eciali)ation a

contradiction arises. S%an of Control which calls for limiting the number of

subordinates under an administrator is contradictor' to the %rinci%le that the number

of levels in an organi)ation should be limited. The last %rinci%le of organi)ation b'

%ur%ose contradicts itself. At an' time three of these %ur%oses *%ur%ose %rocessclientele and %lace+ are sacrificed for the fourth.

Simon %oints out that none of the four original %rinci%les survives this anal'sis. -e

indicates that a valid a%%roach to this is that all relevant criteria should be identified

each situation should be anal')ed and research should be instituted. Simon suggests

that a descri%tion of administrative situations be develo%ed that avoids sim%lification

and lac& of realism. The em%hasis of stud' should be shifted to the conditions under

which %rinci%les are a%%licable. t is ne$t necessar' to diagnose administrative

situations and e$amine the e$act %ro%osition of administrative theor'. Simon asserts

that administrative theor' must be interested in the factors that determine s&ills

values and &nowledge that the organi)ational member underta&es in com%leting wor&.

The individual is limited b' the s&ills and habits to which he is unconscious b' his

values and conce%tion of %ur%ose b' the e$tent of his relevant 8ob &nowledge.

Simon concludes that a vocabular' must be develo%ed for descri%tion and the limits of

rationalit' should be studied and weighed in evaluating organi)ations. >inall'

em%irical research must be com%leted two conditions of which must be !+ ob8ectives

of the administrative organi)ation must be concretel' defined and 4+ e$%erimental

control should be e$ercised.



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Simon ta&es what were recogni)ed %o%ularl' as %rinci%les of administration and

asserts that the' are merel' contradictor' %roverbs. 0ut of this he ma&es a case for

8udging %articular issues on a case b' case basis and calls for more research into

administration.


As organi)ations become more com%le$ we turn awa' from generalities 8ust as

Simon does and reali)e that we must ta&e a closer loo& at s%ecific situations. There is

more to administrative theor' than sim%le %rinci%les.

Quantitative Ranking: *


Article Title: Toward a Theor' of ,udgeting

Author: 3erne ,. Lewis

First Appeared In: Public Administration Review !#4


Lewis %ic&s u% where 3.0. De' 5r. left off over a decade earlier with an argument that

an economic a%%roach to budgeting should be ta&en. -e %rofesses the benefits of

using economic e


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conclude however that real life factor' that come into %la' with all other %olitical

action will arise and admits that his alternative budget %rocedures theor' does not

ac&nowledge these things. t does never the less create a starting %oint for budget

ma&ing and budget anal'sis.


Lewis stimulated man' thoughts of budget %lanning and %olic' anal'sis. -e was one

of the first to s%ur the creation of Planning Programming ,udget S'stems and future

Hero/,ased ,udgeting %lans two decades later. ,udgets were being %lanned

re


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organi)ing %roductive enter%rise( 4+ management should direct motivate control and

modif' the behavior of em%lo'ees to fit the organi)ations needs( + without

intervention %eo%le are %assive and resistant to the organi)ations needs( :+ the

average %erson wor&s as little as %ossible( #+ %eo%le lac& ambition( ?+ %eo%le are self/

centered( 7+ %eo%le are resistant to change( and 6+ %eo%le are gullible. T'%icall'management has sought to control these human %ro%ositions b' either "hard"

management using methods of coercion and threats or "soft" management b' giving

into demands in order to achieve harmon'. Mcregor ollowing are the ego needs the

need that humans have for self/confidence inde%endence status and recognition.

>inall' self/fulfillment needs are the needs of the %erson to reali)e his own %otential.

Mcregor states that management is inherentl' afraid of the organi)ations

%ersonnel gaining the social and ego needs the' re


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alread' in %lace. n smaller agencies es%eciall' those that services the disadvantaged

*more domesticall' concerned agencies+ strategic %lanning e$%erts where not

available and budgets were small. Things ta&en awa' had a much greater negative

effect. Peo%le brought in to do the strategic %lanning were not familiar with the

agenciesgoals and therefore %lans fell short.

1ildavs&' states that %olic' anal'sis could be all the agencies need. -owever he

%oints out that there were not enough anal'sts to go around. Change would come

slowl'. Creative strategic thin&ers were not readil' available and he called for schools

to start adding such courses to their curriculum. n the short term he believed some

agenc' %ersonnel could be taught the ob8ectives of %olic' anal'sis.

-e concludes that the time *!?+ was ri%e for a change from PP,S as the countr'

was read' for new ideas. f the government got serious about im%roving %ublic %olic'we could do it without the cumbersome a%%roach of PP,S.


L'ndon 5ohnson had originall' mandated PP,S. To do so for ever' agenc' in

government was not a great idea. Ever' agenc' 8ust li&e ever' citi)en has a different

set of needs and with each different combination a different a%%roach to fulfilling

them must be ta&en. 0ne uniform a%%roach PP,S actuall' made things more

difficult for more organi)ations than it made easier. 1ith 5ohnsons de%arture fromoffice the domestic issues that were suffering under the stringencies of PP,S now

had the o%%ortunit' to e$%eriment with a new wa' of doing things under the new

leadershi%. ,ut what wa'F

1ildavs&' was ma&ing a case for &ee%ing %olic' anal'sis as a more effective form of

%lanning and budgeting. Polic' anal'sts could learn to be fle$ible to the needs of the

agenc' while at the same time finding the most efficient wa' for them to be effective.


1ildavs&' was a ma8or %la'er in %olic' develo%ment and structure. -e was reiterating

the thoughts of 3.0. De' 5r. in wa's more attuned to the time %eriod. t is im%ortant

for students of Public Administration to see that "as things change the more the'

become the same." The' can be reminded that government is alwa's searching for the


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one best wa' but in essence there is none and that things cannot change overnight.

This last thought should remind them of Lindbloms theor' of incrementalism.


Chronological Ranking: (

Article Title: ,ureaucratic Structure and Personalit'

Author: Robert D. Merton

First Appeared In: Social >orces *!:?+


Robert Merton in ",ureaucratic Structure and Personalit'" e$amines the structure of

bureaucrac' as offered b' Ma$ 1eber and the incidences of d'sfunction that occur in

bureaucracies. Merton cites 1ebers classical anal'sis of bureaucrac' as the ideal

t'%e of formal organi)ation because it %rovides a clear division of activities and

integrated duties. Merton e$%lains that bureaucrac' is administration that almost

com%letel' avoids discussion of techni


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de%ersonali)ed relations between the bureaucrat and clientele and the clientele are

interested in the o%%osite. Merton asserts that increased research into bureaucrac' and

%ersonalit' should be com%leted to gain a better understanding of social structure.


Merton asserted that bureaucrac' as Ma$ 1eber describes in his article is detrimental

to the em%lo'ee. -e rom Ma$ 1eber@ Essa's in Sociolog'*!:?+


Ma$ 1eber in ",ureaucrac'" outlined a framewor& within which a bureau functionsincluding the Characteristics of ,ureaucrac' and The Position of the 0fficial. 1eber

indicates that bureaucrac' can occur in both %ublic and %rivate organi)ations and the

characteristics include the following@

. The bureaucrac' has a s%ecific 8urisdiction that is ordered b' rules laws or

regulations. Regular activities are distributed in a fi$ed wa' the authorit' to


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issue commands is distributed in a stable wa' and a methodical %rovision is

made for fulfillment of duties.

. There is an office hierarch' and an ordered s'stem of authoritative levels.

. >iles and other documents are maintained. These along with the %ublic official

com%rise the "bureau."

3. The management is assumed to have e$%ert training.

3. The official activit' bureau demands the full wor&ing ca%acit' of the official

3. The management of the bureau consists of general rules &nowledge of which

re%resents technical learning on the %art of the official.

1eber goes on to outline the %osition of the official. The office that the official holds

is a vocation which demands a %rescribed course of stud'. ,' entering into the office

the official acce%ts the "s%ecific obligation of faithful management in return for a

secure e$istence." The %osition of the official is %atterned in the following wa'@

. The official en8o's distinct social esteem however this is %rimaril' the case in

old civili)ed nations and less so in emerging bureaucracies.

. Pure bureaucratic officials are a%%ointed and receive their %osition "fromabove" whereas the elected official receives his %osition "from below."

. Bormall' the official holds the %osition for life but this in no wa' entitles him

to the "%ossession" of the office.

3. The official receives a fi$ed salar' that is measured in terms of status or ran&

and a %ension. This along with the social esteem ma&e the official a sought

after %osition.

3. A career within the hierarchical structure of %ublic service is ma%%ed out for

the official.



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Ma$ 1ebers ",ureaucrac'" was the first document of its &ind to characteri)e a

bureaucratic institution %ublic or %rivate and the ideal role of its %ublic official or

bureaucrat. t outlined in detail the structure and environment of the bureaucrac' as

well as an ideal 8ob descri%tion and benefits %ac&age that would allow the %ublic

official to be most effective.


",ureaucrac'" is the first article to focus entirel' and so distinctl' on the sub8ect. t

has become the base from which all other %ublic administration theorists begin and

com%are the their thoughts against. The ideal bureaucratic situation that 1eber %aints

has enabled other theorists to loo& the s%ecific characteristics of bureaucrac' and the

%osition of the %ublic official and formulate additional theories on bureaucrac'.


Chronological Ranking: 1$

Article Title:Toward a Bew Public Administration

Author:-. eorge >rederic&son

First Appeared In: Toward a Bew Public Administration !7!


>rederic&son saw the threads of %ublic administration as consisting of the following

com%onents@

!. re%resentativeness

4. %olitical neutral com%etence

. e$ecutive leadershi%

-e believed that %ublic administers should not onl' strive for efficienc' and econom'

but even more im%ortantl' he believed that the' should strive for social e


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advocated %ublic administrators wor&ing for change b' reversing the "s'stem" that

discriminates against disadvantaged minorities. -e felt that %ublic administrators

should wor& towards enhancing the %osition of and em%owering the %olitical %ower

and economic well/being of minorities in our societ'. n o%%osition to 1oodrow

1ilsons theor' he believed that %ublic administrators should not be neutral butrather should be committed to the social good. -e thus believed that %ublic

administrators had an additional dut' to certain grou%s of citi)ens the o%%ressed ones.

-is idea of "Bew Public Administration" then went far be'ond carr'ing out

legislative mandates good management and efficienc'. S%ecificall' it encouraged

%ublic administrators to influence and e$ecute %olicies that im%roved the


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Chronological Ranking: 4)

Article Title:The Self/Evaluating 0rgani)ation

Author: Aaron 1ildavs&'

First Appeared In: Public Administration Review !74


1ildavs&' delves into one of the biggest %arado$es facing %ublic administration. -e

starts out b' e$%ressing that the ideal agenc' should be self/evaluating. -owever he

states that it ma' be im%ossible for organi)ation and evaluation to coe$ist.

0rgani)ation im%lies stabilit'. Evaluation im%lies change.

>or an organi)ation to be self/evaluating ever' %erson within it would have to relish

the notion of change. t also however im%lies a lac& of commitment to the standard

wa' of doing things.

1ildavs&' warns that all this change from self/evaluating could cost efficienc' within

the organi)ation. Therefore he advises having se%arate roles for administration and

evaluation. 0f course de%arture from the norm eventuall' leads bac& to a similar

situation with a similar %roblem. t becomes c'clical.

Though a self/evaluating organi)ation is id'llic he concludes it is basicall'

im%ossible to achieve. -owever b' loo&ing at it as if it could be %ossible one can

learn a great deal about the need to evaluate organi)ations.


1e were earl' into the !7;Js when this article was written. t was an election 'ear

and the %ublic was calling for change. ,ureaucrac' was a slow moving giant. The

industrial ate was waning and nothing new was 'et on the hori)onJs brim.

1ildavs&' was stud'ing line/item and %rogram budgeting as the' coe$isted within an

agenc'. nstead of tr'ing to determine which budget s'stem was su%erior 1ildavs&'

began to investigate wh' organi)ations did not evaluate themselves.


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To first s%eculate one would thin& issues of service and %olic' changes would be

reali)ed and changed overnight. Then one reali)es that this is not the wa' government

and administration wor&s( he is im%l'ing *once again+ that change must be gradual /

even when we thin& we want it to come


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efforts in the future while small changes in government s'stems start to be made to

ma&e room for the current students that could fill the needs of these new %ositions.

=ror also includes a chart that %resents time com%arative features of s'stems anal'sis

and %olic' anal'sis. t shows in eas' to read terms the different effect


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n "0rgani)ations of the >uture" 1arren ,ennis shows the conditions of modern

industriali)ed world that bring decline of bureaucrac' suggests a rough model of

organi)ations for the future and sets forth new tas&s and challenges.

,ennis writes that the end of bureaucrac' as we &now it is near and the rise of socials'stems better suited to the 4; thcentur' will evolve. There are four relevant threats to

bureaucrac' that ,ennis outlines. The' are !+ ra%id une$%ected change 4+ growth in

si)e + com%le$it' of modern technolog' that re


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develo%ing %roblem/solving teams and develo%ing su%ra organi)ational goals and

commitment.


,ennis stated that organi)ations in the future will have to be less structured and more

fle$ible. -e develo%ed a number of %redictions that were based on more behavioral

and humanistic models.


The article is significant because ,ennis%redictions in !?7 have come true in the

!;s. -is suggestions for the organi)ations of the future and tas&s and challenges he

laid out are easil' identified in the organi)ations of toda'. t is almost as if this article

was a %ro%hes' of thing to come in the managerial world.

Quantitative Ranking: 1)

Chronological Ranking: &*

Article Title:Public and Private Management@ Are The' >undamentall' Ali&e in All

Gnim%ortant Res%ectsF

Author:raham T. Allison

First Appeared In: Proceedings of the Public Management Research Conference

Bovember !/4; !7


Allison first addresses the


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%ublic and %rivate managers. -e %oints to ? differences between %ublic and %rivate

managers as laid out b' 5ohn T. =unlo%@ time %ers%ective@ government managers

ma&e decisions based on short term %olitical duration@ %ublic managers tend to be in

their leadershi% %ositions for shorter tenure( measurement of %erformance@ it is much

more difficult to determine if a government agenc' *or a %ublic administrator+ hasbeen successful than it is to determine if a %rivate manager has been

successful( %ersonnel constraint there is no conflict between %olitical a%%ointees and

career civil servants in the %rivate sector. Moreover in the %rivate sector *es%eciall'

non/union %rivate sector wor&forces+ there is more abilit' to e$ercise authorit' and

direct the em%lo'ees of the organi)ation to follow and im%lement 'our %ersonal

vision.( E


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Quantitative Ranking: 1*

Chronological Ranking: $1

Article Title: The Road to PP,@ The Stages of ,udgetar' Reform

Author: Allen Schic&

First Appeared In: Public Administration Review *!??+


Allen Schic& in "The Road to PP,@ The Stages of ,udgetar' Reform" states that the

PP, *%lanning %rogramming budgeting+ s'stem is being touted as a radical change in

the central function of budgeting. -owever Schic& sees that the budget s'stem of thefuture will be a %roduct of the %ast and encom%ass all %revious forms of budgeting.

Planning is not the onl' function to be served b' a budgeting s'stem. n the %ast

management and control were ver' significant to the budgeting s'stem and remains so

toda'. Schic& states that ever' budget s'stem must have %lanning management and

control. The ma8or aim of PP, is to outline s%ecific future goals and aims over the

annual routine of %re%aring a budget.

Schic& outlines three ma8or stages of budget reform. The focus of the first stage

occurring between !4; and !# was to develo% a s'stem of e$%enditure control

focused on control orientation. The second stage occurring at the time of the Bew

=eal focused on %erformance budgeting focused on management orientation. Schic&

states that the third stage must await the institutionali)ation of PP, and can be traced

to earlier efforts to lin& %lanning and budgeting focused on %lanning orientation.

Schic&s anal'sis identifies the difference between the e$isting and emerging

budgetar' %rocesses as a difference between management and %lanning orientations.

The budget s'stem of the future will be com%ilation of the s'stems of the %ast. -e

concludes "that the ethos of budgeting will shift from 8ustification to anal'sis.


The 'ear before Schic&s article was %ublished L'ndon 5ohnson mandated the use

of PP,S for all federal agencies.


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Schic&s article %rovides a historical account of the develo%ment of budgeting

%rocesses in the %ublic sector. This account allows us to recogni)e the features of

budgeting and how s'stems have evolved and how new s'stems contain thecom%onents of %revious s'stems.

Quantitative Ranking: 2'


Article Title:Administrative Res%onsibilit' in a =emocratic overnment

Author:-erman >iner

First Appeared In: Public Administration Review 3olume ! !:!


This article b' -erbert >iner directl' res%onds to >reidrichs ideas about %ublic

administration ethics which >reidrich laid out in his !:; boo& entitled "Public Polic'

and the Bature of Administrative Res%onsibilit'." n this boo& >reidrich %ro%osedthat there should be little e$%licit control over a %ublic administrator. nstead

>reidrich believed that the administrator owed res%onsibilit' to two dominant factors

in fulfilling his9her obligation and dut' to the %ublic. S%ecificall' an administrator

owed a dut' to !+ technological &nowledge and 4+ %o%ular sentiment. -e thus

believed that an' %olic' which violates this standard ma&es the official irres%onsible

to the %ublic. n summar' >reidrich believed that %ublic administrators must e$ercise

a moral not a rule/bound res%onsibilit' to the %ublic. >reidrich also believed that the


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cautioned against %ublic administrators from using their own discretion instead

believing that %ublic administrators are res%onsible to the elected re%resentatives for

the %ublic. >iner advocated the use of the courts and as well as clear lines of authorit'

in administrations *sanctions+. >iner defined %ublic administratorsres%onsibilit' to

the %ublic as threefold. >irst he believed that %ublic administrators should wor& forwhat the %ublic needs not what the %ublic wants. Second that %ublic administration

can onl' function through institutions. And third %ublic administrators must be

obedient to the orders of their su%eriors. >iner felt that the a %ublic administrator

should have little or no fle$ibilit' or discretion and that in order to be trul'

accountable to the %ublic administrators must be %rovided with more than a sense of

moral res%onsibilit'. >iner believes that moral res%onsibilit' is li&el' to o%erate in

direct %ro%ortion to the strictness and efficienc' of %olitical res%onsibilit' and to fall

into disarra' if this %olitical res%onsibilit' is not strictl' enforced via sanctions. -e

was firm in his belief that %rofessional standing and a dut' to the %ublic were not

enough( sanctions were necessar' to &ee% %ublic administrators ethical.


This debate between >iner and >reidrich over how to ma&e %ublic administrators

ethical actors and res%onsible to the %ublic became e$tremel' im%ortant for

administrators %ractices of how to enforce ethical behavior whether through

sanctions or through moral obligation and guilt.


The e$change between >iner and >reidrich is the most cited article9e$changed

discussing the "best" strateg' for achieving accountabilit' in %ublic administration.


Chronological Ranking: &

Article Title: =evelo%ments in Public Administration !4.

Author: Leonard =. 1hite


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First Appeared In: The American Political Science Review !;


Leonard 1hite in "=evelo%ment in Public Administration !4" writes about the

%rogress being made in the field of %ublic administration. -e outlines several

commissions a%%ointed b' President -oover and the duties the' are charged with.

1hite re%orts that %rogram in the research of %ublic administration began at the

Gniversit' of California. Seven s%ecial research %ro8ects are being %lanned including@

!+ a stud' of interrelations of the communities com%rising the San >rancisco region(

4+ the administrative relationshi%s between federal state and local governments( +

%ersonnel %roblems( :+ legislative drafting( #+ the administration of criminal 8ustice in

California( and *?/7+ the annual %ublication of critical annotated guides to the

literature of state and federal administration. The sub8ect of %olice administration wasactivel' e$amined at the annual nternational Association of Chiefs of Police.

Bationwide efforts were initiated to develo% uniform crime records and a new

%ublication The American 5ournal of Police Science was debuted b' Borthwestern

Gniversit'. The Gniversit' of Southern California held for the second consecutive

'ear a short course in training for %ublic service and had an increase in %artici%ants. A

surve' and audit of the Bew 5erse' state government was initiated and others li&e it

were %lanned for Maine and Ar&ansas. n the field of %ersonnel administration

e$tensive classification and com%ensation studies were made in Bew 5erse' and

Massachusetts.


The field of %ublic administration was 8ust emerging at the time of this article. 1hite

had written 8ust four 'ears earlier in !4? his %ioneering te$tboo& on the stud' of

%ublic administration. All the develo%ments that 1hite lists are innovative for the time

%eriod.


Although this article offers no theories or conce%ts for the stud' of %ublic

administration feel that it is still im%ortant toda' because it is a diar' of the field.

1rite writes about what efforts were being made at that time in %ublic administration

and given that none of these things had ha%%ened before it is ver' im%ortant. 0ften


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times as we forge ahead with technolog' we forget our roots and how things started.

1hites article reminds us of the beginnings of %ublic administration.



Article Title:The Tas& of Administrative Law

Author:>eli$ >ran&furter

First Appeared In: Gniversit' of Penns'lvania Law Review volume 7# %ages ?!:/

?4! Ma' !47


n this law review article >ran&furter


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hori)ontall' but verticall' as well in terms of the different administrative agencies

*8udicial review of the >TC *>ederal Trade Commission+ decisions+ *8udicial review of

%ostal fraud+ *8udicial review of de%ortation of warrants+. >ran&furter believed that the

%h'siological stud' of administrative law in action will disclose the %ractices of

administrative decisions because of the fact that administrative law is largel'concerned with societ' and econom'.


>ran&furters article re%resented the voice of the 8udicial establishment which

des%eratel' called for a new set of "administrative laws" to establish the boundaries

around the growing %owers of regulator' agencies.


>ran&furter observed as earl' as !47 a trend that is still common toda'that

government agencies and bureaucrats not the legislature or even the courts are

charged with ma&ing the vast %ro%ortions of American law. >ran&furter also

forecasted man' of the same ver' relevant issues we see toda' with the increasing

freoundation of the Theor' of 0rgani)ation

Author: Phili% Sel)nic&

First Appeared In: American Sociological Review *!:6+


Phili% Sel)nic& in ">oundation of the Theor' of 0rgani)ation" e$%lains that

organi)ations function in a rational manner but do not deal with the irrational realities

of organi)ational behavior. According to Sel)nic& organi)ations can be viewed in two

wa's as an econom' and as an ada%tive social structure. >ormal organi)ations are


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coo%erative s'stems and %ersons are viewed functionall' as %artici%ants in assigned

segments of this s'stem. -owever humans resist the de%ersonali)ation of the formal

s'stem and %artici%ate as whole %ersons. The organi)ational act of delegation deals

with the formal assignment of wor&. n theor' these assignments are to the roles or

%ositions not to the individuals. -owever the individuals that receive the assignmentshave goals and that do not alwa's coincide with those of the organi)ation.

Sel)nic& offers a structural/functional anal'sis that relates contem%orar' and variable

behavior to a %resum%tivel' stable s'stem of needs and mechanisms. The assum%tion

of the structural/functional a%%roach is that the basic need of all s'stems is the

maintenance of the integrit' and continuit' of the s'stem itself. Sel)nic& also offers

co/o%tation as a mechanism of ad8ustment for organi)ations. Co/o%taion is the

"%rocess of absorbing new elements into the leadershi% or %olic' determining

structure of an organi)ation as a means of averting threats to its stabilit' or e$istence."


Sel)nic& identifies the relationshi% of the econom' of an organi)ation and its social

structure. -e ta&es an in/de%th loo& at the role that human goals and as%irations have

on the overall econom' of the organi)ation.


1e are well aware in this da' and age the effect that goals and feelings of the

individual have on the organi)ations outcome. Sel)nic&s identification of this

relationshi% with the structural/functional anal'sis and co/o%tation %rovide a clearer

understanding of the formal organi)ation.



Article Title:The Advanced Commission on R@ Gnieatures and Polic'

Author:=eil S. 1right


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First Appeared In: Public Administration Review volume 4# !?#


1right %rovides some basic bac&ground on the ACR@ Advanced Commission on

ntergovernmental Relations. S%ecificall' he outlines the uni


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Quantitative Ranking: 2%

Chronological Ranking: 1$

Article Title:Ale$ander -amilton@ Advocate of E$ecutive Leadershi%

Author:L'nton D. Caldwell

First Appeared In: Public Administration Review 3olume : number 4 !::


This article ver' nicel' articulates Ale$ander -amiltons insight as to the bestgovernment for the Gnited States. Caldwell e$%lains that -amilton eorge

1ashingtons first Secretar' of the Treasur' believed in a strong central

government. n this res%ect thus he clashed with 5efferson and the federalists. -e

believed in shifting the federal balance of %ower towards the center because it could

best %lan %ublic affairs. -e further believed that the e$ecutive branch was the onl'

branch ca%able of controlling individual actors and %reventing individual grou%s from

ta&ing control of government in wa's that would onl' benefit their individual self/

interest. As to the %ur%ose of government -amilton once said that it was to

"reconcile divergent interests and amalgamate them into a rational %ublic %olic'."

-amilton thought the absolute greatest danger to a free %eo%le was if in the time of

crisis or des%air the' through their insistence of their legislatures allowed into

government %recedents laws which later would %rove to be fatal to their self/interests.

Thus he believed %ower must be ta&en from legislatures and %laced into the rational

hands of the %resident. 0nl' the %resident -amilton alleged was able to resist

%o%ular %ressures and change societ' for the better in an orderl' and well/thought out

manner.

-amilton advocated that we should divide government %owers according to function

with the legislative branch defining ob8ectives and granting %owers and with the

e$ecutive branch having freedom from legislative interference in e$ecuting the law.

>or %ower to be ordered in its %ro%er channels -amilton believed the e$ecutive

branch must be res%onsible for %ursuing the %ublic interest in an' wa' that it saw fit

and that it was the %resident himself who could best re%resent the %eo%le of America.


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-amiltons greatest contribution to %ublic administration was is belief of and

rationale for having the %resident and e$ecutive as absolute leader in forming %ublic

%olic'.


Clearl' the debate of which branch should have the most %ower is still thriving toda'.

-amiltons argument and rationale are still used toda' b' %ro%onents of strong

centrali)ed federal government %ower and even b' modern %residents *such as Clinton

and the !4 BPR Re%ort+ who call for more %residential discretion in the ma&ing of

%ublic %olic'. Much of -amiltons rationale is further used b' administrators who

resent 8udicial interference of their discretion in forming %ublic %olic'.

Quantitative Ranking: 2&


Article Title: =evelo%ment of Theor' of =emocratic Administration.

Author: =wight 1aldo

First Appeared In: American Political Science Review :: *!#4+ March


n the "=evelo%ment of Theor' of =emocratic Administration" =wight 1aldo traces

the histor' of administration both %rivate and %ublic in democrac' and highlights%eo%le and conce%ts that are &e' to its develo%ment. 1aldo traces the develo%ment of

%rivate administration and its relationshi% with democrac'. -e %oints out that %rivate

administration grew along with business civili)ation. Private administration welcomed

the scientific calculation that was the basis of >rederic& Ta'lors scientific

management theor'. Changes occurred and %rivate administration turned from a harsh

%aternalism to a "trusteeshi%" or benevolent %aternalism cites 1aldo. The earl' %ublic


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administration theorists acce%ted democrac' as the central meaning of the American

%olitical s'stem but also found it a threat to their central %rinci%le of efficienc'.

1aldo highlights some of the writers that bear directl' u%on the develo%ment of

democratic administration as =avid Levitan and 5. =onald Dingsle'. -e also notes thecontributions of two other writers to the field of general administration. The' are

Mar' Par&er >ollett and 0rdwa' Tead.

1aldo cites that one real obstacle stands in the wa' of further develo%ment of

democratic theor' of administration is the idea that efficienc' is antithetical to

democrac'. Another obstacle the democratic administration must face according to

1aldo is authoritarianism. 1aldo also cites that some of the most im%ortant writings

of that da' were in the realm of sociolog' and the im%act on %ublic administration.


This article caused -erbert Simon and Peter =ruc&er to write res%onses to 1aldos

%a%er. Simon was anno'ed at 1aldos assertion that there are no "factual decisions"

made free from values.


1aldos article %rovides a historical %ers%ective on democratic administration. -e

highlights man' contributors and brings together the contributions of %rivate and

%ublic administration. t is good starting %oint for students interested in democratic

administration.

Quantitative Ranking: 2(

Chronological Ranking: $)

Article Title: Public Administration in a Time of Revolutions

Author: =wight 1aldo

First Appeared In: Public Administration Review *!?6+ 5ul'/August


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n "Public Administration in a Time of Revolutions" =wight 1aldo identifies the

changing times and


41/147

"h! It Is till a ignificant Article Toda!: t isnt difficult to loo& at each of the

items that 1aldo highlights in this article and a%%l' them to toda's societ'. Each of

those factors has a strong %resence toda'. ,' recogni)ing that we should see that

revolutions are constant and %ublic administration must constantl' ada%t.

Quantitative Ranking: 2)

Chronological Ranking: 2'

Article Title:Power and Administration

Author:Borton E. Long

First Appeared In: Public Administration Review 3olume %ages 4#7/4?:

Autumn !:


n this article Long states that administration could not be e$%lained in entirel'

rational terms because its com%onents re%resent an assortment of %olitical interest and

%ressure grou%s. >or %ublic administration to %ros%er he felt it must dedicate itself to

stud'ing the nature of %olitical %ower in bureaucrac'. -e further asserted thatbureaucrac' needs to build %olitical su%%ort in order to carr' out its mission. This

article is ver' anti/1oodrow 1ilson and ver' anti/Progressive in its nature. -e saw

%olitical %ower as coming into the organi)ation both laterall' and verticall' *bottom/

u%+. -e argued that a ma8or as%ect of administration consists of a wide range of

activities designed to secure "customers" acce%tance. -e also believed %ublic

administration must develo% a consensus before an agenc' was able to im%lement and

e$ecute a %rogram.

Long recogni)ed the difficult' in coordinating government agencies in their mission

towards one goal. This difficult' was because agencies want to survive and this

survival instinct ma' conflict with the governments overall %ur%ose. -e saw the

tas& of reorgani)ing government as ver' difficult because it involves so man' e$ternal

factors. Moreover because government %ower centers com%ete with each other

coordination among them was further bloc&ed.


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-e saw the balance of %ower between the e$ecutive and the legislature as sub8ect to

shifts based on how much su%%ort each branch had from the %ublic. Thus it was not

eas' to determine "1ho is boss." -e concluded b' reinforcing that it is im%ossible to

loo& at administration without loo&ing at %ower structures. >inall' because of the

%artisanshi% of the America s'stem he saw it unli&el' that Congress and theE$ecutive would ever thrive in one coherent %rogram.


This article is credited with %o%ulari)ing the argument that "the lifeblood of

administration is %ower." -e brought into %o%ular debate that the structure of

interestswhether friendl' or hostile vague or com%act defined each significant

center an administrators discretion.


n asserting that "administrative rationalit' demands that ob8ectives be determined and

sights set in conformit' with a realist a%%raisal of %ower %osition" Long challenged

%ublic administrators to acce%t %olitics and %ower within their organi)ations and 8obs

and then to wor& with it in ma$imi)ing their organi)ations goals and %ur%oses. This

"call to action" continues to be ver' im%ortant toda' in %ublic administration

%rofessions at ever' level. -e was also the first to refer to citi)ens and ta$%a'ers as

"customers"terminolog' that has recentl' come into the forefront of %ublicadministration with the ! BPR "re/inventing government" re%ort.

Quantitative Ranking: 2*

Chronological Ranking: 2%

Article Title:Political m%lications of ,udgetar' Reform

Author:Aaron 1ildavs&'

First Appeared In: Public Administration Review 3olume 4! %age !6 Autumn

!?!


43/147


n this article 1ildavs&' argues that the idea of a "better budget" is not a neutral and

a%olitical idea that is onl' de%endent on s&ills and efficienc'. Rather 1ildavs&'

argues budgetar' reform contains im%ortant im%lications for the %olitical s'stem fordetermining who *which branch of government+ gets more decision/ma&ing %ower.

-e argued that because the budget is so fundamental in determining a governments

agenda that a theor' of the budget is essentiall' 8ust a theor' of what the government

ought to do. -e argued that a budgetar' theor' could not be normative b' %ur%orting

to strive for neutral efficienc' but must be democratic in nature. -e believed that if

we treat societ' as a consumer that there would be less social conflict.

-e argued that the most significant wa' to influence the budget was to introduce

basic %olitical changes *i.e. give the %resident more %owers or em%ower congress+. nother words an' change in the how the budget is formed b' definition affects the

%olitical %rocess of who gets %ower. >or e$am%le b' giving the %resident an item veto

%ower in the budget %rocess his %ower was increased to the detriment of Congress.

Although 1ildavs&' did thin& that efficienc' was im%ortant he also %ointed out that

we &now ver' little about what e$actl' "the budget %rocess" is. There is little %ublic

information about how agencies go about as&ing for mone' and how the influence

%eo%le to get the mone' that the' want. -e thus believed that in addition to calling for

reform we need to describe the budget %rocess morenot 8ust normali)e it andreinforce it. n addition to a theor' of reform he called for a "theor' of influence" in

the budgetar' %rocess which would describe %ower relations among %artici%ants and

e$%lain what ma&es the winner successful. -e further believed that we need to be able

to isolate what factors affect decision/ma&ing about the budget.


,' arguing in essence that the "stud' of budgeting" was reall' 8ust another

e$%ression for the "stud' of %olitics" 1ildavs&' was significant in


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This article continues to be im%ortant to counter new "budgetar' reform" theories that

%ur%ort to be ca%able of fi$ing the budget with a%olitical solutions.

Quantitative Ranking: $'

Chronological Ranking: $'

Article Title:Leonard =. 1hite and the Stud' of Public Administration

Author:-erbert 5. Storing

First Appeared In: Public Administration Review volume 4# March !?#


,ecause 1hite %rimaril' %ublished boo&s and not articles and it would be

inconceivable not to mention Leonard =. 1hite among the to% !;; most influential

articles in %ublic administration it is essential to cite this article about 1hites

influence in the field of %ublic administration. Moreover 1hite not onl' wrote the

first te$t in %ublic administration but he also was the first editor/in/chief of PublicAdministration Review the %rimar' outlet of all subse


45/147

the %ublics business. -e clearl' su%%orted a welfare state noting that because

laisse)/faire economics and the free/mar&et s'stem resulted in ine


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Author: Charles A. ,eard

First Appeared In: American Political Science Review *!:;+


"Administration A >oundation of overnment" is the te$t of s%eech that Charles A.

,eard gave before the American Political Science Association and the Societ' for

Public Administration. The focus was the establishment of the Societ' of Public

Administration. ,eard highlights the beginnings of %ublic administration and >ran&

oodnows wor& at Columbia Gniversit' and the emergence of schools of %ublic

administration across the countr'. ,eard also offers seven a$ioms for the field that

include@

!. Continuous and efficient functions of government are necessar' to

societ'.

4. As technolog' develo%s government will enlarge.

. A societ' is onl' as strong as its administration.

:. Creating legislation is not as challenging as im%lementing and enforcing

it toward the %ublic good.

#. Administration becomes the central factor when government institutes

changes due to societal changes.

?. =iversit' in the recruitment of administrators and constant constructive

criticism of those administrators is essential.

7. An administrative s'stem must be constructed to encourage involvement

at the local level.

,eard asserts that unless these a$ioms are followed future societies ma' be stud'ing

our societ' as we now do the e$tinct Roman Em%ire.



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This s%eech mar&ed the introduction of the Societ' of Public Administration the first

%rofessional organi)ation in the field that is now &nown as the American Societ' of

Public Administration *ASPA+. 0ut of the formation of ASPA came the %ublication of

Public Administration Review the most significant 8ournal in the field of %ublic

administration.


The American Societ' of Public Administration remains the foremost organi)ation for

those in the field of %ublic administration. The articles %ublished on Public

Administration Review are a forum for those in the field. This article s%eech is a

record of the thoughts and vision for the organi)ation and this therefore significant to

the field.

Quantitative Ranking: $2

Chronological Ranking: 1(

Article Title: The Science of Public Administration@ Three Problems

Author: Robert A. =ahl

First Appeared In: Public Administration Review 5anuar' !:7


=ahl bal&s at the notion that Public Administration is considered a science. -e claims

that it will never be a science for three main reasons@ normative values remain

unclear( human nature is involved and not %redictable( and general %rinci%les for one

area or region ma' not a%%l' to another area or region in the same wa'.

=ahl elaborates on each of the three reasons at length. =o administrators value

efficienc' over moralit'F Can human beings offer enough %redictabilit' to be studied

as a scienceF Can generali)ations be made between governments countriesF Even

when %olicies and %ractices differF



48/147

=ahl was a bit before his time. The idea of scientific management and administrative

%rinci%les were to% of mind. Loo&ing at %ublic administration from a more humanistic

a%%roach was not reall' being done too much in !:7. -is article did offer a ver'

different voice for the time one that would later be combined with more scientific

leanings to again ma&e changes in government and %olicies.


Sometimes its im%ortant to review and ta&e note that different ides from those t'%ical

of their time were circulating. =ahl %rovides a general %ers%ective to students of

Public Administration for what the'Jll have to / learn even more so in the field than in

the classroom.

Since the writing of this article ethics values and moralit' has gone from a hot to%icto a whole sub8ect of stud'. -uman behavior and how the' act in %ublic service

situations in constantl' under scrutin' and we are still searching for the general

%rinci%les that transcend nations and their administrations. The idea of %ublic

administration as a science however is still under debate.

Quantitative Ranking: $$


Article Title: A Rea%%raisal of >ederal Em%lo'ment as a Career

Author: Paul -. A%%leb'

First Appeared In: Public Administration Review S%ring !:6


The author discusses the %roblems surrounding morale of >ederal overnment

em%lo'ees. 1e had recentl' come out of a war and had gone from a =emocrat in the1hite -ouse to a Re%ublican. A similar transformation of %art' control had ta&en

%lace in Congress.

=ue to the fact that the war was over much "down/si)ing" was ta&ing %lace in

government and man' bureaucrats were also used to wor&ing under a =emocrat.


49/147

Peo%le were blaming the %art' change for most of the bad morale and cutbac&s.

A%%leb' was %ointing out that %olic' change and changes in conditions were more the

case. ,ut because bureaucrac' was %art of the %olitical machine administrators

should not be offered an' 8ob %rotection or guarantees of em%lo'ment amidst these

changes. -e calls for some stud' of the current situation to better enable governmentto handle it in the future but reminds the reader that "administration is a distinct and

special vehicle of response to society and control by society." Administrators need to

move above and be'ond %olic' changes b' better understanding their roles in

government.


A%%leb' had written the boo& ,ig =emocrac' a few 'ears earlier den'ing the

se%aration of administration and %olitics. -e claimed the se%aration was not %ossible.The two were and alwa's will be intermingled.

n this article he is reiterating statements from his boo& and citing e$am%les from the

governmental situation of the da' to do so. This further shattered an' belief that

%olitics was not a %art of administration.


Changes in government and em%lo'ment factors have com a long wa' since the endof 1orld 1ar . Students can learn from this situation through A%%leb'Js writing and

will reali)e some of the changes made since this time. 0ne thing that has remained

constant however is the fact that %olitics and administration are still and will alwa's

be intermingled. t is interesting to go bac& to where the reali)ation was noted and

strongl' argued.

Quantitative Ranking: $4


Article Title: The Two Presidencies



50/147

First Appeared In: Trans/Action =ecember !??


1ildavs&' argues that the %residenc' is divided into two se%arate realms of %ower

foreign and domestic and that foreign %olic' setting is what %residents should

focus on in order to cultivate a successful and statesman/li&e image. -e %oints out

with the use of tables that congressional a%%roval for the %residents foreign %olic'

concerns was much more li&el' than was that of domestic issues. This is due to

stronger s%ecial interest grou% influences on domestic affairs less abilit' for Congress

to restrict the %residents actions on foreign affairs and lac& of information on the

%art of the %ublic to foreign affairs enabling the %resident to "bring his issues to the

%eo%le" to garner su%%ort.

1ildavs&' %ointed out that &nowledge was becoming %ower and that as the world was

becoming smaller %residents could no longer sit bac& and watch what was going to

ha%%en or ho%e that an issue would go awa'. The %residents %resence in the world

%olitical arena is re


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This article is still im%ortant for its e$amination of the %residential image and how

that is effected b' the handling of foreign affairs to his or her own constituents. This is

where the image of "%residential leadershi%" is either lost or won.

Quantitative Ranking: $&

Chronological Ranking: *

Article Title: Conce%ts of 0rgani)ation.

Author: Chester ,arnard

First Appeared In: 0rgani)ation and Management selected %a%ers *!:6+


Chester ,arnard writes the "Conce%ts of 0rgani)ation" to further develo% the conce%t

of organi)ation outlined in his !6 boo& The >unctions of the E$ecutive. ,arnard

describes the difficulties he encountered when beginning to ta&e on the sub8ect of

organi)ation. Terminolog' and ideals were vague and not ade


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when dealing with customers. Each method although termed different a%%lies to

customers as well as em%lo'ees.

,arnard describes the conce%t laid forth in the article b' a%%l'ing an e$amination of

discourse and conce%tual thought. n closing ,arnard %rovides the conce%tual schemethat was used in formulating his boo& The >unctions of an E$ecutive.


The article describes the conce%t of organi)ation outlined in ,arnards boo& and

%rovides additional detail to the sub8ect. The relationshi% he draws between the

treatment of em%lo'ees and customers was innovative at the time.


,usinesses and organi)ations toda' are driven b' customer satisfaction. Also

com%anies are com%eting to ac


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words there is currentl' no clear criteria to be used in assigning functions to the

%ublic or to the %rivate sectors. And although the G.S. Constitution encourages

coo%eration between %rivate and %ublic sectors it nonetheless mandates se%aration

between the forces. Moe uses the >A=A *>ederal Assets =is%osition Association+ as

an e$am%le of the blurring between %rivate and %ublic. -e as&s "what is the >A=AFs it an agenc' of the Gnited States sub8ect to the laws a%%licable to such bodiesF 0r is

it as claimed b' its President a %rivate organi)ation established under state lawF"

,ecause the rules and regulations and re


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%rivati)ation that ma' be less clear 'et e


55/147

"Ethics" "accountabilit'" "moralit'" and "res%onsibilit'" were all bu)) words of the

!6;Js. 0rgani)ations were develo%ing and ado%ting codes of ethics and attention to

individual res%onsibilit' was at its height. Thom%son not onl' ste%%ed awa' from all

the fuss to create his own b' as&ing if all this hoo%la was necessar' useful or even

achievable he then reassures us that it is all those things and %rovides cases as towh'.


Thom%sonJs article stands the test of time because it %rovides both sides of the coin

when arguing a case where someone has been "ethicall' challenged." Bot onl' does

Thom%son %rovide wa's for an administrator to argue his or her case towards

innocence he shows ho to ma&e some of those cases ine$cusable b' using histor' of

%rocedural flaws %ersonal &nowledge on the %art of the actor and re%eated inaction ofan agenc' or an individual. This article %rovides am%le warning to students of Public

Administration that e$cuses will ta&e them onl' so far in their careers. t is im%ortant

to alwa's aim to achieve a level of ethical standards.

Quantitative Ranking: $)


Article Title: 1hat Are Gnions =oing to Merit S'stemsF

Author: =avid Stanle'

First Appeared In: Public Personnel Review A%ril !7;


This article is a re%ort on a recent stud' of the da' b' Stanle' and some of hiscolleagues to determine general information on local %ublic service unions( how do

the' organi)e( how do the' change the ma&e/u% of %ublic service staffs( what are their

main concerns and issues to fight for their members( what are the' most successful at(

where might the' fall short( where are local governments headed and how are unions

affecting the wa' the' get thereF The re%ort was s%onsored b' the ,roo&ings nstitute


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as one in a series of five %ertaining to %ublic em%lo'ment unions and collective

bargaining. This article discussed the current trends of the da' within unions and at

the bargaining table.


Gnions in local government em%lo'ment were increasing in numbers. Protocol for

recruiting and hiring training and %a' %osition classification and man' other areas of

local government human resources were being affected and needed to change. This

article shed light on those areas and %rovided recommendations for ste%s to be ta&en

to ma&e those changes it stated would be necessar'.


t is often necessar' to reflect as to where situations were to assess a current situation.

This article b' listing what unions were wor&ing towards reminds the student of

%ublic administration as to what is was li&e to be a %ublic sector em%lo'ee less than

; 'ears ago. Though some issues remain man' have evolved as a reaction to the

changing times. The fact remains however as Stanle' states "How good or how bad

this is [the idea of collective bargaining and unionization], depends on the value

system of the beholder."

Quantitative Ranking: $*

Chronological Ranking: 1&

Article Title: The Res%onsibilit' of Administrative 0fficials in a =emocratic Societ'.

Author: =avid M. Levitan

First Appeared In: Political Science 2uarterl' !:?.


n "The Res%onsibilit' of Administrative 0fficials in a =emocratic Societ'" =avid

Levitan e$%lores in de%th the role of administrators in a democratic government


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historicall' and outlines some conce%ts for the future. -e urther e$%lained that is a distinction between "the e$%ression of the will of the stateand the e$ecution of that will."

Levitan finds uncontrolled and unaccountable %ower in government distressing. The

solution he feels is not in additional e$ternal controls but in internal controls for

administrative officials. To &ee% bureaucrac' more res%onsible Levitan feels the

following initiatives are necessar'. !+ Recruitment of administrative officials should

be re%resentative of societ'. 4+ Academic training of administrative officials should

include social %olitical and economic ideas. + Civil liberties %rivileges and

immunities should be guaranteed for government wor&ers. :+ The administrative

branch should include non/career %ublic servants dedicated to the elected

administrations %olicies and %rograms. Levitan believes that for better administrators

to e$ist we must foster better citi)enr' as a whole.


At this time technolog' was advancing and the government was becoming larger.

Levitans article %rovided insight into the historical role of the administrative

official and e$amined the im%lications that can arise from unaccountabilit'.


The government continues to grow and we must still be concerned with the role of

administrative officials in a democratic societ'. Levitans conclusion holds true that


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if we concentrate on fostering better citi)ens we will in turn rea% the benefits from

more &nowledgeable re%resentative administrative officials.

Quantitative Ranking: 4'

Chronological Ranking: 2(

Article Title:T/rou%s for 0rgani)ational Effectiveness

Author: Chris Arg'ris

First Appeared In: -arvard ,usiness Review *!?:+


n "T/rou%s for 0rgani)ational Effectiveness" Chris Arg'ris e$%lains how

laborator' education can increase the effectiveness of e$ecutives and em%lo'ees. The

overall %remise of laborator' education is to unfree)e the values of the e$ecutive

change those values and then refree)e the values. n order to %re%are an e$ecutive to

learn via laborator' education he must learn as much as he can about his own

behavior. t is beneficial to give that e$ecutive a dilemma and as& him to solve the

%roblem. As he tries to do so with the old values and cant he then reali)es that it istime to re/e$amine his values and change them.

T/rou%s *T is for training+ is the fundamental method of laborator' education. Most

of the learning done in these grou%s is non/directive although there is an educator

%resent. 0ther com%onents significant to laborator' education are diagnosing

%roblems consultation grou%s lectures role %la'ing of "real" situations develo%ing

and testing recommendations and intergrou% %roblems. 1ithin the article Arg'ris

addresses misconce%tions and misunderstandings about laborator' education

including the ideas that it is a mani%ulative %rocess that the leader is covertl' in

control or that the goal is to su%%ress conflict and ma&e ever'one li&e one another.

Arg'ris admits that the im%act is difficult to measure and doesnt suggest that this

method is made for ever' organi)ation. n his conclusion he states that laborator'

education is@ !+ a %romising educational %rocess( 4+ not a %rocess that can hel% ever'


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organi)ation( + %rograms that are not all ali&e( :+ effective when a su%%ortive climate

is %rovided( #+ a lab %rogram that also has ris&s( and ?+ a %rogram in which

%artici%ants have difficult' in articulating their e$%eriences.


At this time managers were see&ing new wa's to increase effectiveness in em%lo'ees

and e$ecutives. Sensitivit' training or laborator' education gave e$ecutives the

o%%ortunit' to ta&e a loo& at their current values e$%eriment with new methods and

ado%t those that were beneficial.


Sensitivit' training is still utili)ed in organi)ations toda' but is most effective when

incor%orated with other com%onents when attem%ting to institute an over/reaching

organi)ational change.



Article Title:The Sic&ness of overnment

Author:P> =ruc&er

First Appeared In: The Public nterest volume !: 1inter !?


=ruc&er begins his article b' recogni)ing that government is big but he goes on to as&

if it is strongF -is article centers around the %ublic

s disenchantment of government.-e %oints out how citi)ens distrust government although the' continue to rel' on it

for %roviding services to them. -e further concedes that although %eo%le are still

turned off b' %rivate business and %rofits the' no longer believe that government is

the solution to %rivate greed. -e stresses that the biggest reason wh' %eo%le are

disenchanted with government is because government has not %erformed the wa'


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%eo%le had ho%ed it would. nstead government has demonstrated onl' mediocre

%erformance.

=ruc&er %oints out that the main %roblem with government is that it is no longer

holisticall' %olic'/driven. Rather each government agenc' becomes concerned with

its own %ower and agenda and detaches itself from the governmental %rocess. -e

notes that "the growing dis%arit' between a%%arent %ower and the actual lac& of

control is %erha%s the greatest crisis of government." -e criti


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Article Title:Administration =ecentrali)ation and Political Power

Author:-erbert Daufmann

First Appeared In: Public Administration Review %age 46 !?


n this article Daufmann e$%lained how disadvantaged grou%s of societ' feel as if

the' are not receiving their fair share of %olitical economic and social benefits. These

grou%s attribute this unfairness not to individual legislators or administrators butinstead with an ineffective s'stem. The %ublic blames administrators because the' are

the ones charged im%lementing the da'/to/da' laws of the legislatures general

mandates and the %ublic gets frustrated when administrators results do not e


62/147

This article hel%s to sha%e the meaning of a true democratic %olitical s'stem in our

countr'. ,' em%hasi)ing that %ublic administrators must re%resent the %ublic he calls

for a new brea&down of the traditional duties of the administrator to the %ublic.

Quantitative Ranking: 4$


Article Title: The Political Econom' of Efficienc'@ Cost ,enefit Anal'sis S'stems

Anal'sis and Program ,udgeting


First Appeared In: Public Administration Review =ecember !??


1ildavs&' begins with a basic descri%tion of the differences between economists and

%olitical scientists. Economists search for rational decisions based on efficienc' and

%olitical scientists reali)e much more is involved in decision/ma&ing when %olitics is

involved.

-e then goes on to define different t'%es of efficienc' then delves into e$tensivel'

defining Cost ,enefit Anal'sis S'stems Anal'sis and Program ,udgeting. -e

%rovides e$am%les of where each is effective and where the' have not been effective.

-e ac&nowledges that in the !?;s we were starting to finall' see a blending of

economic anal'sis with %olitical realities to ma&e decisions. -e calls this "%olitical

rationalit'."

1ildavs&' advises however that if a decision is too heav' on the economic side the

%olic' constructed will still err on the side of efficienc'. -e is demonstrating how farthe %endulum has swung since 3.0. De' 5r. wrote his article 4? 'ears earlier calling

for more economic evaluation in budget a%%ro%riation.



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n !?? our countr' was embroiled in a war. Bumbers and e


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theor' has t'%icall' loo&ed to %rivate organi)ations for guidance into how to organi)e

government it has traditionall' em%hasi)ed a bureaucrac' a%%roach to organi)ation

including a to%/down management structure with a great deal of s%eciali)ation along

with a merit/based s'stem of entr' into %ublic administration 8obs. The management

theor' views the individual wor&er9administrator ver' im%ersonall' as a machinewith a mission. The "%olitical" theor' of %ublic administration is advocated b' the

legislative branch. t stresses three thingsre%resentativeness %olitical res%onsibilit'

and accountabilit' of elected officials. This theor' arises out of the im%ortance of

democrac' and unli&e the management theor' it does not see efficienc' as a desirable

end in itself. t sees %ublic administrators as su%%lementar' law/ma&ers. And unli&e

the management theor' it sees %olitics as an im%ortant factor in deciding who the

%ublic administrators should be. S%ecificall' it advocates %olitical %luralism within

bureaucrac' so that all %olitical economic and social %ositions found in societ' at

large are also re%resented within government.

>inall' the "legal" theor' of %ublic administration is advocated b' the 8udicial branch.

t sees %ublic administrators mandate as three/fold. >irst the law tells

administrators what the' are e$%ected to do. Secondl' law %assed b' legislatures

inherentl' limit their authorit' on how much the' can do. Third the laws set

substantive and %rocedural rights of individuals and grou%s and administrators must

abide b' these laws in ma&ing sure no ones rights are violated. The three values

em%hasi)ed in this theor' are@ !+ due %rocess 4+ individual constitutional rights *e$+e


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Quantitative Ranking: 4&

Chronological Ranking: 4*

Article Title:The Civil Service@ A Meritless S'stemF

Author:E.S. Savas and Sigmund . insburg

First Appeared In: The Public nterest 3olume 4 Summer !7


n this article insburg and Savas %ut for the argument that the actual %rocesses andterms of hiring and %romoting according to the civil service regulations are contrar' to

the goals of what the' are tr'ing to *and %ur%orting to+ achieve. The authors e$%lain

that the !66 Civil Service Law was %assed in order to assure that federal em%lo'ees

would be selected hired and %romoted to federal 8obs based on merit not %atronage

or %olitics. =es%ite this noble mission however the authors criti


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This article recommended man' reform tactics that would ma&e the civil service trul'

merit/based. These reform %ro%osals included@ determining %romotions based on

%erformance so long as the %romotion s'stem was a%%roved b' the union( ma&ing

salar' based on %erformance *if %erform ver' high would get a larger raise+

reforming e$ams to be more s%ecific *related %ositions tested together+ and onl' usinge$ams if %roven to correlate to 8ob %erformance( hiring based on other factors besides

e$ams *such as e$%erience recommendations and an interview+ filling high/level

%ositions based on management dissection *and being able to a%%l' for %ositions

outside of organi)ation+ increasing the training of current em%lo'ees. These

recommendations %rovided a concrete %ath to reforming the much needed civil

service.


Although the civil service has im%lemented man' of these %olicies this article

continues to serve as a guide in the continuous effort to ma&e the civil service

%rogram more merit/based more efficient and fairer.

Quantitative Ranking: 4%

Chronological Ranking: &)

Article Title:0rgani)ational Review and Cutbac& Management

Author:Charles ,. Levine

First Appeared In: Public Administration Review!76


Levine recogni)ed and %ointed out that our countr' and the administration andagencies that served it were going into a %eriod of stagnation and decline in growth.

This stated he also reminds us that most %rogramming and budget %lanning is

%rocessed with the e$act o%%osite in mind. There was no %lan of action in %lace for

decline cutbac&s or o%erating with less funds that one had before.


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Levine advises that before an'thing effective can be done a review as to the causes of

the situation should ta&e %lace. Then he defines four categories of organi)ational

decline. 0nce a cause has been determined he advises the reader of the various tactics

available to %ro%erl' manage cutbac&s to be most effective and efficient.

Levine concludes with a call to action for government to %re%are for inevitable decline

and to have tactics in %lace before action is absolutel' necessar'. -e also suggests two

%ossible wa's administrators can go to hel% the %ublic deal with decline / "mandated"

cutting bac& b' individuals and a reassessment b' administrators of agencies and

individuals of their efficienc' towards using resources. -e concludes that the most

a%%ealing future %robabl' wonJt be the route we ta&e.


1e *the G.S.+ were alread' starting to "fuss" when this article was written( interest

rates were climbing the availabilit' of natural resources was seriousl' being limited

and

quantitative ranking (1)

Documents