quarterly journal of el camino real de tierra adentro ...claire odenheim, las cruces joy poole,...

Chronicles of the Trail Quarterly Journal of El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro

Trail Association

Vol. 6, No. 2 Spring 2010

“Francisca Chiwiwi – Isleta”

LETTER FROM THE PRESIDENT

Dear Members,

AsthenewinterimPresident,IwouldfirstliketotaketheopportunitytothankWillTicknorforhissupportandleadershipasPresidentofCARTA.FollowingWill’sresignationinFebruary,theBoardappointedmetotakeoverasinterimPresidentandBenBrowntofillmyroleasInternationalLiaisonbetweennowandOctober,whenthenewslateofofficersandBoardmembersisinstalled.Electionsarecomingupthissummer.IurgeyoutosubmityoursuggestionsforPresident,Treasurer,SecretaryorBoardmembertoClaireOdenheim([email protected])andJoyPoole([email protected]),nominatingco-chairs.Pleaseincludename,contactinformationandashortparagraphabouteachpotentialcandidate.

AhighlightofthisyearwasthestrategicplanningretreatheldinMountainaironMarch12-14,attheShafferHotel,wherewewaitedforPopShaffer’sghosttojoinusatanymomentinthis1923Pueblo-DecostyleNationalHistoricRegisterbuilding.Wetookovertheoldhotel.BySundayitfeltlikehome,theemergingcamaraderieamonguswaspalpable,andwehadaccomplishedwhatwesetouttodo.IwouldliketothankandcomplimentExecutiveDirectorJeanFultonforhertremendousamountofpreliminaryworkthatmadethisplanningretreataresoundingsuccess.

Ofnotewastheopeningnightafter-dinnerpresentationbyguestspeakerSteveElkinton,ProgramLeaderfortheNationalTrailsSystem(NPS)inWashington,DC,since1989,andauthorofThe National Trails System: A Grand Experiment.Stevespokewithauthorityaboutthestrategicplanningprocess,sharingwithushisknowledgeofhowothernationalhistorictrailgroupshavedealtwiththechallengesthatwefacetoday,stressingthevalueofdiversityinourleadership,membershipandprogramming.StevereturnedonSundaymorningtojoinsomeofusforafieldtriptothespectacularQuaraiMissionandRuins.

WiththeexpertprofessionalguidanceofStaceyCoxandLisaLaRocque,outsidefacilitators,welookedatCARTAfromitspresentstateasayoungtrailassociationnowtowherewewantittobeinfiveyears.Issuesthatweexaminedincludedmembershipgrowth;organizationalstructure;educationandoutreach;programming;preservation,signageandinterpretationofthetrail;andfinancialsustainability.Culturaldiversitywasacommonthread.

We’llbereviewingtheplanwithourFederalpartners,theBLMandtheNPS,andpostingadraftonourwebsiteformembershipreviewandcomments.Wewanttohearfromyouourmembers,withyourthoughtsandsuggestions.Ultimately,wewanttoproduceadocumentthatbelongstoallofus.

PleasemarkyourcalendarinanticipationofourannualmeetinginSantaFeonSaturdayafternoon,October16,1-4PM,atalocationyettobedetermined.AsI’msureyou’reaware,SantaFeisobservingthe400thanniversaryofitsfounding.CARTAiscommemoratingthiscelebrationbyparticipatinginThe Threads of Memory: Spain and the United States,anexhibitionattheNewMexicoHistoryMuseumofraredocumentsfromSpain.

I’mlookingforwardtoseeingallofyouatourannualmeeting!

Respectfully,

TisaGabriel

CONTENTS

Letter from the President inside front cover TisaGabrielFrom the Editors & On the Horizon 2 News & Notes along El Camino Real 3Isleta Pueblo on the Camino Real 7 GeorgeD.TorokThe Diary of Dr. Rowland Willard, Part I 16 TranscribedbyJoyPooleDon Santiago Kirker, Apache Scalper, PartII 28 HalJackson LinedrawingsbyFranciscoUviñaSabores del Camino: Chocolate 34 CatherineLópezKurlandBook Review: William R. Goulding, 40 California Odyssey: an Overland Journey on the Southern Trails, 1849 EditedbyPatriciaA.Etter ReviewedbyJoTiceBloomUpcoming Special Events inside back cover

Chronicles of the Trail

Chronicles of the TrailisaquarterlypublicationofElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentroTrailAssociation.Wewelcomeyourarticles,andyourphotographsforVistas del Caminoonthebackcover.Pleasesubmitallmaterialinelectronicformat(photos300dpi).

CARTA,POBox15162,LasCruces,NM88004-5162telephone(575)528-8267email:[email protected]

Volume6,Number2

MembershipinCARTAisopentoall.Pleaseseeinsertformembershipcategoriesandreducedinstitutionalfee.Amembershipformisalsofoundonourwebsite.

CARTA

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

INTERIMPRESIDENT: Patrice“Tisa”Gabriel,SantaFeVICE-PRESIDENT:LarryBroxton,LasCrucesSECRETARY:VanAnnMoore,BelenTREASURER:HelenGeer,SantaFeINTERIMINTERNATIONALLIAISON: Roy“Ben”Brown,ElPaso

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

TERMSENDING2010TomHarper,SocorroRichardLoose,OrganClaireOdenheim,LasCrucesJoyPoole,SantaFe

TERMSENDING2011JerryL.Gurulé,AlbuquerqueCatherineLópezKurland,SantaFeHarryMyers,SantaFe

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR:JeanFulton,Mesilla

CARTA’SNEWIMPROVEDWEBSITEwww.caminorealcarta.org

SAVE THE DATES!Saturday,16October,CARTA’SANNUALMEETING,1–4PM(locationinSantaFeTBA)

Sunday,17October,The Threads of Memory,NewMexicoHistoryMuseum,SantaFe,1–4PM

CARTA’s mission is to facilitate goodwill, cooperation, and understanding among communities, and to promote the education, conservation, and protection of the multicultural and multiethnic history and traditions associated with the living trail, El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.

FRONTCOVER:“Francisca Chiwiwi – Isleta.” PhotographbyEdwardS.Curtis,c.1925,gelatinsilverprint,8inx6in.CourtesyBraunResearchLibrary,InstitutefortheStudyoftheAmericanWest,AutryNationalCenter,P.37651,www.theautry.org.

BACKCOVER:Vistas del Camino: Tortugas, New MexicoPhotographbyMiguelGandert.Detailfromphotographicmural,“AlmadelPueblo,”U.S.Courthouse,LasCruces,NM.OfficialdedicationwilltakeplaceonFriday,9July2010,4PM.

EDITORS:CatherineLópezKurland&JeanFulton

Spring2010

2 Chronicles of the Trail,Spring2010

FROM THE EDITORS ON THE HORIZON

The Threads of Memory: Spain and the United States (El Hilo de la Memoria: España y los Estados Unidos),fromthe Archivo General de IndiasinSeville,Spain,opensitsU.S.tourattheNewMexicoHistoryMuseuminSantaFeonOctober17,2010.Intandemwiththisground-breakingexhibition,theFall2010Chronicles willfeatureaninterviewwithFrancesLevine,DirectoroftheHistoryMuseumandPalaceoftheGovernors.Belowisapreviewofwhat’sinstore.

“New Mexico History Museum to open Archive of the Indies Exhibition”

The Archivo General de Indias is a historic archive responsible for the custody of more than eighty million pages of documents spanning over three centuries of Spain’s history in the Americas. Among these are rare documents of American history that provide a far-ranging survey of Spanish settlements in North America and speak to the importance of the Hispanic roots of American culture. The Threads of Memory will be the first time that many of these documents have been displayed together in the United States. The bilingual exhibition contains primary documents of vital significance to the Southwest, New Mexico, El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro and the United States, bringing into focus the profound influence of Spain on our country. Before Jamestown was settled and long before Western Expansion defined us, Spanish explorers began documenting and colonizing the nation. They gave Europeans some of their first glimpses of a faraway land and planted the seeds of a culture that flourishes today. Among the archival treasures on view are the 1609 instructions to Governor Pedro de Peralta from the Viceroy of Spain establishing conditions for the founding of Santa Fe, and papers detailing aid given by Spain to the United States during the American Revolution. It will place New Mexico within the context of the Spanish settlement of the country. This exhibition will change American perspectives on our nation’s founding history, shifting widespread perceptions of the country’s origins from colonial New England to the southern and western Spanish borderlands. — Frances Levine, Ph.D

TheThreadsofMemorywill be on display at the New Mexico History Museum in Santa Fe from October 17, 2010, to January 9, 2011; the El Paso Museum of Art from January 23 to April 24, 2011; and the Historic New Orleans Collection from May 11 to July 10, 2011.

(above) A 1598 drawing of a buffalo accompanies “Account of the journey to the cows of Cíbola” that Sgt. Major Vicente de Zaldívar made in the province of New Mexico. Photo courtesy of the Archivo General de Indias.

WeareverygratefultothosewhohavecontributedtheirtimeandtalenttoCARTAandChroniclesoverthissnowywinter.StephanieLongvolunteeredtoupgradeCARTA’Swebsite.AresidentofLasCruces,sheisSeniorCuratorofCollectionsfortheCityofLasCrucesMuseums.Stephaniehasworkedasasoftwaredeveloperand

occasionallyreturnstothetech-worldforprojectssuchasthis—luckilyforus!Headovertowww.caminorealcarta.organdseeforyourselfwhatshehasdonetomakethesitemoreprofessional,informativeandattractive.Whileyou’rethere,pleasetakealookat“Conquista, Reconquista, Desconquista...,”therecentlypostedSpanishversionofEnriqueLamadrid’sessayintheWinter2010Chronicles onmultiplelayersofhiddenmessagesinIndo-HispanicritualsalongtheCamino.WehaveJoséA.DominguezJr.tothankfortheexcellenttranslation.OnceagainChroniclesisfortunatetohaveFranciscoUviña’spen-and-inkdrawingsillustratingHalJackson’snarrativeabouttheadventuresofJamesKirker,“ApacheScalpHunter,”inthefinalinstallmentofthislivelytale.GeorgeTorok,CARTA’sfirstpresident,hasnotbeenlettinganygramagrassgrowunderhisfeet,asevidencedbyhiscomprehensivehistoryofIsletaPueblo,accompaniedbyevocativeperiodphotographsfromthe1880sthrough1920s.JustafewyearsafterMexicanindependence,anAmericandoctor,RowlandWillard,headedwestontheSantaFeTrailanddownthroughNewMexicotoChihuahuaontheCaminoReal.ThankstoJoyPoole’stranscriptionofDr.Willard’sdiary,youcanreadthispreviouslyunpublishedfirsthandaccountherein the Chronicles.WewouldliketothankLaurieFrantz,anactiveCARTAmemberanddirectorofNewMexicoScenicByways,fordirectingfundingfromtheBywaysprogramtoCARTAforChronicles editing.Lastly,wewantCARTA’sofficersandBoardtoknowhowmuchweappreciatetheirsupportandencouragement.

Chronicles of the Trail,Spring2010 3

Insiders’ Tours: Anthony (June 5) and Armendaris Ranch (Fall) Tours Members Jim Andress and Tom Harper continue tocoordinatewithTedTurner’sArmendarisRanchmanager,TomWaddell,toschedule“Insiders’Tours”ofElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentrotrailsegmentslocatedonTedTurner’sprivatepropertynorthofEngle,NewMexico.Afallexcursionisplanned.Inthemeantime,pleaseseetheinsidebackcoverfornewsofourfirstofficial“Insiders’Tour”onElCaminoRealnearAnthony,NewMexico,onSaturday,5June2010!WeareoptimisticthatthisInsiders’TourwillbethefirstinafruitfulseriesofexcursionsoutontheTrail,designedtoentertainandeducateourmembers.ThankstoHarperandAndressfortheireffortsonourbehalf.

Mexico’s National “Ruta 2010” Initiative CARTAisstilllookingfor a

volunteertoexploreMexico’snationalcalendartokeepourmembersapprisedofdesignatedRuta 2010sitesandupcomingevents.Thiscelebrationcommemoratesthe200th

anniversaryofMexico’sIndependencefromSpainandthe100thanniversaryoftheRevolution.InformationabouttheroutesandrelatedhistoricaleventsisavailableontheofficialBicentennialwebsiteatwww.bicentenario.gob.mx.Eachroutehasmapsinportabledocumentformat(PDF)thatcanbedownloadedandprinted.Thesitealsoprovidesinformationabouthistoricalfiguresinvolvedinimportantevents.PleaseletusknowifyouwouldliketotrackandhighlightupcomingRuta 2010 sitesandactivitiesforourmembers.

Studying Cultural Landscapes: Hermosillo and Panuco, Mexico BoardmemberJoy PoolerepresentedCARTAattheJanuaryculturallandscapecolloquiuminHermosillo,Mexico.Nearlytwodozenpresentationsweregroupedintofoursessions:“WestandNorthMexico,”“AD1450

toAD1540:theLostCentury,”“CollaboratingAcrossCultures,”and“ArchaeologyandSociety.”CARTA’sattendanceisafirststepinabroaderundertakingthattheBLM,NPS,andHal Jackson envisionfor creatingabi-nationalacademicandprofessionalteamtodevelopaculturallandscapestudyatJuandeOñate’sboyhoodhacienda atPanuco,Mexico,orasimilarlymeaningfullocation.CARTAislookingfor volunteerstoserveonataskforcetoconductthepreliminaryresearchandtohelpwiththearrangementsforassemblingsuchateam.CARTAisintheprocessofapplyingforaBLMChallenge-Cost-Sharegranttofundaculturallandscapestudyoncetheteamisselected.

El Camino Real Cultural and Heritage Tourism Corridor Master Plan CARTAistakingtheleadinthelong-termefforttocreatespurandlooptrailsfromElCaminoRealcommunitiestotheproposedstatewideRioGrandeRivertrail,ratherthanteamingupwiththenonprofitGroundworkDoñaAna(GWDA),whichisstillinformation.AtaskforcecomprisedofGWDAsteeringcommitteemembers,communityleaders,andCARTAmembers Sandy Geiger, Paul Deason, Daniel Villa, and Meghan Berverarecarryingtheeffortforward.DevelopingthespurandlooptrailsintoalargerCulturalandHeritageTourismCorridorMasterPlanwasidentifiedbytheBoardintherecentCARTAStrategicPlanningprocessasthetop“TrailMaintenance”priority.Thetaskforcewillworkoverthenexteighttotenmonthspreparingagrantapplicationforfederal2011ScenicBywaysfunding.NewCARTAmemberSusan Morrison-Vega hasofferedtotaketheleadontheapplication.WewillbeworkingcloselywithMike Taylor (NPS),Sarah Schlanger (BLM),andScenicBywaysdirectorandCARTAmemberLaurie Frantzthroughouttheprocess.Afinaldraftofthegrantapplicationwillbepostedonourwebsiteforreviewandcomment.Ifawarded,thefundingwillbeusedtohireateamofconsultantstodevelopandimplementthecorridormasterplan.We are seeking “gateway community” representatives topartnerwithusinthisunprecedentedCARTAendeavor!

NEWS & NOTESUp and Down El Camino Real


New CARTA “Speakers Bureau” CARTA’sExecutiveDirectorhasparticipatedinAM570radiointerviews,pressreleases,maintainingtheUnitedWaywebsite,anonprofits“Show-and-Tell”eveningattheBraniganCulturalCenter,GreenChamberofCommercemeetings,MesillaValleyEconomicDevelopmentluncheons,creatingaCARTApanelattheHistoricalSocietyofNewMexicoConference,servingasaNewMexicoHeritagePreservationAllianceBoardmember,anumberofhistory-relatedconferences,asummerlectureseriesattheLasCrucesRailroadMuseum,apresentationatthenewMesillaValleyBosqueStatePark,andgavelecturesatAlamogordo’sRotaryClubandLeasburgDamStatePark.Shewillcontinuetotaketheleadinotheractivitiesdesigned toheightenpublicawarenessandgainnewmembers.Butshecan’tdoitalone!CARTAislookingfora few good volunteers to form a “Speakers Bureau”tohelpgetthewordout!Pleaseletusknowifandhowyouwouldliketoparticipate.

Grant Awarded to the Rio Grande Historical Collection (Las Cruces, NM) ThanksagaintoBoardmemberClaire Odenheim forassistingwithCARTA’ssuccessfulefforttoobtainagenerousNewMexicoLibraryFoundationgrantfortheremainingmicrofilmreelsneededtocompletetheDurangoCollectionattheRioGrandeHistoricalCollection(RGHC).Oncethereelshavebeenpurchased,wewillnotifythepresstopubliclythanktheNewMexicoLibraryFoundation.

Engineers Without Borders (Mendoceño, Mexico) TheNewMexicoStateUniversity2010“EngineersWithoutBorders”projectwasfocusedalongElCaminoRealatMendoceño,approximatelytenmilessouthofSatevo.Atthetown’sinvitation,overtheirSpringBreakthestudentsinstallednewpotablewaterpiping,valves,andasimpleflowcontrolsystemforgratefulresidents.Disappointingly,CARTAdidnotparticipateinthisyear’sprojectexceptforasmallpersonaldonationfromtheExecutiveDirector.CARTAislookingforavolunteertoworkcloselywithEngineersWithoutBorderswhilestudentsareassistingcommunitiesalongElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentro.ThisisanidealopportunityforCARTAtoactivelyengage(eitherthroughdonations,expertise,orhands-onwork)inworthwhileendeavorsacrosstheborder.

CARTA’S Revamped Website: www.caminorealcarta.org Stephanie Long, CARTAmemberandSeniorCuratorofCollectionsattheBraniganCulturalCenter

(LasCruces,NM),volunteeredwithWebmasterRussellSteintoupgradeCARTA’swebsite,www.caminorealcarta.org.Therevampedandrevitalizedsitehasrenewedvigorandnewopportunitiesforvisitorinteraction.Aspecialshout

outtoStephanieforallofherhardwork!Pleasewatchtherevisedsiteforup-to-datenewsannouncements,linkstoourpartners,ChronicleswithfeaturedSpanishtranslations,papersfromourSeptemberSymposium,andCARTA’sDraftStrategicPlan.WearegratefultoStephanieforherenthusiasmandexpertise,andtoRussellforgivingussuchagoodstart.

Paul Deason Research (Vado to Fort Selden, NM) Paul DeasoncontinueshisresearchwiththeHerbertW.YeoPapersattheBraniganPublicLibraryandtheRioGrandeHistoricalCollection(RGHCMS0094).Asalongtimestatesurveyorandavocationalarchaeologist,HerbertYeoconductedalifetimeofprimaryresearchalongElCaminoReal.WorkingwithCARTAmembersMary Kay Shannon and Stephanie Long, and with theRioGrandeHistoricalCollectionarchivists,Deasonhasarrangedfortheconservationofthehighwaymaphand-annotatedbyYeohimself.Deasonalsohasculledtrail-relatedinformationfromaseriesofbindersthatYeocompiled.Theresultsofthisimportantandtimelyresearchwillcontributetothecorridormasterplan,includingthedevelopmentofElCaminoRealcommunityspurandlooptrails.WelookforwardwithmuchanticipationtoDeason’sfinalreportdueoutthissummer.

NPS Challenge-Cost-Share Grant Tentatively Awarded to CARTA for Documenting the Jornada del Muerto WorkingwithCARTA,filmmakerJasonVanCamp’sChallenge-Cost-ShareproposalandnarrativetoengageyoungfilmstudentsindocumentingtheJornadadelMuertohasreceivedtentativeapprovalfromtheNationalParkService.CARTAisworkingwithJasonandNPStechnicaladvisorOtisHalfmoontosubmitafinalapplicationbeforethe1Junedeadline.BoardmembersRichard Loose and Tom Harperhaveofferedtoassistwithaerialfilming,usingtheirunmannedaerialvehicles(UAVs).


National History Day (Albuquerque, NM) Ms.MarieJulienne,ahighschoolteacherfromtheNativeAmericanCommunityAcademyinAlbuquerque,

tookherninth-gradestudentsonaresearchjourneyusingtheElCaminoRealastheentrypointforexhibitsinthisyear’sNationalHistoryDay(NHD)competition,“InnovationinHistory:ImpactandChange.”Theseniorgroup’sexhibit,“TheReligiousConquestofIndigenousCultures,”includedafour-footlong,hand-drawnmapofthetrailfromMexicoCitytoOhkayOwingeh.Althoughthisprojectdidnotplaceinthe2010StateNHDCompetition,theexperiencewasempowering.JuliennetellsusshelooksforwardtoworkingwithCARTAonElCaminoRealrelatedresearchduringnextyear’scompetition,noting,“Thetrajectoryofideasmotivatedbytheinnovationofthisancienttrailissorelevanttoouryouth.”FormoreinformationonNationalHistoryDay,gotowww.nhd.org.TovolunteerforNationalHistoryDay2011,pleasecontactJean Fulton or Claire Odenheim.PleasehelpusidentifyadditionalteachersandstudentswillingtoparticipateinCaminoRealresearchfornextyear’sNationalHistoryDay.

National Trust Cultural Resources Preservation Coalition CARTAisgratefultomembersRob Spence, Rebecca Slaughter, and Stephanie LongforofferingtosharetheresponsibilityofrepresentingusontheNationalTrust’sCulturalResourcesPreservationCoalition. Thisnationalcoalitionofstakeholdersisinvestedinprotectingresourcesfrompotentialthreats,particularlythoseimposedbywindandsolartransmissionlinesandothermassiveundertakings.OurrepresentativeswillalertustothoseissuesthatcouldpotentiallyimpactourTrail.

Public Lands Foundation Presents National Award to CARTA ThePublicLandsFoundationpresentedCARTAwith

aLandscapeStewardshipCertificateofAppreciationandCitationattheFebruaryPartnershipfortheNationalTrailsSystemLeadershipCouncilmeetinginWashington,DC.TheFoundationgrantsthisrecognitiontohonorprivatecitizensandorganizationswho“worktoadvanceandsustaincommunity-basedstewardshiponlandscapes”thatinclude,inwholeorinpart,publiclandsadministeredbytheBureauofLandManagement(BLM).TheawardrecognizesCARTAinpartfortheorganization’s“outstandingleadership,vision,andpurpose”inmotivating

otherstoworktogethertoconserveandpromoteElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentro. WritesLindaRundell,BLMNMStateDirector:“CARTAhasbeenaninvaluablepartner…asweworktopreserveandprotectthehistoricsitesandlandscapesassociated”withElCaminoReal.ShefurtheracknowledgesthatCARTAmemberswere“instrumental”ingainingnationalrecognitionfortheTrail,andthatCARTA’sleadersandmemberscontinuetowork“tirelessly”toprotectthelandscapeandtomaketheTrailstoryaccessibletothepublic. Theawardnarrativerecognizesthat“amongitsmanyotheraccomplishments,”CARTAhashelpedto:organizepublicpresentations,communitymeetingsandprofessionalalliances;assistthetraditionalcommunityofDoñaAnainthepreservationofhistoricstreetscapesassociatedwiththeTrail;createaseriesofeightinterpretivesitesalongtheElPasoRiverwalk;andcompleteasurveyandconditionsassessmentofallthehistoricmarkersassociatedwiththeCaminoReal.TheawardacknowledgesthatCARTAservesasanimportantpartnerinland-useplanningandlandscapepreservationonbothsidesofthesharedinternationalborder,andsponsorscross-bordercolloquiaandsymposia.In2007alone,notestheaward,theofficersanddirectorsofCARTAdonatedover1,800hourstopreservationprojectsthathaveleddirectlytogreaterstewardshipoftheTrail’soutstandingresources. CARTAwouldliketothankthePublicLandsFoundationandtheBureauofLandManagementforthisprestigiousandsignificantaward.Toreadthenationalawardnomination,pleasevisitwww.caminorealcarta.org.


Hike the Hill TheHikingSocietykickedoffits13thannual“HiketheHill”TrailsAdvocacyWeekwithdozensofparticipantswalkingfromtheLincolnMemorialtothestepsoftheU.S.Capitol.Inthedayspriortothehike,outdoorenthusiastsandtrailadvocateslearnedgrassrootslobbyingskillstopromoteincreasedfundingforcelebratingoursharedheritage,thehikingexperience,

andournation’ssystemoftrails.Afterward,advocatesmetwithfederallandmanagementagencies,membersofCongress,andtheObamaadministrationtorequestfundingandpoliciesthatprotectandpromotetrailsandthehikingexperience,includingrelatedlandandnatureconservationefforts. Hikeparticipantsincludedlocalhighschoolanduniversitystudents,hikinggroups,TheConservationFund,StudentConservationAssociation,NationalParkFoundation,TheWildernessSociety,AmericanTrails,OutdoorAlliance,CongressionalTrailsCaucus,TheTrustforPublicLand,PartnershipfortheNationalTrailsSystem,andrepresentativesfromthenation’sRails-to-Trails,Historic,Scenic,andRecreationalTrails.

From the Quarai Choir Loft to the Jornada del Muerto SpecialthankstoNationalParkServicerangerMurtSullivanforhisdelightfulSundaytouroftheQuaraiMissionatSalinasMissionsNationalMonument,followingtheboard’sstrategicplanningretreatinnearbyMountainair.RangerSullivandiscussedseverallinksbetweenJuandeOñateandElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentro.Mostmemorable,perhaps,washispointingoutthechoirloftwhereBernardoGrubermadeaveryunwisedecisionthatultimatelycosthimhislife. Gruber,atraderfromSonora,wasknowntohisfriendsas“ElAleman”(theGerman).AninebriatedGruberbraggedtoanyonewhowouldlistentohimduringaChristmasEve1666midnightMassaboutamagicspellhehadrecentlylearned.Afterscribblingonsmallpiecesofpaper,heencouragedthosestandinginthechoirlofttoswallowthepaperstoprotectthemselvesfromallbodilyharm.OncewordreachedtheInquisition’sagentatSantaFe,Gruberwasarrestedforwitchcraft. Afterseveralyearsimprisonedinamakeshiftcellat an estancianearpresent-dayAlbuquerque,GruberescapedandfledsouthwardonElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentrowithhisApacheservant,Atanasio.TheyheadedsouththroughLavaGateandacrossthedesert.Afteraharrowingride,Gruber,parchedandexhausted,restedataplacecalledLasPenuelasand sent Atanasio ahead forwater.Althoughthefactsarenotclear,somesaythattheservantmurdered Gruber.Sufficeittosaythata month later travelersaccidentallyfoundGruber’shorsetiedtoabush,dead.Nearbywasamassofredhumanhair,askull,andafewgnawedbones.TheygatheredthesolemnremainsforburialanderectedacrossthatformanyyearswasafamiliarlandmarkknownasLa Cruz del Aleman, the CrossoftheGerman.AlthoughAlemanwasneitherthefirstnorthelastindividualtodieinthisbarrenstretch,the name Jornada del Muerto,JourneyoftheDeadMan,harksbacktohisunfortunatedemise.

Jean Fulton, Murt Sullivan, Steve ElkintonIN MEMORIAM:Gail Martinez BerthaGallegosinformedusthatherdearfriendandCARTAmemberGailMartinezofDenver,Colorado,diedonFebruary24,2010.WemournthelossofourmemberandextendourdeepestsympathytoGail’slovedones.


“Isleta Indian Detour,” from “Couriercars,” travel brochure published by Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad Company, Fred Harvey and Hunter Clarkson, Inc, Tours, 1933, imprint Chicago: Santa Fe, 1933, Chicago: Rand McNally & Co. Courtesy Museum of the American West, credit: Freeman, Autry National Center, MIMSY 95.144.1 www.theautry.org.


AncestralPuebloan,cultureoftheSanJuanbasin.TiwaPueblohistoryincludesamigrationofpeoplefromthesouth,probablytheMogollon,whomovedintotheregionandthriveduntilthefourteenthcentury.ThesetwoculturesblendedatShiewipag,whichwasfoundedinthemid-1300s,oneoftwelvemajorTiwasettlements.ThevillagewaslocatedatthejunctionoftwomajorPueblotrails,makingitanimportantculturalcenterfortheregion.InthesixteenthcenturythemainchanneloftheRioGrandeveeredwestaboutamilenorthofthepueblowhileasecondoneraneastofthesettlementalongthemodernalignment.Whenbothriverchannelswerefullthepueblobecameanisland,leadingtheSpanishtonamethe site Isleta. Duringthewinterof1540-41theCoronadoexpeditionwagedwaragainstTiwapueblosontheRioGrande,

AboutfourteenmilessoutheastofdowntownAlbuquerquetheCaminoRealdeTierraAdentroNationalHistoricTrailpassesthroughIsletaPueblo,anancientIndiansettlementontheRioGrande.ManyIsletansspeakTiwa,abranchoftheKiowa-TanoanlanguagefamilythatisdividedbetweenSouthernandNortherndialects.IsletansareSouthernTiwaandareculturallytiedtotwoothersurvivingpueblos,YsletadelSur,Texas,andSandiaPueblo,NewMexico.Sixteenth-centurySpaniardsencounteredSouthernTiwainaseriesofpueblosalongtheriverbetweenIsletaandBernalillo,andcalledtheregionTiguex.ThenativenameforIsletaPueblo, Shiewipag,means“flintkick-stickplace,”saidtorefertotheshapeofthelandwherethepuebloisbuilt.Accordingtooraltradition,Tiwaancestorscamefromthenorthwest,mostlikelydescendantsoftheAnasazi,or

“Adobe Dwelling of Isleta, New Mexico,” drawing by Maynard Dixon, pencil on paper, L: 10 1/4 in., W: 8 7/8 in., September 1900. Courtesy Museum of the American West, Autry National Center, 93.35.1, www.theautry.org.

ISLETA PUEBLO ON THE CAMINO REALbyGeorgeD.Torok


alsodescendantsoftheMogollon,lefttheSalinasareaandmigratednorthwest.FleeingdroughtandApacheraids,theyabandonedtheirnativevillagesandsettledinseveralTiwaandPiropueblos.ThisnewinfluxofsettlersexpandedIsletatoapopulationofabouttwothousandbytheendofthedecade. Duringthe1680PuebloRevolt,severalmajorIndiansettlementsdidnotjoinintheassaultontheirSpanishrulers.Infact,somealertedauthoritiesoftheimpendingrebellionandremainedloyaltotheprovincialgovernment.Forreasonsthatremainunclear,theIsletaTiwadidnotjoinintheinitialattacksbutlaterresistedwhentheSpanishreturned.ThewrittenrecordsoftheSpanishandtheoraltraditionsoftheTiwadiffer,butlittlearchaeologicalevidencehassurfacedtosupporteitherclaim.TheIsletansappeartohavebeendivided:somecooperatedwiththeSpanish,somefledthepueblo,somejoinedtherebellion,andothersweretakenbyforcedowntheCaminoRealtoElPasodelNorte.AstherevoltbrokeoutonAugust10,Lt.GovernorAlonsoGarcíaandasmallbandofsoldiersfoundthemselvesinthemidstoftherebellion,isolatedintheRioAbajo,thesoutherndistrictoftheprovince,belowtheVillaofSantaFe.GarcíareceivederroneousreportsthatSantaFehadbeentakenbytherebelsandthatallSpaniardsintheRioArribahadbeenkilled.Bynightfall,theyhadmovedsouthtoSandiaPueblowheretheygatheredsurvivorsandmadeadesperateretreatsouthontheCaminoReal.Thenextday,therefugeetrain,ledbyGarcíaandhissoldiers,enteredIsletaPueblo.AnyplanstoattacktheSpanishwerequicklyabandonedasthe1500men,womenandchildrenoverwhelmedthepueblo.Garcíareturnednorth

includingIsleta.TheSpanishweresodesperateforfoodandclothingthattheyplunderedvillagestoresanddemandedgoodsfromthenatives.Astensionsmounted,theIndianpopulationbegantoresistandtheSpanishbecameevenmorebrutalandaggressive.Theyraidedvillages,burnedmenatthestake,andsurvivedbylootingtheareauntilearlyspringwhentheycontinuedeasttothePecosRiver.TheIsletanPuebloneverforgotthetreatmenttheyreceivedfromtheSpanishbutweresurprisinglycordialwithlatervisitors.Forty-oneyearslaterthemuchsmallerRodriguez-ChamuscadoexpeditionwasgraciouslywelcomedbytheTiwaatIsletaandleftadetaileddescriptionoftheirhosts:Themencuttheirhairshortandleaveontop…asort ofskullcapformedbytheirownhair.Othersweartheirhairlong,totheshoulders,astheIndiansofNewSpainformerlydid.Someadornthemselveswithpiecesofcoloredcottoncloth…withwhichtheycovertheirprivateparts.Overthistheywear,fastenedattheshoulders,ablanketofthesamematerial,paintedwithmanyfiguresandcolors…Belowthewaistthewomenwearcottonskirts,coloredandembroidered,andabove,ablanketofthesamematerial,paintedandworkedlikethoseusedbythemen.TheywearitafterthefashionofJewishwomen.Theygirdthemselvesoveritwithcottonsashesadornedwithtassels.Theycombtheirhair,whichislong.(GeorgeP.HammondandAgapitoRey,eds.,The Rediscovery of New Mexico, 1580–1594, 85.)

Oñate’smassiveexpeditionin1598frightenedtheIsletans.Fearingarepeatofeventsfromthe1540s,theyfledthesiteandavoidedcontactwiththecolonists.AfterNewMexicowasofficiallysettledFranciscanmissionariesbegantheirworkamongthepueblos.By1612JuandeSalasestablishedthemissionofSan Antonio de la Isleta,St.AnthonyoftheLittleIsland,namedforSt.AnthonyofPadua,athirteenth-centuryPortugueseFranciscan.Thenextyearamissionchurchwasbuiltandbythelate1620sitwasdescribedasoneofthefinestintheentireprovince.Twentyyearslaterrecordsshowthatthemissionhadaddedaconventwithachurchorgan,andthattheFranciscansweretendingto750natives.Agricultureflourishedonmissionlandsandthepueblo’sstrategicsite,aboundarybetweenPiroandTiwaterritoryandagatewaytotheRioAbajo,madeitanimportantsettlementalongtheCaminoReal.Inthe1670sTompiroIndians,

St. Augustine Church, Isleta Pueblo, NM, 1897, New Mexico Department of Tourism Collection. Courtesy New Mexico State Records Center & Archives, no. 2805.


thenextmorningandspenttwodaystryingtosecuretheareaaroundSandia,includinghisownhacienda,andtocommunicatewithGovernorOtermíninSantaFe.Havingreceivednowordfromtheprovincialcapital

andbecomingconcernedaboutmoreimpendingattackshecollectedhismenandreturnedtoIsleta.Bythentherefugeesgatheredatthepueblowereadesperatelot.Theyhadfledtheircommunitiesinthemidstofattacks,hadfewprovisions,andmanywereseparatedfromfriendsandfamily. OnAugust14Garcíacalledageneralmeetingofpoliticalandmilitaryofficials,includingthesevensurvivingmissionaries,andadecisionwasmadetoabandonIsletaPuebloandseeksafetyinthesouth.317Indians,mostlyIsletaTiwa,werejoinedbyPiroandTompirosalongthetrail,andmarchedsouthwiththeSpanish.NotalloftheTiwawentalong.Somescatteredasthefightingintensifiedandothersescaped.Afewremainedbehind,hidinginthevicinityofthepueblo.OthersflednorthtoSandiaPuebloandwestintotheHopilands.AfewdayslaterwhenGovernorOtermínarrivedatIsletawithhisSantaFerefugees,hefoundthepueblodeserted.HeandfivehundredsurvivorscontinuedsouthalongthetrailandeventuallymetupwiththeGarcíaparty.TogetherthetwothousandSpanishandIndianrefugeesofthePuebloRevoltcrossedtheJornadadelMuertoandarrivedinElPasodelNorteinmid-October.Theysettledintemporarycampsalongtheriver,belowthePass.TherefugeecampatthePass

was at a site called Santísimo Sacramento,theMostHolySacrament,southeastofpresent-dayYsleta,Texas.OnOctober12,1680,afterasmalltemporarychapelwasconstructed,aCatholicmasswascelebrated.

TheIndianswho went south withGarcíaearnedareputationas“friendly”Indians,loyaltotheCrownandtheChurch.WhyIsletadidnotparticipateintherevoltandwhysomanyTiwatraveledsouth with the Spanish,remainsunexplained.SomehistorianshavearguedthattheloyaltiesoftheIsletaTiwahadalwaysbeensuspect,andthat

Popéintentionallydidnotincludethemintherebellion.OthershavepointedoutthatwhentherevoltbeganSpanishsoldierswerealreadypresentatIsleta,deterringanyplannedorspontaneousattacks.SomehavearguedthattheTiwawereactingexpediently,followingtheSpanishbecausetheywerethelesseroftwoevilsinthemidstofthechaoticrevolt. GovernorOtermínattemptedtore-conquernorthernNewMexicothenextyear.OnNovember5,1681,heleftElPasodelNortewithanarmyof146soldiers,112Indianallies,missionariesandservants.Thetroopswerepoorlyequippedandill-preparedfortheventure.Manywerearmedwithonlydaggersandshields.TheysecuredafewsitesbutPueblorebelsheldfirmatmostoftheoldmissionsettlements.SomeIndians,mostlyTiwaandPiro,hadremainedbehindandre-occupiedIsleta.AtfirstsomeoftheTiwaresisted,butOtermínwassoonabletomoveinandestablishacampatthepueblo.Hefoundthechurchandconventdestroyedandburned.Crosseswerescatteredaroundthevillageandthechurchyardwasbeingusedasacowpen.IsletansblamedthedestructiononNorthernTiwaandTewaIndianswhohadraidedthesite.TensionsremainedhighbetweentheIsletansandtheSpanish.AfewhopedthattheSpanishmightoffersomeprotectionfromrivalnativesintheregion,but

Isleta Pueblo, side view of church, c. 1890. New Mexico Department of Tourism Collection.Courtesy New Mexico State Records Center & Archives, no. 2809.


otherswereanxiousabouttheirreturn.AsOtermín’smenventuredintosettlementsfurthernorththeyfacedintenseresistanceandgainedlittleground.ByJanuary1682thegovernor,suspectingthatanotherfull-scaleattackwasimminent,orderedaretreatsouth.WhentheSpanishfled,theyburnedIsletaPuebloandtook511captiveswiththem.Alongtheway,126escaped.TherestweretakendowntheCaminoRealandwereresettlednearElPasodelNorteatPueblo de Sacramento de la Ysleta, which becameknownasYsleta del Sur,SouthernIsleta.ItwillneverbeknownexactlyhowmanyTiwawereloyaltotheSpanish,howmanywereforciblybroughtsouth,orhowmanyweresimplytryingtoavoidbeingcaughtupinconflict.Theeventsofthe1680scontinuetogeneratecontroversytoday,occasionallyleadingtotensionsamongthePueblo,especiallybetweentheTiwapeopleofIsletaPuebloandtheTiguaofYsletadelSur. GovernorDiegodeVargasarrivedtenyearslaterandfoundIsletadesertedandmostoftheoldmissioninruins.Onlythewallsofthechurchnaveremainedintact.NewMexicowasre-conqueredandmanyoldsettlementswererebuilt,butitwasnotuntil1710thatFrayJuandelaPeñagatheredscatteredTiwafromsurroundingcommunitiesandre-establishedMisión San Agustín de la Isleta,St.AugustineoftheLittleIsland.St.Augustine,thefourth-centurybishopofHippo,servedasitspatronsaint.SomeoftheTiwawhofledwestaftertherevoltandhadsettledinHopicommunitiesreturnedtothepueblowithHopiwives.AfewotherHopicametoIsleta,butafterconflictswiththeTiwatheydesertedthepueblo.Thechurchwasrebuilt,makinguseofthecrumblingwallsnotedbydeVargas.Isletagrewslowlyandseveraleighteenth-centuryepidemicsdevastatedtheTiwapopulation.Spaniardsandmestizosmovedtothesiteduringtheeighteenthcenturyandbecameasizableportionofthepopulation,especiallyaftersmallpoxravagedPueblocommunitiesthroughouttheprovince. Bythe1760sIsletawasstableandbegantoprosper.FrayFranciscoAtanasioDomínguez,whoinventoriedthemissionsofNewMexicoin1776,describedthepuebloasacommunityof“threebeautifulblocksofdwellings”locatedinfrontofthechurchandconvent,withavery

largeplazatothesouth.Outsidetheplazawerenewerhouses,“veryprettilydesigned,”madeofadobe,butofSpanishratherthanPueblodesign.Heobservedextensiveagriculturearoundthevillage,includingfieldsofwheat,maize,greenvegetables,fruitorchardsandvineyards.Livestockgrazedthelandsalongtheriver.Domínguezcounted114familiesatIsleta,withatotalpopulationof454people.BythenthemissionchurchhadexpandedandoversawchapelsinthenearbyvillagesofBelén,Pararito,andSabinal.1 AgricultureandtradeflourishedintheearlynineteenthcenturyandIsletaprospered.TheCaminoRealpassedeastofthepueblo;mosttrailtravelerscampedintheopenareaalongthebanksandcrossedtherivertovisitthevillage.BytheMexicaneraanewbranchoftheCaminoalongthewestbankconnectedIsletawithLosLunasandLosLentes.TradealongtheChihuahuaTrailbroughtAnglo-AmericanstoIsletaPueblobythe1840s.In1846scientistFriedrichAdolphWislizenusdescribeditasa“smallvillage,withitschurch,greenfields,andclusterofcottonandorchardtrees,[which]

looksquitepicturesqueinthedesertaroundus.”2Bymid-centuryseveralTiwadevelopedsuccessfulcommercialventuresandduringtheCivilWarafewwealthyIsletansadvancedfundstotheUnionforcesastheysecuredtheNewMexicoTerritory.InthelatenineteenthcenturysomeKeresanIndiansfleeingfactionalconflictsinnearbyLagunaPueblomovedtoIsleta.TheyweregrantedlandaroundOraibiHillandahousefortheirceremonial

“Opening of the main acequia, Isleta Pueblo, New Mexico,” c. 1894, photograph by Charles F. Lummis. Courtesy of Braun Research Library, Institute for the Study of the American West, Autry National Center, P.8593, www.theautry.org.


activities.TheLagunasrevivedthekachinacultwhichhadbeenalmostlostinIsleta.Akachinachiefoversawtheceremoniesandguardedthesacredmasks.AnorganizationofLagunaFathers,whowereessentiallymedicinemen,appointedtheirowngovernorandwarchief,parallelingthedutiesoftheIsletans.ManyoftheLagunasleftafterafewyearsbutthosewhostayedcontinuedtheirrituals.TheLagunasalsobroughtapolychromestyleofpotterythatisstillcommoninthepueblo. TheAtchison,Topeka&SantaFeRailroadreachedIsletain1881.Therailroadcutthroughtriballands,disruptedtraditionalvillagelife,andshookthelocaleconomy.ButitalsomadethepuebloapopulardestinationforrailtravelersandvisitorstoAlbuquerque,justthirteenmilestothenorth.JohnGregoryBourke,aU.S.ArmycaptainwhotouredmanyofthepueblosoftheSouthwestandwroteprolificallyofhisimpressionsandexperiences,visitedIsletaPuebloinNovember1881.HefoundittohaveasignificantamountofHispanicandgrowingAnglo-Americaninfluence,comparingitmoreto

aplazasettlementthanthepuebloshehadseenfurthernorth.Henotedthatthehousesaroundtheplazawerenearlyallone-storyadobeswithdoorsopeningtothegroundandovensoftenpresent.OldcarretasandnewerAmerican-stylewagonswerefoundthroughoutthevillage.BourkevisitedsomeoftheTiwaintheirhomes

anddescribedthedwellingsas“neat,buthumble,roomslargeandwell-ventilated.”TheywerefurnishedwitholdbuffalorobesonthefloorandNavajoblanketsforbedding.Some,suchasthehomeofthepriest,hadpineplankflooring.Bourkewasservedalunchofhotcoffee,onionsscrambledwitheggs,excellentfreshbreadsandpeachturnovers.Amuttonstewwasservedforbreakfast.HewastoldthatthehousesinIsletawereownedbythewomenandthatchildrenbelongedtothemother’sclan.Bourkevisitedthechurchandcommentedontheorganheheard,oneofthefewhehadseeninNewMexico.Themusicwasstrangetohim;hedescribeditas“stridulousandstrained”but“weird,softandtender,nottobedescribed.”Hewasalsowelcomedintotheceremonialkivawhichhedescribedasacircular,plasteredstructureaboveground.Heavypinebeamssupportedanearthenroof,antelopehornswerehungalongthewallsandacentralfireplaceprovidedheatandlight. ThepueblogainedfurtherfamethroughthewritingsofCharlesF.Lummis,aneccentricnewspapermanwholivedinIsletainthe1880sandhadunprecedented

accesstosomeofthesacredsitesandceremoniesofthepueblo.LummisbecameoneoftheearlyadvocatesofNativeAmericanrights,oftencitinghisexperiencesatIsletaPueblo.PioneeranthropologistAdolphBandelieralsowasafrequentvisitorandrecordedmanyancienttribalpractices.Photographerscarefullydocumentedandproducedrenderingsofthepeopleandvillage.GeorgeBenjaminWittick,EdwardCurtis[see front cover—eds.],andA.C.Vromancreatedsomeofthebest-knownimagesof19th-centurylifeinIsleta.Interestfromtheoutsideworldbroughtnewopportunitiestothepueblo.Traditionalcrafts

wererevivedandtherailroadprovidedasteadystreamofvisitorsinthetwentiethcentury. Today,theinnercoreoftheIsletasettlementremainsmuchasitwasincenturiespastand,asawell-preservedNative-Americanvillage,itwasaddedtotheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesin1975.The

Church at Isleta Pueblo, n.d., New Mexico Department of Tourism Collection. Courtesy New Mexico State Records Center & Archives, no. 2771.


pueblo’scenterpieceistheSt.AugustineChurchwhichfacesthelargecentralplazaandmaybetheoldestcontinuouslyusedchurchintheUnitedStates.WhenIsletawasre-settledintheearlyyearsoftheeighteenthcentury,survivingsegmentsoftheoriginal1613wallswereincorporatedintothenewstructure.Duringtheeighteenthcenturyrepairsandimprovementsweremadetothechurch,andatwo-storyconventowithanarchedporticowasaddedandalargeplazaareainfront.Bythe1770sthesettlementhadlostsomeofitsNative-AmericanappearanceasindividualSpanish-styledwellingswerebuiltaroundtheplazaarea.Majorchurchrenovationswerecarriedoutafterthe1880s,asterritorialand,later,GothicandAnglo-Americanfeatureswereintegratedintothestructure.Thefacadewasre-plasteredandtwowooden towers were added at the east and west end ofthechurch.Boardscoveredthebarewoodenfloorsandnewiconsandfixtureswereplacedthroughouttheinterior.Bythe1920satinroofandprominentGothicturretswereadded,makingthechurchaneclecticmixtureofdesignsandstyles.After1959thechurchwasrestoredtoamorecohesive,traditionaladobestyleasmanyoftheGothicexteriorfeatures,suchasthepitchedroof,woodensteeples,crossesandspires,wereremoved.Cementplasterwasappliedtotheexteriorwallsandbelfries.Theclutteredinteriorwascleanedandsimplifiedandpewswereinstalled.Naturallightilluminatedthechurchaltaronceagainthroughtheancientclerestory,makingthe“lightqualityatIsletaoneofthemostbeautifulandeffectiveofallthemissionchurches.”ButmanyIsletansobjectedtotherenovationsmade.TheTiwaarguedthattheirceremonialdancesweretotakeplaceonthebarrenearth,notonthelargeconcreteslabthattheAngloshadpoured.OtherdisagreementsaboutthechurchanditsdisregardforNative-AmericantraditionseventuallyculminatedintheclosingofSt.Augustinebythearchbishop.Itwasnotuntilthemid-1970sthatIsletawasonceagainrecognizedasaparish,aresidentpriestwasassigned,andcompromiseswerereachedaboutthedesignandstyleofthechurch. ForcenturiesacoffinburiedinthemissionchurchwassaidtocontaintheremainsofFatherJuandePadilla,thefirstChristianmartyroftheSouthwest,whocametoNewMexicowiththe1540Coronadoexpedition.PadillaventuredintotheGreatPlainstoworkatthelegendarycityofQuiviraandlosthislifewhiletryingtoconverttheIndianpopulationsofthenorth.ThestoryistoldthatPadilla’sbodywasbroughttoIsletaaftertheoriginal1612churchhadbeenconstructedandwasinternedinthechurchnave,acommonpracticeincolonialNewMexico.

FatherPadilla’scoffinwassaidtorisetothesurfaceeveryfewyearsallowingbelieversaglimpseofthemartyredfatherandachancetohavecontactwiththeentombedbody.InthenineteenthcenturymanypeopleintheIsletaareaclaimedtohavesmallpiecesoftheoldpadre’sclothingwhichwerethoughttohavemiraculoushealingpowers.In1959thewoodencoffinandmummifiedbodywereexhumedduringtheremodelingandexaminedbyapathologist.Thebodywasdeterminedtobethatofamuchlaterpriest,FrayJuanJoséPadilla,whowasburiedinthesanctuaryinthemid-eighteenthcentury,twohundredyearsaftertheCoronadoexpedition.Itwasplacedonceagaininthelogcoffinandthistimeburiedbeneathaconcretefloor,unabletorisethesurfaceagain. Todaythestructuresintheimmediateareaofthechurcharetheheartoftheoldseventeenthcenturyvillage.Spreadingeast,west,andsouthoftheplazaarelaterresidencesdatingfromthelastthreecenturies.Mostreflectthesimpleone-story,adobestylelineardwellingsthatwerecommoninpueblovillages. Isleta’sgreatkivaistypicalofRioGrandekivas.Thesingle,roundstructuresouthofthemainplazasymbolizestheworld.Itisenteredfromthetopthroughaladder.Insidethekivatheroofrepresentstheskyandissupportedbyfourlargewoodenpillarswhichareperiodicallypurifiedbymedicinemen.Justbelowtheladderentranceisafireplacewheretheflamesarelitwithacedarbarktorchfromthechief’shouseandshrubsfromthewesternhillsofthepuebloareburned.Hornsofdeerandbuffalohangonthesurroundingwall.Outsidestepsleadingtotherooftoparelocatedonthesouthside.Secularmeetingsarenotpermittedinthekiva,whichisreservedforritualsandceremonialdances. TodayalmostfivethousandIsletansliveonmorethan200,000acresofreservationlandaroundtheoldpueblo.IsletaPueblohasmaintainedmanyofitscultural,spiritual,andsocialtraditions,includingtribalandsocialdivisionscommontomanyoftheRioGrandepueblos.IsletaTiwahavebothpatrilinealandmatrilinealtraditions,butmenhavecustomarilyheldmorepowerandprestigeinthepueblo.Asidefromthefamily,childrenareplacedinCorngroups,socialandceremonialassociationsthatguardandpromoteritualsandtraditionsinthepueblo.Childrenarealsomembersofmoietiesandarealternatelyplacedinthefatherormother’smoiety.Asamemberofamoiety,eachisresponsibleforparticipatinginandpreservingtribalrituals,especiallyanannualdance.Twomedicinesocietiesalsoservethepueblo. Bytheearlytwentiethcenturybuffalohunting,plant


andherbalforaging,andmineralprospectingdeclined,butagriculturecontinuedandthepuebloproducedcorn,beans,andsquashes.RailroadsandhighwayscreatedstrongtiestotheAlbuquerqueeconomy.Majorregionalroads,whichstillparalleltheoldCaminoRealdeTierraAdentro,andamoderninterstatesystemhaveprovidedasteadyflowofvisitors.Bythe1970sIsletahadamixedeconomyoftourism,agriculture,andlightmanufacturing.Manyresidentsworkedinmilitary,commercial,andgovernmentoperationsintheAlbuquerquearea.Bythe1990sIsletaexpandedwiththedevelopmentofrecreationalandentertainmentfacilities.Today,thepueblorunsprofitablecommercialandentertainmententerprisesthatattractthousandsofvisitorsfromaroundtheworld.Fewpeopleventureintotheoldhistoricvillagecenter,butmanyenjoythetribe’scasinoandresort,lakes,fishingarea,andgolfcourse.NewMexico’sRailRunnerExpressstation,locatedonNM47,keepsIsletawellconnectedwithcommunitiesalongtheoldCaminoReal. IsletaPueblowelcomesvisitorsandremainsapopulartouristdestination,especiallyinthesummermonths.Tiwaisstillspokenthroughoutthereservation,althoughEnglishisthemostcommonlyusedlanguage.Inthemid-twentiethcenturytherewasarevivalofpottery,turquoise,silver,andgemstonetraditions.Todayartisansfromthepuebloproduceavarietyoffinevesselsandjewelryavailableinshopsaroundthepuebloandinareagalleries.EarlyceramictraditionsmayhavecontinuedintothenineteenthcenturybutmuchoftheredandgreypotterystyleavailabletodayisinfluencedbytheLagunamigration.Tiwabreadsalsoareapopularproduct. Visitorscantourthehistoricvillageandchurchandwitnessseveraltraditionalceremoniesaslongastheyrespectthepueblo’smodestrestrictions.Thepueblomaintainsayearlycycleofceremoniesandcelebrations.ThemainonetakesplaceonAugust28,thefeastdayofSt.Augustine.AharvestfestivalfollowsintheearlydaysofSeptember.Duringthecelebrationstraditionaldancesareperformedinthemainplaza.

ENDNOTES1 AdamsandChavez,Missions of New Mexico, 206.2 Wislizenus,Memoir of a Tour, 26.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adams,EleanorB.andFrayAngélicoChávez,eds.The Missions of New Mexico, 1776.Albuquerque,NM:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,1956.

Bloom,LansingB.,ed.“BourkeontheSouthwest,XIII.”New Mexico Historical ReviewXIII(Apr.1938),192-238.

--------.“BourkeontheSouthwest,X.”New Mexico Historical ReviewXI(July1936),245-282.

Ellis,FlorenceHawley.“IsletaPueblo”inWilliamC.Sturtevant,gen.ed.Handbook of North American Indians,Vol.9.Washington,DC:SmithsonianInstitution,1979.

Hammond,GeorgeP.andAgapitoRey,eds.The Rediscovery of New Mexico, 1580-1594: The Explorations of Chamuscado, Espejo, Castaño de Sosa, Morlete, Leyva de Bonilla and Humana. Albuquerque,NM:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,1966.

Julyan,Robert.The Place Names of New Mexico.Albuquerque,NM:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,1996,1998.

Kessell,JohnL.The Missions of New Mexico Since 1776.Albuquerque,NM:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,1980.

Montoya,JoeL.Isleta Pueblo and the Church of St. Augustine.IsletaPueblo,NM:St.AugustineChurch,1978.

Moorhead,MaxL.New Mexico’s Royal Road: Trade and Travel on the Chihuahua Trail.Norman,OK:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1958.

Prince,L.Bradford.Spanish Mission Churches of New Mexico.CedarRapids,IA:TorchPress,1915.

Riley,CarrollL.Rio del Norte: People of the Upper Rio Grande from Earliest Times to the Pueblo Revolt.SaltLakeCity,UT:UniversityofUtahPress,1995.

Treib,Marc.Sanctuaries of Spanish New Mexico.Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1993.

Weber,DavidJ,ed.What Caused the Pueblo Revolt of 1680? Boston,MA:Bedford/St.Martin’sPress,1999.

Wislizenus,FrederickAdolph.Memoir of a Tour to Northern Mexico connected with Colonel Doniphan’s Expedition in 1846 and 1847. Washington,DC:TippinandStreeper,1848.

GEORGE D. TOROK is a native of Buffalo, New York, and completed his Ph.D in history at the State University of New York at Buffalo in 1991. He has been a history professor at El Paso Community College since 1994. He served as CARTA’s first president in 2003 and as a board member until 2009. His primary focus has been bringing regional history to the public. Dr. Torok has published numerous scholarly articles, a history and guide to Kentucky coal mining towns, and is currently completing a manuscript on El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro National Historic Trail.


“Women carrying baskets along railroad tracks near Isleta Pueblo, New Mexico,” photograph by George Wharton James (?), late 1800s to early 1900s. Courtesy George Wharton James Collection, Braun Research Library, Institute for the Study of the American West, Autry National Center, P.8488, www.theautry.org.


Dr. Rowland Willard’s diary is one of the earliest primary sources documenting travel and daily life along the Santa Fe and El Camino Real trails. For this reason the National Park Service, Long Distance Trails and CARTA funded a Challenge-Cost-Share grant to transcribe, edit and annotate this American physician’s journal, which the Yale Collection of Western Americana at the Beinecke Library obtained in 2005. We are grateful to Board member Joy Poole for making this important contribution to the Chronicles. Joy Poole’s success in making Dr. Willard’s observations accessible nearly two hundred years later is praised by historian David J. Weber in a letter to Joy: “What a job you did of annotating this. And I know from trying to decipher it at the Beinecke how very difficult the job of transcribing it must have been. This is an enormously impressive piece of work. My hearty congratulations…This is going to be very valuable for people tracing the comings and goings of various Americans in

this period as well as for those interested in medicine. Sure is a lot of bleeding going on!” The following excerpt from Dr. Willard’s diary begins with his arrival in Taos in July 1825, and concludes with his departure from Santa Fe that fall. In the next issue of the Chronicles, Dr. Willard continues his journey south along the Camino to the city of Chihuahua.

EDITORSTranscribedbyJoyPoole.AnnotatedbyJoyPooleandBenBrownwithadditionalassistancefromFrankNorrisoftheNationalParkService.MapdesignedbyBrookeSafford,OutdoorRecreationPlanner/GISSpecialist,NationalParkService.

POCKETDIARY—5 in. (14.5 cm) H by 3 ½ in. (9 cm) W Paper over wood slat, partial back cover – leather binding.

THE DIARY OF DR. ROWLAND WILLARD (1794–1884), Part ITranscribedbyJoyPoole

Pages from Dr. Willard’s diary (actual size)


EDITORIALREMARKSWheneditingthishistoricaldocumentwemadenumerouseditorialdecisionsregardingthese19th-centurydiarypassagestoassistthemodern-dayreader.Dr.Willard’spenmanshipwasquitesmall.Invariousinstancesitwasdifficulttodistinguishbetweenthelettersa and o, or n and rforexample.Whenwordscontaineddoubleletters,theacceptablestyleatthattimewastoinsertacapitalletter,forexampleF, M or Sinplaceofff, mm or ss.Wehavespelledoutthesewordswiththedoublelettersinlowercase.Willard’sspellingofEnglishwordswasusuallydecipherable,butpropernamescouldbespelledanynumberofways,andSpanishwordswereoftenspelledphonetically.Inmanyoftheseinstances,wehaveplacedthewordinsquarebracketsafterWillard’sword.ThedifficultywithpropernamescentersonthenumerousspellingsofagivennameinEnglish.Forexample,onJuly10thandsubsequently,itisimpossibletodeterminewhetherStephen’ssurnamewasMajors,MarrsorMarch.TheconfusionoverpropernamesisfurthercompoundedbyDr.Willard’sspellingofSpanishnamessuchasBisenteforVicente.AdditionalcomplicationsresultifSpanishnameswereusedinlieuofEnglish,likeJorgeversusGeorge.IntheearlySpanishdocuments,theSpanishrecordingsoftheEnglishnamesweresometimesliteral,aswithFuerteBrazoforArmstrong.Dr.Willardstruckoutsomeentrieswithasingleline.Wherepossiblewehavedecipheredthesestrike-outsandleftthemintact.Whenendingathought,ormorelikelyforemphasis,Dr.Willardoftenwroteadashoranunderline.Therearenumerousabbreviationsusingasuperscript.SomeexamplesincludeColforColonelorSptsforSpirits.Theseabbreviationshavebeenspelledoutwithinsquarebrackets.PunctuationwasoftenlackinginDr.Willard’sdiary,sowehaveinsertedpunctuationwhennecessarytoimprovetheintelligibilityofthediary.Wehavediscardedtheoriginalformatoftheentriesinfavorofachronicleorganizedbythedaysand/ordates.WhenDr.Willardwastraveling,therewereinstanceswhenhelosttrackofthedayand/ordate.Inafewcaseshewrotetwoentriesonthesameday.Wehaveenclosedtheactualdatesordaysoftheweekinsquarebrackets.Finally,therearepassagesthatareindecipherable,andwehavemarkedthemaccordingly.Despitetheseidiosyncracies,Dr.WillardleftavaluableaccountoftravelalongtheSantaFeandElCaminoRealtrails,amerefouryearsafterMexicanindependenceopenedNewMexicotointernationaltrade.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSCourtesyoftheRowlandWillard–ElizabethS.WillardPapers,YaleCollectionofWesternAmericana,BeineckeRareBookandManuscriptLibrary,andChallenge-Cost-ShareProjectfundsfromtheNationalParkService,IntermountainRegionthroughElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentroTrailAssociation(CARTA).Thefollowinghistoriansgraciouslycontributedtothehistoricalaccuracyofthisdiarytranscription.JohnBloomofLasCruces,NM,DavidClapsaddleofLarned,KS,ClintChambers,M.D.ofLubbockTX,MikeDickeyofArrowRock,MO,HarryMyersofSantaFe,NM,MarcSimmonsofCerrillos,NM,RichardSalazarofSantaFe,NM,LuisUríasHermosilloofChihuahua,MXandDavidWeberofDallas,TX.

BIOGRAPHYDr.RowlandWillardwasborninWestfield,NewYork,onAugust4,1794,anddiedinHaddonfield,NewJersey,onMarch10,1884.HetraveledtheOhioRiversystemduringhisyouth.Hestudiedcarpentryandmusic,andin1817movedtoSt.Charles,Missouri,wherehestudiedmedicineforthenexteightyears.HewasafoundingmemberandofficeroftheSt.CharlesMissouriFreemasonsGrandLodge#3(laterrenamedHiramLodge#3)between1819and1822.Asnotedinhisdiary,heleftSt.Charlesin1825,andtraveledtoTaos,NewMexico,alongtheSantaFeTrail.FromTaoshetraveledsouthalongtheCaminoReal(ChihuahuaTrail),administeringmedicaladviceinIndianpueblosandestablishingasuccessfulmedicalpracticeinChihuahua,Mexico.Threeyearslater,hereturnedtotheUnitedStatesviaMatamorosandNewOrleans.WillardattendedJeffersonMedicalCollegeinPhiladelphiafrom1828to1829,afterwhichhemovedtoCincinnatitopurchaselandforinvestment.Healsoestablishedamedicalpracticethere,whichgrewtoincludeawholesaledrugstore.In1829TimothyFlintpublishedabriefaccountofWillard’stravelsinthe Western Monthly Review.TheaccountwaslaterreprintedasanappendixtoJamesOhioPattie’sPersonal Narrative in1831.WillardmarriedElizabethS.Borland(b.1814)inCincinnati,Ohio,onJune27,1832.AftertheirconversiontotheBaptistfaithayearlater,thecouplemovedtoCovington,Kentucky,whereDr.WillardhelpedtoestablishtheWesternTheologicalInstitute.TheythenmovedtoOswego,Indiana.Threesonssurvivedchildhood;Dr.LymanL.,Dr.NelsonL.andRowlandJr.,Ph.D.TheWillardsretiredtoHaddonfield,NewJersey,in1867,whereDr.Willarddiedseventeenyearslater.


SeveralFangdangoes4inafternoon&evening.Mannersextremelyrudeanduncouth_Ladiestawneyandvoidofbeautyormodesty.CommencedgivingMr.Carrel5 medicinetoday.Monday 4th.ThisisananniversaryeverdeartoanAmerican Am determined to commemorate it in some way–Persuadethecompanytogothrough&onfiringevolutions.IalsopreparedaflagonwhichIplacedthisresemblanceoftheAmericanEagletoshowtothenativesournationalprideandglory.SeveralFandangoes allnightOurfireingbrotmanycitizenstowitnessthenovelsceneafterthemilitaryevolutionswerethroughaprocessionofCitizens&AmericanswasformedwithmusicattheheadandmarchedtoeverypartofthetownunderloudexclamationsofVivaLaRepublica Therecreationofthedaywascladed6bytwocrowdedFangdangoes,whereeveryAmericanwasinvited.ThiswassomewhatmovedtotheAmericans to see the singularityofdressmannersandstileandmanoeuvresinconductingthedance.ThePriest7, Alcaldeandfirstcaractersoftheplacewerepresent8

Tuesday 5th Imploy most of this dayin reading and writing and feel muchrelieved from the fatigue of the journey.Ate some chile in the evening whichmade me quite ill for a few hours.Wednesday 6th.Bled9Mr.Storrs10&aFrenchman,gavemedicinetoanother.alsoobtainacaseofmercurialspentmostofthedayintown.Thursday 7thCustomHouseOfficer arrivestoday.Thecompanymuch

agitatedconsequenttohighduties.HehoweverseemsdisposedtofavortheAmericansasmuchaspossibleandevadethelaw.Therequisitionsofthelawisthatallgoodshall be rated at the Chihuahuapricestowhichtheyadd25percentandafterwardschargeonthataggragate15percent.Thereweremanyarticlesofgoodsfoundtobecontraband.whichthecustomhouseofficersenttoSt.Fee[SantaFe].Paid the old alcaldefor3mealsofvitualsandconsideredwhichman&CoflingFriday 8thSentforthisforenoontopaydutieson

Friday 1st Julyencampedlastnighthalfwayupthemountainsfinegrasswood&water.Heavyshowers last nightStartedlastmorningat6passedseveralsnowbanksthisday.roadexceedinglysteepandrocky.traveledthisday25miles.encampedin12mileofTauSe[Taos]Theatmosphereonthemountainsfeelslikethemonthofmarch.Strawberriesandothervegetationinablossom.Everythingexhibitstheopeningofspring.Saturday 2dmorningfinegardlastnight.Everymanbuisythismorninginshiftingclothesandwashingoffsomeofthegreasewhichhasbecomealmostindelible.Startedthismorningat6.Meet10oradozenSpaniards 3milesfromtownwhocametomeetustopreventoursmuglingorhidinggoodsinthemountainsAllgoodsweretakenintocustodyexceptmyown,whichIwaspermittedtotake.andwasconductedtothehouseoftheAlkalde1whereImeetwithafriendlyreception.butonbeinginformedthatmyeffectswerenotaltogethersafeathishandhehavingstoodinthePilloryforthecrimeofStealinglefthishousethenextdaywhichisalwaysconsidered an insult (to)bySpaniards.

Sunday 3d July2Commencedbourding[boarding]withPabloLuceero3at12$permonthatwhichplaceIfeelperfectlysafithavingthenameofthebesthouseintown.Had2callsformedicalaid.Sunday 3d.Appearstobebutlittleregardtoreligionhere.Theyhaveamudchurchofconsiderablemagnitude.ashortservicetoday.ThePriestemployedmostofthedayindoingbusinessforthecompany.

Close-up of Sunday, 3rd July entry.

Dr. Rowland Willard’s Diary[July 1, 1825-September 29, 1825]


medicines.WenttoseetheCHOfficer and learn the law Heagreedtogotomybourdinghouseamiledistantandexaminethemandsavemethetroubleofbringingthemin.accordingtotheorderoftheAlcade.Saturday 9thnothingofimportancethisday.GaveLCaryadashofpillsyesterday&bleedMigelSaxanago[Santiago?]Sunday 10thBleedStephenMajorS11[marrs?]andgavehim medicineforthefeveralsobledmylandlordandgavehisladypills.ThiseveningMondayBeheal[Vigil]theCHOfficercametoseemymedicine but could not understandthemgotmetodrawofftheinvoiceandcalculatetheamountofduties(amt6.50)andonfindingtheamtsosmallrefusedtakinganythingsignifyingthathewouldpayithimself.Monday 11th.Attendtomypatientsintown1or2eachaday.therestofthetimeimployinreading.Tuesday 12thGaveStephenMarch SundrymedicinestotakewithhimtoSt.Fee.Wednesday 13thNothingofimportancetodaySaveanopperationwiththeCatheter on an Indian who laboured under Ischuria12theopperationsomewhatdifficultbutsucceededindrawinghiswaterThursday 14th.WasvisitedagainbymyIndianpatientwhowasagainobligedtosubmittoanotheropperationwith the Cathuter,alsobledanoldLadyandgavemedicineforsoreeyes.Manywantingmedicinebutnomoneytopayforit.Friday 15thCommencedgivingmedicinetoPreno[Preino]foratwelveyearsvenerialagres[agree]tocurehimfor35dollarsSaturday 16thBleed2Frenchman Vausau and Victor and attendtomyotherpatientsintown.Sunday 17thwalkedtotowninthemorning.Spentmostofthedayinreading.CalledonatnighttovisitMr.PBallio13underfever.Stayedallnight.Monday 18th.receivedamessagefromthepriest at the St.Cruise[SantaCruz]wishingmetocomeandseehisladylabouringunderconsumption.StartedintheafternooncalledonMr.Balliogavehimadoseofphysic andextractedthefirstbonefromaladies[indecipherableword]CalledagainattheyoungPriestgavemedicine to twopatientsPutupatLaurenoCordivo[Cordiva]BleedhimandLadywelltreated.attendedaFangdango in the evening.

Tuesday 19thVisitedanoldLadythismorningandStartforSantaCruse.reachedthePriestsat½past9.distance50milesandraggedmountainstocross.Feltextremelyunwellintheeveningfromsourstomach.Wednesday 20th.Priestabsentlastnightreturnedthismorning.Sawhiswomanwhoisunabletospeakloudandmuchafflictedwithabadcough.andfromahistoryofthecasewaslabouringunderthePhthisisPulmonalis14 gavhermedicineThursday 21stpatientsomebettermakepreparationstoreturnbutunabletofindthehorseandconcludetostayuntilmorning.Friday 22dStartedforTaus[Taos]alittleaftersunris.

Called at an Indianvillagetoseethepriestwhowasnotupbutwastreatedwithaplateofbreadandatankardofwine.Calledagaininanotherlittletownatthealkadehousegavehimphysic,pressedmetostayallday-wascalledfromtheretoseeaneighboringwomanlabouringunderRheumatism.Bleedandgaveherphysic.MadeseveralothercallsonthewayarrivedatCordivosalittleaftertenock.Muchfatiguedandquiteunwell.retired

withoursupper.Saturday 23dArrivedthismorningbeforebreakfastatmybourdinghouse.SawallmypatientswhichIfounddoingwellhadanattactofcollicintheevening,butsoongotreliefSunday 24thremainedathomethisdayandattendedclasstomyBooks.LetMr.Chambers15havephysicforIndian.Monday 25BleedaSpaniardforMr.Preino.ThisisananniversaryofSt.JameswiththeSpanishwhospentthedayinrecreations.Tuesday 26thStartthismorningtovisitsomeofthelittlevillagesbelow.receivedapoliteinvitationtoattendaFandangothiseve.Mr.Anderson returned home with meandpersuadesmetogobackwithhimagain,andstartinthemorningwithhimtovisitawarmSpring3milesdistantfromhislodgings.AgreetogoCalledattheFangdangoinfewminutespersuadedmetodance.Wednesday 27th.Startedthismorningafterbreakfast tovisitthespring,whichwefoundworthy[of]ourattention.Thewater is a little more than blood warm and ofaslightbrackishtastThesewatersaresaidtohavecuredseveralcasesofrheumatism&someotherdiseases.Mr.Walshlefttodaygavehimmedicinestotakewith

Meet 10 or a dozen Spaniards 3 miles

from town [Taos] who came to meet us to prevent our smuggling or hiding goods in the mountains.


“Sites visited by Dr.Rowland Willard Along El Camino Real de Tierra Adento in 1825.” Map designed by Brooke Safford, National Park Service.


him.leftmedicineforthealkades[alcalde]wife.Thursday 28thNothingofimportancetranspirestoday.SavethePatch16[Apache]nationofIndianshaveretreatedtothissettlementforsafetyfromtheNavihos.Lucero takesmyhorses.Friday 29th.Mypatientsmostlyoffmyhands.dulltimesandnomoneyreceivedaletteryesterdayfromCapt.MorrisatSantaFewiththecomplimentsoftheGov.andthe PriestattheSt.Cruis[SantaCruz]wishingmetovisitthem.Mr.Rubedois17[Robidoux]companystartedonWednesdaylastforMissouribeingabsent,neglectedtowritebythem.SentforthiseveningtovisitSr.Lucero labouringunderplurisy18[pleurisy]atthesametimevisitedtheAlcadeLady.Saturday 30th.visitedmypatientsasyesterday.Mr.Baillioshuntershavereturnedafter90milestravelforfearofIndiandepredations.havingbeenfollowedbythemseveraldays.Theystartagaintodayadifferentcourse.Thiscompanywasrobbedof17horsesthefirsteveningaftertheystarted.butsentbackandgotmore.TheyaredeterminedhowevertoperseverebutareobligedtogitlicensesfortrappingwithinthisTerritory.FeltindisposedthiseveningfromcolicpainsconsequenttoeatingS[our].Cheese.Sunday 31st.healthverygoodthismorningthoughwasquiteilluntillaftermidnight.weatherquitesultryandtheearthverymuchparchedtherehavingbeennorain (saveafewsprinklestwice)formorethanamonth.Wenttotownintheafternoonwascalledtotwoplaces,onetoawomanwhowastakensheachiefsandremainedso24hoursbeforeIsawher.wasalmostastonishedonenteringthehousetofinditthrongedwithmen,women&childreninsomuchthatIwasunabletoapproachher.Shewasheldbyherhusbandandsuffecatingforbreath.Thiswasasceneofsuperstition.theyhadgotasmallbellwhichtheyrangconstantlytogatherwithincesantprayers.Itoldmyinterpreter to order this house clearedofthethrongandtogiveherair.believeinghertobesomewhatspasanabicIimmediatelybledher.Myinterpreterinformedmethatinquirywasmadeif

therewerenowominpresentunderher counselastheywillnotsufferawomanofthatdiscriptiontoremaininserviceinpresenceofthesick.Theyarealsoparticularinthechoiceofabandagefortheareawhichbled.cautiouslyavoiding(thelowerportionofwomen’sshirt)certainthingsBeforeIleftanIndianChiefcalledonmelabouringunderthedropsy19tookhimhomewithmeandgavehimmedicine.PulledatoothforanotherIndian whenIreturned.Monday 1st Augt.Anothermonthhadpassedawayandfrom170$practicehavereceivedbut26dollarsthoughthemajorityofchargesaregood.VisitmypatientsintownfoundthembettermySpeechlesspatientabletotalkfluently.Wassentforthisafternoontoamanwhohadfallenfromhishorseandatthesametimerecievedakickinthebreast.Bledhim&c__WasinformedintheeveningbymyLandlordwhoreturnedfromtheprairie

thatmyhorseshadlefthisgangandgonetosome Americanherd.Tuesday 2d.Sentaboyformyhorsesthismorningwhoreturned with then intheevening.WasvisitedbyamanfromSt.Cruise50milesdistantlabouringunderaprotractedcaseofthestrictureorgravel.20tookconsiderablepainstolearnhiscomplaintandoninquireyfoundhehad

nothingtopayaccordinglydismissedhim.Wasattackedinthenightwithaviolentearachewhichlasted5-6hoursand[then]leftme.Wednesday 3dBleed2menintowngaveoneanEmetic21 totaketomorrowmorningaconsiderableshowerfelyesterdayforthiscountrythoughbutbarelylaidthedustThursday 4thcalledontovisitapatientintownbeforebreakfastfoundhimseverelyexercisedwithmedicine, butdoingwell.VisitedMr.Rennison224milesbelowfoundhimconvelasent.Madeapropositiontotakemymare to Missouri.KeepherandtobreedandgivemethemareandhalfthecoltswhenIreturnorsendforthem.Iagreetohisproposition.Friday 5thSpendthisdayinreadingalightshowertodaySaturday 6thnothingofconsequencetranspirestodayremainathomeitbeingapleasantretreat.

“Pueblo of Taos, New Mexico.” Postcard, H-3539, c. 1930, Detroit Publishing Co., distributed by Fred Harvey. Courtesy Museum of the American West, Autry National Center, 89.119.42, www.theautry.org.


Sunday 7thafewshowertodaywhichisveryunusualinthiscountryatthistimeofyearrodetotownwhereIfounditincompleteconfusionitbeingmadeadayofSportthenwasdancingmakingeverlasteingwho[o]pingandholloringasisthepracticeofthiscountry.Monday 8thCalledonearlythismorningbytheAlcade tovisithislady.Diddo.Attendedafangdango in the eveningfromspecialinvitations.Littlesatisfactiontoberealizedamongstthem.Tuesday 9thMr.Rennisoncametostaywithmeawhilebeingindelicatehealth.Wednesday 10th Visited the IndianChiefoftheTause [Taos]tribefindhimveryillofthedropsy.expressedabundantgratitudeformycomplimentbysettingmethebestthathishousecouldaffordconsistingofsoup.meat,flourbread,corncakes.raspberries,andblackcurrands.&c.andpressedmetotakewithmewhenIleft.Thursday 11thnothingtranspirestodayofimportancerodetothedistillery23forSpts [spirits]ofwine.Friday 12thvisitedSevercuesthismorningfoundtheoldLadybetter.CalledatSr.Lanarsopenedhisservt.Girls&orderedasabre[Previoussentencesillegible.]madeafternoonvisitedthePueblovilliagecalledonmyIndianpatientfoundhimill.gladtoseeme.meandmycompanyconcludetovisittheCathc[Catholic]priestwhowefoundinfinehumour.hadmuchconversationondifferentsubjectssuchasgeography,politicks,&c.urgedustostayallnight&wouldnottakenoforanansweruntilIarguedthenecessityofvisitingapatientthateveningwhenheconsented.Saturday 13thwenttotownthismorningfoundseveralofmyMissourifriendswrote2lettersintheafternoontomyfriendsinMissouri.Sunday 14thSentforearlythismorningtovisitamanattheRanch[osdeTaos]whohasaPolypus24 in the node andaPolypusorfungusexcreciance25[excrescence]intheeyeandofanenourmoussize.hebegsmetoexcisetheexcreciense[excrescence]feelingwillingtorun

allriskstrustinginhisGod.Agreetovisithimagain.gavemedicinetoayoungLadyforslightspasmsinthestomachandreturnedhome.wascalledonintheeveningtovisitamanafflectedwithphynmosis[unknownillness]unabletopayme,bleedandgivehimmedicine.Monday 15SentfortovisityoungCordivounderfever andalancearmfromBledingStaidallnightbetterinthemorning.Tuesday 16returnedfromSr.CordivosthismorningonfootafternoonvisitedmypatientsattheRanchwithMr.BailliocausebyCardivoshouseOnmyreturnfoundthefamilyConsiderablyagitatedfromanearencampmentofIndiansWednesday 17thvisitedawomanintownlabouringunderthePlurisy[Pleurisy]alsovisitedmypatientwithalamearm.andfoundtheyhadneglectedhimarmhighly

inflamedandsomefever.gavehimadoseofSalts26 returnedhome.Thursday 18thShowersonthemountainsforseveraldayspasttheairfeelslikethefalloftheyear.visitedCordivotoday.Friday 19thvisitedCordivo foundhimmuchbettertheinflamationhavingconsiderablyabated.Saturday 20thvisitedCordivo attended a FangdangointheeveningatSr.Lanarsretiredearly.the manners and costomes seemtoinprovealittle,Sunday 21st.visitedmy

sickpatientattheRanch27andperformedanopperationonhiseyebyextractingthesame.Thiswasapainfultask,theeyebeingobliteratedinagreatmeasureandthesocketfilledwithamorbidexrecenseformingaveryconsiderableprotuberculeandfirmlybasedupontheboneinandaboutthesocket.Lefthimconsiderablyexhausted.feltsomethingindisposedfromaslightfever aftermysevenhours.Monday 22dvisitedmypatientattheRanch.Foundhimquitecomfortable.heavyshowersinafternoonwithconsiderable hail.Tuesday 23?28visitedmypatientattheRanch.Wednesday 24thvisitedCordivo[Cordiva]&mymanattheRanch,gotcaughtinaheavyshower.Thursday 25visitedtheRanchintheafternoonthe

Visited the Indian Chief of the Tause [Taos] tribe

find him very ill of the dropsy. expressed abundant gratitude for my compliment by setting me the best that his house could afford consisting of soup. meat, flour bread, corn cakes. raspberries, and black currands. &c. and pressed me to take with me when I left.


Americansbegintocollectinordertoorganizedfortheirdeparture.Friday 26thvisitedCordivobytheranch–findhimnearlywell.Saturday 27visitedtheRanchbyCordivo in companywithaninterpreter.Soldmynecklacefora[indecipherableword].Gaveafangdangointheevening.Monday 29visitedtheRanchfoundCapt.Means29&some other Americans.Tuesday 30thPurchasedcloathesofClapton.AttendedaFangdangointheeveningatMr.Beards.Wednesday 31stVisitedtheRanchbyCordivos.MyfriendsadvisemetoremaininthispartofthecountryayearlongereforeIgobelowinordertogitthelanguageandhavingseenaletterfromaSonoranstatingthescarcityofmedicine conclude tostayonanotheryearin order to obtain medicine fromMissouri and accordinglysend out a bill tothateffect.Thursday 1st September Mr.Rennison cametostaywith me last night.HisproposessendingmeasuitofclothesnextseasonIagreetogoandencampwiththecompanywhostarttodayforMissouri.madefifteenmileswhenweovertookapartofthecompanythatstartedyesterdayalightshower in the eveningFriday 2dnightcool.Mr.Cavewasquitesicklastnightwithfever.bledhim.betterthismorning.Wasrequestedtoassistinenrollingandorganizingthe[eastsbound]company.ElectedRWMorrisCaptaindividedtheminto17massestherebeing75or80inall.Itissupposedtheyhave700headofhorses&mules.30Partedwithcompanyafterbreakfastandreturnedmuchfatigued.

Saturday 3d.VisitedtheRanchfeltsomethingmelancholysince AmericanslefthereSunday 4th cametoadeterminationtoleavethisplaceandspendthewinterandspringatthepass31.Monday 5thbegintosettlemybusinessandpreparedforastart.Tuesday 6thSettledwithmylandlordallowhim12dollarsamonthforboard.visitedtheRanchafternoonWednesday 7SpendmostofmytimeinreadingThursday 8nothingofimportance.Friday 9Calledontovisitawomanintownafflictedbutwithapaininherfaceandsaysshehasdischargedlargeamountfromhernosewithsomefever.Saturday 10VisitedRanchtreated2newpatients,onewithfevertheotherRheumatism.Occupiedfromthe10

tothe15th in preparingtostart to the Passbuthavehad but little success in collecting.Friday 1532 StartedfromTaostravelled18milesCalledatCordivos in themorningformoneydueherefusedtopaycussedandquithim.Saturday 16th StartedatdaybrakecalledattheJohnAndrews bled andgavehimphysic called at

PriestRados33whoappearedgladtoseeusreachedSantaFeeatsunsetputupwithSr.Vigillwhotreatedmewell.Sunday 17.Thisplacecontainabout2000Inhabitantsthemajorpartofthemquitepoor.andthecountryarrounditentirelybarrenitwasfoundedthebeginningofthe17centurynowinaStateofdecline.Thisdayiscoolandrainy.Monday 18thThemountainsarewhitewithsnow this morningandthemercurystandsat50FH[Fahrenheit].attendedaFangdangointheeveninggivenbytheAmericans.

“A Mexican Fandango,” engraving. Albert D. Richardson, BeyondtheMississippi...,(Hartford, CT: American Publishing Company, 1867) 242. http://books.google.com.*


Tuesday 20treatedSr.VigillsladyforanaccuteRheumatismwasverysuccessfulinrelievingher.CalledontodaytovisittheGovr.34foundhimslightlyindisposedgavehimadoseofPhysicandseveralvisits.AttendedanotherFandangoatnight.Wednesday 21st VisitedtheGovernorfoundhimintolerablehealththoughwithaslightpaininhisheadandsomefever.BledhimandgavehimCrm.Tart35 also openedanabsessonhisdaughter’sknee.TheGovernor approvesmuchinterestinmybehalfandpresentsmewithafirstratemulelikewicheheoffersgivingmeletterstothefirstmeninChauaua[Chihuahua]&c.Thursday 22weathercoolVisitedtheGovernorfoundhimrestoredtohealthDaughtersucceedingfast.payheravisit.2or3timesadayFriday 23 remains cool and snow remains on the mountain.VisittheGovernorasusual.Saturday 24thweathermorepleasantFangdangotonightandonelastnight.Sunday25thattendedchurchthismorningworshipservicetothesamedenominationin Missouri.Fangdangoatnight.Monday 25thnothingofimportancetranspiresexceptthemailarrivesandlearnsthenewsofawarbetweenRusia,France&SpainagainstEnglandNorth&Spanish America.Tuesday 27thNothingofimportancetodaysaveCampbell,Emmonds36&StorrsleavesforthePass.Wednesday 28thExpectedtohavestartedforthePass todayWardnotready.Thursday 29. Allreadytostarttodaybutourinterpreter isdetainedfordebt.Thursday 29StartedfromSt.Feeat8ockandcampedinthe Canion37[Canyon]15miles.

JOY POOLE was the first director of El Camino Real International Heritage Center for New Mexico State Monuments. She collaborated with architects and builders on the award-winning “ship in the desert” Heritage Center south of Socorro, wrote a successful NEH planning grant for the interpretive plan, and worked with a team of national scholars on the permanent exhibition TravelingElCaminoReal. Joy, a charter member of CARTA, currently serves on the Board and resides in Santa Fe, New Mexico.

[The endnotes in this excerpt correspond to numbers 34 to 59 in Poole’s transcription of the entire diary. —Eds.]

ENDNOTES

1 TheuseofthetitlealcaldetodayusuallyreferstoaMayororlocalofficial.AccordingtoSimmons,“Thefol-lowingtermsallmaketheirappearanceinNewMexico’scolonial records, alcaldemajor,alcaldeordinario,tenientealcalde, alcalde constitucional, alcalde de barrio and alcal-dedeagua.Eachofthesewasadistinctexpressionofadifferentrankorfunctionembodiedinaseparateofficial,andthustospeaksimplyofanalcalde,withoutaqualify-ingadjuctive,istopromoteambiguity.”Simmons,Marc.SpanishGovernmentinNewMexico.Albuquerque.1968.pp.160-161. SometimeafterJune8,1825,PedroMartinwastempo-rarilyservingastheConstitutionalAlcaldeofTaos with PabloLuceroandBlasTrujilloashisassistants.Earlierin1825,SeverinoMartinez(thefatherofPadreMartinez)hadservedasConstitutionalAlcaldeanditappearsSev-erinoMartinezwouldagainresumethedutiesofConsti-tutional AlcaldebyDecemberof1825andintotheyear1826.Correspondence,SpanishArchivesofNewMexico (SANMI)MicrofilmRoll9ofthetranslations,Record1297.

2 Thedatehastwoentries.

3 InJuneof1825,PabloLucero witnessed a water documentfortheConstitutionalAlcalde Pedro Martin.PresumablyLucerowasaLt.AlcaldeforTaos.Spanish ArchivesofNewMexico(SANMI).MicrofilmRoll9oftheTranslations,Record1297.Accordingtothe1850Fed-eralCensusPabloLucero,68,afarmerwasmarriedwith6children.(Retrievedon10-21-2009fromhttp://search.ancestrylibrary.com/cgi-bin/sse.dll?indiv=1&rank=1&gsfn=Pablo&gsln=Lucero)

4 Afandangoisapopulardancesomewhatsimilarto,oratleastculturallyequivalentto,whatmanyknowa social or barn dance. Willardattendedatleastfivefandan-gos:Monday4July,1826;Tuesday26July,1826;Tuesday20September,1826;Friday22December,1826;Friday22December,1826andMonday25,December,1826.Some

TheHomeCyclopediaOfHealthAndMedicine, by Henry Hartshorne. Publisher: W. E. Scull. Copyright 1902, W. E. Scull.


werepartofpoliticalfestivitiessuchasJulythe4th, others forreligiousfestivitiessuchasChristmas,andotherstocelebratethearrivaloftravelers.

5 FebeanesCarelislistedonJuly9intheCustomHouseRecordsSantaFefor1825withafacturafromCo-lumbia,April26.Weber,TheExtranjeros.1967.p.17.

6 Cladedwouldseemtomeandressed,sointhiscaseitwouldseemasifDr.Willardwishedtosaythatthedaywasdressedordistinguishedbytwofandangos.

7 ItisuncertainwhothepriestisthatDr.Willardrefer-ences.AntonioJoseMartinezappearstohavebeenthecura engardoorpastorinchargeofbothAbiquiuandTaos in1825.YetMartinezdoesn’tbecomethecura propio or irremovablepastorofTaosuntilJuly23,1826whenhesucceedsFatherJoseMarianoSanchezVergara.Chavez,FrayAngelico.ButTimeandChange:TheStoryofPadreMartinezofTaos,1793-1867.SantaFe:NM1981.pp.24-27.

8 ThisisthefirstwrittenaccountoftheAmerican cel-ebrationofthe4thofJulyintheTerritoryofNewMexico.

9 “From the 1790’s to about the middle of the 1800’s was essentially the age of Heroic medicine (allopathy), and a few allopathic physicians in the United States dominated medical philosophy and education. To practice allopathic medicine, a doctor needed only a sharp lancet to slice into a vein or leeches to suck blood from his patient, suction cups to enhance blood flow from small incisions or to withdraw “toxins” from an inflamed part of the body, ipecac to produce vomiting, calomel to empty the bowels, and mustard to make a plaster to burn blisters on the skin. The ancient therapies were based on the premise that toxins could be extracted from a sick body via bodily fluids. Even after allopathy began to lose it luster, many frontier doctors still insisted that clysters (enemas), cathartics, and sometime cupping were the answer to most complaints.” Steele,V.Bleed,BlisterandPurge:AHistoryofMedicineon the AmericanFrontier. Missoula.2005.

10 AugustusStorrswouldeventuallybeappointedcon-sulbytheAmericangovernmentandresidinginElPaso delNortebyFebruaryof1826.Weber,TheExtranjeros. 1967.p.22.

11 Dr.Willard’spenmanshipisextremelysmallandcoupledwithhisspellingveryhardtodecipher.Thesur-namemighthavebeenwrittenasMajors,Marrs,MarshorMarch.AStephanMury[?]islistedonJuly9intheCustomHouseRecordsSantaFefor1825withafacturafromColumbia,April25.Weber,TheExtranjeros.1967.p17.

12 Ishuriaisdefinedasretentionorsuppressionofurine.(RetrievedNovember8,2009fromhttp://medical-dic-tionary.thefreedictionary.com/ischuria.)

13 “WilliamShirleyWilliams‘OldBill’hadafriendinTaos,PaulBaillo,wholikewisehadlivedamongtheOsages,wherebothmenhadtakenIndianwivesnowconvenientlyforgotten.Apparentlyin1824BaillohadleftforTaos,possiblywithCeranSt.Vrain.Perhapsalready,andcertainlyby1826,BailloenteredintopartnershipwithCeran,equippingtrappers.ItwasBaillowhowentouttomeetSibley’sroadmarkersandledthemacrossthepassintoTaosValley.GeorgeSibley,incidentally,hadbeenapartnerofbothPaulBailloandLilburnBoggs,Juli-annahBent’shusband,intheIndiantradeatFortOsage”.Lavender,D.Bent’sFort.NewYork:1954.p.374.

14Consumptionofthelungs;strictlyappliedtothetu-berculousvariety.Phthisisisanarchaicnamefortuber-culosis.(RetrievedonNovember8,2009fromRudy’sListofArchaicMedicaltermsatwww.antiquusmorbus.com/English/EnglishP.htm.)“Untilrecentlytheviewhasbeenuniversal,thatpulmonaryphthisisconsistsintheformationoftuberclesinthelungs,whichsoonerorlatersoftenandbreakdown.AccordingtotheNomen-clatureoftheRoyalCollegeofPhysiciansofLondon,Phthisisnowincludestwogeneralvarieties.1.Asalliedtoscrofula:generalconstitutionaldiseasewithorwithoutscrofula,Tuber-culo-pneumonicandtuber’cularphthisis,2.Destructivedisintegrationofpulmonarytissue,hav-ingitssourceinchronicoracutepneumonia, Acute and chronicpneumonicphthisis.Accordingtothemostrecenttheoriesofthenatureofphthisispulmonalis,theaffectionmayoccurinnontuberculouspersons,whomayneverbecometuberculous;itmaybecausedbychronicinflam-matoryprocessesinthelungs,suchasbronchialcatarrh,andespeciallychroniccatarrhalpneumonia, which is

Diagram of blood-letting points. Feldbuch der Wundarzney(FieldBookofSurgery), 1519, illustrated with woodcuts attributed to Hans Wechtlin.


thekidneys&urinarybladder;thediseasecausingit.Steele,Volney.M.D.Bleed,BlisterandPurge:AHistoryofMedicine on the AmericanFrontier.Missoula,MT.2005.

21 Anemetic,suchassyrupofipecac,isasubstancethatinducesvomitingwhenadministeredorallyorbyinjec-tion.Anemeticisusedmedicallywhereasubstancehasbeeningestedandmustbeexpelledfromthebodyimme-diately(forthisreason,manytoxicandeasilydigestibleproductssuchasratpoisoncontainanemetic).Inducingvomitingcanremovethesubstancebeforeitisabsorbedintothebody.Ipecacabusecancausedetrimentalhealtheffects.(RetrievedonNovember8,2009fromhttp://

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vomiting#Emetics.)

22 JohnRemison[Renni-son]islistedonJuly8intheCustomHouseRecordsSantaFefor1825withafacturafromFranklin,April30.Weber,TheExtranjeros.1967.p17

23AccordingtoanemailcommunicationfromDavidWeberonNovember30,2009,thedistillerycouldhavebeenonethatPeg-legSmithclaimedtohavestartedin1824-25.Weber,DavidJ.“Wil-liamWorkman:ALetterfrom

Taos,1826,”NewMexicoHistoricalReview41(April1966):pp.155-161.

24Polypusisanotherwordforpolyp.(RetrievedonNovember11,2009fromwww.thefreedictionary.com/polypus.)

25Anexcrescencecouldbeagrowth,wartortumourthatiseitheruselessordisfiguring.

26 EpsonSaltsinconversationwithDr.ClintChambers ofLubbock,TexasinJulyof2009.

27 Modernusagewouldtendtosuggestthatthe“Ranch”wouldrefertoRanchodeTaos,butitisnotclearthatsuchgeneralizedusagewascommonintheearlynineteenhundreds.

28 ThequestionmarkisWillard’snotation.Heappar-entlywasuncertainofthedate.

29 JohnMeansislistedas#24inDecemberof1826whopaiddutiestotheCustomHouseOfficerJuanVigilofthePublicTreasuryoftheFederation.Weber,TheExtran-jeros.1967.p27.

30Willard’sdiaryentryiscorroboratedbytheMissouri Republican,aSt.LouisnewspaperaccountdatedOctober24,1825asgivenbyArchibaldGamble,thesecretary

precededbybronchitis,theaircellsandsmallerair-cellsbeingnextinvolvedandfilledwiththeproductsoftheinflammatoryprocesses.”Dunglison,Robley,M.D.,LL.D,MedicalLexicon.ADictionaryofMedicalScience:Con-tainingaconciseexplanationofthevarioussubjectsandtermsofAnatomy,Physiology,Pathology,Hygiene,Ther-apeutics,MedicalChemistry,Pharmacology,Pharmacy,Surgery,Obstetrics,MedicalJurisprudenceandDentistry;NoticesofClimateandofMineralWaters;FormulaeOf-ficinal,Empirical,andDieteticPreparations;withTheAc-centuationandEtymologyoftheTerms,andtheFrenchandOtherSynonyms.Philadelphia:1874.p.792.

15DavidJ.Weberstates,“Chambers is a curious and ob-scure figure. In 1812, he joined the ill-fated McKnight expedi-tion to Santa Fe and , like James Baird, suffered captivity until 1820.”Weberalsoidenti-fiesBairdandChambers as “pioneer industrialists”in1824.BairdandChambers built whatisthoughttohavebeenthefirstdistilleryinTaos.Weber,DavidJ.TheTaosTrappers:TheFurTradeintheFarSouthwest,1540–1846, Norman,OK.1970,Pp.60,72-3,and115-118.LuisdeFieswithSamuelChambres[Chambers]islistedandgivenGuia#51onDec.201827intheBookofGuiasforSantaFe/1826-1828.Weber,TheExtranjeros.1967.p33.

16 PresumedtobeJicarillaApache.

17 Dr.WillardindicatesRobidoux’companyleftTaos on July27,1825.OnAugust30,1825,“Robideaus party from Tous”returnedtotheCouncilBluffs.ThesefurreturnsmayhavebeenbroughtinbyFrancoisorLouisRobid-oux.Barry,L.TheBeginningoftheWest,Topeka,1972.p.115.FranciscoRuidu[Robidoux],MiguelRubidu,andAntonioRubidualldeclaredasmerchantsandwithoutpassportsarelistedintheFebruary1826ReportonFor-eignerswrittenbyGovernorAntonioNarbona.Weber,DavidJ.TheExtranjerosSelectedDocumentsfromtheMexicanSideoftheSantaFeTrail1825-1828. SantaFe:1967.p.19-22.

18 Pleurisy:Aninflammationoftheliningofthelungsthatcanleadtodrowningorthelungscollapsing.

19 Anoldtermfortheswellingofsofttissueduetoexcesswaterretention.(RetrievedOctober20,2009fromwww.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=13311.)

20Gravel–Adepositofsmallcalculousconcretionsin

Woman applying leeches, http://medleech.com


*New Mexican PastimesTheengravingonpage23,“AMexicanFandango,”

isanillustrationfromabookbyAlbertD.Richardson,Beyond the Mississippi: from the Great River to the Great Ocean: Life and Adventure on the Prairies, Mountains, and Pacific Coast, 1857-1867.(Hartford,CT:AmericanPublishingCompany,1869). Dr.WillardappearstohavespentmanyeveningsatfandangosinNewMexico(seeendnoteno.4).TheengravingoriginallyaccompaniedRichardson’sstoryaboutafandangoinElPasothatheattendedin1859:“Ontheplatformatoneend,threemusicianswithoutcoatswerehardatwork.Allenteredintotheamusementwithenthusiasm;andparticipantsandlookersofbothsexesweresmoking.Whenawomanrosetodanceshehandedhercigarettetoaneighbortosmokeuntilshereturned….Manyhadbeautiful,luminouseyes,andallagraceofmotionrarelyseenintheirEnglishorAmericansisters.”SeveraldecadesafterDr.Willardpennedhisimpressions,Richardsonconfirmedtheongoingpopularityoffandangos.“Dancing,apassionwiththeancientAztecsandminglinginalltheirreligiousexercises,continuesthestapleamusementoftheirmixeddescendants.TherewerethreeorfourfandangoesinSantaFeeverynight,theMexicansalwaysparticipatingwithwonderfulzest.“ Richardsonwasakeenobserverofthelocalpastimes.Herehedescribesagamblingscene.“AttheSantaFehotelIoftensawthreemontebanksinasingleroominoperationfromdaylightuntilmidnight.TheywereattendedbyamotleycrowdofIndians,Mexicansand whites darkeningthesaloon with tobaccosmoke.Thedeepsilencewasbrokenonlybythejingleofcoinsandthesuppressedbreathofplayers.Enormouspilesofsilverweigheddown the tables, andfrequentlytenthousanddollarschangedhandsintenminutes.” —Editors

Richardson,242-243,251-52,254.

forthecommissionersmarkingaroadfromthefrontierofMissouri,totheconfinesoftheNewMexico,andfortreatingwiththeinterveningIndian tribes, that the sur-veyhadbeencompletedtotheboundarylineoftheUnit-edStates…“TheexpeditionreachedtheboundarylineearlyinSept.andremainedincampuntilthe21st, wait-ingfortheauthoritytocontinuethesurveysthroughtheMexicanterritory.”ThecommissionerswereMajorSibley,ColonelReeves,andColonelMather.AtNorthBend,onthereturn,“acompanyof20adventurerswithagreatmanymules and horsesladenwithmerchandize,arrivedfromMissouri,boundforSantaFe;andanhourafter-wardsacompanyof81persons,returningfromSantaFe,alsoarrivedattheircamp.”Thiscompanycarried “InSilver, $18,568 Gold 182 BeaverFur,2044@$5 $10,220 Mules416,JacksandJennets25, Horses189=630@$25= $15,700 Totalof$44,670.”Barry,Louise.TheBeginningoftheWest.Topeka,KS.p.126.andNebraskaHistoricalSocietyPublications, Lincoln,v.20.pp.46-47.

31 AssumeheisreferringtoElPasodelNortewhichto-dayisCiudadJuárez.

32 Dr.Willard’sdatesareinerrorhereandnotinsyn-chronization.HestraightensoutthedaysanddatesonTuesdaythe20th.

33 PriestManuelRada.Accordingtoanemailcommu-nicationfromDavidWeberonNovember30,2009.RadaarrivedinNewMexicoin1821.Thatyearhewasas-signedtotheparishofSantaCruzdelaCañada,whereasasecularpriest,heserveduntilhiselectiontocongressinOctober1828bythevotersofNewMexicoTerritory.RadaalsoservedaspastoratSanJuanpueblo(1826-28)andasvicarfortheRioArribaparishes(1826-28).Weber,David,NorthernMexicoontheEveoftheUnitedStatesInva-sion.1976.NewYork.pp.17-18.

34 Priorto1825NewMexicoterritorialhistoryhadbothapoliticalorcivicgovernorandamilitarygovernor.AntonioNarbonawasthefirstgovernortoserveinbothcapacitiesfrom1825-1827.NewMexicoStateRecordsCenterandArchives.SpanishArchivesofNewMexico. SANMRecord1297.

35ChrominumTartwasadrugusedinthe19thcentury.

36RichardCampbellislistedonApril7intheCustomHouseRecordsSantaFefor1825.BothRichardCamp-bellandIraA.Emmonsareissuedguias#13and#10forSonoradatedSept.23,1825underMiscellaneousGuias.Weber,TheExtranjeros.1967.pp.17,24.

37 SantaFeCanyonnorthofLaCienega,NewMexico.

“Gambling in Santa Fe,” engraving. Albert D. Richardson, BeyondtheMississippi..., (Hartford, CT: American Publishing Company, 1867) 252.


The Last Kirker Proyecto OnMay24,1846,theChihuahuagovernmentcalledforanotherKirker-styleattackontheApaches.TheIndianswereclearlywinningthewaranddrasticmeasureswerecalledfor.Pleasforhelpbroughtforwardonlyonevolunteer:SantiagoKirker.Hewastoraisetroopsinanymannerhechose,andMexicans,forthefirsttimeinabountysituation,weretobeincluded.AgainthebountywasfiftypesosforeachIndiankilledorcaptured. InearlyJulysomethinghappenedinGaleana,northofSanBuenaventura.Itisknownthatatleast130Indianswerekilled.MexicansfromnearbycommunitiesofCasasGrandesandSanBuenaventurahadbeenaskedtohelpintheattack.KirkerandhismenwereatGaleanaaswell.ItisnotclearfromofficialreportsandnewspaperaccountswhatroleKirkerplayedinwhatwasreallyanunprovokedattackonagroupofApaches,whosaidtheywereatGaleanaseekingpeace. GeorgeRuxton’sversionofeventsatGaleanadiffersfromofficialaccounts.First,hehasDonSantiago“sendingseveralkegsofspirits”totheApachesto“preparethem”forhisattack.Thiscertainlycan’tbetrueasApacheswouldhavesensedatrapifwhiskeyhadbeensentbyKirker. GaleanabecomesthesignalbattleintheKirkerstory.Kirker’sbiographer,RalphAdamSmith,pointsoutinconsistenciesinthedifferentversions.KirkerwasatGaleana,Mexicanslikelydidmostofthekilling,andKirkerandhisDelawaresandShawneesdidthescalping.James,withscalpsonpoles(accordingtoRuxton),enteredChihuahuatoanecstaticcrowd.VictorycelebrationsdidoccurinthecapitalonJuly10,1846.ThescalpswerestillupaslateasNovember10,whenRuxtondepartedChihuahuaforNewMexico. TheGaleanabattlewasthelastinMexicoforKirker(atleastagainstIndians).WhatwastheresultofthemanyKirkerwarsagainsttheApaches?ScalphuntingandthebountysystemarerepugnanttomostAmericans,butwerethesestrategieseffective?WilliamGriffen,inhisdetailedstudyofthenorthernborderwars

Hal Jackson’s portrayal of James Kirker began in the last issue of the Chronicles with Kirker abandoning his family in New York, going into business with fellow Scotch-Irish immigrants in St. Louis, and heading west to New Mexico and Chihuahua in the 1820s, just after Mexican independence. He married and had children with a Mexican wife, and gained infamy both as a gunrunner providing weapons to the Apaches, which they used against the Mexicans, and later as a mercenary Apache hunter, working for the Mexicans, whose villages the Indians raided for horses and supplies. —Eds.

DON SANTIAGO KIRKER, APACHE SCALPER, Part II

byHalJacksonDrawingsbyFranciscoUviña

Daguerrotytpe of James Kirker by Thomas M. Easterly, July 1847.“Don Santiago Kirker, the King of New Mexico” is scratched on the bottom of the image (reversed).


Chihuahua.Instead,hewasarrestedandincarceratedthere.KirkerlikelymetwithMagoffineitherinElPasodelNorteorinChihuahuaafterhewasjailed.KirkerdecidedtojointheAmericansideandpresentedhimselfandsomeofhisDelawarestheeveningofthebattleofBrazito(ChristmasDay,1846),justsoutheastofpresent-dayLasCruces.Col.Doniphanwelcomedhim,andmadehimguideandinterpreter.TheAmericans,however,didnotcompletelytrustJamesandkeptacloseeyeonhim.MarchingdownstreamalongtheRioGrande,KirkerpredictedtheU.S.forceswouldnotmeetanyorganizedresistance.DoniphanandtheotherofficerswereskepticalofKirker’spredictionbutitturnedouttobecorrect,asdidhisfuturepredictions.HeknewthecountryandheknewtheMexicansverywell.TheMexicanforcesdefeatedatBrazitohadpassedthroughElPasodelNorteandhurriedsouthtoChihuahuacity. ManyconfirmthatKirkerwasaveryimportantfigureasDoniphanmarchedtowardChihuahua,andatthebattleatSacramento.Finally,onFebruary8,KirkerguidedagroupofMissouriVolunteersandover300traders’wagonsoutofElPasodelNorte.Shortlythereafterthetraderswererequiredtoorganizethemselvesintoaninfantrybattalion,butsomefiftywagonsescapedfromDoniphan’scontrolandmadeittoChihuahuawiththeircargoes. KirkerandsometroopsweresentaheadofthemainpartytoreconnoiterCarrizal, on the Camino Nacional(CaminoReal).Carrizalwasapresidio,anditwasthoughtthatitmightstillbefortifiedandgarrisoned.TherewerenoMexicansoldiersatCarrizalwhenKirkerarrived,andheandtheAmericansoldiersoccupiedit. InlateFebruaryhewentontothehaciendaatEncinillaownedbyGovernorTrías.HefoundthattheMexicantroopshadleftthenightbeforehearrived.ThenexthurdlewastobeamajoroneasMexicanforces,all4,220ofthem,wereentrenchedatthefordoftheRioSacramento.ThesitewasdirectlyontheCaminoNacional.PerhapsoneofKirker’sDelawareorShawneecompanionsprovidedtheplanofbattleforDoniphan.Ifagoodplanhadnotbeenadopted,therelikelywouldhavebeenaMexicanvictorybecausetheirartillerycompletelycoveredtheCamino. Thebattleplancalledforaswingtotheright,offtheCaminoNacional,andthenachargeupasmallembankment,whichwouldallowthearmytoattackontheMexicans’leftflank.Thisplanalsomeantthatmost

between1832and1849,felttheMexicanpolicieswerecounterproductive.HisdetailedanalysisshowedthreetimesasmanyMexicanskilledbyApachesasApacheskilledbyMexicansormenlikeKirker.ThisauthorfeelsthattheSpaniardslearnedearlyon,inthestrugglefortheSilverRoadinZacatecas,thatpeacebypurchasewasasuperiorstrategy:providetheIndianswithnecessarygoodsatselectpointsandtheywillslowlyacculturateintothemajoritypopulation. DidKirker(andothers)usecunningandsurpriseintheirattacksonApachecamps?Ofcoursetheydid.Bothsidesusedthesametactics.Kirker,inaninterviewin1847,claimedheandhismenkilled487Apacheswhilelosingbutthreemen.EvenifwegrantKirkertheremarkablesuccessthatheclaimed,wehavetothinkaboutwhathappenedasaresultofhissuccess.Smith’sassessmentofKirkerwasthat“hisexpeditionslikelyprovokedmoresuffering,asaresultofretaliatoryraids,thantheyprevented.”

The American Invasion AfterGaleanaandthecelebrationinChihuahua,Kirkerwentnorthwesttoawaitfurtherordersfromthegovernor.ThebiggestconcernoftheMexicansatthistimewasnottheApachethreat,buttheinvadingAmericanarmyunderStephenWattsKearny.KearnyoccupiedSantaFeonAugust18,1846,ascantmonthafterGaleana. BothMexicansandAmericans,whowereonthebrinkofwar,soughtKirker’sservices.JamesWileyMagoffin,whohadbeeninstrumentalinorchestratingthepeacefuloccupationofSantaFebytheAmericans,traveledsouthinanattempttoreplicatehispeacedialoguein


oftheMexicanartillerywouldnotbeaforceinthebattlebecauseitwasfocusedontheCaminoNacional,whichtheMexicansassumedtheAmericanswouldbeforcedtouse.(ForamapoftheSacramentobattlesite,seeJackson,Following the Royal Road.) KirkerchallengedSquireCollins,whomhehadmetoverdrinksandarguedwiththenightbefore,tojoinhiminsilencingthebatteryremainingontheAmericanright.ThuswehaveKirker,Collins,andMajorOwens,oneofthetraders,leadingthecharge.Owensmusthavehadadeathwish(hedid,infact,havefamilyproblems),forhewasgarbedallinwhite.ThechargeworkedtoperfectionandtheMexicansweretotallybewildered.Owenswaskilledinthecharge,theonlyAmericandeaththedayofthebattle.SeveralAmericanswerewoundedanddiedlater.TheentireMexicanfrontbrokeandwithinanhourthebattlewasover,theMexicansinfullretreat,aretreatthatpassedthroughChihuahuacityanddidn’tstopforahundredmilesbeyond. DonSantiagoremainedwithDoniphaninChihuahua,

andlaterwentwiththearmytoSaltilloandameetingwithGeneralWool.KirkerexpectedtobepaidforhisserviceswhenhereachedSaltillo,butneitherhenoranyofthetraderseverreceivedanypay. Doniphan,histroops,andKirkercontinuedsouthtoMatamorosontheRioGrande,wheretheycaughtaboatforNewOrleans.Afterashortvoyagetothatcity,KirkertookapaddlewheeleruptheMississippitoSt.Louis,wherehearrivedonJuly1,1847.

Kirker Heads West Again WhileKirkerwasinSt.LouishegaveaninterviewtoCharlesKeemleoftheSt. Louis Saturday Evening Post and Temperance Recorder.(ThisinterviewisreprintedinMcGaw.)KirkertoldKeemlehislifestoryinthirteenparagraphs.IncludedintheinterviewwasalikenessofJamesfromadaguerreotypetakenbyThomasM.EasterlyinJuly1847.Onthebottomoftheimage,someonescratched“DonSantiagoKirker,theKingofNewMexico.” JameswasanxioustoreturntotheSouthwesttofindoutwhatmighthavehappenedtohisfamily,whomhehadleftbehindinMexicowhenhisadventureswithDoniphanbegan.HewentwestwiththeThirdRegimentofMissouriMountedVolunteers,reachingSantaFeinmid-October1847. ApparentlyJamesenteredthehotelbusinessinSantaFe,afactmentionedintheSanta Fe Republican in December.Hisfamily,meantime,continuedtoliveinElPasodelNorte,Mexico,andJamescouldnotbringthemnorthbecauseTríaswasstillgovernorofChihuahuaandthereremainedapriceonKirker’shead.


Kirker Gets Gold Fever PresidentPolkhadaddressedCongressinDecember1848,tellingthem(actuallyconfirmingrumors)aboutthegoldstrikeinCaliforniaearlierthatyear.Thus,theFortyNinersbegantherushtotheWestinJanuary1849.Somemen,andafewwomen,wentbywayofPanama,othersaroundtheHorn,andstillothersacrossMexico.Butweareconcernedherewiththosetravelingoverland,eitherbythenorthernrouteoftheOregon-CaliforniaTrailsortheSantaFeTrail,thepreferredrouteinwinter.KirkerleftWashingtoninJanuary1849,arrivinginSt.LouisonJanuary24,andinlateAprilheadeduptheMissourionasteamboattoIndependenceLanding.EitheronthesteamboatoratIndependence,KirkerwaspersuadedtoguideagroupofwealthseekerstoCalifornia.Thisnextepisodeofhislifewasdocumentedinabookbyoneoftheparticipants,CharlesPancoast. PancoastwasaQuakerandamemberofthePeoriaPioneers,thegroupthatengagedJames.Anothergroup,theJacksonvillePioneers,taggedalongwithKirkerbecauseofhisreputationasamountainmanandIndianfighter.OnMay15,1849,KirkerandhisentouragedepartedfortheWestbywayoftheSantaFeTrail.Itreallywasaninterestingtrip.Hisclientsweregreenhornswithnotrailexperience,andnotskilledatshooting,hunting,orprotectingthemselves.Ifthetriphadn’tbeensodangerous,theirescapadesmighthavebeenhumorous.ThefirstmajoreventoccurredonJune10nearFortMannontheArkansasRiver,whenthecaravanmetChiefBuffaloHeartandalargecontingentofArapaho,Cheyenne,andKiowawarriors.RelationsimprovedwhenthechiefshowedKirkeraletterthathecarriedfromIndianagentThomasFitzpatrick.ItwasallJamescoulddotokeepsomeoneinhisowngroupfrompanickingandfiringaweapon.Eventuallythepartymovedonuntouched. FromFortMannandtheencounterwithBuffaloHeart,Kirkerledthecaravantoapointneartoday’sPueblo,Colorado.Theseweregoldseekers,andJamesthoughttheycouldfindthemetalhereintheRockies.TheypannedtheArkansasandtheGreenhornriverswithlittlesuccess,andeachdaywithoutgoldtheirfaithinJamesdiminished. Next,Jamesledthepartysouth,lettingthempan

otherstreams,buthismindwasonhishomeinNewMexico.CrossingRatonPass,KirkerusedtheMountainRouteoftheSantaFeTrail,finallydroppingintothesmallcommunityofRayado,NewMexico.AtthistimeRayadowasthehomeofKitCarson.AccordingtoPancoast,CarsonwastherewhenKirkerandthegrouparrived.PancoastdescribedCarson’shomeasa“twostorylogaffair,surroundedbyadobewallsforpurposeoffortification.” TherewereadozenorsoAmericansandMexicansplustwentyIndiansattheCarsonhome.ApparentlyCarsonwassomewhatreservedwhenthepartyarrived,butPancoastdescribedhimas“verygarrulous”intheevening.Thenextday,JamesledthepartysouthontheSantaFeTrail,passingthroughSanMigueldelVado.FromSanMiguel,theusualcrossingofthePecos,hewentsouthwest,leavingtheSantaFeTrail,andfoundacampforthepartyatGalisteo,southofSantaFe. JamessoondepartedtheGalisteocampandwenttoSantaFetobereunitedwithhisdaughterPetra.Weknowitwasinthesummerof1849,becausetheSanta Fe Republican Extra hadanoticewhereinJamesKirkerwasbackinthecity.JamesneverdidreturntotheGalisteocamp,andthepartyleftforCaliforniawithouthim.

The Final Chapter ItisnotknownwhatoccupationKirkerenjoyedbetweensummer1849andfall1850.TheTreatyofGuadalupeHidalgowassignedon

February2,1848.Attheinsist-enceoftheMexicans,Article11

wasaddedtotheTreaty,requiringtheAmericanstopreventtheIndiansintheUnitedStatesfromraidingacrosstheborderintoMexico,

returningnorthtosellthestolenlivestocktotheAmericans,manyontheirwaytotheCaliforniagoldfieldsandindesperateneedoftheanimals. However,attheconclusionofhostilities,theAmericanswithdrewtheirforcesfromtheborderareaandnevermettheirobligationsofArticle11.ThismeanttheMexicanswereontheirowninthestruggleagainstApacheincursions,relyingon“Quirquismo,”Kirker-stylewarfareandrewards.Accordingtoonesource,thelastscalpbountywaspaidin1886,althoughraidingcontinueduntil1891. ThereisnoevidencethatJamesKirkerwentbacktofightingApachesonhisreturntoNewMexicoin1849.Itishighlyunlikelythathewouldriskcrossingthebordersincehewasstillawantedman.HemovedtoCaliforniainearly1850,settlinginContraCostaCountyjustnorth


Kirker’s FamiliesHisfirstwifeCatharine and son JamesB.KirkercontinuedlivinginNewYorkCity.JamesservedintheCivilWarasacaptainintheIrishLegion,andretiredasamajorinJune1866.Henevermarried.Hediedin1868,survivedbyhismother, Catharine, who diedawealthywomaninthecityin1870.ManyofJames’sdescendantsfromhismarriagetoRitaGarcíastillliveinsouthernNewMexico.HisdaughterPetramarriedSamG.Bean,olderbrotherofnotedTexanJudgeRoyBean.SamBeanworkedtobringalloftheKirkerclanoutofElPasodelNortetoMesilla,NewMexico.MesillabecamepartoftheUnitedStatesaftertheGadsdenPurchasein1853.ThethreesonsofJames—Rafael,Santiago,andJosé—joinedSamandPetrainMesilla.

Thoughts On Kirker WhatisonetothinkofthismanoftheWest,JamesKirker?Ononehandhewasabigamist,abandonedtwofamilies,andbyhisownadmissionkilledover450Indians.Ontheotherhand,hetriedtomaketheSouthwestsaferforsettlers(inhisownmercenaryway),and he contributed to the American cause in the war againstMexico.Hedidtakescalps,astheywererequiredbyMexicanlawinordertobepaidforhisservices.RecallthatthreetimesasmanyMexicansettlerslosttheirlivestoApachesasdidApachestomenlikeKirker.

ofMt.Diablo,neartheCarquinezStraits,accompaniedbyahandfulofhisDelawareIndians.HehadlefthiswifeandfamilyinMexico.ItisknownthathewasinSanFranciscoonOctober29,1850,attendingacelebrationofCalifornia’snewlyacquiredstatehood.Afterthecelebration,Jamesboardedaship,theSagamore, which wastotakehimtohishome.Aship’sboilerexplodedkillingfiftypeople,butJames,althoughhurledintotheair,survived.Kirkerdiedinthefallof1852attheageoffifty-nine.

Map of James Kirker’s travels, drawn by Francisco Uviña.


Smith,inhisbiographyofKirker,outlinesindetailthepositivesandnegativesaboutJames.Heconcluded,asIwill,withthefollowing:“However,enoughinformationabouthimexiststoshowthatthehistoryoftheAmericanWestwasmoredramaticbecauseofhiscomingthisway.HemakesiteasierforustounderstandwhyTheodoreRooseveltsaidthattheScotch-Irishwere‘boldfrontiersmen’—andtocomprehendwhyMattFieldsaidthatJamesKirkerwas‘amanofgreatenterpriseandskill.’”

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BiographyMcGaw,WilliamCochran.Savage Scene.NewYork:HastingsHousePublishers,1972.

Smith,RalphAdam.Borderlander: The Life of James Kirker, 1793-1852.Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1999.

General InterestConnelley,WilliamElsey,ed.Doniphanís Expedition andthe Con-quest of New Mexico and California.KansasCity,Missouri:BryantandDouglasBookandStationeryCo.,1907.

Edwards,FrankS.A Campaign in New Mexico.AnnArbor:UniversityMicrofilms,1966.

Field,Matt.Matt Field on the Santa Fe Trail.JohnSunder,ed.Norman,Oklahoma:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1960.

Golley,FrankB.“JamesBaird,EarlySantaFeTrader,”MHSBulletin,VolumeXV,No3,1959,178-179.

Gregg,Josiah.Commerce of the Prairies.EditedbyMaxMoorhead.Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1954.

Griffen,WilliamB.Utmost Good Faith: The Patterns ofApache-Mexican Hostilities in Northern Chihuahua BorderWarfare, 1821-1848.Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,1982.

Jackson,Hal.Following the Royal Road: A Guide to the HistoricCamino Real de Tierra Adentro.Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,2006.

Moorhead,MaxL.New Mexico’s Royal Road: Trade and Travelon the Chihuahua Trail.Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1958.

Pancoast,CharlesEdward.A Quaker Forty-Niner, TheAdventures of Charles Edward Pancoast on the AmericanFrontier.Ed.AnnaPaschallHannum,Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,1930.

Ruxton,GeorgeF.Adventures in Mexico and the RockyMountains.NewYork:HarperandBros.Publishers,1848.

Webb,JamesJosiah.Adventures in the Santa Fe Trade, 1844-1847.Ed.RalphBieber.Glendale,CA.:ArthurH.ClarkCo.,1931

This is an edited and shortened version of an article Hal Jackson wrote for WagonTracks(November2006), the journal of the Santa Fe Trail Association, which he thought would be of interest to CARTA members because of Kirker’s many escapades along the Camino Real. Judging from reader response to the first installment in the Winter 2010 Chronicles, he got that right! Jackson assisted with a BBC crew on a documentary of Kirker, “King of the Wild Frontier,” which was aired in the U.K. this spring, and possibly will be picked up by PBS. He was pleased with the DVD that he viewed in advance. “I can say they did a fine job of bringing Kirker to life.” —Eds.

HAL JACKSON, cultural geographer, is professor emeritus of geography at Humboldt State University, California, and is

currently part of the adjunct faculty of the University of New Mexico’s Department of Geography. Author of FollowingtheRoyalRoad:AGuidetotheHistoricCaminoRealdeTierraAdentro(Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006), Hal has led tours up and down the Camino from Mexico City to Ohkay

Owingeh. He resides in Placitas, New Mexico.

FRANCISCO UVIÑA CONTRERAS is the co-author and illustrator of Cornerstones Community Partnerships’ Adobe ArchitectureConservationHandbook. He currently teaches design studio and historic preservation courses in the School of Architecture and Planning at the University of New Mexico. Mr. Uviña received a Bachelor of Arts degree in Architecture

with a minor in Art History in 1994, and a Masters of Architecture and Graduate Certificate in Historic Preservation and Regionalism in 2009, from the University of New Mexico. In 1990 he received a scholarship for summer study at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México in Mexico City. Francisco worked for Cornerstones from 1994 to 2008,

assisting with field assessments and documentation of historic buildings as the Architectural/Technical Manager, where he currently performs contract work.


Whatisitaboutchocolate?

Intheearly1600s,abishopintheSpanishColonialcityofChiapaReal(SanCristóbaldelasCasas)madethefatalerrorofprohibitingtheconsumptionofchocolateinthecathedralbecauseofthecommotioncausedbyIndianservantspreparingandservingit.Thedelicateladies,whorequiredtheir jícaras, orsmallcups, ofchocolatetosustainthemduringhighMass,refusedtogoalongwiththeorder.Whenthebishopthenthreatenedexcommunication,hemysteriouslyfellillanddiedafterdrinkingacupofchocolate.1

ChocolateheldanexaltedpositioninMayanandAzteccivilizations,inSpanishColonialAmerica,inSpain,and now, it seems almost certain, in Ancestral Puebloan (Anasazi)culture.ThereisevidenceofchocolateinChacoCanyonasearlyasAD1000,whichpossiblyarrivedtherefromMesoamericaalonganIndiantrailthattheSpanishlatercalled El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro.

ItisbelievedthattheOlmeccivilizationofMesoamericawasthefirsttocultivatethecacao tree (theobroma cacao),c.1500B.C.,and the name “cacao,” originallypronouncedkakawa,derivesfromtheirproto-Mixe-Zoqueanlanguagegroup.2 “Chocolate” comesfromtheNahuatlword cacahuatl,meaning“cacaowater.”3BoththeMayaandAztecsregardedcacaoassacred.TheSpanishobservedthattheMayaandtheAztecsreserveditforreligiousceremonies,royalty,esteemedguests,anddistinguishedwarriors,andthereisevidencethatlessermortalsalsoenjoyedcacaoonspecialoccasions,albeitadilutedversion.4Toconsumechocolateillicitlywastoinvitecertaindeath.TheMayaandAztecstransformed

thecacaoseedsintoaliquidbeveragethroughacomplexlabor-intensiveprocess.TheMayapreferredithotandthe Aztecs cool,5butbothvaluedthefrothaboveall.Forboth,cocoabeanswereusedascurrency—moneydidgrowontrees!Accordingtoa16th-centuryAztecdocument,inTlaxcalathedailywageofaporterwas100beans.Hecouldbuyatamalewithonebean,agoodturkeyhenwith100fullbeansor150shrunkenbeans,andfishwrappedinmaizehusksforthreebeans.6 Cacao beanswereworthenoughtobecounterfeited!7

SpanishconquerorssooncametoappreciatethisNewWorldbeverageasmuchasthelocals.Onceitbecameevidentthatallbutthewealthiestcolonistswouldhavetodowithouttheirdailyglassofwinebecauseofthecrown’sprohibitionagainstplantingwinegrapes,8theyembracedchocolateastheirown,exchangingsomeof

thenativeingredientswithIberianimports.ChristopherColumbusiscreditedwithbeingthefirstpersonfromtheOldWorldtohavehad contact with cacao beans,in1502,onagreatMayantradingcanoe.Althoughhemaynothaveknownwhattheywere,heobservedthattheywerehighlyvalued.HissonFerdinand,wroteofcacaoseeds,whichhecalledalmonds:“Theyseemedtoholdthesealmondsatagreatprice;forwhentheywerebroughtonboard

shiptogetherwiththeirgoods,Iobservedthatwhenanyofthesealmondsfell,theyallstoppedtopickitup,asifaneyehadfallen.”Justacoupleofdecadeslater,HernanCortésandthecolonistsbegantofullyappreciatecacao.AsithadbeenasourceofsustenanceforAztecsoldiers,soitwasforSpanishonesaswell.Cortéscalledit “thedivinedrinkwhichbuildsupresistanceandfightsfatigue.Acupofthispreciousdrinkpermitsmantowalkforawholedaywithoutfood.”9SoonSpaniards—not

SABORES DEL CAMINO: Chocolate

byCatherineLópezKurland

Mayan chief forbidding a person to touch a foaming pot of chocolatehttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mayan_people_and_chocolate.jpg.


onlysoldiers—onbothsidesoftheAtlanticwereenjoyingtheexoticnewbeverage—theladiesespecially,accordingtotheaccountsoftheday.10

ThefirstdocumentedrecordofacacaobeanshipmentarrivinginSpainfromNewSpainwasin1585.However,decadesearlier,in1544,agroupofDominicanpriestsbroughtadelegationofMayannoblesovertopayavisittoPrincePhilip(PhilipII),andamongthegiftstheybroughtwerereceptaclesofbeatenchocolate.11ShippingrecordsshowthatchocolategainedasecureplaceinSpanishlifebetween1590and1610,12transportedinitiallyasfullyprocessedchocolate,needingonlywater,andlaterasuntreatedcacao,whichsomeenterprisingSpanishlearnedtoconvertintochocolate.TheEnglish,Dutch,FrenchandItaliansfollowedsuit,butnotrightaway,andnottotheextentoftheSpanish,forwhomitbecamethenationalbeverage.AtfirstEnglishandDutchprivateersactuallythrewthecacaobeans,whichtheyregardedas“sheepdung,”overboardfromcapturedSpanishships.AsthedemandforthisfashionabledrinkgrewinSpainand,eventually,inotherEuropeancountriesinthe17th century,sodiditsvalueasanexportcropfromNewSpain.

CacaowasaluxuryforMesoamericans,SpanishcolonistsandinhabitantsoftheOldWorld.Thecacaotreegrowsonlyunderspecificconditions:withinawarmandhumidbandtwentydegreesnorthandsouthoftheEquator,inanunderstoryprotectedfromdirectsunlight.AsthiszonewasoutsidetheAzteclands,theyhadtoimportcacao,forceotherstopaytributetothemintheformofcacaobeans,andwageterritorialwarsovercontestedcacao-growingregions.

Growingandconvertingcacaopodsintoachocolatebeveragewascomplex.Withinthepod,thebeansareencasedinasweetwhitepulp,fromwhichtheymustbeextracted.(Thefreshpulpissaidtobeadelicioustreat,“tree-freshcacao.”)Thebeanswerethenfermented,dried,roastedandwinnowed.Thentheroastedbeans,ornibs,weregroundonahotmetate.Theresultantcacaopowderwasflavored,andshapedintosolid“bricks”or“wafers”forstoringortransporting,readytobemixedwithwaterandvigorouslystirredtoproduceachocolateliquidtoppedwiththeprizedfroth.Finecriollocacao(themostprizedandrarevariety)wasconvertedintoacoolbeverageforAztecnobleswithavarietyofspices,herbs

andsweeteners:usuallychile(capsicumannum);oftenvanilla,“earflowers”(aspicyplantwhoseexactidentityisnotknown),orachiote(givingitabloodlikecolor);andsometimesatouchofhoney13oragavesyrup.Thelessfortunatedidhavechocolateforrites-of-passagerituals,butmadedoquitehappilywithlesserqualitycacaothatwasoftenmixedwithmaize,makinganutritiousbeverage(theoriginalchampurrado).

TheSpanishandCreolespreferredchocolateflavoredwithimportedcinnamon(fromSoutheastAsia),anise,andblackpepper;avoidedvanillaformedicalreasons(badforthenerves);addedplentyofcanesugar—acropColumbusintroducedtotheNewWorldandCortéscultivatedinvastplantations;anddrankitwarm,asdidtheMaya,whohadintroducedthemtochocolate.

TheSpanishalsoregardedabillowymassoffoamasthebestpartofall,whichtheMayaandAztecsproducedbypouringtheliquidfromagreatheightintoavessel.TheSpanishcreatedaspecialimplementusedtothisday:agroovedwoodenbeater,ormolinillo, that is rolled betweenthepalmsuntilthefrothappearsontop.Theyevendesignedachocolatepot,orchocolatera, with a hole inthelidforthemolinillo,andaperpendicularhandleto

graspwhileroilingtheliquid.TheSpanishcolonistsadoptedthe

locals’smallhandlelesscups,jícaras(fromtheNatuatlwordxicalli),

fashionedfromlacqueredgourdsorclay,andlaterinChineseporcelainormayólica.WhendrinkingchocolatewastheheightofBaroquefashionduringtheHapsburgreigninthe1600s,theSpanishviceroyofPeru,theMarquesdeMancera,commissionedasilversmithtomakeatraywitharimmedholderinthecenterforthejícara,topreventaccidentalspills.

Thusthemancerinawascreated,firstinsilverandlaterinporcelainandmayólicaaswell.

TheCatholicChurchwasuncertainaboutwhetherornottobantheexcitingNewWorldfood,butoncetheRoyalPhysiciantoPhillipII

declaredittobeofmedicinalvalueitspopularityspreadrapidlyinSpainandthroughout

therestofEurope.In1631aSpanishphysician,AntonioColmenerodeLedesma,wrotethefirstrecipeforhotchocolateinhisbook,Curioso tratado de la naturaleza y calidad del chocolate (A Curious Treatise of the Nature and Quality of Chocolate),whichwaspublishedin1644anddisseminatedthroughoutEurope.

ChocolatereachedEnglandinthe1650s,atalmost


thesamemomentasteaandcoffee,andthenmadeitswaybackacrosstheAtlantictothecolonies.In1727anEnglishmannamedNicholasSandersaddedmilk,creatingavariationthatremainstheAnglostandardtothisday.AlthoughAmericansenjoyeddrinkingchocolate,itneverattainedthelevelofpopularitythatThomasJeffersonpredicted:“ThesuperiorityofchocolateforhealthandnourishmentwillsoongiveitthesamepreferenceoverteaandcoffeeinAmericathatithasinSpain.”14HisenthusiasmmayhavearisenfromhisrecentarrivalinParis,wherechocolatehadbeenafashionablecourtbeveragesincethemarriageofSpanishprincessMaríaTheresa,daughterofPhilipIV,toLouisXIVin1660.

InNewSpain,convents,alreadycentersofculinarycreativity,inthe1600sgainedacclaimfortheirchocolate,whichbecamearegularfixtureinthelivesoftheelite.“Earlyinthemorninghousewivesorderedthepreparationofhotchocolatetobeaccompaniedby

bread,doughnuts,puchas orsomeotherdelicacy…Aftertheafternoonsiesta,ataroundthreeorfouro’clock,itwasnearlyobligatorytodrinkacupofhotchocolate,homemadebynuns,whousedpreciseamountsofcocoa,sugar,almonds,cinnamonandvanilla.”15 Thenunsthemselveswerenotdeniedthispleasure,fortheyevenhadspecialroomsfordrinkingchocolate,“sincepartakingofthemostpopulardrinkofthecolonialerarepresentedatimeofcamaraderieanddiversionwithintherigidobservanceofconventrules.Grindingcocoawasanactivityinwhicheachandeverysisterparticipated,fromtheabbessondown.”16Thesisterswerealsoknown

fortheirsolidchocolateconfections,despitethecommonmisconceptionthatitwasenjoyedonlyasabeverageuntilthe19thcentury.17

DuringtheearlycolonialperiodinNewMexico,chocolatewasaluxuryenjoyedbythewealthy,whokeptitunderlockandkey;animportantrationforsoldiers,whosustainedthemselvesonready-to-beatchocolateinwaferform(justaddwaterandstir);afavoriteofthefriars,whowereaccustomedtodrinkingitinthemonasteries;andaspecial-occasiontreatforothers.Eventually,asitbecamemoreavailable,hotfrothychocolatebecamearequisitecomponent

ofmorningandafternoonritualsinthenorthernborderlands.

AccordingtoarchaeologistCordelia(Dedie)Snow,theearliestrecordedmentionofchocolateinNewMexico

(upper left) Chocolate Cups/Jícaras, mayólica, Mexico City or Puebla, 1650-1750. L: cup in de Vargas display. Courtesy Museum of Indian Arts and Culture/Laboratory of Anthropology, Santa Fe, NM. Photo by Paul Smutko.

(above) Mancerina, mayólica, 20th century, after an 18th-century mancerina produced in Alcora, Spain. Courtesy El Rancho de las Golondrinas, La Ciénega, NM.

Chocolate Storage Jar/ Chocolatero with locking lid and key;mayólica, 1650-1700, Puebla, Mexico, 16 in. H; 10 ½ in. D. Collection of Michael Haskell. Courtesy of the Museum of International Folk Art, Santa Fe, NM. Photo by Paul Smutko.


wasina1600inventoryforaCaminoRealshipment:“eightysmallchocolateboxesthatcostfourpesoseach.”Notationsforsugarandotheringredientsassociatedwithchocolate,alongwithsherdsofsmallhandlelessChineseporcelaincupsfrompre-RevoltexcavationsattheSalinasMissionsandthePalaceoftheGovernors,offersupportforitsearlyappearanceinNewMexico.18 A householdinventoryfromGovernorBernardoLópezdeMendizábalandhiswife,DoñaTeresaAguilerayRochedeMendizábal,includeda“’chocolatecupfromPuebla.’”Theinventorywastakenin1662aftertheywerearrestedforsecretlypracticingJudaism.DuringthesubsequenttrialbeforetheHolyOfficeoftheInquisitioninMexicoCity,oneoftheirservantsdescribedhowshehadservedhotchocolatetotheGovernorandDoñaTeresaathomeinthePalaceoftheGovernors.19

Beginningin1609,caravansbroughtsuppliesuptheCaminoRealeverythreeyearsformissionpersonnelinNewMexico,“includingchocolate,aluxuryitem,”20andgoodsforotherslivingin the northern borderlands.Chocolate was considered a “delicacy”forthe colonists, alongwithsugar,tobaccoandliq-uors,21andaspecial-occasionbeverage,assuggestedinanentryfromAlphonzoRaéldeAguila’slastwillandtestamentin1745,whichincluded“fourchinachocolatemugs‘purchasedinChihuahuaforfiestas.’”22However,chocolatewasnotaluxurybutanecessityinthemilitary.In Santa Fe Found: Fragments of Time, anexhibitatthePalaceoftheGovernors,amongasmallgroupofartifactsassociatedwithDiegodeVargasthereisa17th-centuryMexicanmayólicacupforchocolate,“astapleforhistroops.”(Seephotop.36)FatherFranciscoVargaswroteinalettertoGovernordeVargasdatedJuly6,1695,thattheyhadbeenprovidingsoldierschocolaterefresco(coldchocolate)duringquietspells“between[Apache]raids.”23

Thegovernoralsorecognizedthevalueofchocolateformakingpeace.“BeforehisreturntoSantaFe,onachillyafternoononSeptember15,1692,”deVargas,inthehopesofmeetingwithPuebloanleaderTupatú,invitedanotherPuebloan,DonLuis,intohistent,“greetinghimkindlywithwarmwordsandchocolate.”24ItappearsdeVargasdidnothavetodowithoutithimself—heleftover100poundsofchocolatetohisfamilyandfriendsinhiswill!25

Chocolatewasmorewidelyavailablebythe19thcentury.In1815themerchandiseinManuelDelgado’sstoreinSantaFeincludedsixteenpoundsofchocolate,amongotheritemsthatarchaeologistDavidH.Snowdescribesas“everydayitemsonemightexpecttofindinawell-stockedfrontiermercantilestore.”26Delgado,whoownedElRanchodelasGolondrinasinnearbyLaCiénegahadcopperchocolatepots,jícarasand

mancerinasamonghispersonalpossessionsatthetimeofhisdeath.27

For merchants travelingontheCaminoRealin1840,calledEl Camino NacionalduringtheMexicanperiod,chocolate was a critical sourceofsustenance,asithadbeenforAztecwarriorsandSpanishsoldiers.Duringmerchants’forty-dayjourneysfromSantaFeto Chihuahua, “their onlymeal—asmallpieceofmeat,chilecolorado, beans and

tortillas—lastedtwenty-fourhoursexceptforacupofchocolateanda

pieceofbread.”28 By1846whenSusanMagoffin,ayoungAmerican

bride,ventureddowntheSantaFeTrail,NewMexicansweredrinkingchocolatetwiceaday.“Wehavechocolateeverymorningonrising,breakfastat10o’k[sic],dinnerattwo,chocolateagainatdark,andsupperat9o’clock.”29 JosiahGregg,anotherAmericantravelingaboutthesametime,bestowedhishighestpraiseonthechocolatebeverageheencounteredinNewMexico:“…noonecanhesitatetodohomagetotheirincomparablechocolate,inthepreparationofwhichtheMexicanssurelyexceleveryotherpeople.”30

Unglazed cylinder jars, 10 in. H x 4 in. D; from Pueblo Bonito, Chaco Canyon, AD 1000-1125. American Museum of Natural History, New York. Photograph by Marianne Tyndall, courtesy of Patricia Crown.


HalfamillenniumbeforetheSpanishbroughtthetreasuredcacaoonthe1600-milejourneynorthtoNewMexicoonElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentro,AncestralPuebloansorMesoamericantradersmighthavecarrieditonthatverysameroutetoChacoCanyon.

InJanuary2009,PatriciaL.Crown,DistinguishedProfessorofAnthropologyattheUniversityofNewMexico,foundevidenceofcacaoinChacoCanyonfromAD1000–1125.Thefunctionof166unglazedcylindricaljarsatPuebloBonito,madeoflocalclay,hadlongpuzzledarchaelogists,especiallyDr.Crown.AfterlearningthattheMayahadusedvesselsofalmostidenticalshapeandsizeforchocolate,shehadsomesherdstested.Cacaoresidueswerepositivelyidentified!31

AmongthequestionssurroundingthisexcitingdiscoveryishowthecacaoarrivedatChacofromMesoamerica.Inwhatform?Raworprocessed?Forwhatpurpose?Acacheof102jarswerefoundinoneroomatPuebloBonito,suggestingritualuse.Andbywhatroutes?Dr.Crownlooksforwardtoexpandingthetimeperiodandgeographicalareaofhercacaoresearch,whichmightconfirmthepossibilitythattheveryfirstchocolateinNorthAmericaarrivedviaElCaminoRealdeTierraAdentro!32

Whatisitaboutchocolate?WhydidtheMayaandAztecsregarditassacred,andvalueitlikegold?WhymightSpanishladieshavemurderedabishopforit?WhydidAncestralPuebloanstransportittoPuebloBonito,over1600milesfromitssource?Theansweris—chemistry.Chocolatecontainscaffeineandtheobromine(thechocolatebiomarker),whicharebothalkaloidsandstimulants;serotonin,amood-liftinghormone;andphenylethylamine,anantidepressantandanti-stressagent.Or,as16th-centuryFranciscanBernardinodeSahagúnobserved,chocolate“...gladdensone,refreshesone,consolesone,invigoratesone.”33 And it tastes so good!

CATHERINE LÓPEZ KURLAND is co-editor of Chronicles oftheTrail and a member of CARTA’S Board of Directors. She is a historic preservationist and lives in Santa Fe.

Captions and photo credits, page 35: Chocolate Pot/Chocolatera, brass, Spain, 19th century.

Courtesy of Museum of Spanish Colonial Art, Collections of the Spanish Colonial Arts Society, Inc. (2001.48)

Molinillo, wood, Mexico or New Mexico, 19th century. Courtesy of Museum of Spanish Colonial Art, Collections of the Spanish Colonial Arts Society, Inc. (L5.1956.58)

ENDNOTES

1 SophieD.andMichaelD.Coe,The True History of Chocolate (NewYork:Thames&HudsonInc.,1996),185-186.

2 Ibid.,39.

3 Ibid,118.TheCoesdisputethegenerallyheldbeliefthat“chocolate”derivedfromchocolatl or xocoatl. Chocolate termi-nologyisconfusing.Cacaoistherawbean,chocolatethepro-cessedproduct,eitherabeverageorsolidconfection,andcocoaisatermusedsincethe1800sforthehotbeverage.

4 MarcyNorton,Sacred Gifts, Profane Pleasures: A History of Tobacco and Chocolate in the Atlantic World(IthacaandLondon:CornellUniversityPress,2008)28.

5 Ibid.,86.

6 Coe,98.

7 PatriciaCrownreportsthatarchaeologistshavediscoveredcounterfeitceramiccacaobeans.Lecture,“ChacoChocolate:TheRecoveryofCacaoatPuebloBonito,”RenesanInstituteforLife-longLearning,SantaFe,NM,March1,2010.

8 CarlaRahnPhillips,”Mercado,modasygustos:lascarga-zonesdeidayvuelta,”inEspaña y América: Un océano de nego-cios. Quinto Centenario de la Casa de la Contratación, 1503-2003, catalogforanexhibitioninhonorofthe500thanniversaryoftheHouseofTradeinSeville,Spain.(Seville:SociedadEstataldeConmemoracionesCulturales,2003),187-202.

9 “ChocolateinHistory,”www.chocolate.org/conquistador.htm.

10 DonnaPierce,“MayólicaintheDailyLifeofColonialMexico,”inCerámica y Cultura: The Story of Spanish and Mexican Mayólica, ed.RobinFarwellGavin,DonnaPierce,andAlfonsoPleguizuelo(Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,2003)249.

11 Coe,133.

12 Norton,141-142.

13 Producedbythehoneywasp(Brachygastra mellifica).

14 ThomasJeffersontoJohnAdams,Paris,27November1785,Adams Papers,UniversityofVirginiaPress.FoundersEarlyAccess,http://www.rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/FOEA-03-01-02-0386.

15 MariaCristinaSuarezyFarias,“OfColonialAmbianceandFlavor,” Artes de Mexico,no.36(1997):81.Puchasareatypeofpastry.

16Ibid.,80.

17 Coe,136.

18 CordeliaThomasSnow,Lecture,“LuxuryGoodsTransport-edovertheCaminoReal,”NewMexicoHistoryMuseum,SantaFe,January14,2010.


19 Pierce,264.

20 James,Ivey,“Seventeenth-CenturyMissionTrade,”El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro, comp.GabrielleG.Palmer,CulturalResourceSeries,no.11(SantaFe:BureauofLandManagement,1993)63.

21 Moorhead,MaxL.Moorhead,New Mexico’s Royal Road: Trade and Travel on the Chihuahua Trail(NormanandLondon:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1958)49.

22 DavidH.Snow,“PurchasedinChihuahuaforFeasts,”El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro, comp.GabrielleG.Palmer,Cul-turalResourceSeries,no.11(SantaFe:BureauofLandManagement,1993)143.

23LouisE.Grivetti, Chocolate: History, Culture and Heritage, HowardYana-Shapiro,(Hoboken,NJ:JohnWiley&Sons,2009)428.

24 JoséAntonioEsquibel,“TheTupatúandVargasAccords:OrchestratingPeaceinaTimeofUncertainty,1692-1696,”El Palacio 3,no.1(Spring2006):17.

25 FrancesLevine,“ThePalaceoftheGovernors:AWitnesstoHistory,”inSanta Fe: History of an Ancient City,ed.DavidGrantNoble(SantaFe:SchoolforAdvancedResearchPress,2008)113.

26 DavidH.Snow,142.

27Pierce,Donna,“Chocolate...orHowAmericaInvadedEu-rope,”El Paraje,(September2001)5.

28 SusanCalafateBoyle,Los Capitalistas: Hispano Merchants and the Santa Fe Trade (Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,1997)31.

29 SusanShelbyMagoffin,Down the Santa Fe Trail and Into New Mexico: The Diary of Susan Shelby Magoffin, 1846-1847,ed.StellaM.Drumm(NormanandLondon:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1926,1962)208.

30 JosiahGregg,Commerce of the Prairies, ed. MaxL.Moorhead(NormanandLondon:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1954) 110.

31 JeffreyHurst,seniorscientistforHershey,whohadcon-firmedcacaoresiduesinMayanvessels,foundthesamechemi-calprofileinsamplesofpotsherdsfromPuebloBonito.

32 BabyscarletmacawsandcopperbellsareknowntohavecomefromMesoamericatoChacoCanyonatthattime.

33Inmoderation,thatis.Thesentencebegins,“Whenanordinaryamountisdrunk...”BernardinodeSahagún,Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain,Book11,Earthly Things,AztectranslatedintoEnglishbyCharlesE.DibbleandArthurJ.O.Anderson,no.14,part12(SantaFe:SchoolofAmericanResearch,1963)119-120.ThankstolibrarianLauraHoltatSARforshowingmethesepages.

RECIPE: Hot ChocolateT’awe Qu’o’sebe’ q:po’ kakaw’ *

© 2010 Mark J. Sciscentiwww.worldtreechocolates.com

InordertoreplicateMesoamericanorAncestralPuebloanstylesofdrinkingchocolateonemustusefinequalityunsweetenedchocolate.HereisarecipethatmayreflecttheAncestralPuebloanstyleofdrinkingchocolate.

INGREDIENTS1½ozunsweetenedchocolate,finelychopped (notcocoapowder)1Cpurifiedwater(tapwaterwillleaveunpleasant flavors)1tspfarmersmarkethoney(oranyflavorful unheated/unprocessedhoney)

DIRECTIONSHeatwateruntiljusthot.Addchoppedchocolateandletsitforabout5minutes.Addhoney.Stirandwhiskuntilfrothy.Pourintoawarmedceramiccup.

*TheTewawordforhoneyis:qu’o’sebe’q:po’andthewordforhoneywaspis:t’awe.TheTewaspeakingpeoplesliveintheregionsofNewMexicoalongtheRioGrandeRiverandarethedescendantsoftheAncestralPuebloanpeoples.

AcknowledgementsI am indebted to Mark Sciscenti for generously sharing his

vast knowledge of chocolate. The traditional recipe above is from his comprehensive website, www.worldtreechocolates.com.

It was through Mark that I learned that Dr. Crown would be giving a lecture at the Renesan Institute for Lifelong Learning, which President Ron Mandelbaum kindly invited me to attend. Renesan is one of Santa Fe’s hidden treasures; their lectures and field trips are posted on www.renesan.org.

Dr. Crown gave a stimulating talk, clearly explaining the process leading to her findings, with good images—and humor! She also gave me permission to publish her photograph of the cylinder jars, for which I am very grateful.

Many thanks to Patricia Crown, Robin Gavin, David McNeece, Josef Díaz, Jana Gottshalk, Paul Smutko, and Kate Nelson for graciously providing photographs and/or permissions for this article.


WilliamR.Goulding,California Odyssey: an Overland Journey on the Southern Trails, 1849,editedbyPatriciaA.EtterwithforewordbyHowardR.Lamar.ArthurH.ClarkCompany,Norman,Oklahoma,2009.Hardcover;$45.00. WilliamR.Goulding,amakeroffinesurgicalinstruments,trekkedfromhishomeinNewYorkCitytoSanFranciscobythesouthernroutein1849.Whenhesetout,heintendedtolookforgold.WhenhearrivedinSanFrancisco,hechangedhismindandtookpassagebyseabacktoNewYork.Throughouthisadventurehekeptajournal,whichhasnowbeeneditedbyPatriciaEtterandpublishedbyArthurH.ClarkCo.Goulding’salmostdailyentriesdescribetherouteindetailfromFortSmith,Arkansas,toSanFrancisco.FollowingtrailspioneeredbyCaptainRandolphB.MarcyfromFortSmithtoSantaFe,andbyCaptainPhilipSt.GeorgeCookefromSantaFetotheYumacrossing,GouldingandhisNewYorkKnickerbockerExploringCompanytraversedplains,mountains,desertandtheCaliforniacoastalarea.Thesizeoftheirgroupgrewandebbedassomefolloweddifferentroutesorpursuedotheractivities.Goulding,however,neverwaveredfromhisjourney,althoughhesometimesstoppedforseveraldaystogivethemenandanimalsarest,ortolearnaboutacommunity.

ArrivinginSantaFe,hevisitedfellowmedicalprofessionals,talkedwithmilitaryofficers,andgenerallyenjoyedthehospitalityandsightsofthesmalltown.Afterattendingafandangoinitiatedbythelocalladies,Goulding’sopinionofSantaFeinhabitantsroseabit.LeavingSantaFe,thesmallgroupofsixmenstarteddowntheSantaFeRiver,cutacrosssomemesaland,andeventuallyreachedtheRioGrande.TheirroutefollowedtheCaminoRealmuchofthewaytoAlbuquerque.LeavingAlbuquerque,thepartystayedontheeastbank,tracingtheCaminoRealsouthtoLemitar.Gouldingdescribedthecountryas“mostlybarren,sandyandhillywithasmallscatteringofcasasandranchosinthedistance.”AtPolvadera,theyattendedafuneralandafandango,whichtheyfoundinteresting.ThepartycrossedtheRioGrandeatLemitar. FromLemitarsouthtopresent-dayTruthorConsequences,thepartyfollowedthewestbankoftheriver.SeveraldayswerespentintheSocorroarea.FromTruthorConsequencesGouldingandhispartyturnedsouthwestfollowingCooke’sroute.ThedescriptionsofElCaminoRealareshortbutengaging.Thewholejournalisfascinating.Etterhasprovidedgoodmaps,makingthejournaleasytofollow.Theeditingisexcellent.Afinebibliographyandindexareincluded.Foranyoneinterestedintravelsofthe‘49ersandothersacrossthetrans-MississippiWest,thisisamust-read.

JO TICE BLOOM is a retired history professor who is currently teaching New Mexico history at the New Mexico Farm & Ranch Heritage Museum. She lives in Las Cruces with her husband, John Porter Bloom.

BOOK REVIEWbyJoTiceBloom

WilliamR.Goulding,California Odyssey: an Overland Journey on the Southern Trails, 1849PatriciaA.Etter,editor

El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro Trail Association (CARTA)PO Box 15162Las Cruces, New Mexico 88004-5162

Tortugas,NewMexico,fromphotographicmural,“AlmadelPueblo”