r. knight, ph.d., fasm drexel university, philadelphia,...

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R. Knight, Ph.D., FASM

Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA.

(2009-11 ASM Trustee;

2006-08 ASM-TSS Past-President)

Department of Materials Science and

Engineering

Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA

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Overview

A Brief History of T.S.

The T.S. Family Tree…still branching!

T.S. Processes & Theory

Selected T.S. Applications

Emerging areas…FGM’s, T.S. of nanomaterials

The Future?…directions and needs

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What is Thermal Spray?

Definition: – Processes combining thermal energy for heating/melting with kinetic

energy for accelerating a dispersion of particles/droplets at a surface

where they impact, spread, solidify and incrementally build up a new

surface layer

Thermal Energy Sources: – Chemical...fuel combusted w. O2 or air

– Electrical ...arc/plasma

– Other... wave, RF/ICP

Practically: – Hot gas jets + gas/liquid/solid feedstocks

– Solids usually preferred…powder/rod/wire

– Direct (twin wire-arc) vs. Indirect (combustion, plasma) heating

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About T.S. In General…

Coatings:

– Engineering solutions for wear, corrosion, thermal protection etc.

– Require good adhesion, substrate compatibility (CTE, chemical), low porosity

– Process compatibility w. substrate (temp., geometry) & dimensional control

– Thermal spray…capable of meeting many of these requirements

Applications Evolution:

– 1st processes invented ~100 yrs. ago

– Wide range of industrial use: aircraft engines, bridges, medical prostheses

– Can process virtually all materials…v. versatile…metals (Sn to W), ceramics,

cermets, even polymers & advanced composites

– Wide range of commercial settings…job shops to aircraft engine plants

– Major advances…last 25 years…versatility; needs for coatings in hostile

environments; new materials; new processes

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T.S. Coatings - Key Concepts

Thermal Spray Processes:

– Differ from CVD, PVD, plating etc.…not atomistic

– Droplets (liquid or semi-solid) deposited onto surfaces - unit process = a “splat”

– “Line-of-sight” process…can’t spray round corners!

– High coating rates & wide compositional ranges cf. PVD, CVD etc.

– Thermal Spray:

o “Overlay” coatings…new surface created over original substrate

o Low/no mixing or dilution between coating & substrate - base material preserved

o Little or no diffusion, as in other processes

– Coating properties = fn.(process used)

– Major processes…combustion, twin wire-arc, plasma, plus…cccold spray

– Process variations: Flame vs. HVOF; Air vs. Vacuum plasma spray

– Each process…characteristic temp. (T), jet/gas velocity (V) profile, particle size dist’n. -> variations in coating bond strength, porosity, oxide content etc.

– Large number of process variables

– Jet velocity (V) + Temperature profile (T) --> energy + time to melt feedstock

– Dwell time varies between & within processes…V and T distribution

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T.S. Process Envelopes

20,000

16,000

12,000

8,000

4,000

0

200 400 600 800 0

Jet

Tem

pera

ture

(K

)

Particle Speed (m/s)

The “T, V” Process Envelope

HVOF Flame

Arc jet Arc

ICP

1,000 1,200

Standard

Plasma

High

Energy

Plasma

Vacuum

Plasma

Cold spray

Ref. C. C. Berndt

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“Rich” T.S. Microstructures

Unmelts

Interface

Oxides

Pores

• HVOF sprayed 80/20 NiCr (200X) • APS 87/13 Al2O3/TiO2 (100X)

Characteristic lamellar microstructure

Often contain defects/features --> pores/voids, unmelted particles, microcracks, oxides etc. generally not found in “bulk” materials --> different properties!

Porosity may be desirable…TBCs typically 8-12 % porosity

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History…Timeline of Key T.S. Developments

Ref. R. W. Smith

?

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Where T.S. Came From…

The late Dr. M. U. Schoop,

Inventor of the Metal-Spraying

Process (From a sketch completed in 1922)

(Ref. Ballard)

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Early T.S. Processes

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Early T.S. Applications

E. Morf U.K. Patent 28,001

May 29,1913

(Method of Producing Bodies & Coatings of Glass & Other

Substances)

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J. M. Collins Moore Drop Forging Co. U.S. Patent 1,978,415

Oct. 30,1934

Automation &

Composite Coatings

…what’s old is often new!

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M. L. Thorpe Metco, Inc.

U.S. Patent 3,304,402

Feb. 14, 1967

The 1960s…More Familiar?

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The 1970s…“Plasma Flame-Spraying Process Employing

Supersonic Gaseous Streams”

A. J. Fabel, H. S. Ingham Metco, Inc.

U.S. Patent 3,958,097

May 18, 1976

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T.S. Industry

Picture

Ref. Hermanek, F. J.

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The T.S. Family Tree Today

Low Vel.

Combustion

Flame-Wire D-Gun®

HVOF

High Vel.

Flame-Powder

Wire-Arc/Arc-Spray

Air ControlledAtmosphere

Vacuum

Inert

Shrouded

Plasma

Air [APS]

Shrouded [SPS]

Inert [CAPS]

Underwater[UPS]

High Vel.

Low Vel.

ControlledAtmosphere

Vacuum[VPS]

Thermal Spray

Flame-Rod

HVAF

HVIF

Cold-Spray

Helium

Nitrogen

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T.S. Coating Attributes

Key Coating Properties:

– Bonding

– Strength

– Hardness

– Corrosion/oxidation resistance

– Thermal properties (conductivity)

– Electrical properties (conductivity/resistivity)

– Magneto-optical

– Machinability for finishing

Properties Ranking = fn.(Intended Application)

Properties determined by structure:

– Porosity, splat cohesion, % oxide

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T.S. Coating Attributes (Cont)

Bonding...

– Determines mechanical reliability of coatings in service…under stress

o Atomic level attractive forces

o Mechanical interlocking

o Fusion (melting) of contact surfaces

o Diffusion of elemental species

Mechanical Interlocking:

– Main bonding mechanism in T.S. coatings (@Tsubs < 800°C)

– V. small degree of melting/diffusion @ coating/substrate interface

– Droplets/particles…flow & solidify around surface asperities

– Surface prep. (grit blasting, machining, etching)…very important… creates asperities

that promote interlocking…think Velcro®!

– Oxide scale, dirt, oil etc…reduce/impede bonding --> premature failure

– Subsequent layers --> cohesive strength to previous layers…governs ctg. strength...fn.

(porosity, # unmelts)

– Cohesive failure…poor bonding, thermal cracking, poor wetting

– Generally: high strengths & hardness; Inter-particle cohesion limits ductility/toughness

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T.S. Coating Functions

Thermal Spray... – Ability to deposit virtually any material/material combination

– Wide range of applications...

– Al & Zn (twin wire-arc); W & ceramics (plasma); Carbides (HVOF) etc.

– Flexibility --> wide applicability

Wear

Thermal Insulation

Corrosion

Abradables & Abrasive

Electrical – Conductive

– Insulating

Dimensional Restoration - Repair

Medical/Biocompatible

Polymers

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T.S. Processes: Flame Spray

1st process developed... modified oxy-acetylene torches Metallizing, oxides, polymers Powder, wire or rod feedstocks

External combustion + jet expansion Generally simple designs, but can include air

caps/shrouds to concentrate jet Controlled via fuel:oxygen and gas flow rates

Process Characteristics: – Jet Temperature: generally >2,500 °C – Jet Speeds: typically <100 m/s – Gas Flow: 100-200 slm – Particle Speeds: up to ~80 m/s

– Powder Feed Rate: 30-50 g/min

Deposit Characteristics:

– Density: 85-95 %...due to relatively low jet temp. & velocity – Bond Strength: 5-20 MPa --> some of the lowest attainable

– Powder --> more uniform properties – Wire/Rod --> more erratic melting/atomization – Microstructures...coarse splats and porosity – Relatively high oxide inclusions in metals

Photo courtesy of Sulzer Metco (US), Inc.

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T.S. Processes: Twin Wire-Arc Spray

Only direct heating/melting process D.C. arc between conducting/consumable wires Air, Ar, N2 atomizing gases

Direct melting + gas atomization --> high thermal efficiency Limited to metals (Al, Al-Si, Zn, Steels, Ti, Sn) & cermet, carbide, nitride etc. cored wires Wire feedstocks (typically 1/16 -1/8" diameter)

Higher deposition rates than HVOF, plasma

Process Characteristics: – Jet (Arc) Temperature: >15-25,000 K – Jet Speeds: typically 50-100 m/s

– Atomizing Gas Flow: 500-3000 slm – Particle Speeds: 50-100 m/s – Wire Feed Rate: 150-2,000 g/min Deposit Characteristics:

– Density: 80-95 %...depending on particle velocity/size – Droplet size: sub-micron to ~200 m --> increased porosity

– Bond Strength: ~10-40 MPa – Low heat input to substrate/part – Microstructures...coarser...thicker splats, wider size range

than with powders…improve by using smaller Ø wires – Relatively low oxide contents


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T.S. Processes: Air Plasma Spray (APS)

D.C. arc -> central thoriated W cathode + water-cooled, concentric Cu nozzle anode Electron/ion recombination heats gases & powder Ar, Ar/H2, Ar/He, N2 plasma gases => jet enthalpy Plasma/arc gas stabilizes the arc...vortex stabilization Nozzle constricts arc & accelerates gas + powder Power: 20 to >250 kW Widest materials => polymers to refractory metals Generally powder feedstocks

Process Characteristics: – Jet Temperature: 10-15,000 K – Jet Speeds: typ. 200-1,000 m/s – Gas Flow: 100-250 slm – Particle Speeds: 200-800 m/s – Feed Rate: 25-150 g/min – Pressure: atmospheric to ~50 Torr or below


– High degree of particle melting & high particle velocity

– Density: 90-99 % – Thin splats + fine microstructure – Bond Strength: 34-70 MPa – Inert gas plasma jet --> lower oxide contents – Mixing/entrainment of air --> inter-splat oxidation

– Inherently some oxide in APS – VPS/LPPS® developed to eliminate/reduce oxidation

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T.S. Processes: Vacuum Plasma Spray

APS --> oxide inclusions or “stringers” due to hot particle/entrained air interactions Late 1960s/early 70s...R&D on controlled

atmosphere plasma spray... – E. Muehlberger (1974)...1st VPS/LPPS® paper – V. low oxide contents + >99 % density – Modified DC torch --> insulation + nozzles – Remote torch/part manipulation, transfer/

load-locks, etc.

VPS/LPPS® Characteristics:

– Broader/longer spray jets --> extension of jet isotherms – Longer spray distances...eg. for MCrAlY, 3-4” in APS; 16” in LPPS®

– Cleaner interfaces with reverse transferred-arc (RTA) sputter cleaning – Virtual elimination of oxide inclusions – High coating densities possible – Ability to spray form thick (>1”) deposits – Substrate preheating to >1000 °C possible


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High Velocity Oxy-Fuel (HVOF) Spray

Invented c.1958 by Union Carbide (now Praxair)

Commercialized c.1974; now ~5-8 different designs

Carbides (WC/Co, Cr3C2 /NiCr), metals (SS), polymers

Pressurized internal combustion + supersonic jet expansion to atm.

Fuel (H2, C3H6, C3H8, MAPP, kerosene) + oxygen

Improved gas heating + acceleration --> improved heat & momentum transfer to particles

Powder feedstocks, typically (-45, +10 m)

Process Characteristics:

– Jet Temperature: generally >3,500 °C – Jet Speeds: typically >1,000 m/s

– Gas Flow Rate: 400-1,100 slm

– Particle Speeds: 200-1,000 m/s – Powder Feed Rate: 15-50 g/min


– Density: >95 %...due to longer dwell time + high particle velocity – Bond Strength: ~70-80 MPa

– Microstructures..similar to D-Gun® with fine oxide dispersion – Density, oxide etc. comparable to plasma spray – Reduced decarburization due to lower jet temperature…important

when spraying materials such as WC-Co

Photo courtesy of Stellite Coatings, Inc.

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Induction-Coupled Plasma

Torches readily available…(e.g. Tekna) Used for plasma spraying, spheroidizing, plasma chemistry, waste destruction & plasma synthesis

Can produce dense coatings, and use coarser powders than D.C. plasma spraying No electrodes…coil + EM induction (400 kHz - 4 MHz) Toroidal plasma zone @ ~10,000 K Central powder injection via water-cooled probe

Low gas & particle velocities (<30 m/s)…longer dwell times, larger heating zone More complex than DC plasma systems Used for spraying monotapes...continuous fiber reinforced metal matrix composites

Convergent-divergent nozzle added to increase jet/particle velocity

~20 kW lab.-scale RF/ICP torch + reactor used for depolymerization, plasma treatment and plasma synthesis of materials

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The Newest Kid on the Block: Cold Spray

Pressurized VolumetricPowder Feeder

Gas Preheater[up to 800 °C]

Gas Supply[1-3.5 MPa]

Cold-Spray Torchwith de Laval Nozzle

Substrate

Deposit

Cold Spray: – Ductile metals & metal/polymer blends on hard

substrates

– Powder feedstocks

– Process Characteristics: o Jet Temperature: up to ~ 800 °C

o Jet Speeds: typ. 300-1,200 m/s

o Gas Flow: up to 90 m3/hr w. 500 psi (3.5 MPa) supply

o Particle Speeds: 300-1,200 m/s

o Feed Rate: 50-80 g/min

o Pressure: nominally atmospheric

– Limitations: currently limited to ductile metals…Zn, Sn, Ag, Cu, Al, Ti, Nb, Mo, NiCr, Cu-Al, Inconels, MCrAlY's and polymers and blends with > 50 % ductile component

Deposit Characteristics: – Density: up to 99 %

– Up to 250 m (~10 mils)/pass @ D-E's up to 70 % – Feedstock: 1-50 m powder

– Relatively cool process jet --> low oxide contents & shrinkage stress; reduced material loss & vaporization; reduced grain growth/recryst’n etc.

– Mixing/entrainment of air --> some oxidation

– Control spray distance, particle size & preheat --> reduced oxide

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Other T.S. Processes

D-Gun®…pulsed combustion spray (Praxair)…high V

Other “detonation” spray systems, e.g. Demeton, FARE…

Shrouded plasma spray (SPS)

Controlled atmosphere plasma spray (CAPS)

Underwater plasma spray (UPS)

Reactive plasma spray (REAPS)

Gator-Gard®…high vel. plasma spray using He

High power/extended arc torches, e.g PlazJet™ (Tafa)

Axial feed/multiple cathode torches (FSI, Mettech…)

Water-stabilized plasma (WSP) - Czech Republic

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T.S. Process Comparisons…

~70 N/A 3-5 ~99 % N/A 1,500 up to 800 °C 300-1200 300-1200 Cold Spray

70-90 35-40 2-7 95-99.9 N/A 50-250 10-15,000 10-30 15-30 RF/ICP

50-80 35-55 2-20 95-99.9 >70 50-300 20,000 60-600 200-2000 VPS

50-80 35-55 2-20 85-98 35- >70 50-300 20,000 30-800 200-1200 APS

70-90 90 2-150 70-90 10-40 500-3,000 Arc: >20,000 20-300 30-500 Arc Spray

70-90 50-70 2-10 90-99.9 >70

O2: 250-500

Fuel (g): 250-800

Fuel (L): 20-40 1,400-2500 100-1000 300-1200 HVOF

(%) (%) (kg/hr) (% Th.) (MPa) (slm) (°C) (m/s) (m/s)

D-E Thermal

Efficiency Spray Rates

Density Bond

Strength Gas Use

Gas/Particle Temp.

Particle Velocity

Gas Velocity

Process

Thermal Spray Process Characteristic Comparison

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Ancillary Systems/Automation/Integration

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T. S. Applications (1)

Thermal Spray...

– Ability to deposit ~any material/material combination

– Wide range of applications...

• Al & Zn (twin wire-arc); W & ceramics (plasma); Carbides (HVOF) etc.

– Flexibility --> wide applicability

Wear

Thermal Insulation…TBC’s

Corrosion

Abradables & Abrasive

Electrical:

– Conductive or Insulating.

Dimensional Restoration/Repair

Medical/Biocompatible…Implants

Polymers

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T.S. Applications (2)

Coating Systems:

– Coating/substrate combinations incorporating a functional surface to protect or modify the behavior of a material

Functional Categories:

- Corrosion - Oxidation - Galvanic

- Wear - Erosion - Cavitation

- Thermal (TBCs) - Emissivity - Optical

- Electrical - EMI/RF - Magnetic

- Seals/Clearance - Abradable - Abrasive

- Lubrication - Restoration - Decorative

Coating System Design:

- Composition - Structure

- Properties - Compatibility...CTE, interface, bonding…

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T.S. Applications (3)

• Aerospace • Power

• Aircraft Engine • Medical

• Automotive • Chemical

• Mining • Electronics

• Nuclear • Industrial

• Utilities

Performance Demands:

- Low...low stress, not critical to component or life

- Medium...moderate stress, important to component

- High...high stress, critical to component and/or life

Some industry sectors using T.S.

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Aerospace Applications (1)

• Many engine + airframe uses of T.S. coatings…large industry sector

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• Porous Al-Polyester “abradable” coating on blade tips for clearance-

control.

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• Plasma spraying TBC onto internal surface combustor can

• CoNiCrAlY + YSZ TBC.

• Gas turbine combustor can w. MgZrO3 TBC

• Combustor can rings

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Automotive Applications (1)

• Relatively new + growing (?) T.S. application area…also a large industry sector

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• T.S. coated journal bearing surfaces

• T.S. coated diesel engine crankshaft bearing surfaces

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• Rotaplasma™ rotating plasma spray

system coating cylinder bores: - used to apply wear-resistant coatings to

all-Al engine blocks - advantage…weight savings + improved

fuel economy - relatively low power (15-20 kW) &

deposition rate - technical challenges re. nozzle design

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Industrial Applications (1)

• HVOF (2 guns) coating large pulp/paper roll

• Twin wire-arc metallizing a smaller roll (lathe used to rotate part)

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• On-site twin wire-arc spray metallizing for corrosion protection

• Twin wire-arc spray metallizing structural beam for corrosion protection

• Flame-spray metallizing for thermal/corrosion protection

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• “As-sprayed” ball valve (Cr3C2/NiCr; HVOF)

• Sprayed, ground and finished ball valves (Cr3C2/NiCr; HVOF)

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Photos courtesy International Metalizing and Coatings, Cherry Hill, NJ.

• On-site twin wire-arc spray metallizing…

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Biomedical/Biocompatible Applications

• Porous Ti coating to improve fixation

• Hydroxy-apatite bio-compatible ceramic coatings

• Hip & knee replacements

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T.S. Applications - Spray Forming

• Plasma spray-formed tubes, & composite structures

• Plasma spray formed fiber-reinforced “monotape” composites

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The Future: New & Emerging Applications

Functionally Graded Materials (FGM’s):

– Interest growing since ~1995…ITSC-95…1st FGM paper in T.S. field (Kawatani)

– Ability to tailor composition & properties through deposit thickness, e.g. metal-to-ceramic, or polymer-to-cermet, etc.

Nanomaterials: – Growing interest since ~1995 too…WC/Co, metallic, ceramic

(TBC’s) and nano-composite coatings

– Suspension-spraying for in-situ sol-gel synthesis & deposition

Polymers:

– Active area for ~10 years

– Thermoplastics, thermosets, polymer-matrix composites

o “Solventless painting” for corrosion protection

o Not limited by melt viscosity

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FGM Example: HVOF Polyimide/WC-Co

Pure WC-Co Topcoat (HVOF)

Metallic Binding Layer

(Twin Wire-Arc)

Polyimide/WC-Co composite layer

(HVOF)

Pure Polyimide (HVOF)

Substrate

Coating

Discretely Layered Continuously Graded

Polyimide Substrate

% W

C-C

o

100

75

50

25

10

0

Metallic Bondcoat

[necessity TBD]

% W

C-C

o

100

75

50

25

10

0

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The Future: T.S. Technology

Cold Spray:

– Very active research area…recent ASM/TSS meeting in Akron, OH… applications now beginning to emerge… -processor heat sinks; rolls etc.

– Process limitations…ductile metals; $ of He…will drive/limit applications

– Rather “muddied” IP picture ;-)

Plasma Spray:

– Center-feed & multiple-cathode DC torches likely to expand beyond current “niche” markets…time to qualification/approval…

– Increased kW torches…higher deposition rates, DE’s

– LPPS Thin-Film®…VPS @ mTorr pressures…ability to coat m2 areas…competitor to PVD, CVD etc. for thin films?

– Solution spraying…new feedstock injection strategies required

Sensors & Controls:

– Major advances in last 10-15 yrs…process control & diagnostics

– Improved control of process inputs and output

– Ability to measure T and V of individual/distributions of particles + jet position in ~real-time

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Sensor & Control Examples

Tecnar: DPV-2000; AccuraSpray; PlumeSpector

Stratonics: ThermaViz™

Oseir Ltd: SprayWatch

General Approach:

– CCD Sensors/Fiber-Optics:

o 2-Color pyrometry --> particle T

o Time-of-flight or streak length --> particle V

o Some provide particle flux & spray jet position information.

– Limitations:

o Tend to favor larger (> 6 m) and/or brighter (>1000 °C) particles.

Indicators

Video Frame

Meters

Stripchart

Plume geometry

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The Future: T.S. Technology (Cont)

Modeling:

– Extensive modeling of heating, impact & deformation of metallic particles…limited work on others, e.g. polymers

– Predictive capability will help develop spray parameters; save $

Materials:

– Tonnage-scale production of nano-scale feedstocks for T.S.

– Improved QC of many T.S. feedstock materials

Applications:

– Aerospace will no longer be the dominant application area

– New applications…automotive, infrastructure, mining etc…will demand lower costs & higher production rates

Emerging Markets: – China

– India

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The Future: Needs

T.S. Equipment: – Equipment designed for engineered feedstock materials…nano-

size powders often do not feed well using “conventional” powder feeders

– More automation (robots etc.) to increase reliability & repeatability…humans more supervisory role

Systems Integration: – Complete integration of advances/developments in T.S.

equipment + feedstock materials + sensors and controls

Knowledge, Education & Training: – Process-Structure-Property databases so T.S. coatings can be

included in design of components

– New & improved characterization & testing techniques

– T.S. Operator Certification in US…ASM-TSS CTSO program

– T.S. needs to become a household word!

Applications: – Infrastructure/corrosion…both a challenge & opportunity

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Summary

Thermal Spray Processes & Technology: – Wide capability & flexibility

– Low-temp. flame spray --> high temp. plasma

– HVOF revitalized interest in combustion heated processes

– Will cold-spray do the same?

– Coating microstructures/properties --> strong fn. process used (temp. melting, jet velocity, material form and environment)

– Coating performance = fn. Microstructure (porosity, oxide content, bonding, cohesion)

– Tremendous advances over the 1st Century: o Process --> diagnostics, controls, automation, knowledge, new

processes…

o Materials --> forms, compositions --> improved coatings o Coating properties data

– Complex processes… o Many variables

o Understand basic principles --> process selection & use

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Acknowledgements

Thank You to:

The South-Central PA ASM Chapter leaders for their kind invitation to present this talk

The National Science Foundation and NASA for financial support over the years

ASM International® for support of the TS industry via the Thermal Spray Society (TSS)

Drexel/CPPM staff, graduate students & visitors past & present

Dr. Ronald W. Smith, for getting me involved in thermal spray

Dr. Chris Berndt from Swinburne University in Melbourne, Australia, for continued friendship

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ITSC-2011

International Thermal Spray Conference and Exposition

ITSC 2011 – Different Days, Different Markets Conference & Exposition: September 27-29, 2011 Congress Center Hamburg (CCH) Germany

For more information, visit: www.dvs-congress.de/2011

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Finally ;-)

There’s a lot still to do…so career opportunities will continue to exist for new graduates, engineers and technical staff in the plasma field!

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Information Resources (1)

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Plenum Pub. Corp., NY, 1994

ISBN 0-306-44607-3

John Wiley & Sons, NY, 1995

ISBN 0-471-95253-2

Science Engineering Engineering Science

Iliffe Books Ltd. London, UK 1968 AWS “Blue Book”

on Thermal Spraying,

1997?

Thermal Spraying

AWS C2 committee

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Active T.S. Interest Groups

1. American Ceramic Society…ACerS

2. American Society for Testing & Materials…ASTM

3. American Welding Society…AWS C-2 Committee

4. ASM International® Thermal Spray Society “TSS”

5. Deutscher Verband fur Schweisstechnik e.V…DVS

6. High Temperature Society of Japan

7. International Thermal Spray Association…ITSA

8. Japanese Thermal Spraying Society

9. National Assoc. of Corrosion Engineers…NACE T6H Committee

10. Materials Research Society…MRS

11. SSPC…“Steel Structures Painting Council”

12. The Welding Institute…TWI

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Some Centers of Academic Excellence

1.USA & Canada:

1.Drexel University (CPPM)

2.Sherbrooke University (CTRP)

3.University of Toronto

4.SUNY Stony Brook (NY-USA)

5.U. Cal. Irvine (CA-USA)

6.Univ. of Minnesota (MN-USA) 2.Europe:

1.Tampere University of

Technology, Finland

2.RWTH Aachen, Germany

3.Univ of Dortmund, Germany

4.Univ. of Limoges, France

5.UTBM – LERMPS, France

6.C2P, France

7.Cambridge University, UK

8.University of Barcelona, Spain

3.Pac-Rim/Asia: 1.Osaka University, Japan 2.Nanyang Technological

University, Singapore 3.Monash University, Australia

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Some International Centers of Excellence

1. INEEL (ID-USA)

2. Los Alamos National Lab. (NM-USA)

3. Oak Ridge National Lab. (TN-USA)

4. Sandia National Labs. (NM-USA)

5. Institute of Plasma Physics (Czech Republic)

6. NASA – Glenn Research Center (OH-USA)

7. NIST (MD-USA)

8. NRC (Montreal, Canada)

9. CEA – DAM (France)

10.RIST (Korea)

11. CSIRO (Australia)

r. knight, ph.d., fasm drexel university, philadelphia,...

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