radiation types of radiation...the workers of the dangers of the uranium. it was not until people...

2/2/2011

1

Nuclear Energy

By Oriel Wilson

Race Poverty and the Urban Environment

Professor Raquel R. Pinderhughes

Urban Studies Program

San Francisco State University

Spring 2003

*Public has permission to use the material herein, but only if author, course,

university and professor are credited.

Brief History

Nuclear energy was first discovered in 1934 by

Enrico Fermi. The first nuclear bombs were built

in 1945 as a result of the infamous Manhattan

Project. The first plutonium bomb, code-named

Trinity, was detonated on July 16, 1945 in New

Mexico. On August 6th

1945 the first uranium

bomb was detonated over Hiroshima. Three

days later a plutonium bomb was dropped on

Nagasaki. There is over 200,000 deaths

associated with these detonations. Electricity

wasn’t produced with nuclear energy until 1951.

Source: The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by John May

Radiation

Radiation is the result of an unstable atom

decaying to reach a stable state. Half-life is the

average amount of time it takes for a sample of a

particular element to decay half way. Natural

radiation is everywhere—our bodies, rocks,

water, sunshine. However, manmade radiation

is much stronger. There are currently 37

radioactive elements in the periodic table—26 of

them are manmade and include plutonium and

americium (used in household smoke detectors).

Source: http://theodoregray.com/PeriodicTable/index.html

Types of Radiation

There are several different kinds of radiation: alpha

radiation, beta radiation, gamma rays, and neutron

emission. Alpha radiation is the release of two protons

and two neutrons, and normally occurs in fission of

heavier elements. Alpha particles are heavy and cannot

penetrate human skin, but are hazardous if ingested. Beta

radiation is when a neutron is changed to a proton or

visa versa, beta radiation is what is released from this

change. Beta particles can penetrate the skin, but not

light metals. Gamma rays is a type of electromagnetic

radiation which is left over after alpha and beta are

released and include X-rays, light, radio waves, and

microwaves.


Penetration of Radioactive particles

Source: http://www.ratical.org/radiation/NRBE/NRBE3.html

Dosage

Radiation is sometimes called ionizing radiation because ions are

created with the passage of the alpha, beta, and gamma rays. The effect

of radiation is on a cellular level—changing its functionality (causing

cancer or inherited birth defects) or killing it. Depending on the

information source, radiation doses are measured in rems or sievert, in

any case 100 rem = one sievert. An exposure of 100 Sv will cause

death within days, 10-50 Sv will cause death from gastrointestinal failure

in one to two weeks, and with an exposure of 3-5 Sv will cause red

bone marrow damage half of the time. Severe affects consist of burns,

vomiting, hemorrhage, blood changes, hair loss, increased susceptibility

to infection, and death. With lower levels of exposure symptoms are

cancer (namely thyroid, leukemia, breast, and skin cancers), but also

include eye cataracts. The radiation can also affect DNA causing

mutations that change individuals’ genes and can be passed on to future

generations. The current occupational dose recommended by the

International Commission for Radiological Protection is 50 mSv per

year. The average radiation dose per year for non-nuclear workers is

about one mSv.

Source: The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by John May and

Energy and the Environment by James A. Fay and Dan S. Golomb.

http://theodoregray.com/PeriodicTable/index.htmlhttp://www.ratical.org/radiation/NRBE/NRBE3.html

2/2/2011

2

Uranium

Uranium is usually mined similarly to other heavy

metals—under ground or in open pits—but other

methods can also be used. After the uranium is

mined it is milled near the excavation site using

leaching processes. The mining process explained

here is a combination of two of major mines in

Australia. Then we will look at the Navajo

uranium miners who were some of the first

uranium miners. Next I will explain some of the

other community and environmental impacts

associated with the mining processes.

Mining

Uranium ore is usually

located aerially; core

samples are then drilled

and analyzed by

geologists. The uranium

ore is extracted by means of drilling and blasting.

Mines can be in either open pits or underground.

Uranium concentrations are a small percentage of

the rock that is mined, so tons of tailings waste

are generated by the mining process.

Sources: http://www.anawa.org.au/mining/index.html and

http://www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diagram.pdf and http://www.world-

nuclear.org/education/mining.htm

Yellowcake

Meanwhile, the uranium

solution is filtered, and then

goes through a solvent

extraction process that includes

kerosene and ammonia to

purify the uranium solution.

After purification the uranium is

put into precipitation tanks—

the result is a product

commonly called yellowcake.


http://www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diagram.pdf

Transportation

In the final processes the

yellow cake is heated to

800˚Celcius which makes a

dark green powder which is

98% U3O8. The dark green

powder is put into 200 liter

drums and loaded into

shipping containers and are

shipped overseas to fuel

nuclear power plants.


http://www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diagram.pdf

Mining Leaders

Australia and Canada are currently the biggest

Uranium miners. The aforementioned process

that takes place in Australia is exported because

Australia does not have a nuclear energy

program. The mining in Australian is primarily

open pit, while the mining in Canada is mostly

underground. Following is two charts—one is

the major uranium producing countries, the other

is of the major corporations that actually do the

mining.

Source: http://www.antenna.nl/wise/uranium/uwai.html

Production in 2000

Canada 10,682

Australia 7,578

Niger 2,895

Namibia 2,714

Uzbekistan 2,350

Russia (est) 2,000

Kazakhstan 1,752

USA 1,456

South Africa 878

China (est) 500

Ukraine (est) 500

Czech Republic 500

India (est) 200

France 319

others 422

Total world 34,746

company tonnes U

Cameco 7218

Cogema 6643

WMC 3693

ERA 3564

Navoi 2400

Rossing 2239

KazAtomProm 2018

Priargunsky 2000

Source: http://www.world-nuclear.org/search/index.htm

http://www.anawa.org.au/mining/index.htmlhttp://www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diagram.pdfhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/education/mining.htmhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/education/mining.htmhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/education/mining.htmhttp://www.anawa.org.au/mining/index.htmlhttp://www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diagram.pdfhttp://www.anawa.org.au/mining/index.htmlhttp://www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diagram.pdfhttp://www.antenna.nl/wise/uranium/uwai.htmlhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/search/index.htmhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/search/index.htmhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/search/index.htm

2/2/2011

3

Community & Environmental

Impacts

Communities located near the mines and the

workers in the mines are most heavily impacted

by the uranium mining industry. The Navajo

Indians in Arizona were the first uranium miners

back in the 1940’s to the 1970’s. Early on, little

was understood about the dangers of uranium

exposure, and as a result there have been many

illnesses related to the mining. Despite safety

efforts, uranium miners are still at risk. In

addition, tailings dams have broken and

contaminated drinking water in the communities

near the mines.

Summarize

this!

The Navajo Miners

Some of the first uranium miners were Navajo Indians in New Mexico and Arizona.

In the article by Timothy Benally “Navajo Uranium Miners Fight for Compensation,”

Benally explains how the Navajo people came to know the dangers of uranium

exposure and how they are getting compensated. Vanadium mining started there

around 1918, but uranium mining did not start until after the Second World War.

Before uranium was discovered there, it was not clear what this element was, and as a

result the tailings from the Vanadium (that contained high levels of uranium) were not

stored properly—leading to excessive human exposure and environmental impacts on

the water supply and food production. To make things worse, once the element was

discovered, there was a large prospecting movement throughout the reservation. In

addition, the major corporations that ran these mines, the Vanadium Corporation of

America and the Kerr-McGee, companies paid unfairly low wages and did not warn

the workers of the dangers of the uranium. It was not until people got ill and were

dieing that the workers and their families found out. In 1960 the workers and their

families started the Uranium Radiation Victims Committee, which sought to warn

other workers and families of the danger of exposure to uranium, but because there

was little alternative employment, many kept their jobs in the mines anyway. In

1990, a bill was passed in congress to compensate radiation exposure victims, and

since then the Office of Navajo Uranium Workers has sought to identify exposed

workers and to provide medical care. There are currently 2,450 registered workers,

and 412 recorded deaths of workers.

Source: http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/miners.html

Floyd Frank

Floyd lost several

brothers and other

relatives to uranium

related illnesses. He

witnessed calves that

had been born defected

and sheep that have had

lung problems. His view

is that the US

government wanted to

see what happens to

people exposed in these

conditions. The water

has been contaminated

and, through the

tributaries, so has the

land. He says that the

US government will

only compensate

someone if they have

lung cancer, but he says

that his brothers had

sores all over their

bodies .Source: http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/brugge.html

Donald Yellowhorse

Donald Yellowhorse is a

resident of Cove,

Arizona . He recalls

piles of uranium around

his house and in his

town. He says that

some people had their

foundations of their

houses built with the

rock, and that the debris

was dumped directly

upstream from the

drinking water so that

everyone was exposed.

He remembers that the

effects took some time

to notice and that by

the time effects were

observed it was too late

to turn back.

Source: http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/brugge.html

Uranium miners today

“Uranium threatens the health of mine workers and the

communities surrounding the mines. According to the

International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War,

uranium mining has been responsible for the largest collective

exposure of workers to radiation. One estimate puts the number

of workers who have died of lung cancer and silicosis due to

mining and milling alone at 20,000. Mine workers are

principally exposed to ionizing radiation from radioactive

uranium and the accompanying radium and radon gases emitted

from the ore. Ionizing radiation is the part of the

electromagnetic spectrum that extends from ultraviolet radiation

to cosmic rays. This type of radiation releases high energy

particles that damage cells and DNA structure, producing

mutations, impairing the immune system and causing cancers.”

Source: http://www.anawa.org.au/health/oc-health.html

Australia Tailings Spills

According to a Planet Ark article online, “Australia

Uranium Mines Come Under Spotlight,” Australia currently

has four uranium mines—Ranger, Beverley, Honeymoon,

and Olympic Dam—and they have plans for six more. The

article is about an inquiry that the Australian government is

making into the mining business at the request of the

Aborigines and environmental groups. In 2002 there were

two incidents involving the Ranger mine in which the

stockpile with low-grade ore got downstream, and was not

immediately reported. In May of 2002 the Beverley mine

spilled uranium-contaminated water for the fourth time.

The Beverley mine is owned by a subsidiary of a US

company called General Atomics. Even worse than the

Beverly mine record is that of Olympic Dam in which

hundreds of thousands of liters of uranium mining slurry

was leaked from a storage tank—for the seventh time.

Source: http://www.planetark.org/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/16505/story.htm

http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/miners.htmlhttp://www.inmotionmagazine.com/brugge.htmlhttp://www.inmotionmagazine.com/brugge.htmlhttp://www.anawa.org.au/health/oc-health.htmlhttp://www.anawa.org.au/health/oc-health.htmlhttp://www.anawa.org.au/health/oc-health.htmlhttp://www.planetark.org/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/16505/story.htm

2/2/2011

4

USA Tailings Spills

On July 16, 1979 the largest spill of radioactive isotopes in the

United States, other than weapons testing was in the form of

uranium tailings erupted from the Church Rock Dam. The

broken dam released eleven hundred tons of mill waste and

ninety million gallons of contaminated liquid in the Rio Puerco

area immediately effecting over 350 Navajo ranching families,

and endangering the water supply of New Mexico, Arizona,

Las Vegas, and Los Angeles—including Lake Mead. The cause

of the breach was a dam that was not built to code—an

accident that could have been prevented if the proper

authorities had done their jobs. The United Nuclear

Corporation, a corporation with a history of leaks, owned the

dam. They have acknowledged fifteen tailing spills between

1959 and 1977—seven of those were dam breaks—and at least

ten of the spills got into major water systems.

Source: Killing Our Own by Harvey Wasserman and Norman Soloman.

http://www.ratical.org/radiation/KillingOurOwn/

Overview

“…uranium mining, a polluting activity that

devastates large areas. Uranium ore sometimes

contains as little as 500 grams recoverable

uranium per 1000 kilograms of earth. So,

enormous amounts of rock have to be dug up,

crushed and chemically processed to extract the

uranium. The remaining wastes, which still

contain large amounts of radioactivity, remain at

the mines. These "tailings" are often stored in a

very poor condition, resulting in the

contamination of surface- and groundwater.”

Source: http://www.antenna.nl/wise/

Nuclear Fuel Cycle

We will start the nuclear fuel cycle

with a brief explanation of how

nuclear energy works, the

enrichment process, and then power

reactors. Following will be

information on Three Mile Island

and Chernobyl, the risk of reactor

leaks, and the impacts on the

communities and the environment.

Then we will discuss the nuclear

weapons program, including the use

of depleted uranium, Hiroshima and

Nagasaki, weapons testing, and the

effects on soldiers, victims,

communities, and the environment.

Source: http://www.sonic.net/~kerry/uranium.html

Key terms

Nuclear energy—synonymous with atomic energy, is the energy produced by fission or fusion

of atomic nuclei.

Atoms—are made of three main parts: protons, neutrons, and electrons . The protons and

neutrons make up the center of the atom while the electrons orbit around the center .

Atomic number—the number of protons in an element that identifies it.

Isotope—if an atom has a different number of neutrons from protons. Isotopes, measured by

their total weight called “mass number” are the sum of neutrons and protons. Some

isotopes are unstable and will decay to reach a stable state—these elements are considered

radioactive.

Ion—if an atom has a different number of electron from protons.

Fission— occurs when an atoms nucleus splits apart to form two or more different atoms.

The most easily fissionable elements are the isotopes are uranium 235 and plutonium 239.

Fissionable elements are flooded with neutrons causing the elements to split. When these

radioactive isotopes split, they form new radioactive chemicals and release extra neutrons

that create a chain reaction if other fissionable material is present. While Uranium, atomic

number 92, is the heaviest naturally occurring element, many other elements can be made

by adding protons and neutrons with particle accelerators or nuclear reactors. In

general, the fission process uses higher numbered elements.

Fusion—is the combining of one or more atoms—usually isotopes of hydrogen, which are

deuterium and tritium. Atoms naturally repel each other so fusion is easiest with these

lightest atoms. To force the atoms together it takes extreme pressure and temperature,

this can be produced by a fission reaction.

Source: The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by John May and Energy and the Environment by James

A. Fay and Dan S. Golomb.

Conversion

To enrich uranium it must be in the gas

form of UF6. This is called conversion.

The conversion diagram shown here is

from Honeywell. First the yellow cake

is converted to uranium dioxide through

a heating process (this step was also

mentioned in the mining process). Then

anhydrous hydrofluoric acid is used to

make UF4. Next the UF4 is mixed with

fluorine gas to make uranium

hexafluoride. This liquid is stored in

steel drums and crystallizes.

Source: http://www.gat.com/converdyn/dfcp.html

Fuel Fabrication

After being enriched, the UF6

is taken to a fuel fabrication

facility that presses the

powder into small pellets.

The pellets are put into long

tubes. These tubes are called

fuel rods. A fuel assembly is a

cluster of these sealed rods.

Fuel assemblies go in the core

of the nuclear reactor. It takes

approximately 25 tonnes of

fuel to power one 1000 MWe

reactor per year. The picture

on the right is a fuel assembly.

Source: http://www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc.htm

http://www.ratical.org/radiation/KillingOurOwn/http://www.antenna.nl/wise/http://www.sonic.net/~kerry/uranium.htmlhttp://www.gat.com/converdyn/dfcp.htmlhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc.htmhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc.htmhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc.htm

2/2/2011

5

Transportation

Radioactive materials are

transported from the

milling location to the

conversion location, then

from the conversion

location to the enrichment location, then from the

enrichment location to the to the fuel fabrication facility, and

finally to the power plant. These materials are transported in

special containers by specialized transport companies. People

involved in the transport process are trained to respond to

emergencies. In the US, Asia, and Western Europe transport is

mainly by truck, and in Russia mainly by train.

Intercontinental transport is usually by ship, and sometimes

by air. Since 1971 there has been over 20,000 shipments with

no incidents and limited operator exposure.

Source: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf20print.htm

Picture: http://www.ocrwm.doe.gov/wat/facts.shtml

Nuclear Reactors

There are usually several

hundred fuel assemblies in a

reactor core. There are

several types of reactors, but

they all use a controlled

fission process with a

moderator like water or

graphite. During the fission

process, plutonium is created

and half of the plutonium also fissions accounting for a third of

the energy. The fission process makes heat that is converted to

energy (see following diagrams). Pictured above is the Diablo

Canyon reactor in California.

Source: http://www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc.htmSource: http://www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc.htmSource: http://www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc.htm

Electricity Consumption

1-3) power is

generated or

imported. 4) high

voltage power lines

make up the “grid”

that connects

power generators

and neighborhood

substations. 5)

substation steps

down the power

and connects to the

distribution system.

6) the distribution

systems link to most

customers.

Source: http://www.pge.com/006_news/006c1_elec_sys.shtml

Reactor Types

PRW—Pressurized Water Reactor—does not boil, but uses the pressure of

the water to heat a secondary source of water that generates electricity.

Most popular (accounts for 65% of reactors world wide). Considered a

light water reactor.

BRW—Boiling Water Reactor—boils water (coolant) that makes steam to

turn turbines. Conducive to internal contamination. Also considered a

light water reactor.

RBMK—Graphite-moderated pressure tube boiling-water reactor similar to

BWR but uses graphite and oxygen. Complex and difficult to examine.

CANDU—Canadian Deuterium Uranium—Doesn’t use enriched fuel. Has

lots of tubes and internal contamination issues.

Magnox—Gas cooled reactor. Cooled with carbon dioxide or helium, and

uses natural uranium. (UK and France).

AGR—Advanced Gas-cooled—also cooled with carbon dioxide or helium.

Uses enriched uranium. (UK).

Fast Breeder—high temperature gas reactor. Uses U235, U238, and

Plutonium 239. Very dangerous because it uses liquid sodium in the

primary circuit and in inflammable with air and explosive with water.

Source: www.world-nuclear.org/

Reactor Hazards

Reactor pose a serious threat radiation threat—especially to

the employees and surrounding communities. Recently the

New York times featured an article “Extraordinary Reactor

Leak Get’s the Industries Attention.” The implication is that if

this reactor can leak, so can others. Typically, the reactors

develop boric acid under their lids—which eats away at the

steel encasement (fixable), but this leak is in at the bottom of

a reactor.* In an article featured on CorpWatch, “Bechtel’s

Nuclear Nightmares” talks about a reactor that the Bechtel

corporation built in San Onofre—that’s been shut down since

1992 for lack of safety upgrades. The problem is that there is

no place to permanently send the reactor to and is a risk

because it was built on a fault line.** Three Mile Island and

Chernobyl are two of the worst incidences of reactor

breaches and are explained in the following slides.

*Source: www.nytimes.com/2003/05/01/national/01NUKE.html

**Source: www.corpwatch.org/issues/PRT.jsp

Three Mile Island

Three Mile Island is a pair

of PRW’s. The second one

was built in a hurry for tax

purposes (started operation

on December 30, 1798 to

meet deadline). On March

28, 1979, the Pilot

Operated Relief Valve was

stuck open and caused pressure to be released from the

primary cooling system. The fuel rods came apart and

radioactive material discharged into the sky. Two days later

3,500 pregnant women and children were evacuated.

Although there were no official instructions to do so, many

others left as well. Numerous residents in the aftermath

developed various cancers and thyroid diseases.

Source: The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by John May;

picture: http://www.libraries.psu.edu/crsweb/tmi/tmi.htm

http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf20print.htmhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf20print.htmhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf20print.htmhttp://www.ocrwm.doe.gov/wat/facts.shtmlhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc.htmhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc.htmhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc.htmhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc.htmhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc.htmhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc.htmhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc.htmhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc.htmhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc.htmhttp://www.pge.com/006_news/006c1_elec_sys.shtmlhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/http://www.world-nuclear.org/http://www.world-nuclear.org/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/01/national/01NUKE.htmlhttp://www.corpwatch.org/issues/PRT.jsphttp://www.libraries.psu.edu/crsweb/tmi/tmi.htm

2/2/2011

6

Chernobyl

Chernobyl had the RBMK

design. In an experiment,

technicians let the power of

reactor 4 fall, and on April 26,

1986 the result was rapid power

levels rising inside the core—

melting fuel and causing a reactor

containment breach—in addition

to an internal hydrogen explosion. The top of

the reactor blew off and spewed radioactive

material into the atmosphere for 10 days.


Picture: http://www.chernobyl.co.uk/

http://www.chernobyl.co.uk/http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_YZhioAOD1qM/TPUjSgeiEVI/AAAAAAAAAoU/2aq0cVMMSH8/s1600/chernobyl_20_years_later_3.jpghttp://2.bp.blogspot.com/_YZhioAOD1qM/TPUjXFSZu_I/AAAAAAAAAok/Ut2vx9wmNCs/s1600/chernobyl-today-a-creepy-story-told-in-pictures-school1.jpghttp://4.bp.blogspot.com/_YZhioAOD1qM/TPUjfwuoogI/AAAAAAAAAos/9cDzED5ln3Q/s1600/00012689-EPS-Chernobyl-004.jpghttp://1.bp.blogspot.com/_RDHIfo3Wq9Q/TPHwYRLhJhI/AAAAAAAABSY/-4iRH1RTrb0/s1600/chernobyl.jpghttp://2.bp.blogspot.com/_RDHIfo3Wq9Q/TPHypAYbpiI/AAAAAAAABSk/71IN0oRpIa4/s1600/0%252C1020%252C601211%252C00.jpg

2/2/2011

7

Health Impacts

Thirty people died in direct relation to the

accident. They were the workers in the plant and

the people who assisted in the cleanup.

Approximately 2,500 additional deaths were

related to the accident. Since the accident rates of

Thyroid cancer has risen significantly. The rate of

thyroid cancer in children 15 years and younger

increase from 4 to 6 per million to 45 per million

in the Ukraine region between 1986 to 1997

(compared to 1981 to 1985). 64% of these cases

were in the most contaminated regions.

Source: http://www.chernobyl.co.uk/

Community Impacts

116,000 people were evacuated from 1990

to 1995 and 210,000 were resettled.

Major infrastructure had to be rebuilt.

There was also a shortage of electricity.

Agricultural activities had to be reduced,

which lead to a reduction in income.


Environmental Impacts

Radioactive fall out spread throughout the

Ukraine and Europe, and eventually the

whole northern hemisphere. In the local

ecosystem (10 km radius) coniferous tress

and small mammals died. The natural

environment is recovering but there may

be long-term genetic effects.


Locations of Facilities

Source: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/three/maps/index.html

Weapons

Nuclear weapons fall under two categories—fission weapons

and fusion weapons. Fission is splitting the nucleus of an

atom into two or more elements, which causes a huge

amount of energy to be released. In addition if there is left

over neutrons they will cause fission in other elements—

sustaining a chain reaction. Fusion is almost the reverse

because it requires the putting together of two nuclei. The

Hydrogen bomb is a fusion weapon, while weapons that use

U235 and Pu239 are fission weapons. A thermonuclear

weapon detonates in three steps: fission chain reaction,

fusion reaction, and then fission again. When a

thermonuclear weapon explodes, there is an explosion of

neutrons and gamma rays that causes a silent flash of heat

and light, followed by the extreme pressure of a mushroom

cloud that raises millions of tons of earth resulting in nuclear

fallout.


Weapons Production

Production plants involved in the manufacturing of

weapons have also done significant harm to the

environment and surrounding communities. Because the

US was in such a hurry to make as many nuclear weapons

as possible, there are many severely contaminated

environments surrounding these sites. Of special note are

Hanover Washington (evacuated in 1943)*, Rocky Flats

Colorado (plutonium spontaneously igniting cause two

major fires)*, and Fernald Ohio (contaminated ground

water)**. All three of these sites are currently in the

process of being cleaned up.

*Source: Michael E. Long “Half-life: The Leathal Legacy of America’s Nuclear

Waste” National Geographic July 2002.

**Source: www.fernald.gov.pfd

http://www.chernobyl.co.uk/http://www.chernobyl.co.uk/http://www.chernobyl.co.uk/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/three/maps/index.htmlhttp://www.fernald.gov.pfd/

2/2/2011

8

Trinity

In New Mexico on July 16, 1945 was Trinity

test, the first atomic explosion. The Trinity

test spread radioactive material over a 300

square mile area, including Santa Fe, Las

Vegas, and Trinidad (Colorado). Later two

bodies were discovered 20 miles from the

detonation location—the couple had been

living in a nearby canyon in an adobe house.


Hiroshima & Nagasaki

The Hiroshima bomb was nicknamed

“little boy” (on the left) and was

detonated on August 6, 1945 killing

approximately 140,000 by the end of

that year—and an estimated total of

200,000 altogether. “Fat Man” (on the right) was

dropped three days later on Nagasaki killing

approximately 70,000 people. Entire families were

wiped out. The effects of the radiation caused birth

defects in some of the survivors’ children, while

others could no longer have babies. The physical,

psychological, and environmental impacts of these

atrocities can hardly be put into words.

Source: http://www.csi.ad.jp/ABOMB/

Hiroshima—before

Source: http://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/1259a.gif

Hiroshima—after

Source: http://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/1260a.gif

Hiroshima—after

Source: http://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/hiro3.htm

This picture was taken by a US army medic named

Henry Dittner in October 1945.

Weapons Testing

Since 1945 there

has been 2,050

nuclear weapons

tests world wide.*

This picture is of

“Dog Shot” in the

Nevada desert in

1951. The second

series of tests, the

first series with

large scale troops

present. **

Source: * http://armscontrol.org/act/1998_05/ffmy98.asp,

**http://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/naavmed.htm (and picture)

http://www.csi.ad.jp/ABOMB/http://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/1259a.gif hiroshima 1http://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/1259a.gif hiroshima 1http://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/1260a.gifhttp://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/hiro3.htmhttp://armscontrol.org/act/1998_05/ffmy98.asphttp://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/naavmed.htm

2/2/2011

9

Health Impacts

“The morbidity study for Crossroads contains data received from

1,572 veterans of the 42,000 participating veterans. This

represents a sample size of 3.74 %. The average death age of

the 380 deceased veterans is 57 years. The incident of all types

of cancers in deceased Crossroads Veterans is 59%.

The Incidence of all types of cancer in the 1572 reporting

Veterans is 35%.

The leading cancer types, ranging from 23% down to 6%, are

skin, prostate, lymphoma, lung, urinary, colon, and esophagus.

These percentages for the most part are seen in data on Ranger,

Greenhouse, Buster-Jangle, Trinity, Tumbler-Snapper, Upshot-

Knothole, Castle, and Redwing. Information from veterans from

other tests is needed before an analysis can be performed.

Further study and data is needed to isolate target area, ie, tests,

units, ships.”

Quoted from: http://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/naavmed.htm

Environmental & Community

Impacts

Nuclear weapons devastate large areas of land

with a forceful blast and intense heat. The land

around the blast zones are contaminated with

radioactive debris. The mushroom clouds break

up slowly, and travel with weather patterns

which distributes fallout across the globe. Many

of the tests focus in rural, mainly uninhabited

areas, and as a result disproportionately affect

indigenous and other peoples living in these rural

areas. Other important test sites that have

drastically impacted indigenous peoples include

the Marshall Islands (US) and Mururoa (France).

Weapons Transportation

Another significant threat is planes armed with

these weapons can (and have) crashed; and

submarines have also sunk into the ocean. In

addition there have been incidents in which

material has just been dumped as well. May

estimates that there are 60 nuclear weapons and

10 reactors on the ocean floor from submarines,

plane crashes, and dumping. Although very

strong casings likely guard them, the casings will

eventually corrode resulting in radioactive

contamination of our ocean and marine life.


Depleted Uranium

Depleted uranium is

what’s left over from the

enrichment process and is

radioactive. Uranium is a

heavy metal that can

easily penetrate amour.

Depleted uranium is

currently being used in

Iraq, and was used in

Kosovo, the Gulf War,

and Bosnia. When a

depleted uranium burns,

radioactive particles are

release into the air.

Depleted uranium is also

a toxic hazard.

Source: http://www.cbc.ca/news/indepth/background/du.html

Impacts

Jerry Wheat was hit with friendly fire

during the Gulf war and suffered

mysterious ailments when he returned

home. When the shrapnel was removed it

was discovered that is was radioactive.

Source: http://www.tv.cbc.ca/national/pgminfo/du/index.html

“DU has been blamed for a number of leukemia

cases among former Balkans peacekeepers”

“The Iraqi authorities claim that DU is

responsible for a marked increase in cancers“

Source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/2860759.stm

Nuclear Waste

There four different kinds of waste: High-

level (spent fuel and plutonium waste),

transuranic (contaminated tools and clothes),

low and mixed low-level (hazardous waste

from hospitals), and uranium mill tailings. In

the US there is approximately 91 million

gallons of high-level waste, 11.3 million cubic

feet of transuranic waste, 472 million cubic

feet of low and mixed low level waste, and

265 million tons of uranium tailings.

Source: Michael E. Long “Half-life: The Leathal Legacy of America’s Nuclear


http://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/naavmed.htmhttp://www.cbc.ca/news/indepth/background/du.htmlhttp://www.tv.cbc.ca/national/pgminfo/du/index.htmlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/2860759.stm

2/2/2011

10

Storage

Many facilities store their own waste on site, but

they are quickly running out of space. Other sites

are in the process of being cleaned, but there is no

place to store the waste. Part of the problem is the

half-life. Half-life is how long it takes for an unstable

element to decay half way. Uranium 238 takes 4.5

billion years. Typically, after ten “half-lives” the

element is considered safe. Nuclear waste lacks

permanent safe storage. Temporary storage is being

proposed for the Skull Valley Goshute Indian

reservation, and permanent storage may be in Yucca

mountain. Mean while waste and tailings are pilling

up.

Source: Michael E. Long “Half-life: The Leathal Legacy of America’s Nuclear


Skull Valley Goshutes

According to the Skull Valley Goshute Indian website the

Goshute Indians in Utah recently made an agreement with a

private utility to temporarily store 40,000 metric tons of spent

nuclear fuel. The Goshute reservation is 18,000 acres, and

already surrounded by other polluting industries. To the south

of the reservation is the Dougway Proving Grounds—a

government chemical and biological weapons testing site. Also

to the south is the Intermountain Power Project, which mainly

makes coal-fired electricity for California. To the east is a

government depository of nerve gas, and to the northeast is a

low-level radioactive disposal site and toxic waste incinerator.

Finally, in the north is a magnesium production plant. On the

Skull Valley Goshute website it is stated that since the

reservation is already surrounded by hazardous facilities, and

after careful consideration and consultation with the

government, scientists, and corporations, they have entered

into this agreement.

Source: http://www.skullvalleygoshutes.org/

Moab, Utah

This is a picture

of a ten-million

ton pile of

uranium tailings.

The pile is right

next to the

Colorado River,

and leaks

ammonia into it

threatening the

fish. The owners

of the pile when bankrupt, so no the citizens of Moab are

waiting for the Department of Energy to clean it up. The

clean up will cost an estimated 64 million dollars.

Source: http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0207/feature1/zoom3.html

Yucca Mountain

Yucca Mountain located in

southern Nevada. Although

this location has not been

built yet, the plan is to have

the waste buried deep in the

mountain. Waste would be

transported from all over

the country in specially

design railroad cars and

truck trailers. The waste

would then be repackaged

for final burial. This plan is

highly controversial.

Source: http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0207/feature1/zoom3.html

Picture: www.ocrwm.doe.gov

Impacts

Radioactive waste is highly dangerous to

humans and the environment. Because the

waste will remain radioactive for so long, it

will remain to be a threat for thousands of

years.

Conclusion

Overall, nuclear energy disproportionately effects

rural communities and the communities near

nuclear facilities. Uranium mining and bombing

are particularly detrimental to the environment.

Further, the effects of radiation (cancer, illness,

and death) are significant. If you find yourself in a

situation where you are being exposed to

radiation, shield yourself from the blast, and then

move as far away from the detonation area as

possible (otherwise remain indoors).

Source: Ready.gov

http://www.skullvalleygoshutes.org/http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0207/feature1/zoom3.htmlhttp://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0207/feature1/zoom3.htmlhttp://www.ocrwm.doe.gov/

2/2/2011

11

US locations



Sources

Ready.gov

DU article http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/2860759.stm

The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by John May

Atomic Veterans website http://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/

Arms Control website http://armscontrol.org/

WWW A bomb museum http://www.csi.ad.jp/ABOMB/

UK Chernobyl site http://www.chernobyl.co.uk/

TMI picture: http://www.libraries.psu.edu/crsweb/tmi/tmi.htm

Navajo Indian Miners http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/brugge.html

WISE http://www.antenna.nl/wise/uranium/uisl.html

Sources cont.

World Nuclear Association http://www.world-nuclear.org

National Geographic waste article (online version of above):

http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0207/feature1/zoom3.html

Yucca Mountain Picture: www.ocrwm.doe.gov

Skull Valley Goshutes: http://www.skullvalleygoshutes.org/

Source: Michael E. Long “Half-life: The Lethal Legacy of America’s Nuclear


DU article: http://www.tv.cbc.ca/national/pgminfo/du/index.html

US Nuclear Map http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/three/maps/index.html

Fernald document: www.fernald.gov.pfd


http://www.ratical.org/radiation/KillingOurOwn/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/2860759.stmhttp://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/http://armscontrol.org/http://www.csi.ad.jp/ABOMB/http://www.chernobyl.co.uk/http://www.libraries.psu.edu/crsweb/tmi/tmi.htmhttp://www.inmotionmagazine.com/brugge.htmlhttp://www.antenna.nl/wise/uranium/uisl.htmlhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/http://www.world-nuclear.org/http://www.world-nuclear.org/http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0207/feature1/zoom3.htmlhttp://www.ocrwm.doe.gov/http://www.skullvalleygoshutes.org/http://www.tv.cbc.ca/national/pgminfo/du/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/three/maps/index.htmlhttp://www.fernald.gov.pfd/http://www.ratical.org/radiation/KillingOurOwn/

radiation types of radiation...the workers of the dangers of the uranium. it was not until people...

Documents