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Quaternary Science Reviews 89 (2014) 5e12

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Quaternary Science Reviews

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10Be surface exposure ages on the late-Pleistocene and Holocenehistory of Linnébreen on Svalbard

Melissa Reusche a, Kelsey Winsor a, Anders E. Carlson b,*, Shaun A. Marcott b,Dylan H. Rood c,d, Anthony Novak b, Steven Roof e, Michael Retelle f, Alan Werner g,Marc Caffee h, Peter U. Clark b

aGeoscience, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USAbCollege of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University, USAc Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre, University of Glasgow, East Kilbride, G75 0QF Scotland, UKd Earth Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USAe School of Natural Science, Hampshire College, Amherst, MA, USAfGeology, Bates College, Lewiston, ME, USAgGeology, Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, MA, USAh Earth and Atmospheric Sciences & Physics, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 29 August 2013Received in revised form24 January 2014Accepted 28 January 2014Available online

Keywords:Svalbard glaciersLate PleistoceneHoloceneNeoglacialLittle Ice Age

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ1 541 737 3625.E-mail address: acarlson@coas.oregonstate.edu (A

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.01.0170277-3791/� 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

a b s t r a c t

Arctic glaciers were sensitive to past changes in high-latitude winter precipitation and summertemperature. Here we develop a late-Pleistocene to Holocene history for Linnébreen (Linné Glacier) inwestern Svalbard using 10Be surface exposure ages on isolated erratic and moraine boulders. We showthat Linnébreen had separated from the larger ice sheet over Svalbard and was retreating up valleyaround the start of the Younger Dryas cold period. We attribute this retreat during a cold period onSvalbard to moisture starvation of Linnébreen from advanced sea ice and/or elevated shortwave borealsummer insolation that overwhelmed any reduction in sensible heat. After an ice-free period duringthe early to middle Holocene, Linnébreen reformed sometime after 4.6 � 0.2 ka, and was at a positionroughly equivalent to its Little Ice Age (LIA) maximum extent before it began to retreat at 1.6 � 0.2 ka.Comparison with calibrated 14C dates from three other glaciers could suggest that this period of iceretreat at w1.6 ka could be regional in extent. Linnébreen occupied the pre-LIA moraine when therewas an increased ratio of cold Arctic-sourced relative to warm Atlantic-sourced waters around Sval-bard and advanced sea ice. The retreat of Linnébreen at w1.6 ka was concurrent with the increasedpresence of warm Atlantic waters around Svalbard and attendant sea-ice retreat. These coincidentchanges in ocean temperatures, sea-ice extent, and Linnébreen moraine age could imply a climaticforcing of the pre-LIA advance and retreat of Linnébreen. Summer temperatures, rather than changesin precipitation, would then be dominant in driving ice retreat, although the possibility of stochasticglacier-margin variability cannot be excluded. Our data therefore suggest that Linnébreen may haveresponded differently to past changes in sea-ice extent that could depend on the background climatestate (deglacial climate vs. late-Holocene climate), which highlights the complexity in climatic con-trols on Arctic glaciers.

� 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

A potential feedback from Arctic warming in response toanthropogenic climate change is an increase in the hydrologic cycleas sea-ice retreats (Rawlins et al., 2010; Ghatak et al., 2012).

.E. Carlson).

Increased precipitation could partially offset the effects of thewarmer climate on many Arctic glaciers (e.g., Day et al., 2012),reducing the predicted contribution of Arctic glaciers to global sea-level rise (e.g., Radi�c and Hock, 2011; Marzeion et al., 2012, 2014;Radi�c et al., 2014). Documenting the response of Arctic glaciers topast changes in Arctic climate and sea ice, during the last deglaci-ation and the Holocene, is a means for assessing the importance ofthis potential negative feedback from sea-ice retreat (e.g., Jansenet al., 2007).

Fig. 1. Digital elevation map of Svalbard and surrounding bathymetry, with insetshowing location with black rectangle (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis-tration, National Geophysical Data Center: http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/topo/).Black circles are glacier chronology locations and red stars are marine core records.Numbering is as follows. (1) Linnédalen and Linnébreen (our study; Svendsen andMangerud, 1997; Snyder et al., 2000; D’Andrea et al., 2012), (2) Liefdefjorden (Furreret al., 1991), (3) Conwaybreen (Werner, 1993) and Olssønbreen (Henriksen et al.,2013), (4) Smutsbreen (Werner, 1993), (5) Scottbreen (Mangerud and Landvik, 2007),(6) Isfjorden (Forwick and Vorren, 2009; Rasmussen et al., 2012), (7) Van Mijefjorden(Hald et al., 2004), (8) Longyearbreen (Humlum et al., 2005), (9) Werenskioldbreen(Baranowski and Karlén, 1976), (10) marine cores MSM5/5-712-1 and -712-2(Spielhagen et al., 2011; Müller et al., 2012; Werner et al., 2013), (11) marine coreGIK23258-2 (Sarnthein et al., 2003), and (12) marine core NP05-21 GC (Rasmussenet al., 2013). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, thereader is referred to the web version of this article.)

M. Reusche et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 89 (2014) 5e126

The last deglaciation (20e6 ka) was an interval of generalwarming in response to changes in Earth’s orbit and to risinggreenhouse gas concentrations (Shakun and Carlson, 2010; Clarket al., 2012; Shakun et al., 2012). Abrupt cold events punctuatedthis pattern of general warming, including the Younger Dryas coldperiod (12.9e11.7 ka), which followed the Bølling-Allerød warmperiod (14.6e12.9 ka) (Svensson et al., 2008). The Younger Dryaswas a return towards glacial conditions over much of Europe andSvalbard, with an advance of sea ice (Denton et al., 2005; Shakunand Carlson, 2010; Carlson, 2013). An ice sheet covered Svalbardat the Last Glacial Maximum and had significantly retreated by thetime of the Younger Dryas, leaving many isolated valley glaciers(e.g., Henriksen et al., 2013; Hormes et al., 2013; Landvik et al.,2013). It is unclear if these valley glaciers advanced or retreatedin response to Younger Dryas cooling, the resolution of whichwould help in understanding how sea-ice change impacts Svalbardglaciers (e.g., Mangerud and Landvik, 2007; Henriksen et al., 2013;Hormes et al., 2013).

The latter part of the Holocene (i.e., the last 4 ka) representsanother interval of variable Arctic climate. Northern Hemisphereclimate generally cooled during the mid-to-late Holocene inresponse to declining boreal summer insolation (Marcott et al.,2013), with the coldest Arctic conditions occurring during the Lit-tle Ice Age (LIA) (Kaufman et al., 2009; Wanner et al., 2011).Northern Hemisphere glaciers and ice caps generally advanced inresponse to this cooling trend, with the majority of glaciersreaching their maximum extent during the LIA, implying that themost glacial or coldest conditions existed during that period of theHolocene (Jansen et al., 2007; Miller et al., 2010). However, there isincreasing evidence for a more complicated Arctic-cryosphereresponse to late-Holocene climate change (Baranowski andKarlén, 1976; Furrer et al., 1991; Werner, 1993; Humlum et al.,2005; D’Andrea et al., 2012; Müller et al., 2012; Badding et al.,2013; Levy et al., 2013). On Svalbard, lichenometric ages sug-gested that moraines outboard of LIA moraines were late Holocenein age (Werner, 1993). However, the lichen growth curves usedwere applied beyond their calibration range of w300 years, withthe large uncertainties in this extrapolation precluding confirma-tion of precisely when such advances occurred (Werner, 1993) andwhether they were in response to regional climate change(D’Andrea et al., 2012; Müller et al., 2012) or reflected stochasticglacier variability (e.g., Roe and O’Neal, 2005; Roe, 2011).

Herewe use 10Be surface exposure ages on boulders to constrainthe late-Pleistocene and late-Holocene history of Linnébreen(bre ¼ glacier) in Linnédalen (dal ¼ valley), western Spitsbergen,Svalbard (Fig. 1). With our new 10Be chronology for Linnébreen, weinvestigate the timing and underlying mechanisms that potentiallydrove past glacier retreat on Svalbard.

2. Setting and methods

Linnédalen is located at the mouth of Isfjorden, on Spitsbergen,Svalbard (Fig. 1). Linnédalen is a tributary valley that opens to thenorth, with land-terminating Linnébreen at its head (Fig. 2). The icemargin is currently retreating within its LIA moraine. Althoughglaciers on Svalbard can exhibit surge behavior, Linnébreen has notshown any evidence of such surge-type behavior (Svendsen andMangerud, 1997). Down valley of the LIA moraine is an outwashplain hosting Linnéelva (elva¼ river), which flows into the glaciallyfed Linnévatnet (vatnet ¼ lake) (Fig. 2). A series of beach terracesseparate the lake from Isfjorden (Svendsen and Mangerud, 1997).The bedrock in Linnédalen is mainly Carboniferous silica-cementedmeta-sandstone.

Svalbard has an Arctic continental climate. The Longyearbyenmeteorological station (Fig. 1, point 8) shows average western

Svalbard summer temperatures of þ4 to þ6 �C, winter tempera-tures of �16 to �11 �C, and mean-annual temperatures of �4to �8 �C over the last century (Førland and Hanssen-Bauer, 2003;Humlum et al., 2003). Annual precipitation is 125e225 mm yr�1

near Longyearbyen, but is likely higher in Linnévatnet on thewestern Svalbard coast (Førland and Hanssen-Bauer, 2003).

Ice completely covered Linnédalen and surrounding peaksthroughout the Last Glacial Maximum (Hormes et al., 2013;Landvik et al., 2013). During the last deglaciation as ice becameconfined to Linnédalen (e.g., Landvik et al., 2013), local sea levelreached the marine limit of 64 m above modern sea level atw12.8 ka (Landvik et al., 1987), flooding the floor of the valleyuntil isostatic uplift isolated the valley from the ocean byw10.9 ka(Mangerud and Svendsen, 1990). Large deglacial boulders arepresent in Linnédalen above the 64 m marine limit and themodern day outwash plain of Linnébreen (Figs. 3a and b). Allboulders examined in the fore field of Linnébreen are of the localmeta-sandstone lithology.

The LIA moraine is still ice-cored and Linnébreen began retreatfrom this moraine after 1936 based on air photo observations(Fig. 2) (Svendsen and Mangerud, 1997). Outboard of the right

Fig. 2. Linnédalen and Linnébreen field area (Fig. 1, point 1). Red line is the LIAmoraine of Linnébreen. 10Be ages from the pre-LIA, late-Holocene moraine (yellowline) are shown in the yellow box. Asterisk indicates a sample processed at OregonState University. Italics denote a sample with inheritance. The deglacial 10Be samplelocations are shown by the blue dots with ages indicated (italics indicates a samplewith inheritance). Pink stars are other records from Linnédalen: (1) Linnévatnetsediment record (Svendsen and Mangerud, 1997), (2) Linnévatnet sediment record(Snyder et al., 2000), and (3) Kongressvatnet (Kong-B) alkenone record (D’Andrea et al.,2012). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader isreferred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 3. Photographs of the study area. (a) Photo taken from deglacial sample LW13 (see Fig. 3and LIA moraines are indicated. (b) Photo of deglacial sample LW13 on the western side of thcrest, looking south, showing the subtle two-ridge relief. Note Linnébreen and its LIA morainterpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the

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lateral LIA moraine of Linnébreen is an older moraine thought to belate Holocene in age (Fig. 2), based on its location and lichenometricdata (Werner, 1993). The top of the moraine has two low-reliefridges (<1 m) (Fig. 3c). Werner (1993) considered the moraine tobe deposited in a single advance rather than multiple advancesbecause there was no discernable difference in crest age or evi-dence of crosscutting relationships. Most of the rocks in the LIA andpre-LIA moraines are the local meta-sandstone lithology.

We collected surface samples for cosmogenic nuclide mea-surements from 17 large boulders from the crest of the pre-LIAmoraine outboard of the LIA moraine of Linnébreen (Figs. 2, 3cand d; Table 1). Another five samples were collected from indi-vidual bouldersw0.5 km down valley of the LIAmoraine (Figs. 2, 3aand b; Table 1). These five samples were >64 m above modern sealevel, the height of the marine limit, and thus date last deglacial iceretreat in the valley (Landvik et al., 1987). All sampled boulderswere >0.75 m in height and had >25% lichen cover (genus Rhizo-carpon) to exclude boulders experiencing recent exhumation orexcessive snow cover (Gosse and Phillips, 2001). Topographicshielding, thickness, and GPS coordinates were recorded for eachsample (Table 1).

Samples were prepared at the University of WisconsineMadi-son (n ¼ 11 late Holocene; n ¼ 5 late Pleistocene) and Oregon StateUniversity (n ¼ 6 late Holocene). All samples were crushed andseparated into sand size, with magnetic grains then removed.Following etching in acid, quartz purity was checked by ICP-OES.After addition of a 9Be carrier (1 ml of w240 9Be mg mL�1 carrierat UWeMadison, 0.25 ml of w1000 9Be mg mL�1 carrier at OregonState), each sample was dissolved in hydrofluoric acid, with BeOisolated through column chemistry and precipitation techniques.The samples processed at UWeMadison used the OSU-Blue carrier,which has a 10Be/9Be ratio of w4e�16 (Murray et al., 2012). UWe

Madison samples weremeasured by acceleratormass spectrometry(AMS) at the Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre

b) looking southeast toward Linnébreen. The location of the pre-LIA late-Holocene (LH)e valley, down valley of the LIA moraine. (c) Photo of the pre-LIA late-Holocene moraineine on the right. (d) Photo of late-Holocene sample NG8 on the pre-LIA moraine. (Forweb version of this article.)

Table 1Sample information.

Sample Latitude Longitude Elevation Thickness Shielding 10Be 1 s

(DD) (DD) (m asl) (cm) Correction Atoms g�1 Atoms g�1

NG1 77.972622 13.942111 187 3.0 0.99 4774 878NG2 77.973142 13.942233 187 3.0 0.98 7177 1015NG3 77.973278 13.942150 184 2.0 0.98 17,917 1339NG4 77.971894 13.942939 197 2.5 0.99 8425 1090NG5 77.972814 13.942186 187 2.0 1.00 8486 1046NG6 77.973075 13.942261 185 2.5 1.00 7866 996NG7 77.971408 13.944533 199 3.5 0.99 10,727 1157NG8 77.972564 13.943592 195 2.5 0.99 4286 876NG10 77.972978 13.944125 190 2.0 0.99 2410 960NG11 77.972564 13.943592 195 3.5 0.99 12,468 1165NG12 77.973406 13.944564 190 2.5 1.00 5858 841LW13b 77.984286 13.923883 109 2.5 1.00 58,598 2311LW15b 77.980078 13.878556 113 4.0 0.99 104,399 2885LW16b 77.976264 13.875319 121 2.5 0.99 62,094 2469LW17b 77.985658 13.911617 72 2.0 1.00 70,616 2350LW18b 77.984489 13.913458 74 3.0 1.00 53,218 2215LGRL-01a 77.976944 13.949722 150 2.0 1.00 5731 1166LGRL-02a 77.976944 13.949722 150 2.0 1.00 12,581 2879LGRL-03a 77.976944 13.949722 178 2.0 1.00 3844 1109LGRL-05a 77.976944 13.949722 190 2.0 0.99 7877 1278LGRL-06a 77.976944 13.949722 191 2.0 0.99 9480 1307LGRL-07a 77.976944 13.949722 196 2.0 0.99 13,498 3774

asl ¼ above sea level.a Indicates a sample measured at PRIME, all the rest measured at SUERC.b Sample has undergone isostatic uplift; elevations should be reduced 20 m for exposure age calculation.

M. Reusche et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 89 (2014) 5e128

in February and April of 2013. The two procedural blanks were4.0e�15 � 0.6e�15 and 2.0e�15 � 0.4e�15 10Be/9Be. The samplesprocessed at Oregon State used the Merck carrier (Licciardi, 2000)and were measured by AMS at PRIME Lab at Purdue University,with a procedural blank of w1.9e�15 10Be/9Be, characteristic ofsamples processed with this low-level commercial carrier(Licciardi, 2000; Rinterknecht, 2003) (see Table S1 for full 10Bedata).

We used the online CRONUS-Earth calculator (Balco et al.,2008) to calculate the ages of our samples (Table 2) with thenortheast North American 10Be production rate (Balco et al.,2009), which is applicable to the Arctic (Fenton et al., 2011;Briner et al., 2012; Goehring et al., 2012; Young et al., 2013). Weuse the Lal/Stone (L/S) time-varying production-rate scalingscheme in our discussion of the results (Lal, 1991; Stone, 2000;Balco et al., 2008, 2009); use of a different scaling scheme re-sults in <6% age difference (Table 2), and therefore does not affectour conclusions. For all 10Be ages, we do not correct for snow coverand assume that our boulders would readily experience snowremoval due to their exposure to winds (<5% effect on age; Gosseand Phillips, 2001; Day et al., 2012). Additionally, there is noobservable trend in boulder height versus age, suggesting thatsnow cover effect is minimal. We also do not correct for erosion,given the young age of our samples (i.e., late-glacial and late-Holocene age). We correct for the isostatic uplift that late-Pleistocene age boulders have undergone since deglaciation bycalculating the integrated average elevation of each sample fromregional relative sea-level curves (Landvik et al., 1987), whichreduces boulder elevations by w20 m when calculating theirproduction rate. We excluded outliers using Chauvenet’s criterion(Balco, 2011). Because the scatter in our ages is described by theanalytical uncertainty of the dates and because the ages are nor-mally distributed based on ShapiroeWilk’s normality tests, weuse an arithmetic mean age with the standard error of the mean todefine the timing of moraine abandonment. Alternatively, usingan error-weighted mean does not affect our results or our con-clusions (i.e., means are <0.1 ka different from each other).

3. Results

Our deglacial 10Be results are shown in Fig. 4a. Two of the fiveboulder ages w0.5 km down valley of Linnébreen are significantlyolder than the other three (Figs. 2 and 4a) (LW15, 23.3 � 0.6 ka;LW17, 16.2 � 0.5 ka) and thus likely contain inherited 10Be (e.g.,Jessen et al., 2010; Hormes et al., 2013). Because the remainingthree 10Be boulder ages are not from a discrete landform, they arenot averaged together. Rather, the three 10Be ages are interpreted asdocumenting Linnébreen retreat up valley between 13.6 � 0.5 kaand 12.3 � 0.5 ka (Fig. 5e).

Our late-Holocene 10Be results are shown in Fig. 4b. Chauvenet’scriterion identifies one statistical outlier in 10Be boulder ages on thepre-LIAmoraine crest (NG3, 3.6� 0.3 ka), which likely is affected by10Be inheritance (Fig. 4b). The remaining 16 boulder ages from thepre-LIA moraine date ice retreat from the moraine at 1.6 � 0.2 ka(Fig. 5e).

4. Late-Pleistocene and early Holocene Linnébreen retreat

The three 10Be ages outboard of the pre-LIA and LIA morainesindicate that Linnébreen had separated from the ice sheet over thewest coast of Svalbard by 13.6 � 0.5 ka to 12.3 � 0.5 ka (blue di-amonds in Fig. 5e), transitioning into a local valley glacier system(e.g., Hormes et al., 2013; Landvik et al., 2013). Because thesesamples were collected above the marine limit, they record thefinal deglacial retreat of Linnébreen, not the emergence of thevalley from the ocean due to isostatic rebound (Landvik et al., 1987).Our timing of Linnébreen isolation and retreat agrees with overallSvalbard deglaciation and the timing of the regional marine limit.At the Last Glacial Maximum, the ice sheet extended onto thewestern continental shelf of Svalbard, and ice-sheet retreat waswell underway by 15e14 ka (Mangerud and Svendsen, 1990; Lønneand Mangerud, 1991; Forman et al., 1993; Svendsen and Mangerud,1997; Henriksen et al., 2013; Hormes et al., 2013; Landvik et al.,2013). The marine limit near Linnédalen is dated at w12.8 ka(Landvik et al., 1987), consistent with our 10Be ages showing an

Table 2Sample ages for different scaling schemes.

Sample Internal 1 s L/S Constant, yrs External 1 s Desiletsvarying, yrs

External 1 s Dunaivarying, yrs

External 1 s Liftonvarying, yrs

External 1 s L/S varying, yrs External 1 s

NG1 173 942 179 932 177 917 174 892 170 955 182NG2 202 1428 213 1413 211 1390 208 1355 203 1448 217NG3 265 3542 315 3503 313 3445 308 3400 303 3592 320NG4 212 1634 226 1618 224 1592 220 1553 215 1658 229NG5 204 1654 219 1637 217 1610 214 1571 208 1678 222NG6 195 1542 209 1525 207 1500 204 1463 199 1564 212NG7 226 2093 247 2073 245 2039 241 1995 236 2123 251NG8 171 838 176 830 174 816 172 795 167 850 179NG10 187 470 189 465 187 458 184 447 179 477 191NG11 229 2445 257 2421 255 2380 251 2337 246 2480 261NG12 164 1142 173 1131 171 1112 169 1083 164 1159 176LW13b 505 12,753 795 12,496 786 12,290 774 12,265 771 12,933 811LW15b 639 22,997 1281 22,543 1271 22,169 1251 21,970 1236 23,323 1308LW16b 534 13,385 837 13,133 829 12,916 816 12,878 812 13,574 854LW17b 534 15,972 937 15,576 923 15,321 909 15,249 903 16,197 956LW18b 505 12,096 771 11,800 759 11,607 747 11,598 745 12,267 786LGRL-01a 236 1161 243 1145 240 1126 236 1097 230 1177 246LGRL-02a 584 2549 596 2513 588 2472 579 2430 569 2585 605LGRL-03a 218 756 221 747 219 735 215 716 210 766 224LGRL-05a 250 1541 261 1525 258 1500 254 1462 248 1562 265LGRL-06a 255 1852 271 1833 268 1803 264 1762 258 1878 275LGRL-07a 734 2624 745 2598 738 2555 726 2511 713 2661 756

All ages calculated with 0 erosion, density of 2.7 g cm�3.Internal error is 1 s AMS uncertainties only propagated in quadrature with associated blank uncertainties.External error is 1 s including uncertainties in production rate model and scaling scheme (Balco et al., 2008).

a Indicates a sample measured at PRIME, all the rest measured at SUERC.b Ages calculated with 20 m of uplift correction.

M. Reusche et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 89 (2014) 5e12 9

isolated valley glacier in Linnédalen by 13.6 � 0.5 ka to12.3 � 0.5 ka.

The final deglacial retreat of Linnébreen coincides with thetransition from the Allerød warm period to the beginning ofYounger Dryas cold period (Svensson et al., 2008) (Fig. 5b and e).Because our deglacial samples are from isolated 10Be boulders andno moraines exist between the boulders and Linnébreen’s late-Holocene moraines, we infer that Linnébreen continued retreatafterw12.3 ka to within its late-Holocene extent (Fig. 2). Retreat ofLinnébreen during the Younger Dryas cold period is consistent withother glacial records on Svalbard. Similar to Linnébreen, tidewaterglaciers weremore advanced than present in Svalbard fjords duringthe Younger Dryas (Figs. 1 and 5d) (Hald et al., 2004; Forwick andVorren, 2009; Jessen et al., 2010; Hormes et al., 2013). 14C datesfrom terraces and sediment overrun by valley glaciers during theLIA show that these glaciers were already gone or retreating duringthe Younger Dryas: 13.2 � 0.1 ka for Scottbreen (Mangerud andLandvik, 2007), 11.7 � 0.3 ka for Smutsbreen (Werner, 1993), and13.6� 0.1 ka for glaciers in Liefdefjorden (Furrer et al., 1991) (Fig. 1;red bars in Fig. 5e). The retreat of Linnébreen and possibly otherSvalbard glaciers during the Younger Dryas, a presumably cold

Fig. 4. 10Be age results for the (a) deglacial samples (diamonds) and (b) late-Holocenesamples (circles). Open symbols denote statistical outliers based on Chauvenet’scriterion.

period on Svalbard, could reflect a reduction in glacier accumula-tion possibly associated with the growth of sea ice (Mangerud andLandvik, 2007). Elevated summer shortwave radiative forcing(Fig. 5a) may also have overwhelmed a reduction in sensible heatduring the Younger Dryas. In contrast to these records of glacierretreat or retraction, Henriksen et al. (2013) suggested that adifferent local valley glacier, Olssønbreen, may have deposited amoraine during the Younger Dryas (Fig. 1, point 3). This suggestionis, however, based on two 10Be ages from themoraine of 9.2�1.1 kaand 12.1 � 0.9 ka (blue triangles in Fig. 5e), raising a question as tothe precise age of the moraine, particularly because the older age isfrom a small cobble rather than a boulder. It is also still uncertainhow the larger ice caps that persisted on Svalbard during theYounger Dryas responded to this cold period (Hormes et al., 2013).

The sediment record from Linnévatnet provides constraints onthe behavior of Linnébreen during the early Holocene. Svendsenand Mangerud (1997) suggested that the lack of regular lamina-tions and the slow sedimentation rates in Linnévatnet after it wasisolated from the ocean by w10.9 ka (Mangerud and Svendsen,1990) indicated the complete deglaciation of Linnébreen in theearly Holocene, likely in response to elevated boreal summerinsolation and attendant Arctic warming (Figs. 1 and 5aec)(Sarnthein et al., 2003; Hald et al., 2004; Marcott et al., 2013;Werner et al., 2013). Another record from Linnévatnet suggestscomplete deglaciation of a small cirque west of the lake during theHolocene (Fig. 2) (Snyder et al., 2000). In contrast, ice-rafted debrisrecords in Svalbard fjords indicate that tidewater glaciers stillendured through the early Holocene (Fig. 5d) (Hald et al., 2004;Forwick and Vorren, 2009; Jessen et al., 2010). Whether otherglaciers on Svalbard disappeared during the early Holocene is notdirectly documented. The limited lacustrine and fjord data onglacier presence or absence suggests that the smaller valley glaciersmay have had a larger response to early Holocene warmth than thelarger tidewater glaciers. Additional information on whether othervalley glaciers completely deglaciated on Svalbard during the Ho-locene is, however, needed to further test this hypothesis.

Fig. 5. Late-Pleistocene to Holocene climate and Svalbard-glacier records. (a) Borealsummer insolation at 78�N (Laskar et al., 2004). (b) NGRIP d18O (Svensson et al., 2008).(c) Two proxy-based temperature reconstructions for 30-90�N (purple; Marcott et al.,2013) and the high Arctic (blue; Kaufman et al., 2009). (d) Fjord ice-rafted debris re-cords from Van Mijefjorden (green; Hald et al., 2004) and Isfjorden (black; Forwick andVorren, 2009) (see Fig. 1). (e) Svalbard glacier chronology with respect to latitude onthe island. Linnébreen is constrained by 10Be ages (diamonds are deglacial and circle islate-Holocene average; this study), 14C dates from Linnévatnet non-glacial sedimentshowing ice absence (red bars), glacial sediment showing ice presence (blue bars), anddirect LIA moraine observations (blue square) (Svendsen and Mangerud, 1997).Scottbreen, Smutsbreen and Liefdefjorden glacier chronologies are from overridden 14Cdated material (red bars) and observed LIA position (blue squares) (Furrer et al., 1991;Werner, 1993; Mangerud and Landvik, 2007). Olssønbreen is dated by 10Be dates (bluetriangles) (Henriksen et al., 2013). The horizontal yellow bars indicate intervals wherethese glaciers were smaller than their LIA extent and potentially deglaciated. (Forinterpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred tothe web version of this article.)

M. Reusche et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 89 (2014) 5e1210

5. Late-Holocene Linnébreen variability

Svendsen and Mangerud (1997) concluded that the onset ofregularly laminated sediment in the Linnévatnet record suggestsLinnébreen reoccupied its cirque after 4.6 � 0.2 ka (youngest redbar in Fig. 5e) and before 2.8 � 0.1 ka (oldest blue bar in Fig. 5e),likely in response to regional climate cooling as boreal summerinsolation declined (Fig. 5aeb; Sarnthein et al., 2003; Hald et al.,2004; Marcott et al., 2013; Werner et al., 2013). Our 10Be agesfrom the moraine just outboard of the LIA moraine show thatLinnébreen achieved an extent roughly comparable to its LIA extent(Fig. 2) before starting to retreat at 1.6 � 0.2 ka (blue circle inFig. 6c). The continued presence of laminated sedimentation in theLinnévatnet record suggests that Linnébreen did not completelydisappear after w1.6 ka before readvancing to its LIA position(Svendsen and Mangerud, 1997).

Based on peaks in glacier-sourced sediments, four late-Holoceneadvances of Linnébreen were inferred from the Linnévatnet sedi-mentary record at w2.8 ka, w2.4 ka, w1.5 ka, and during the LIA(Svendsen and Mangerud, 1997). However, only two late-HoloceneLinnébreen moraines are preserved in Linnédalen (Fig. 2). We nowprecisely date ice retreat from the outer moraine at 1.6 � 0.2 ka,which suggests that the earlier possible glacier advances inferredby Svendsen and Mangerud (1997) were likely less extensive than

the 1.6 � 0.2 ka and LIA advances. Our 10Be ages also help resolvethe interpretation of the Linnévatnet sedimentation record withrespect to ice-margin position. The sedimentation rate in Linné-vatnet began to increase before w1.4 ka, reached a maximum atw0.7 ka, and then decreased toward present (Fig. 6d). This increasein sedimentation rate is concurrent with our dated moraine aban-donment atw1.6 ka and therefore likely reflects increased ablationof and runoff from Linnébreen, while the decrease after w0.7 kalikely records reduced Linnébreen ablation as the ice marginadvanced to its LIA maximum that it occupied up to 1930 C.E.(Svendsen and Mangerud, 1997).

Although limited, several records from other glaciers on Sval-bard suggest that the retreat of Linnébreen at w1.6 ka could havebeen more than just a local phenomenon. 14C dates from in situmosses beneath Longyearbreen (Fig. 1) indicate an interval ofretracted ice from 1.8 � 0.1 ka to 1.2 � 0.1 ka (Humlum et al., 2005)(Fig. 6c). Similarly, three 14C dates frommoss between a pre-LIA tilland a LIA till at Werenskioldbreen (Fig. 1) show ice had retreatedbetween 1.5 � 0.3 ka and 0.7 � 0.2 ka (Fig. 6c) (Baranowski andKarlén, 1976). Ten 14C dates on organic materials that were subse-quently overrun by glaciers advancing during the LIA documentsmaller-than-LIA ice in Liefdefjorden between 1.4 � 0.1 ka and0.4 � 0.1 ka (Fig. 6c) (Furrer et al., 1991). Together, these dataindicate that at least two glaciers (Linnébreen and Were-nskioldbreen) were retreating on Svalbard around w1.6 ka, whileLongyearbreen and glaciers in Liefdefjordenwere also smaller thantheir LIA extents before w1.8 and w1.4 ka, respectively (Fig. 6c).Because these glacier records are from northern, central, andsouthern parts of Svalbard (Fig. 1), we suggest that this glacierretreat, or interval of retracted glaciers, could be climatically drivenrather than reflect local stochastic glacier variability (Roe andO’Neal, 2005; Roe, 2011).

Foraminifera records indicate that the waters west of Svalbardwere sourced from the warm Atlantic during the early to middleHolocene, with the sea-ice edge likely located north of the island(Sarnthein et al., 2003; Funder et al., 2011; Müller et al., 2012;Rasmussen et al., 2012, 2013; Werner et al., 2013). The waterswest of Svalbard switched to a colder Arctic source w4 ka (Fig. 6a)as sea-ice advanced (Sarnthein et al., 2003; Funder et al., 2011;Müller et al., 2012; Rasmussen et al., 2012, 2013; Werner et al.,2013). However, the water source (Arctic vs. Atlantic) also becamevolatile in the late Holocene, with centennial scale switches inwater source (Fig. 6a) (Sarnthein et al., 2003; Spielhagen et al.,2011; Müller et al., 2012; Rasmussen et al., 2012, 2013; Werneret al., 2013). Following an interval of predominately Arctic waterswest of Svalbard with advanced sea ice 2.8e1.8 ka, Atlantic waterspenetrated northward 1.8e0.6 ka (Fig. 6a) (Sarnthein et al., 2003;Spielhagen et al., 2011; Werner et al., 2013), concurrent with sea-ice retreat (Funder et al., 2011; Müller et al., 2012). An alkenonesummer air-temperature record fromKongressvatnet (lake Kong-B)in Linnédalen (Fig. 2) documents warm summer air temperaturesconcurrent with Atlantic water presence west of Svalbard (Fig. 6b)(D’Andrea et al., 2012). Unfortunately, ice cores on Svalbard onlyextend back tow1.2 ka (Isaksson et al., 2005; Divine et al., 2011) sowe cannot determine if the warm waters west of Svalbard 1.8e0.6 ka caused warmer winters on the archipelago.

This period of warmer Svalbard climate 1.8e0.6 ka is concurrent,within dating uncertainties, with the retreat of Linnébreen andWerenskioldbreen, as well as the interval of retreated ice forLongyearbreen and glaciers in Liefdefjorden (Fig. 6). We thereforesuggest that the pre-LIA advance and retreat of at least LinnébreenandWerenskioldbreenwere driven by oceanographic changes westof Svalbard: colder waters with advanced sea ice caused glacieradvance while warmer waters with retracted sea ice drove glacierretreat. Such a connection implies that these glaciers were

Fig. 6. Late-Holocene climate and Svalbard-glacier records. (a) Foraminifera Turbor-otaltia quinqueloba fraction from west of Svalbard (MSM5/5-712-1, purple,Spielhagen et al., 2011; MSM5/5-712-2, green, Werner et al., 2013) that reflectsnorth-flowing Atlantic water strength (purple and green squares are 14C age control).(b) Arctic (blue; Kaufman et al, 2009) and Kongressvatnet (Kong-B) Linnédalen (pink;D’Andrea et al., 2012) temperatures (pink squares are tephra and 14C age control onKong-B). (c) Svalbard glacier records (blue circle is 10Be age average from this study,red bars are overridden 14C dates, blue bars are 14C dates in glacial sedimentationintervals of Linnévatnet, and blue squares are observed LIA positions) for Linnébreen,Longyearbreen, Scottbreen, Smutsbreen, Conwaybreen, Werenskioldbreen, and gla-ciers in Liefdefjorden (Fig. 1) (Baranowski and Karlén, 1976; Furrer et al., 1991;Werner, 1993; Svendsen and Mangerud, 1997; Humlum et al., 2005; Mangerud andLandvik, 2007). (d) Linnévatnet sedimentation rate (Svendsen and Mangerud,1997). Yellow vertical bar indicates increased Atlantic water around Svalbard andsea-ice retreat; blue bar vertical bar denotes the LIA period. (For interpretation of thereferences to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version ofthis article.)

M. Reusche et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 89 (2014) 5e12 11

responding to summer temperature changes rather than changes inaccumulation. Previous studies of late-Holocene Svalbard glaciereclimate relationships have come to a different conclusion. BothMüller et al. (2012) and D’Andrea et al. (2012) suggested that sea-ice advance would starve Svalbard glaciers for moisture and driveglacier retreat, whereas sea-ice retreat would increase precipita-tion, causing glacier advance. However, at least in the case of thelate-Holocene retreat of Linnébreen, we find that glacier retreatcorresponds with local climate warming and a reduction in sea-ice,suggesting that the warmer summer temperatures overwhelmedany increase in precipitation from sea-ice retreat. This conclusion issupported by the advance of many Svalbard glaciers during the LIAwhile sea ice advanced (Fig. 6), and by the retreat of the glaciers inthe last century while sea ice retreated (Baranowski and Karlén,1976; Furrer et al., 1991; Werner, 1993; Svendsen and Mangerud,1997; Humlum et al., 2005; Mangerud and Landvik, 2007;Kinnard et al., 2011; Spielhagen et al., 2011).

6. Conclusions

We have investigated the retreat of Linnébreen on Svalbardduring the last deglaciation and the Holocene using new 10Be

surface exposure ages. We find that Linnébreen had already sepa-rated into an isolated valley glacier and was retreating around thestart of the Younger Dryas cold period. We suggest that Linnébreenretreat during a presumably cold period on Svalbard is the result ofmoisture starvation from sea-ice advance and/or that peak borealsummer insolation overwhelmed the effect of Younger Dryascooling. After an ice-free period during the early and middle Ho-locene, Linnébreen advanced to an extent roughly comparable to itsLIA extent and subsequently began to retreat at w1.6 ka. Thisadvance and retreat may be regional in extent, but additional 10Beages are needed on Svalbard’s many late-Holocene, pre-LIA mo-raines (Werner, 1993) to confirm if this truly was a regional glacierfluctuation. We propose that this pre-LIA fluctuation of Linnébreenwas climatically driven, because the retreat of Linnébreen wasconcurrent with the northward penetration of warm Atlantic wa-ters west of Svalbard and attendant sea-ice retreat. We thereforeconclude that Linnébreen may have had different responses to pastchanges in climate and sea ice, with a deglacial retreat potentiallycaused by moisture starvation and a late-Holocene retreat drivenby warmer temperatures. Further research is consequently neededon the timing and causes of glacier variability on Svalbard to un-derstand their responses to a changing climate.

Acknowledgments

The US National Science Foundation (NSF) Svalbard ResearchExperience for Undergraduates funded participantsM. Reusche andA. Novak. We thank the University Centre in Svalbard for fieldassistance, D. Ullman for helping with sample preparation, J.Mangerud for information on the Linnévatnet record, K. Werner, W.D’Andrea, M. Sarnthein, andM. Forwick for sharing their records, A.Hormes and V. Rinterknecht for comments on an earlier version ofthis manuscript, and A. Hormes and an anonymous reviewer forcomments on this manuscript. Carlson is supported by the US NSFDivision of Earth Sciences and Office of Polar Programs. S. Marcottand P. Clark are supported by the US NSF Division of Earth Sciences.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.01.017.

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