rasadkhaneh, maragheh sayili
TRANSCRIPT
THE OBSERVATORY
IN ISLAMAND ITS PLACE IN THE GENERAL HISTORY
OF THE OBSERVATORY
BY
AYDIN SAYILI, PH. D.
PROFESSOR ORDINARIUS, CHAIRMAN OF THE DIVISION OF THE HISTORY
OF SCIENCE, FACULTY OF LETTERS, ANKARA UNIVERSITY
TURK TARIH KURUMU BASIMEVI, ANKARA -1960
188 THE OBSERVATORY IN ISLAM
truments such as celestial globes ((Mat at kursi), armillary sphere,
complete (tam) and nisfi (half) astrolabs, and shu`a` which were
found there.' In one of the manuscripts of this book, "parallac-tic ruler" is recorded on the margin instead of the last namedinstruments, i. e., shu`d`. 2 The armillary sphere and parallactic ruler
were among observatory instruments. It is to be wondered there-fore if one would be justified to speak of an Alamilt Observa-tory as has been done on at least two occasions, viz., by Lenor-
mant and Barthold.3
Our sources do not seem to contain any specific statement
concerning the existence of an observatory at Alamut. Moreover,there is no reference to a program of observation or to any groupof astronomers working there, and nor is there any knowledge
of astronomical tables prepared at Alamut. I have followed Le-normant and Barthold, however, and tentatively included Ala-mut here as possibly the scene of a minor observatory. For in
addition to the existence of astronomical instruments there, anoutstanding astronomer, Nasir al Din al Tusi, was at Alamilt
at the time.
According to certain sources,' Nasir al Din was an unwillingguest at that stronghold, but this may not be relevant to our
topic. He was about fifty five years old when Alamut fell to Hu-
legu and had already achieved great fame. In fact, as we shallpresently see, his name is said to have been suggested, in China,to the emperor Mangu Khan (1248-1257), Hulagu's brother,
who wished to found a large observatory probably in Peking orin his capital Qaraqurum, as the best person to direct the execu-
tion of that project.
' Juwayni, vol. 3, pp. 269-270, 214, 186.x Juwayni, vol. 3, p. 270, note.
• Lenormant, part 2, pp. 144.145; Barthold, 1912, p. 256.
' Wassaf, ed. Hammer, p. 58. Mirkhond also makes such a statement
(see, Carra de Vaux, vol. 2. p. 223).
THE MARAGHA OBSERVATORY
BACKGROUND AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION —One of the most important observatories of Islam, and probably
the most important of them all, was built shortly after the middleof the thirteenth century in Maragha, a city of Adharbayjan to
the south of Tabriz. The observatory was built outside of thecity; its foundations are still extant. As just mentioned, certainsources report that the initial incentive for the foundation ofthis institution came from Hulegu ' s brother, Mangu.
Mangu and his successors were generally good patrons of
science and learning. Two important madrasas of Bukhara wereprobably built during Mangu's reign. They are the Khani andthe Mas`udiya Madrasas. Each accomodated a thousand stu-dents a day. `Ala al Din al Juwayni says that the Khalil Madrasawas built by the son of Quyi Bey. This may refer to Kuyuk, whowas Mange ' s father and predecessor. The Mas`udiya Madrasawas built by Mas'ud Bey, son of Yalwaj, who was Mange ' s go-vernor. The passage where these two madrasas are mentioneddeals mostly with Bukhara under the rule of Mangil. 5
Mangu had a lively interest in mathematics and astronomy.
He is reported to have mastered difficult passages of Euclid byhimself. The plan of constructing a large observatory at Peking
was conceived by him. The execution of this project reached itsstage of realization only under his successor Qubilay (1257-94),however. Mang y
had intended to found an observatory probablyin his capital Qaraqurum also. According to certain sources Man-gu was informed that the person who should be entrusted withthis task was Nasir al Din al Tusi. Mangu thereupon asked hisbrother Hulegu to send Nasir al Din to him as soon as the Is-
strongholds were subdued. Mangu was busy with certainconquests, however, at the time of the fall of Alamut. Moreover,
Hulegu came to have great appreciation for Nasir al Din, and
Schefer, Chrestomathie, vol. 2, p. 126, Notes, p. 172.
190 THE OBSERVATORY IN ISLAM
he decided to have him set up the observatory in his own II-khanid state.'
It is stated in certain other sources, on the other hand, thatit was Nasir al Din who took the initiative in this matter and
that he suggested to Hulegu to found an observatory. 7 It maybe that Nasir al Din preferred to have the observatory foundedin Islamic territory and that he used his influence to this effect
and to this extent with Hulagti. This would more or less containand reconcile both versions of the story. In fact, Khondmir, oneof our authorities for the first version of the story, speaks of the
encouragement of Nasir al Din as a factor in the foundation ofthe observatory. s
According to Al Safadi,° Al Kutubi," Wassfif,11 andKhalifa, 12 Nasir al Din himself states that the construction of
the Maragha Observatory (the rasa) started in the-month of.Jumada'1 ula in the year 657, i. e., in April-May,(1259.
Now, Mango died in 1257, and by this time Alamftt had
already been captured, the date of this event falling close to theend of 1256 (Dhii'l-ga`da, 654). 13 According to one report, it wasearly in 1260, however, that Hulegu received the news of Man-
gu ' s death," and he heard of Qubilay ' s coronation in 662 (1263-64). 1 ' It was therefore after the construction of the observatory
had started at Maragha that Hulago heard of Mango's death.Thus the decision not to send Nasir al Din to China but to have
s Rashid al Din, Jami al Tawarikh, pp. 324-327; Khondmir, 1271, vol. 3,pp. 35-36; Blochet, 1910, p. 163; Jourdain, pp. 48-50; Wiedemann and Ruaka,
pp. 295, 296; Kopriilii, Maraga Rasathanesi, pp. 212-217.7
Wassaf, ed. Hammer, pp. 99-100, India, pp. 51.52. Mirkhond mentionsboth versions of the story (Mirkhond, vol. 5, p. 83). See also, Kopriilii, Maraga
Rasathanesi, pp. 212-217." Khondmir, 1217, vol. 3, p. 36.
" Safadi, vol. 1, p. 182.
° Kutubi, vol. 2, p. 151." According to Kopriilii (Maraga Rasathanesi), pp. 216-217." Heji Khalifa, Fliigel, vol. 3, pp. 561-562, Yaltkaya, vol. 2, p. 967."s
Rashid al Din, Jami a! Tawarikh, pp. 214, 215.
" Wilber, p. 8.1s
Rashid al Din, Jami al Tawarikh, p. 400.
THE MARAGHA OBSERVATORY 191
him found an observatory in the Ilkhanid state instead, was nottaken as a result of Mangu' s death, as it is sometimes supposed.
It may be added here that in the beginning of the Zij-i Il-
khani Nasir al Din speaks of the foundation of the Maragha Ob-servatory as due to Hulagft's initiative.
According to Rashid al Din and Khondmir, Mangu hadordered a certain Jamal al Din Muhammad ibn Tahir ibn Mu-hammad al Zaydi al Bukhari to undertake the construction of
the observatory he wished to found, but Jamal al Din was une-qual to this important task. And when the same authors speak
of Mango's decision to charge Nasir al Din with the executionof this project, their phraseology implies that it was not throughJamal al Din that Mang-if had heard of Nasir al Din.
There is, on the other hand, a person called Cha-Ma-Lu-
-Ting, mentioned by Chinese sources, who presented to Qubilay,
Mango's successor, models or pictures of astronomical instru-
ments, in 1267. It is not clear whether or not there are any
unambiguous statements in the sources to the effect that Cha--Ma-Lu-Ting arrived in China in 1267, in which case his identifi-cation with the above-mentioned Jamal al Din, who was already
there during Mango's reign, would be impossible.ts
The Cha-Ma-Lu-Ting of the Chinese sources is represented
as an astronomer who was an instrument maker, and the making jof instruments was considered to be the most important profes-sion connected with the creation of observatories. The instru-
ments of Cha-Ma-Lu-Ting were Cmostlyportable and thereforeof a 1)g-11y _auxiliary kind as far as observatories were concern-ed; 17 and it is true that in Islam there was a tendency to diffe-
rentiate sharply between large observatory instruments and thesmall portable ones, such as the astrolab, which were based uponmore complicated mathematical theories. 18
It is of special inte-rest therefore that Jamal al Din is said to have been unable toconstruct an observatory for Mangu.
° Hartner, 1950, pp. 184-185, 192-193. See also, Needham, p. 372.19 Hamner, 1950, pp. 185-192;`Needhain, pp. 372-374.IS Sayih,-Mansur's Poems, p. 441. See also above, p. 83, note 143.
THE MARAGHA OBSERVATORY 193192 THE OBSERVATORY IN ISLAM
It would be preferable not to have to imagine that within
less than twenty years, two Moslem scientists of the same pro-fession and bearing the same name should have been in the Mon-gol service. There are, nevertheless, the above-mentioned diffi-
culties in identifying them as one and the same person, and thename Jamal al Din is a sufficiently common one. At any rate,
it seems difficult to reach a definite conclusion in this respectwithout further source information. There was also a certainJamal al Din ibn Mahfiz whose years of activity agree quite well
with these circumstances. He made a catalogue of 72 stars in1285. 19 There is no evidence that either of these two men hadony connection with the Maragha Observatory.
There is mention of an astronomer called Husam al Din,whom Mangu had sent in the company of Hulagu so that he
might advise the latter on choices of times for encampments andother military undertakings2 0 This astronomer is said to have
advised Hulagu not to attack Baghdad 21 and not to kill the
Caliph, 22 warning him that should his advice go unheeded un-told catastrophes would visit the earth. Nasir al Din is reported
to have contradicted these prophecies.
This brings to mind the question of contact between Islam
and the Fareast. Conversely, Chinese astronomers were broughtto work in the Maragha Observatory; so that conditions werevery favorable for the passage of influence in both directions.
The question is undoubtedly complex and has not beenstudied in a sufficiently detailed manner. In the field of astro-
nomy influence proceeding from Islam seems to have been ofgreater dimensions. According to M. C. Johnson, contact be-
tween Islamic and Chinese astronomy was negligible until thetime of the Mongols,E3 while in this era too the Chinese seem notto have paid much attention to the aspects of Islamic astronomy
' b Needham, p. 373, note a.20 Rashid al Din, Jami al Tawarikh, pp. 260, 261; D '
Ohsson, 1834, p. 224.21 Rashid al Din, Jami al Tawarikh, pp. 260-262.2L Khondmir, 1271, vol. 3, p. 37.23 Johnson, pp. 27-43.
which were not automatically adaptable to their own system
of astronomy.24
Rashid al Din tells us that Hulagu was very much interestedin construction works. He is also said to have valued "philosophy "
very highly and to have encouraged scientists to bold discuss-
ions on the email sciences. The same author tells us that Hulagualloted salaries and pensions to scientists and philosophers and
had his royal residence embellished with their presence.
The emphasis here seems to be on pseudo-sciences such as
astrology and alchemy. Indeed, there is ample evidence concern-ing the astrological side of that interest, and Rashid al Din in-forms us that Hulagu had a special inclination toward alchemy
and dwells at some length on his wasted confidence on the alche-mists. He says that they kindled much fire, constructed many avessel, employed bellows of various sizes and consumed immea-
surable amounts of materials but that although they caused theexpenditure of immense sums of money they did not produce a
particle of silver or gold and it all came to naught and resultedin no benefit to anyone except that these impostors thereby se-cured a livelihood for themselves. 25
It seems probable there-fore that Maragha was also the scene of alchemical activities ofconsiderable extent.
The Maragha Observatory was located on a hill in the vici-nity of the city of Maragha. The length of this hill lies along themeridian, and the flattend top of the hill has a length of about
400 meters and is about 150 meters in width. 26 Water was raisedto the observatory hill with the help of special devices and wa-ter wheels. These, as well as a mosque and a special building for
Hulagu's residence, were built - by Muayyad al Din al 'Urdi. 27
Upon this hill there was an observatory building which isdescribed as a "marvel " and a " treat to the eye", and reference
26 Hartner, 1950, p. 192; Needham, pp. 374-375.20 Rashid al Din, Jami al Tawarikh, pp. 400-403. A similar statement oc-
curs also in the Ladd al Tawarikh, ms., p. 64b (see below, p. 357, note 34).26 Seemann, pp. 116-117.L7 Seeman, p. 71.
13
is also made to a high tower. 28 There apparently were other
building$__ also, some of an auxiliary nature. AI Safadi" and Al
Kutubi30
describe the observatory building as huge; they also
speak separately of a dome and of the observatory library contain-
ing over 400000 volumes. The phraseology of Al Safadi and Al
Kutubi would seem to indicate that the library was in the main
observatory building and that_ there was, in addition, another
building which had a dome.
This domed building was one of the main attractions of the
institution. It is mentioned by several authors, although they
do not specifically refer to it as an auxiliary building.
There was a hole on the top of this dome through which
the rays of the sun entered. The image thereby formed served
for the measurement of the mean motion of the sun in degrees
and in minutes; the elevation angle of the sun in different sea-
sons and various times of the day were also determined with the
help of this device. The arrangement was such that the solar rays
fell upon the "threshold" on the first day of spring. In the inside
of the building there were representations of the celestial spheres,
of the different epicycles and deferents, and illustrations of the
phases of the moon and the signs of zodiac. Likewise, there were
terrestrial and celestial globes; maps of the seven climes, and
illustrations concerning the length of days and nights. 31
There was a terrestrial globe made of paper pulp. 32A me-
tallic celestial globe constructed in 1279 (or 1289) by Muhammad
ibn Muayyad al Din al 'Urdi, obviously a son of the above-men-
3e These occur in a poem by Qeidi'l Qudat Nizam al Din al Isfahan whowas a contemporary of Nasir al Din (Sayili, Khwaja Nasir-i Tusi, p. 13, p. 3,
note 10). .3a Safadi, vol. 1, p. 179.80 Kutubi, vol. 2, p. 149.
Wassaf, Hammer, p. 100, India, vol. 1, p. 52; Mirkhond, vol. 5, p. 83;
Khondmir, 1271, vol. 3, p. 36; Jourdain, p. 52; Sedillot, 1884, pp. 201-202;
Sedillot, 1847, p. XCVIII; Seemann, p. 120.a3 This information, for which I rely on my memory, was given by Pro-
fessor Mustafa Jawad of Baghdad in his communication at the Nair al Din alaTasi Congress held in 1956 in Tehran. His source is, I believe, Al Fuwati 's
Talkhis Mu'jam al Algab, which is not accessible to me, and Professor Jawad 'spaper has apparently not been published.
THE MARAGHA OBSERVATORY 195
tioned Muayyad al Din al 'Urdi, and apparently constructed for
the Maragha Observatory, has come down to us and is pre-
served in Dresden. 33
From a statement of Al Safadi and Al Kutubiu
it is seen - -
that the armillary sphere of the observatory was fixed on the
ground. The details given by Al `Urdi also indicate that the ins-
truments were generally placed out in the open air. In fact, the
site of the observatory contains traces of the places occupied by
the instruments, and apparently most, if not all, were placed in
the open.35
Thus the trace of a wall which is placed in the meridian is
clearly discernible. The mural quadrant too must therefore have
been placed on the ground, a conclusion which is perfectly con-
sonant with the details given by Al`Urdi concerning the ins-
truments of the observatory.
The construction of the instruments of the Maragha Observ-
atory by Al 'Urdi started before 660 (1261-62) and it ended after
that year; this is the way Al 'Urdi himself expresses it38
The
main activity of construction took place therefore in 660, but
there are no definite dates here concerning the beginning and
the end of this work. As we have seen, certain sources state, on
the authority of Nasir al Din, that the foundation of the observ-
atory started in 657 (1259). 3, This indicates that the construc-
tion of the observatory was a rather slow process. Indeed, we
know that Al 'Urdi did not actually construct all the instruments
of the observatory and that several instruments listed by him
were constructed after he wrote his well-known book on them.
33 See, e. g., Stevenson, vol. 1, pp. 30-31; Seemann, p. 114; Destombes,
Globes Celestes, p. 320.94 Safadi, vol. 1, p. 182; Kutubi, vol. 2, p. 151.
3' I visited Maragha on my way back to Ankara from the Nasir al Dinal Tusi Congress in Tehran, and the description of the site of the observatory
given here is based on my own observations. I am thankful to the Tehran Uni-
versity authorities for having made all arrangements to facilitate this trip.3 ' Seemann, p. 27.37 See above, p. 190, notes 9-12. See also, Kopriilii, Maraga Rasathanesi,
pp. 216-217; Pope, vol. 2, p. 1047; Wilber, pp. 100, 107.
194 THE OBSERVATORY IN ISLAM
196 THE OBSERVATORY IN ISLAM THE MARAGHA OBSERVATORY 197
Rashid al Din reports that in 662 Hulegu came to Maraghaand made a strong appeal to his astronomers for the early com-
pletion of the "rasad"
.33
Quatremere translates the word rasad
here as observatory. On the basis of this meaning of the passage
it would be necessary to infer that the construction of the observ-
atory had not as yet been completed in that year. This wouldmean a construction activity lasting for more than five years.
It is probable that the word rasad here refers to observa-
tions. Wassaf, Mirkhond, and Khondmir, all three, state that
"the building of the observatory " was still incomplete when
Hulegu died (1265). 39 It seems likely that these statements arenot independent and that they reflect a confusion between the
two meanings of the word rasad. It is possible too that because
of Mange 's death and the possibility of his being succeeded byHulage, the construction of the observatory at Maragha was
not prosecuted with vigor for a certain time. It should be notedthat work in the observatory could start before the full comple-
tion of construction activity.
There is a rather elaborate network of caves, starting with
a comparatively roomy entrance section, on the south side of
.the hill near the flattened top. These are referred to as Nasr alDin ' s observatory by the inhabitants of the district. 90 There
has been some speculation as to their possible relation to the
observatory.41 Godard favors the view that they date from the
time of the observatory and not from earlier times as others haveargued. He believes that they may have served as place of work
for the astronomers.
Indeed, leaving out the system of inner tunnels, the comparatively wide entrance section may be compared to the "small-
-scale observatory " which formed an appendage to the later Is-tanbul Observatory of the sixteenth century. The niches in the
walls which may have housed bookshelves and the raised platform
se Rashid at Din, Jtimi al Tawdrfkh, pp. 401-403.se Wassaf, ed. Hammer, p. 101, India, vol. 1, p. 52; Mirkhond, vol. 5, p.
83; Khondmir, 1333, vol. 3, p. 36.95 Godard, p. 20.4' Godard, pp. 20-22; Kopriilii, Marfiga Rasathanesi, pp. 208-211.
resembling a desk fit well into this picture and have their coun-terparts in the Istanbul Observatory.
42
The southerly exposureof the opening of the cave would make possible minor observa-tions with portable instruments, and this, likewise, seems to
have been one of the functions of the "small observatory" in-Istanbul.
According to Ghiyath al Din al Kash', the astronomers
around Ulugh Bey had answered his query concerning the MaraghaObservatory by saying that 'it was the place underneath thetop of the hill where people sit. ' 43 There apparently is a refer-ence here to the entrance section of the caves. It is true that AlKash' does not refer to this assertion in an approving manner,
but this is natural as the main observatory was of course on theflattened top of the hill. Nevertheless, his implied disapprovalof the statement in question should not prevent us from looking
upon this item as an evidence in favor of the conjecture that therooms carved in the hill constituted an additional "small observ-atory " at Maragha.
According to a local tradition, the reason for the choice of
Maragha as Hulage ' s capital was that a valley in its vicinity wasshaped like a scorpion and that this was considered to constitutea propitious omen 44
The same local tradition contains the report that there was
a well which formed part of the observatory and that day-timeobservations of stars were made from it. There is also a sixteenthcentury record concerning the existence of such a report. 45 Thismay possibly refer to the underground section of an instrument 4s
THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE MARAGHA OBSERV-ATORY — We have already spoken of a domed building
which contained a device or instrument serving to make mea-surements related to the sun. The nature of this device or ins-
42 See below, pp. 294-295, note 124.4' Giyath al Din, Letter, p. 512a..44 Wilson, p. 77.46 Wilson, p. 77; Sayili, Observation Well, p. 150 and note 8.4s See below, p. 199, note 53, p. 257, note 89, p. 277, notes 51-52.
198 THE OBSERVATORY IN ISLAM THE MARAGHA OBSERVATORY 199
trument is not clear. Seemann believes that the descriptionsof two distinct places have by mistake been superimposed here. 47
Al `Urdi says nothing concerning it. His silence should ap-parently be interpreted to mean that this instrument, which
seems to have formed a part of a building, was not constructedby him but probably by the architect of the observatory. Infact, AI `Urdi clearly states that architecture and the construc-
tion of buildings lay outside of his profession eventhough hewas obliged to do some work of this nature, viz., the construc-tion of Hulagu ' s residence and of the observatory mosque.
48
Thus, the fact that the instruments listed by Al `Urdi seemto have all been placed in the open does not necessarily excludethe possibility of the existence of important instruments housed
in the observatory buildings and thus affecting their architec-
ture.This brings to mind the suds-i Fakhri, to which the above-
-mentioned domed device bears partial resemblance in a vague
manner 4 9 It is of interest therefore that Ghiyath al Din Jamshid
al Kashi speaks of a "geometrical pulpit, called suds-i Fakhri"
of six gaz (about 3 m.) radius; which stands in the middle of theobservatory building of Maragha" .50
The latter phrase within quotation marks may possibly betranslated also as "which stands in the middle of the construc-tions (tire&rat) of Maragha" , and in this case it could refer to the
mural quadrant there, to some modified from of it, or to anotherdistinct construction.
At any rate, this statement of Ghiyath al Din is somewhatstrange, 51 and the existence of suds-i Fakhri at Maragha is veryunlikely in view of an assertion of Nizam-i Nishaburi which is
relevant to the present question. Nizam lived shortly after Na-sir al Din, in the end of the thirteenth and the beginning of thefourteenth century, and he was very much interested in Nasir
al Din' s books for many of which he wrote commentaries. He
47 Seeman, p. 120.as Seemann, p. 71.ae Tekeli, p. 319.so Giyath al Din, Letter, p. 512b.51 See below, pp. 285-286, notes 79-81.
says that up to his time the suds-i Fakhri had not been cons-tructed by anyone after Al Khujandi.
52
The description available on this Maragha instrument would
seem to fit best the little detail known concerning the maininstrument of the Sharaf al Dawla Observatory of Baghdad asgiven by Al Birilni. 53
As both are vague and incomplete, how-ever, it is impossible to reach any final decision in this matter.
Al `Urdi gives a rather detailed account of the instruments
he constructed or whose construction he recommended for theMaragha Observatory of which he was the main instrument de-signer. The instruments mentioned by him are the following. 59
1) A mural quadrant with a radius of about 430 centime-ters. It was raduated down to the minutes. It was perhaps the
first instrument to be constructed in Maragha. For it was withit that a careful determination of the latitude of Maragha, aswell as of the obliquity of the ecliptic, was made. 55 It had analidade equipped with two sights.
2) An armillary sphere with five rings and an alidade. The
outer radius of the outermost ring, the meridian ring, was slightlybelow 160 ems. Al `Urdi says that he made only a model of thisinstrument;
55that one was actually constructed is seen, how-
ever, from the statement of a later visitor who speaks of anarmillary sphere he saw at Maragha. 57
3) A solstitial armilla, consisting of a circle with 250 ems.
diameter, placed in the meridian and equipped with an alidade.4) The equinoctial armilla. This was a meridian ring on
which an equator ring perpendicular to it was fixed.5) The instrument with two holes, for the measurements
of the apparent diameters of the sun and the moon and the ob-servation of eclipses.
6) Azimuth ring with two quadrants equipped with ali-dades for the measurement of angles of elevation. Al `Urdi does
52 Nizam-i Nishaburi, Sharh-i Tadhkira, p. 180b.53 See above, p. 116, note 131.54
Seemann, pp. 28-104. See also, Tekeli, passim.5s Seemann, p. 43.55 Seeman, p. 35.5 ' Safadi, vol. 1, p. 182; Kutubi, vol. 2, 151.
200 THE OBSERVATORY IN ISLAM
not give the dimension of this instrument but says that it should
be as large as possible. In fact, he speaks of having made only amodel of this instrument." But the instrument was apparentlyconstructed at Maragha after the time when Al 'Urdi wrote his
book. For as we have seen, Taqi al Din and Ghiyath al Din alKashi both mention this instrument as one which was set upat Maragha. 58
'Abd al Mun'im al 'Amili too speaks of this ins-trument as existing in Maragha, adding that itwas located nearthe water wheel 8
0
7) A parallactic ruler, the measurements made with it being
equivalent to those made on a circle with a radius of 250 ems.8) An instrument for the determination of azimuths and the
sine of the complement of the angle of elevation.
9) The sine and versed sine instrument, i. e., an instrumentserving for the measurement of azimuths and the sines' of theangles of elevation. Al 'Urdi says he only made a model of thisinstrument, 61
but, as we shall presently indicate, there is evi-dence that this instrument was actually constructed at Maraghaafter Al 'Urdi completed his book.
10) The perfect instrument (al ala al kamila). This is si-milar to instrument No 7, except that it was not fixed in themeridian but could be revolved around a vertical axis. Al 'Urdidoes not say that he actually constructed this instrument at theMaragha Observatory.
Several instruments for which Al 'Urdi says he only pre-pared models are seen to have been actually constructed. Thisgives the impression that Al 'Urdi was not the only instrument
making astronomer of the Maragha Observatory, and it alsosuggests that he may not have remained at that institution fora long time.
In addition to these main instruments, there must undoubt-
edly have existed a considerable number of auxiliary portable
ae Seeman, p. 71.a6 See above, p. 73, notes 98, 99.s° Abd al Mun'im, p. 27.et Seemann, p. 93.
THE MARAGHA OBSERVATORY 201
instruments at the observatory concerning which no specificinformation has come down to us.
62
Our previous conclusion that these instruments were placedon the ground does not seem to be entirely in agreement withthe general plan of the-site of the observatory as conceived anddrawn by A. H. Schindler. 83
Certain details contained in thisplan would seem to confirm our conclusion, however, when takenas isolated items. There are four circular traces in Schindler's
plan which are of particular interest. They apparently corres-pond to the circular traces of the foundations of instruments
No 6, 8, and 9, the fourth one being probably that of the towerat the observatory. This shows not only that instrument No 9
was actually constructed but also constitutes further evidencethat the instruments were placed in the open.
It may be noted here that certain differences seem to existbetween the instruments of the AI Afdal-Al Bataihi Observatory
of Cairo and those of Maragha from the viewpoint of techniquesand materials of construction. Thus marble seems to have beenused more abundantly in the former case, B4
while wood is em-ployed in._tbe latter; and if the large ring at Cairo was actuallyan azimuth ring, Al 'Urdi's method of construction would haveeliminated all difficulties resulting from its weight. Indeed, ac-
cording to Al 'Urdi, this ring need not be particularly sturdy. lt i
is even not necessary to cast it all in one piece; for it rests on asolid foundation. 86
'Abd al Mun'im al 'Amili uses both tech-niques, but the one-piece cast ring is used for another version ofthe instrument which was probably intended to be of smallersize. 68
For one advantage of making the instrument rest on acircular wall was that it could thus be made of rather large di-mensions.
02 See, Safadi, vol. 1, p. 182; Kutubi, vol. 2, p. 151. There is mention herealso of an astrolab of one dhira' diameter which may have been used for impor-tant observational work.
" Wilber, figure 5.64 This brings to mind Al Ma'am and the Dayr Murran quadrant.62 Seemann, p. 74.88 Abd al Mun'im, p. 32.
202 THE OBSERVATORY IN ISLAM
THE ASTRONOMERS OF THE OBSERVATORY AND
THEIR WORK — It is related that when Hulagu heard of
the great expenses that the construction of the observatory
would necessitate, he had a talk with Nasir al Din concerning the
usefulness of such an establishment. Ile apparently pointed to
the difficulty of confirming the idea of the utility of astrology
in view of the argument that since prediction is based on the
immutability of events nothing can be done to change what is
predestined to happen. Nasir al Din ' s answer was based on
an example illustrating the convenience of an awareness or pre-
science of future events even if nothing could be done to circum-
vent them.67
I have mentioned this story more fully in an earlier
chapter. se
This story clearly shows that the main purpose for the found-
ation of the Maragha Observatory was an astrological one. The
Ilkhani Zij too confirms this impression,
One should perhaps at times differentiate between the be-
liefs and predilections of the rulers and those of their astronomers.
According to Rashid al Din, historian, physician, and vizier, when
Nasir al Din was asked to comment on Husain al Din's prog-
nostications related to the meditated offensive against Baghdad,
he had the feeling that his loyalty was being tested.69
The following anecdote is of interest in this respect. Al Sa-
fadi and Al Kutubi, in their identical passage on Nasir al Din,
relate that Hulagu had ordered `Ala al Din al Juwayni to be put
to death, whereupon `Ala al Din's brother went to Nasir al Din
and asked his help. Nasir al Din pointed out that when Hulagu
issued an order it was impossible to have him rescind it, especi-
ally when it had become public, and said that it would be neces-
sary to resort to a stratagem. He then set out toward Hulegu 's
encampment with a staff and an astrolab in his hand and follow-
ed by a man carrying a censer, incense, and fire.
When he arrived at the gate of the encampment he rekin-
dled the incense and raised the astrolab, making observations
07 Safadi, vol. 1, p. 179; Kutubi, vol. 2, pp. 149-150; Suter, 1900, pp.147-148.
09 See above, p. 39, note 98." Rashid at Din, Jdmi al Tawdrikh, pp. 262, 261.
THE MARAGHA OBSERVATORY 203
with it. When Hulegu's notables saw him do this, they went in
and reported it to the sovereign. After continuing these,, opera-
tions for some time, Nasir al Din asked the notables about Hu-
lagu and his whereabouts. They told him he was in his quar-
ters. He then inquired about his health, and when they told him
he was well he prostrated himself on the ground offering thanks
to God. He repeated his query concerning Hulagu's health and
well-being several times and received the same answer each time,
but he did not seem satisfied and said he would like to see the
Khan with his own eyes.
This was at a time when Hulagu received no one, but they
informed him of Nasir al Din 's request, and Hulagu ordered him
admitted. When Nasir al Din saw the Khan he prostrated him-
self and remained in that position for some time.
Hulagu asked what was going on, and Nasir al Din told
him that the ascendent of the time indicated an extremely cala-
mitous situation for the Khan and that he had therefore burned
incense and performed acts and prayers appropriate to the
situation, to the best of his knowledge, asking God to turn the
calamity away from the Khan. He then beseeched the Khan to
dispatch orders to all corners of the realm, setting free those
who were in chains and forgiving those who were to be pu-
nished, so as to incur the favor of Almighty God in the hope
that he might divert the impending calamity from the Khan.
The trick worked, and AI Juwayni was spared. 70
Hulagu and his successors all had great reliance on astrology,
and this undoubtedly helps explain their continued interest in
the Maragha Observatory.
It is said that Hulagu asked Nasir al Din's advice in every
affair and never took a trip without consulting him 7 1 It is also
related that when Hulagu died, his oldest son Abaqa was un '
willing to become his successor to the throne but that his hesi-
tation was dissipated as a result of an astrological report concern-
ing future events prepared by Nasir al Din. He then sat on the
90Safadi, vol. 1, pp. 179-180; Kutubi, vol. 2, p. 150.
91 Safadi, vol. 1, p. 182; Kutubi, vol. 2, p. 151.
204 THE OBSERVATORY IN ISLAM THE MARAGHA OBSERVATORY 205
throne at the propitious moment as determined by that astro-
nomer. 72
It is likewise reported that when Arghun rebelled againstTakudar, he chose tHe most opportune moment as determined
by the astrologers, for his declaration of hostilities. 73 Again,
after Ghazan Khan's death, Uljaytu came to the throne at themoment chosen by consulting the stars. 74
The main achievement associated with the Maragha Observ-
atory is the compilation of the Ilkheinf. Tables. This was com -
pleted in 1271. 75 There is also mention of the astronomical tablesprepared by Muhyi al Din al Maghribi. According to Hasan Rumlu,
these tables contained corrections to the Ilkhenf Tables and
brought them to completion. 7s This work of Muhyi al Din must
have been done in Maragha. For as will be indicated below, Al
Wabkanwi and Rukn al Din al Amuli refer to his work and enu-merate him among the astronomers who remained at work until
perhaps the very end. 7f
It is reported that when, in the course of deliberations con-nected with the foundation of the Maragha Observatory, Hu-
lagu found out that the observations needed for the constructionof the projected tables, would, "in accordance with the recom-
mendation of astronomers of earlier times", take about thirtyyears, corresponding to a complete revolution of Saturn, the
planet with the longest period, he was so disappointed that theoriginal projeet .had to be abandoned and a new observationprogram of twelve years had to be adopted. 75
It is clear that Hulagt was anxious to have the tables com-pleted in his own lifetime and in as short a period as possible so
that he could personally benefit from the results obtained. Hu-1agu died in 1265, i. e., before seeing the end product of this
72 Mirkhond, vol. 5, pp. 90-91.
Mirkhond, vol. 5, p. 112.04 Mirkhond, vol. 5, p. 142.7 ' Brockelmann, G. A. L., vol. 1, p. 511.
Hasan Rumlu, vol. 11, p. 64b.77 See below, Ip. 214-215, notes 117, 119.
Nasir al Din, Zij, F-300, p. 4a, Ankara, p. 7b.
shorter program of work, and Nasir al Din died in 1274, notlong after the completion of the Ilkh6nf Tables.
Reference has already been made to the large collectionof books assembled in the ` library attached to the Maragha
Observatory. These books are said to have been collected
from Baghdad,- Syria, and Al Jazira. 79 This is the first
case wherein the existence of an observatory library isspecifically mentioned by our sources. Clearly, however, this
hibrary is worthy of being described as an independent ins-
titution by itself. It undoubtedly facilitated the literary pro-ductivity of the scientists gathered at Maragha. For writing of
books figures prominently among the activities of the astrono-mers of the observatory.
An impressive number of scientists were attached to theMaragha Observatory. These were Nasir al Din al Tusi, `Ali ibn`Umar al Qazwini, Muayyad al Din al `Urdi, Fakhr al Din al
Akhlati, Fakhr al Din al Maraghi, Muhyi al Din al Maghribi,Qutb al Din al Shirazi, Shams al Din al Shirwani, Najm al Din
Dabiran al Qazwini, `Abd al Razzaq ibn al Fuwati (or Futi), thelibrarian, and Kamal al Din al Ayki (or lki).
This list is not complete. There were others to whom refer-ences will be found in different parts of the present chapter.
They are the two sons of Nasir al Din, i. e., Asil al Din andSadr al Din, Athir al Din al Abhari, Husain al Din al Shami,
Shams al Din ibn Muhammad ibn Muayyad al `Urdi, and theChinese Fao-Mun-Ji.
Other names too appear in certain lists. 80 Most but notall the above-mentioned persons, however, were at Maragha at
one and the same time. Some of them seem to have been lateradditions to the staff. Shams al Din ibn Muhammad al `Urdi,Husam al Din al Shami, and Athir al Din al Abhari, e. g., were
probably not included in the original staff, while Qutb al Din alShirazi and probably Fao-Mun-Ji and Muayyad al `Urdi were
not at the observatory in the later periods.
Safadi, vol. 1, p. 179; Kutubi, vol. 2, p. 149.
"0 Nakhjaweni, Tasis-i Rasadkhdnand, pp. 213-214.
THE MARAGHA OBSERVATORY 207206 THE OBSERVATORY IN ISLAM
Muayyad al Din al `Urdi, Najm al Din al Qazwini, Fakhral Din al Maraghi, and Fakhr al Din al Akhlati are mentionedby the sources as the astronomers brought together by Nasir
al Din for the foundation of the observatory. These were there-fore the senior members of the staff. This list of names is given
by Nasir al Din himself, but it is of course incomplete.
It is of interest that Fakhr al Din al Akhlati, from Anato-lia, is cited among the latest astronomers of the observatory,
so that he seems to have served all through the life-time ofthis institution. Muhyi al Din al Maghribi too, who worked there
nearly to the end, seems to have been a prominent memberof the staff already before Nasir al Din ' s death.
Qutb al Din al Shirazi is said to have been a student of Na-sir al Din's, and this gives the impression that he was amongthe junior members of the staff. He must have been a former
student of Nasir al Din's, however. For he was apparently oneof the influential astronomers of the observatory already before
the death of Hulagu. The following anecdote testifies to this fact.
According to Khondmir, Nasir al Din and Qutb al Din were
one day in the presence of Hulagu. In the course of conversationHulagu told Nasir al Din that, were it not for his fear that
the observations would remain incomplete, he would have hadhim killed, whereupon Qutb al Din made the strange remarkthat he could complete the work in the absence of Nasir al Din.
When they left Hulegu ' s presence, Nasir al Din criticized Qutbal Din for his remark and told him that his joke was not appro-priate at all. Qutb al Din retorted, however, that he had not joked
but had spoken in earnest. s'
We shall have another occasion to refer to the importantplace Qutb al Din seems to have occupied among the astronomersof the observatory, to his personality, and to his relations with
Nasir al Din.
It is said that Hulagu had a number of Chinese astronomersbrought to the Maragha Observatory, among whom was one
Khondmir, 1333, vol. 3, p. 40.
Fao-Mun-Ji. Through them a knowledge of Chinese astronomyand of Chinese calendar is said to have been obtained. 82
As Sarton remarks, this indicates the internationalism ofthe Maragha Observatory; in turn, the Ilkhani Tables are saidto have been popular not only in Islam but also in China. sa
With its large scientific staff and its huge library, the Ma-
ragha Observatory was thus not only an institution for researchin astronomy, but it also had the characteristics of a scientificacademy with excellent opportunities for scientific contact and
exchange of ideas. In addition to the above-mentioned astrono-mers, its staff undoubtedly contained technicians and personnelconnected with administrative work.
The details given so far are sufficient to indicate that theMaragha Observatory was a quite outstanding institution. But
over and above all these Maragha is remarkable especially withrespect to the following three features: its financial administra-tion; its relative length of life; its activity of instruction in astr-onomy and the awdil sciences in general.
FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION — As far as is known,Maragha is the first Islamic observatory which benefited fromwagf revenues. s4 Wag f was, theoretically at least, a permanentand inalienable endowment which was completely harmonized
with religious law and Moslem ideologies; and it was with itshelp that institutions of charity and public assistance such asthe mosque, the madrasa, and the hospital enjoyed uninterFupt-
ed existence. The endowment of the observatory with wag,f wastherefore important not only as a mere source of income, butit also constituted a sign of a more complete integration and
harmonization with Moslem culture and civilization.
The first hospital known to have been endowed with wagf
revenues was that constructed by the Turkish Ahmad ibn Tulun,founder of the Tulunid Dynasty (868-905), in 872 or 874, in Cairo.
nWiedemann and Ruska, p. 299; D '
Ohsson, 1834, vol. 3, p. 265; Sarton,vol. 2, pp. 1005-1006; Needham, p. 375, note d.
sa Sarton, vol. 2, pp. 1005-1006.
'' See, e. g., Safadi, vol. 1, p. 182; Kutubi, vol. 2, p. 151.
208 THE OBSERVATORY IN ISLAM
Concerning the first library to be so endowed, I have been able
to find only the statement that it antedated 'Adud al Dawla
(949-982). 85
No similar and direct statement seems to exist in the sources
to the effect that Maragha was the first observatory to be so en-dowed. W e cannot be certain, e. g., that the Malikshah Observa-
tory did not have wagf. The statement that an immense amount
of money was spent for it does not clarify this point. It wouldseem quite certain, on the other hand, that the Al Afdal-Al Ba-
taihi Observatory did not have waqf. For in this case we have
specific information concerning the manner in which paymentswere made and the necessary construction materials procured.
It is also known that at least one other observatory founded
after Maragha had waqf revenues, suggesting that had any pre-vious ones too been so endowed the sources would probably have
contained references to the fact. This situation too favors theconclusion that with the Maragha Observatory a new policy wasintroduced with respect to the financial administration of the
observatories.
It appears quite likely that Nasir al Din was personally
responsible for the establishment of this tradition. Moreover,it seems that Maragha itself was not endowed with waqf at thevery start, but that such an endowment was secured for it some-
time after its foundation. For there are statements indicatingthat funds were at first secured piecemeal and as need arose.
At the beginning, Nasir al Din warned Hulagu that the
foundation and the functioning of an observatory would be verycostly, and he obtained the needed funds from Hulagu in succes-sive stages. 86 Apparently Nasir al Din was well-versed in finan-
cial matters; 87 and although he is said not to have been chargedwith the administration of the financial affairs of the state, he
was given the title of vizier 88 Certain sources report, on the other
tl6 Ibu al Athir, vol. 10, p. 483.88 Safadi, vol. 1, p. 182; Kutubi, vol. 2, p. 151; Wassaf, ed. Hammer,
100, India, vol. 1, p. 51; Mirkhond, vol. 5, p. 83; Khondmir, vol. 2, p. 36.
Minovi and Minorski, pp. 755-789.
'° Safadi, vol. 1, p. 182; Kutubi, vol. 2, p. 151.
THE MARAGHA OBSERVATORY 209
hand, that Nasir al Din was the director of the Ilkhani waqf re-venues.
89 According to Al Safadi and Al Kutubi, one tenth ofall state waqf revenues was attached to the Maragha Observa-tory, and twenty thousand dinars were spent for its instrumentsalone, exclusive of all other expenses. 90
Although according to a statement related from Shams
al Din al `Urdi, the funds secured from Hulagu by Nasir al Dinwere so immense that no one but God could express it in num-bers or words, 91 the above-mentioned one tenth of all the statewaqf revenues sounds exaggerated. According to Abu'l Faraj, thewaqf revenues of the state were placed under the direction ofNasir al Din who drew the financial needs of all the madrasasfrom these funds e2
It appears probable that the attachment of waqf to the Ma-ragha Observatory caused some criticism and complaint. AhmadTakudar, Ilkhan ruler (1281-84), is said to have referred to abusesof waqf revenues and their assignment to astronomers in a letterhe wrote to the Sultan of Egypt and to have spoken of his in-tention to rectify the situation, and also of having done so es
There is perhaps an allusion here to the Maragha Observatoryas M. Fuat Koprulii has pointed out, for at the time no otherinstitution connected with astronomy is known to have existed
from whose waqf revenues astronomers could profit.
According to certain sources, the reference in Takudar ' sletter was to non-Moslem astronomers and physicians. 94 Thisversion of the story makes it probable that only the paymentof waqf revenues to a few non-Moslem astronomers had met withdisapproval. According to Khondmir, Takudar deprived Chris-
tian and Jewish physicians and astronomers from waqf revenues
89 Abu '! Faraj, tr. Budge, p. 451; Safadi, vol. 1, p. 182; Kutubi, vol. 2,
p. 151; Wassaf, ed. Hammer, p. 100, India, vol. 1, p. 51; Kopriilii; MardgaRasathanesi, p. 215.
d0 Safadi, vol. 1, p. 182; Kutubi, vol. 2, p. 151.
Safadi, vol. 1, p. 182; Kutubi, vol. 2. p. 151; Haji Khalifa, Fliigel, vol.
3, p. 469, Yaltkaya, vol. 1, p. 907.92 Abu 'l Faraj, tr. Budge, p. 451.sa Wassaf, India, vol. 1, p. 114; Kbprulii, Mardga Rasathanesi, p. 222.
Khondmir, vol. 3, p. 41; Koprulu, Magdra Rasathanesi, p. 222.
14
210 THE OBSERVATORY IN ISLAM THE MARAGHA OBSERVATORY 211
and appointed a certain Kamal al Din `Abd al Raliman al Railas director of waq f endowments.
ss
There are references to abuses in the administration of wag f
during the period of the Maragha Observatory, and this situation
may make our particular problem appear rather magnified. Inthe poem of Nizam al Din al Isfahan referred to above, e. g.,line eighteen seems to be connected with a complaint about the
affairs of wagf, 90 but this is both vague and general. Fakhr alDin Ahmad, a son of Nasir al Din, was killed by the order of Gha-
zan Khan because of his abuses in Anatolian waqf funds. 84
Speaking of the Tabriz foundations of Ghaian Khan, Rashidal Din says that endowments made by him were submitted to
the approval of various religious authorities who officialy tes-tified to their rigid conformity with the religious law "so that
no slanderer could object to them " . Various copies of these waqf
documents were then deposited with proper authorities in diffe-rent important cities. 99
It is seen that the type of objection specifically referred tohere by Rashid al Din concerns the question of whether the pro-perty tied up as waqf was the rightful possession of the personmaking the" endowments, and this may be relevant in connection
with the Maragha Observatory. We have, indeed, very littleinformation concerning the exact nature of Maragha ' s endow-ment. There is no doubt that it benefited from the "waqf reve-nues of the state " , but it cannot be ascertained whether or not
any particular sources of income were specifically and inalien-ably attached to it in accordance with legal formalities.
The Tabriz Observatory of Ghazan Khan, which came intoexistence at a time when Maragha was still functioning, was alsoendowed with waqf revenues. It is reasonable to think therefore
that the objection to endowing observatories with waqf was nota very serious one, if indeed such an objection existed at all. It
is very likely then that the Maragha Observatory was never de-
Khondmir, vol. 3, p. 41.N
Saydt, Khwaja Nasir-i nisi, p. 13.D7
Safadi, vol. 1, p. 182; Kutubi, vol. 2, p. 151.ss Rashid al Din, Tdrikh-i Mubdrak, p. 215.
prived of its waqf revenues, and in case it was, it may have been
done so for a short time. It will be noted that Takudar's reignitself was quite short.
Whatever its nature, the endowment of Maragha with waqf
was certainly of great importance. Undoubtedly, the fact that
Maragha had a quite long life compared especially to earlierobservatories of Islam was partly a result of its endowment,
and this fact could also be considered as an indirect evidencesuggesting that it was not deprived of its waqf funds.
LENGTH OF LIFE — This brings us to the second fea-ture of the Maragha Observatory which we shall study in somedetail. Maragha was exceptional not only for its long life as ex-pressed in number of years but also in that it is the first Islamicobservatory to clearly survive its founder. After the ' death ofHulagu it continued functioning during the reigns of not lessthan seven rulers. These are Abaqa (1265-81), Ahmad Takudar_(1281-84), Arghun (1284-91) Gaykhatu (1291-95), - Baydu, Gha-zan Mahmud (1295-1303), and Uljaytu (1303 .1316); GhazanKhan visited the observatory several times and' showed greatinterest in it, ss
and in 1304-5 Uljaytu appointed Asil al Din,one of Nasir al Din's sons, as director of the observatory. I
"
As Uljaytu showed active interest in the observatory, wemay consider it reasonable to assume that it survived up to 1316,the end of that monarch 's reign. This year would - seem to be ofi mportance for another similar reason also; it happens to coin-cide with the year of Asil al Din's death, 101 the last person knownto have directed that institution. The reign of Abu Said Baha-dur (1316-36), Uljaytu's successor, was marked with much intern-al disorder. Abu Said was the last ruler of his dynasty, and hisreign may be characterized as the period of dissolution of theIlkhani state.
D8Rashid al Din, Tdrikh-i Mubdrak, pp. 104, 131, 173, 174.
100Browne, 1920, p. 48; D '
Ohsson. 1834, p. 483; Kopriilii, Maraga Rasat-hanesi, p. 224.
lOt Asil al Din died in 715 (1345-1316). See, Rashid al Din, Letters, p. 60,
note 2.
212 THE OBSERVATORY IN ISLAM
Al Wabkanwi, who dedicated his zij to Abu Said BahadurKhan, speaks of the Maragha Observatory as a thing of the past.'°
2
Al Wabkanwi was among the astronomers of Ghazan Khan.'°3
He states that he observed the skies durings some forty years; 104
in his zij he allows for a difference of 31 ' for the precession of the
equinoxes as compared with the fixed star positions in theIlkhani Tables.
105 He started writing his zij during the reign ofUljaytu. toe
Al Wabkanwi's statement concerning the Maragha Observ-atory shows that the life of this institution came to an end early
during the reign of Abu Said, if not before. A clear but not sur-prising statement comes from Hamdullah Mustawfi al Qazwini;he saw the observatory in ruins in the year 1339. 10°
The fifteenth century astronomer Rukn al Din ibn Sharafal Din al Amuli writes in his Zij-i Jdmi`-i Sa'idi that after Nasiral Din' s death the astronomers of the Maragha Observatory,
such as Athir al Din al Abhari, 108 Muhyi al Din al Maghribi,Najm al Din Dabiran, and Fakhr al Din al Akhlati, "sat" up to
thirty years until one revolution of Saturn was completed andmade the necessary corrections on the Ilkhdnf Tables.
109
As Nasir al Din died in 1274, the details given by Rukn al
Din al Amuli indicate that work at the observatory continuedup to the year 1304 when Asil al Din was charged with the di-rection of that institution. Al Amuli ' s statement does not neces-
sarily imply, however, that work came to an end at that date.110
Al Wabkanwi, on the other hand, says that none of the astro-
"2 Wabkanwi, pp. 6a, 2b-3a.103 Wabkanwi, p. 2b.104 Wabkanwi, p. lb.los Wabkanwi, p. 127b. The value of precession adopted by Al Wabkanwi
is 1° in sixty years (Wabkanwi, p. 50b).108 Wabkanwi, p. 6a.for Qazwini, Nuzha al Qulub, Gib() Series, part 1, p. 87, part 2, p. 88; Sup-
plement to Siydsatnama, p. 219. See also, Barthold, 1935, p. 166, note 7.loa See, Suter, 1900, p. 145.100 Amuli, p. 2.110 Rukn al Din's statement may refer, on the other hand, to the com-
pletion of thirty years including Nasir al Din's period of work. The expression
is not very clear in this respect.
THE MARAGHA OBSERVATORY 213
nomical tables prevalent in his time was accurate because none
of them had been completed, i. e., based upon thirty years of
observation,lil
and this statement would seem to contradict
that of Al Amuli.
No reference to any activity in the Maragha Observatory
seems to have come down to us for the years following 1304-5.All that can be said with certainty is therefore that the life of the
observatory came to an end not earlier than 1304 and not muchlater than 1316; but it is quite possible that the observatory didnot survive until the latter date. The life of the Maragha Observ-
atory, including the period of its construction, then, was at leastforty five years and at the most about fifty five or possibly
sixty years.
Sharaf-i Rami visited the Maragha Observatory some time
after the middle of the fourteenth century.112 Apparently this
was a visit of its ruins. Seeing that the site of the observatorybears traces of the foundations of its instruments and buildings
still in our day, one may conclude that the observatory musthave fallen into ruins in a gradual manner and that much must
have remained standing there for a considerable length of timeafter the life of the institution had actually come to an end.
Indeed, Ulugh Bey (1394-1449) visited the Maragha Observ-
atory during his childhood,113
and, as previously mentioned,Ghiyath al Din Jamshid al Kashi speaks of the "geometrical
pulpit" which "stands" in the midst of the observatory building
at Maragha. Again, `Abd al Mun'im al `Amili, writing in 1562-63,speaks, as we have seen, of the circular foundation wall of the
azimuthal quadrant of Maragha as standing near the water wheel.The fact that Isma'Il I, Safawid king of Persia (1502-24), plannedto have the Maragha Observatory revived or reconstructed, 114
111 Wabkanwi, p. 2a. See also, Haji Khalifa, Yaltkaya, vol. 2, p. 969.112 Sharaf-i Rami, pp. 2-3 (Courtesy of Professor Mojtaba Minovi). This
visit took place during the reign of the Jalairid ruler Shaykh Uways Bahadur.
Shaykh Uways conquered Adharbayjau in 1358, and in 1364 he annexed Musul
and Diyarbakir to his realm (see, Halil Edhem, p. 391).113 Giyath al Din, Letter, p. 512a.
14 Kopriihi; Maraga Rasathanesi, p. 225.
also shows that the remains of this institution were quite subs-
tantial at that time.
In 1274 Nasir al Din went to Baghdad and died there. Thisyear may mark therefore the end of the most active period of
the observatory. According to Al Safadi and Al Kutubi, Nasiral Din was accompanied or followed by a large number of hisstudents when he journeyed to Baghdad for the last time.
115
It is to be wondered therefore whether Nasir al Din did not in-tend to return to Maragha. Bar Hebraus says, however, that Na-sir al Din's journey to Baghdad was undertaken for the purposeof visiting certain places in that district.
116
According to Al Wabkanwi, while the Ilkhani Tables arelargely dependent upon the Tables of Ibn al A'lam and Ibn Yu-nus, the Zij of Muhyi al Din al Maghribi is more truly represent-ative of the work done at Maragha. Al Wabkanwi also statesthat Muhyi al Din was busy observing at Maragha after Nasir
al Din 's death and that he completed the Maragha observa-tions.
117Reference was previously made to Muhyi al Din's work
and to a disagreement between the values found by him and byNasir al Din for the precession of the equinoxes) ."
It is to be noted that Al Wabkanwi seems to contradict herehis statement previously referred to to the effect that none of
the astronomical tables existing in his time was complete as nonehad been based upon observations lasting for thirty years. Wemay thus attach greater credence to the words of Rukn al Dinal Amuli, according to whom, as we have seen, the astronomersof the Maragha Observatory actually did complete an observa-tion program of thirty years after the death of Nasir al Din.
Rukn al Din gives some details concerning this activity of ob-servation.
He says, "As is well-known, Nasir al Din ... had made cer-tain mistakes in the Ilkhani-Zij and had willed that these mis-
Safadi, vol. 1, p. 183; Kutubi, vol. 2, p. 151.
us Abfi'l Faraj, tr. Budge, p. 451.119 Wabkanwi, p. 3a.119 See above, p. 78, note 125; Qadizada, p. 29. See also, Schirmer,
pp. 59-60.
THE MARAGHA OBSERVATORY 215
takes be rectified and the tables contained in the Zij be corrected
by Asil al Din in collaboration with Qutb al Din al Shirazi...Now, the Khwaja (Nasir al Din) had mentioned the names of
the astronomers of the observatory in the introduction to theIlkhani Tables and had passed away, and had not included the
Mawlawi's (Qutb al Din) name among them. Because of this,Qutb al Din did not busy himself with the correction of the tables.Upon Asil al Din's insistence he merely indicated on the mar-gins .. . that in using the mean positions of the planets from the
tables, 30' should be added to the mean position of the moon
and 7 ' to the center of Saturn 's epicycle, that Jupiter's epicyclic
configuration should be increased by 1° 21 ' , and that 1° 30'
should be added to the center of Mars' epicycle and the same
quantity(?) subtracted from that of Venus, but he did not makeany references to the sun and to Mercury.
"After the death of the Khwaja, the astronomers of the ob-
servatory waited (sat) up to thirty years until the revolution ofSaturn became complete. Each one of them, such as Athir alDin al Abhari, Muhyi al Din al Maghribi, Najm al Din Dabiran,
and Fakhr al Din al Akhlati, prepared astronomical tablesand treatises on Euclid and the Almagest, and it was ascertained
that, as before, three minutes should be subtracted from the
sun 's distance to the apogee of its eccentric " so as to bring aboutthe necessary agreement between the calculated and observed
positions)"
Does this mean a new edition of the Ilkhani Tables, the main
author this time being Asil al Din? Or could the details givenby Rukn al Din be considered as more or less equivalent to Al
Wabkanwi's and Hasan Rumlu 's statements concerning Muhyi
al Din al Maghribi ' s Astronomical Tables? The clarification of
these questions, will have to await further detailed informationand monographic work. An entirely new additional zij producedat the Maragha Observatory and based upon thirty years of ob-
servation may even be implied here, but other sources would havecontained clear references to such a zij, had it been in existence)°
1 Amfili, p. 2.120 A copy of the Ilkhani Zij with Asil al Din' s handwriting exists in the
214 THE OBSERVATORY IN ISLAM
216 THE OBSERVATORY IN ISLAM
We have the report of a certain Hasan ibn Ahmad al Hakamwho visited the Maragha Observatory at a time when Nasir alDin'
s son Sadr al Din was its director. Shams al Din Muhammadibn Muayyad al 'Urdi, Shams al Din al Shirwani, Kamal al Dinal Ayki, and Iiusam al Din al Shami were at that time workingin the observatory.
121
Moreover, as we shall presently see, it appears that the num-ber of students at Maragha had apparently not decreased to anyconsiderable extent, in spite of the report that a group of themfollowed Nasir al Din to Baghdad during his last trip. It may
therefore be concluded that the activity at Maragha did not sufferseriously upon the death of its first director, but further detailedand specific information is needed on this point.
The information concerning Qutb al Din contained in thepassage quoted above from Rukn al Din is of interest. As Qutbal Din was a highly esteemed scientist who survived Nasir alDin by about thirty five years,
122
it is of importance that hedid not stay on the Maragha staff.
Qutb al Din remained in the Ilkhan service, and served forTakudar, Arghun, Ghazan Khan, and UljaytiI, in addition to
Hulagu and Abaqa. He acted as a kind of ambassador sent byTakildar to the Mamluk sultan Qalaun and apparently was thebearer of Takudar's letter mentioned above.
128He was also
given the post of some kind of an extraordinary governor of aboundary province by Takudar. He lived in Asia Minor for aconsiderable time, and he presented a map of the Mediterraneanto Arghun in 1290, from which Arghun examined the route to
be followed by his Genoese envoy Buscarello di Ghizalfi whomhe was sending to the Pope and the kings of France and Englandin 1292.
124
Bibliotheque Nationale of Paris (ms. No 779). See, Blochet, ManuscritsPersans, vol. 2, p. 56.
121Safadi, vol. I, p. 182; Kutubi, vol. 2, p. 151.
122 Sarton, vol. 2, p. 1017. See also, Rashid al Din, Letters, p. 57, note1. It is stated here that Qutb al Din lived to be nearly ninety years old. From
the date of birth given by Sarton, however, he died when about seventy five
years old.12s Sarton, vol. 2, p. 1017.lay Sarton, vol. 2, p. 1018; Togan, 1942, pp. 45-48.
THE MARAGHA OBSERVATORY 217
During the reign of Arghun, Rashid al Din sent a rather longletter to Qutb al Din from India,
115
and in a letter to his son,he granted a sum of money, as well as a fur and a horse with saddleto Qutb al Din.
126Of course this need not indicate that at the
time Qutb al Din did not receive funds from the state treasuryor from waqf. An identical grant was made on this occasion toNasir al Din's son Asil al Din also.
127It is of interest that Ra-
shid al Din did not believe in astrology;128
we have seen thathis opinion of at least the alchemists of this time was, likewise,very low indeed.
After Nasir al Din ' s death two of his sons became directorsof the observatory, although none of them seems to have beenquite as distinguished, as astronomers, as some of the other mem-
bers of the staff, e. g., Qutb al Din al Shirazi or Muhyi al Din alMaghribi. This may bring to mind the possibility that the direc-tion of the observatory was not unrelated to the administrationof its endowments.
The office of the administrator of waqf revenues was some-times hereditary. Such an arrangement would usually imply,however, that the waqf revenues came from the personal proper-ties of Nasir al Din, and although our knowledge concerning
the endowment of Maragha is scanty, it is quite certain thatNasir al Din had not endowed it. It is not very likely thereforethat his sons were automatically entitled to any such priorityin the administration of its waqf revenues. There still remainsthe possibility that the supervision of the waqf revenues of theobservatory was granted to Nasir al Din on a hereditary basis.
We have referred to the report concerning the work whichwas to be continued after the death of Nasir al Din by his son
Asil al Din in collaboration with Qutb al Din. This suggests thepossibility that Nasir al Din had willed that this son should suc-
ceed him as director of the observatory. If so, however, Asil alDin would have become the second director of the Maragha Ob-
12s Rashid al Din, Letters, pp. 159-168, 161.125 Rashid al Din, Letters, p. 57.121 Rashid al Din, Letters, p. 60.125 Rashid al Din, Letters, p. 300.
218 THE OBSERVATORY IN ISLAM
servatory, and this apparently was not the case. For as mentionedbefore, according to E. G. Browne, Asil al Din Hasan was ap-
pointed director of the Observatory by Uljaytft in 1304-5. 129 Weknow that Sadr al Din `Ali too occupied that post. For as we
have seen, a certain Hasan ibn Ahmad visited the Observatoryat a time when Sadr al Din was its director.
Presumably, therefore, after Nasir al Din ' s death, first Sadral Din and then Asil al Din assumed the direction of the Observ-atory. In fact, Al Safadi and Al Kutubi state that first Sadr alDin and, after his death, his brother Ail al Din assumed the
direction of most of the posts occupied by their father.1S0 Thesame sources state, on the other hand, that Asil al Din losthis prestige toward the end of Ghazan Khan' s reign and thathis life came to an end without having been rehabilitated,'"and this further complicates our somewhat confused pictureof the situation. Nasir al Din 's third son, Fakhr al Din Ahmad,does not seem to have been connected with the Observatory.
THE ACTIVITY OF INSTRUCTION — The third out-
standing feature of the Maragha Observatory is seen in the im-portant activity of instruction which took place in it. There isno doubt that earlier observatories too were helpful in the trans-
mission of astronomical knowledge and of the await sciencesin general. For as the await sciences were as a rule excluded from
the curricula of the madrasas, the transmission of knowledgein these subjects had to depend upon private instruction, andat least a limited number of private students and apprentices
of astronomers must have had access to the instruments at thedisposal of their masters. This would serve to supplement theo-retical teaching by practical instruction, and practical astrono-
mers at least probably received the best part of their educationwhen they had access to the observatories in the capacity ofassistants.
As astronomers needed assistance both in making theirobservations and for calculation work, there must have existed a
1" Browne, 1920, p. 48; Koprulu, Maraga Rasathanesi, p. 224.'as Safadi, vol. 1, p. 183; Kutubi, vol. 2, p. 151.'3' Safadi, vol. 1, p. 183; Kutubi, vol. 2, p. 151.
THE MARAGHA OBSERVATORY 219
number of students in every private observatory. Observationwith the larger instruments especially was, on the other hand,
of necessity, the result of the cooperation of several persons.The more elaborate royal observatories could afford to employan array of full-fledged astronomers, and they may not have felt
the need of having student helpers. At any rate, we have no clearevidence that any of the earlier royal observatories, with the
possible exception of the Al Afdal-Al Bataihi Observatory, hadany students or apprentices on their staff. As we have seen, inthe latter institution both Sahlun and his disciple Aba Nasr are
mentioned among the astronomers of the observatory.As to the Maragha Observatory, it apparently incorporated
a veritable school of astronomy and the await sciences in gene-ral. This, at least, is the impression gained from the fact thatour sources associate large numbers of students with this observ-atory. Our information concerning the degree to which this act-ivity was organized and institutionalized is not very clear, how-ever. The instruction in Maragha does, nevertheless, show signsof having been official and not to have consisted merely of anextention of private teaching.
We are told, in fact, that Abaqa granted financial assistance,repeatedly and generously, to nearly one hundred students whohad been disciples of Nasir al Din.
tsa
This would seem to indi-cate that the waqf of the observatory contained no provisionsconcerning funds to be made available to students, but it alsoshows that the instruction of "Nasir al Din ' s students" was notinterrupted by his death. It is clear at any rate that they shouldnot be conceived as his private students. We may infer, on the basisof the same report, that the group of students who followed Na-sir al Din to Baghdad, when he journeyed there, must have re-turned to Maragha after his death.
Aba'l Faraj is known to have taught geometry and astro-nomy in Maragha. He lectured on Euclid' s Elements in 1270 andon Ptolemy's Almagest in 1272. According to Nau, the latter, i. e.,the courses on astronomy lasted from 1272 to 1279. laa
'sa Mtrkhond, vol. 5. p. 91; Kopriilii, Maraga Rasathanesi, p. 219. Accordingto Abu'l Faraj, Nasir al Din allotted stipends to teachers and pupils whowere with him, and this most likely refers to waqf revenues (See below,p. 222, note 143).
'sa Nau, p. IV.
220 THE OBSERVATORY IN ISLAM
Abell Faraj (Bar Hebraus) is sometimes considered as one ofthe astronomers of the Maragha Observatory, 134 but there seemsto exist no conclusive evidence showing that he was officially inthe staff of that institution. There is no doubt that he lecturedon geometry and astronomy in the city of Maragha;
135but it
is not clearly stated in our sources whether he lectured in Arabicor in Syriac, and nor is it specified whether the courses weregiven in the observatory or in the monastery of that city.
The monastery is mentioned in one of the passages whereinreference is made to his instruction, however, and although theconnection between them is not clear, Assemani and Nau have
concluded that his courses in geometry and astronomy weregiven in Syriac in the monastery.
135Nau's contention is based
also on the fact that an astronomical work of Bar Hebraus, The
Book of the Ascension ... , written in Syriac, contains fragmentaryevidence concerning his teaching. According to Nau, this bookmust have been directly connected with that activity of instruc-
tion and it probably grew out of his lectures.137
Nau also points out that the details of the celestial globeconstructed in Maragha and preserved in Dresden correspondto those given by Bar Hebraus in his Book of the Ascension, andhe sees in this correspondence an additional evidence of connec-
tion between Bar Hebraus' Syriac book and his courses.'"
This globe, which was constructed by Muhammad ibn Mu-ayyad al `Urdi, a son of Muayyad al Din al `Urdi,
13s
apparentlybelonged to the observatory. For there should be no doubt thatthis Muhammad was no other than Shams al Din Muhammadibn Muayyad al `Urdi, who was, as we have seen, a member of' thestaff of the observatory. Moreover, according to Nau, there is
close similarity between Bar Hebraus ' book and Nasir al Din 's
'34 Dreyer, History, p. 248; Wiedemann and Ruska, p. 298; Johnson,
p. 31; Sarton, vol. 2, p. 1005.138 Assemani, p. 253; Abbeloos de Lamy, col. 444; Nau, pp. III, IV if.,
105; Sarton, vol. 2, p. 975; Hitti, p. 683.134 Assemani, p. 253; Nau, pp. III, IV.187 Nau, pp. III, IV, VII.'38
Nau, pp. VII-VIII, note 4 on p. VII.138 See above, pp. 194-195, note 33.
Tadhkira,140
and we know that Bar Hebraus also wrote in Ara-bic. These items give evidence that Abu'l Faraj had close rela-tions with the Maragha Observatory and bring to mind the like-lihood that he lectured in that institution in Arabic.
There is, in one of the Istanbul libraries, a manuscript vo-lume containing a collection of various mathematical and astr-
onomical texts which belonged to Abu'l Faraj; it bears his sig-nature as well as a phrase of identification in Syriac. The trea-tises of this collection include some works of Nasir al Din, and
they would seem to constitute a very useful collection for coursesin geometry and astronomy such as those given by Abu'l Faraj.The various treatises contained in the volume bear successive
dates and they seem to have been written, at least partly, in BarHebraus' own handwriting. 141
It would seem that this collection could be characterizedas more representative of the courses given by Bar Hebraus thanhis above-mentioned Syriac book, and the presence of such a
collection would seem to offset the thesis that Abu'l Faraj taughtin Syriac and in the Maragha Monastery.
Arabic was the prevailing scientific language at the time,
and students existed in the observatory in large numbers, where,in addition, excellent facilities for instruction were available;there was a huge library and, very likely, auxiliary instruments
of smaller size concerning which no information has come downto us. Moreover, his religious duties took Abu ' ! Faraj to differentcities such as Baghdad, Musul, and Tabriz, and Maragha wasnot his only headquarters.
142It was only in Maragha, however,
that he lectured on astronomy and related subjects. It may be
noted in this connection too that no other examples of instruc-tion in astronomy or mathematics given in monasteries or chur-ches within Islamic lands seem to be in existence.
On all these grounds it would appear likely that Abu'lFaraj gave his courses in Arabic and in the Maragha Observatory,
140 Nau, p. VII.141 Sayil1, Khwaja Nasir-i nisi, pp. 10-12; see also plate on page p. 16-17
(inverted). Professor Franz Rosenthal kindly brought this manuscript to my
attention.142 See, Nau, p. III; Sarton, vol. 2, p. 975.
THE MARAGHA OBSERVATORY 221
222 THE OBSERVATORY IN ISLAM
although there is no conclusive evidence for either alternative.
The following statement of Abu'l Faraj too is of interest in thisconnection.
Speaking of Nasir al Din, Abu'l Faraj says, "And there
were gathered together about him in Maragha, a city of Adhar-bayjan, a numerous company of wise men from various coun-tries. And since the council of all the mosques and the houses ofinstruction (i. e., colleges) of Baghdad and Assyria were underhis direction he used to allot stipends to the teachers and pupilswho were with him. About this time, having set out for Baghdadto visit various places, he died in Baghdad. And certain men havereported that he was blind." 74s
The last sentence in this passage makes it seem that Abu'1
Faraj had no contacts with the Maragha Observatory and thathe had not even seen Nasir al Din. But this possibly refers to
Nasir al Din's last days only and in that case it would not meanthat Abil'l Faraj did not know him personally.
According to Haji Khalifa, Muhyi al Din al Maghribi wrotehis epitome of the Almagest upon Abu'l Faraj ' s request and re-commendation
144so that they were apparently well-acquainted
with one another. The above-mentioned manuscript collectiontoo shows that Abu'l Faraj was quite well-informed on thenewest books and treatises written by the astronomers of theMaragha Observatory, and we have mentioned other itemsindicating that he was probably in contact with that institution.
CONCLUSION — As will be noted, we are in possessionof no clear evidence that any of the previous observatorieshad libraries of any considerable size, whereas we have al-ready referred to the huge library of the Maragha Observatory.It is reasonable to think that previous observatories too wereequipped with libraries containing appropriate books. They
may have been of modest or moderate sizes, and this is probablythe reason why no references occur to them. In fact, the only
other observatory in connection with which there is clear evi-dence of the existence of a library is the Istanbul Observatory
144Abu ' l Faraj, tr. Budge, p. 451.
'" Haji Khalifa, FHigel, vol. 5, pp. 389, 387, Yaltkaya, vol. 2, pp. 1596,
1595; Suter, p. 155.
THE MARAGHA OBSERVATORY 223
of the sixteenth century. This much seems to be clear at any ratethat none of them had any library comparable in size to that ofof the Maragha Observatory.
We have seen that, as in earlier observatories, the main work
done in Maragha was the preparation of new astronomical ta-bles, and it seems quite clear that, for its royal patron at least,the primary incentive in creating this institution was of an astr-
ological nature.Like its library, the staff of this observatory too is seen to
have been quite impressive. In fact, it is clear that in many res-pects, Maragha surpassed all previous observatories of Islamand that in its financial administration, as well as with regard to
instruction in astronomy, it introduced important innovations.These factors, and also the consistency with which the Ilkhan
rulers supported astrology, were undoubtedly responsible in greatmeasure for the exceptional length of life of this observatory.
The two main observatories which were founded after Ma-
ragha, namely the Samarqand Observatory of Ulugh Bey andthe Istanbul Observatory of Murad III, were quite comparable
to Maragha in splendor; these three would seem to fall generallyin the same class. The Maragha Observatory thus set a newstandard for the observatories of Islam. The policy of supplyingobservatories with waqf was further developed in the TabrizObservatory of Ghazan Khan, but there is no evidence that itwas continued in the later observatories of Islam. Maraghawas likewise surpassed by the Tabriz Observatory with respectto the organization of scientific instruction, but otherwise theobservatory of Gillian Khan was only of minor importance.
In Samarqand the teaching of astronomy and mathematics
was pursued with vigor in the madrasa of that city. This mad-rasa, which was older than the observatory, apparently consti-tuted some kind of a prelude to it and paved the way for it. It t
is not known to what extent the observatory itself was acces-sible to students, however. The connection of observatories
with instruction in astronomy too seems, nevertheless, to haveconstituted one of the lasting traditions and permanent featuresof the Islamic observatory.
14s
14' See below, p. 231, note 25.
TH
E F
OU
RT
EE
NT
H C
EN
TU
RY
225
CH
AP
TE
R V
II
TH
E F
OU
RTE
EN
TH
CE
NTU
RY A
ND
MIN
OR
OB
SE
RV
ATO
RIE
S
Sh
ortl
y b
efo
re t
he c
on
str
ucti
on
of th
e M
aragh
a O
bservato
ry
Mu
ayyad a
l `U
rdi com
pla
ined t
hat
no r
oyal patr
on
su
ffic
ien
tly
inte
reste
d in
astr
on
om
y w
as a
vailable
an
d t
hat
therefo
re s
ys-
tem
ati
c o
bservati
on
s,
on
wh
ich
an
y s
erio
us w
ork in
astr
on
om
y
had t
o b
e b
ased, cou
ld n
ot
be u
nderta
ken
).
Sh
ortl
y a
fter t
he M
aragh
a O
bservato
ry, H
asan
ibn
Mu
ham
-
mad N
izam
al N
lsh
abu
ri, c
om
men
tin
g o
n t
he s
tate
men
t of N
asir
al
Din
al
Tu
sith
at
"in
no a
ge w
hic
h w
as w
ith
ou
t a g
reat
an
d
worl
d-c
on
trolin
g k
ing h
as it
been
possib
le t
o b
uild o
bserv
ato
ries
",
writ
es a
s follow
s:
"It
is f
ixed in
th
e m
inds o
f in
tellig
en
t people
th
at
the w
orks
of
kin
gs a
re k
ings a
mon
g w
orks.
Th
is is e
specia
lly t
ru
e o
f observ-
ati
on
program
s.
For t
his
is a
matt
er w
hic
h c
an
not
be a
ccom
-
plish
ed e
xcept
by t
he n
od o
f approval of
kin
gs.
Th
is is n
ot
merely
du
e t
o t
he f
act
that
great
expen
dit
ures a
re n
ecessary f
or t
he
creati
on
an
d t
he f
un
cti
on
ing o
f observato
rie
s a
nd f
or e
qu
ippin
g
them
wit
h in
str
um
en
ts.
For if th
is w
ere t
he o
nly
reason
,
people
well-v
ers
ed in
th
ese m
att
ers
cou
ld c
all u
pon
th
e a
ssis
tan
ce
of w
ealt
hy p
erson
aliti
es.
"For t
he e
recti
on
of
an
observato
ry t
here is n
eed f
or t
he
presen
ce o
f accom
plish
ed a
nd s
kilfu
l m
aste
rs w
ho c
an
con
vert
the in
str
um
en
ts from
th
e c
on
ceptu
al sta
te in
to t
he a
ctu
al. A
s
this
is a
n e
xte
nsiv
e w
ork
an
d r
equ
ires lon
g t
ime f
or
its c
om
ple
tion
,
it is im
possib
le t
o lim
it o
neself t
o a
nd t
o b
e s
ati
sfied w
ith
th
e
presen
ce o
f a few
on
ly o
f th
ese m
aste
rs.
It is n
ecessary o
n t
he
con
trary, to
brin
g t
ogeth
er a
ll t
he m
aste
rs o
f th
e t
ime s
o t
hat
every o
ne s
hall m
ake m
an
ifest
his
ow
n p
arti
cu
lar a
rt;
an
d m
ore-
over,
by s
eekin
g t
he c
on
firm
ati
on
an
d a
pproval of
oth
er e
x-
perts
in
each
case, all t
hese in
str
um
en
ts s
hall b
e a
tten
ded t
o
Urd
i,K
itdb a
l H
ay' a
, p.
90a.
an
d c
on
str
ucte
d in
th
e b
est
man
ner p
ossib
le in
th
at
age.
Now
,
there is n
o d
ou
bt
that
to a
ssem
ble
th
e m
aste
rs o
f th
is a
rt
from
all
corn
ers is p
ossib
le s
om
eti
mes b
y s
how
ing k
indn
ess t
o t
hem
, an
d
in o
ther c
ases t
hrou
gh
com
pu
lsio
n a
nd h
arsh
ness; bu
t kin
dn
ess
ism
ore e
ffecti
ve w
hen
it
com
es f
rom
kin
gs a
nd c
oersio
n c
an
be
exercis
ed o
nly
by t
hem
.
"Th
us f
or t
he p
urpose o
f th
e in
ven
tion
of
astr
on
om
ical in
s-
tru
men
ts, th
e e
sta
blish
men
t of m
eth
ods for m
akin
g o
bservati
on
s
wit
h t
hem
, an
d for d
iscoverin
g e
xpedie
nt
an
d d
exte
rou
s w
ays
for t
heir
man
ipu
lati
on
an
d u
tilizati
on
it
is n
ecessary t
o b
rin
g
togeth
er w
ise m
en
from
all c
orn
ers s
o t
hat
their
experie
nce a
nd
kn
ow
ledge w
ill be p
oole
d t
ogeth
er;
the r
ealizati
on
of
the p
ro-
jecte
d o
bservati
on
s w
ill th
us b
ecom
e m
ore c
erta
in a
nd t
he r
esu
lts
obta
ined w
ill com
e c
loser t
o t
he t
ru
th..
.. "
2
It is c
erta
in t
hat
in I
sla
m r
oyal in
itia
tive a
nd p
atr
on
age
were f
acto
rs o
f prim
ary im
porta
nce in
th
e c
on
str
ucti
on
of
observ-
ato
ries.
Th
e fou
rte
en
th c
en
tury d
oes n
ot
seem
to h
ave b
een
part
icu
larl
y r
ich
in
observ
ato
ries.
Th
is p
robably
had s
om
eth
ing t
o
do w
ith
th
e fact
that
the fou
ndati
on
of an
ela
borate
observ-
ato
ry a
nd t
he c
om
ple
tion
of
reliable
astr
on
om
ical ta
ble
s,
i.e.,
the M
aragh
a O
bservato
ry a
nd t
he
Ilk
hani
Zij,
had m
ade it
un
-
necessary t
o b
uild n
ew
observato
rie
s,
for s
om
e t
ime a
t le
ast,
or
even
to k
eep t
he e
xis
tin
g o
ne a
live.
Gh
azan
Kh
an
sta
nds o
ut
as a
n in
teresti
ng fig
ure o
f th
e
fou
rte
en
th c
en
tury, alt
hou
gh
his
patr
on
age w
as p
robably
not
alt
ogeth
er
fru
itfu
l.It
is lik
ely
th
at
the m
ost
importa
nt
ob-
servato
ry o
f th
is c
en
tury w
as t
hat
of Ib
n a
l S
hati
r.
Bu
t very
litt
le in
form
ati
on
is a
vailable
at
presen
t con
cern
ing t
his
sid
e o
f
Ibn
al S
hati
r' s
acti
vit
y.
An
oth
er f
acto
r w
hic
h s
eem
s t
o h
ave g
ain
ed s
om
e im
porta
nce
by t
his
tim
e is a
ten
den
cy o
f bu
ildin
g m
inor
"observ
ato
ries".
It is d
ifficu
lt t
o m
ake a
cle
ar d
efin
itio
n o
f th
e w
ord
"m
inor"
in
this
con
text,
bu
t probably
th
ese m
inor o
bservato
rie
s c
ou
ld b
est
be c
on
ceiv
ed a
s a
new
type w
hic
h c
am
e c
lose t
o t
he o
ffic
e o
f th
e
muw
aqqit.
Th
ey m
ay r
ough
ly b
e c
hara
cte
rized a
s p
laces f
rom
wh
ich
2N
izam
-i N
ish
ab
uri
,K
ash
f,B
urs
a,
pp
. 6a-6
b.
is
226
TH
E O
BSE
RV
AT
OR
Y I
N I
SL
AM
TH
E F
OU
RT
EE
NT
H C
EN
TU
RY
227
ob
serv
atio
ns
of
a def
init
e n
ature
an
d lim
ited
sco
pe
wer
e m
ade,
and in
co
ntr
ast
to t
he
ob
serv
ato
ry t
hey
wer
e ap
par
entl
y co
n-
ceiv
ed t
o b
e p
erm
anen
t. M
ore
sp
ecif
ic in
form
atio
n w
ould
be
nee
ded
to
cla
rify
th
is s
ub
ject
, h
ow
ever
.
TH
E G
HA
ZA
N K
HA
N O
BSE
RV
AT
OR
Y
Acc
ord
ing t
o R
ash
id a
l D
in (
1247-1
318),
th
e Il
kh
anid
rule
rG
haz
an K
han
(1295-1
304),
aft
er e
mb
raci
ng I
slam
, dec
ided
to
ado
pt
the
cust
om
of
Mo
slem
kin
gs
of
buildin
g m
auso
leum
s.
He
had
on
e m
ade
for
him
self
an
d s
urr
oun
ded
it
wit
h a
gro
up
of
inst
ituti
on
s o
f ch
arit
y an
d p
ub
lic
assi
stan
ce. H
e ch
ose
Sh
am,
a su
burb
of
Tab
riz, as
th
e lo
cati
on
of
his
futu
re r
esti
ng p
lace
and its
co
mp
lem
ent
of
char
itab
le in
stit
uti
on
s, a
nd h
e w
as d
eter
-m
ined
th
at it
sho
uld
Burp
,s
all p
revio
us
on
es in
ple
ndo
r.3
Th
e re
sult
was
th
e {A
bw
ab a
l B
irr
of
Sh
am,-
)wh
ich
was
als
oca
lled
th
e Sh
anb
-i G
haz
ani. I
t co
nta
ined
, in
addit
ion
to
his
Mau
-so
leum
, a
mo
sque,
a m
on
aste
ry, tw
o o
r m
ore
mad
rasa
s, a
ho
s-p
ice
for
sayy
ids,
an o
bse
rvat
ory
, a
ho
spit
al, a
lib
rary
, a
ho
use
of
law
, a
ho
use
fo
r th
e ad
min
istr
ato
r o
f en
do
wm
ents
, a
pla
ce o
f
ablu
tio
n, a
bat
h-h
ouse
, an
d a
pri
mar
y sc
ho
ol fo
r o
ne
hun
dre
dch
ildre
n.
Th
e fo
un
dat
ion
s w
ere
rich
ly e
ndo
wed
, an
d t
he
waqfr
even
ues
pro
vid
ed, in
addit
ion
to
th
e s
alar
ies
of
all em
plo
yees
and a
llex
pen
ses
nee
ded
fo
r m
ain
ten
ance
an
d u
pkee
p, fo
r var
ious
oth
er
hum
anit
aria
n p
urp
ose
s su
ch a
s th
e fo
llo
win
g: fu
ner
al e
xp
ense
sfo
r des
titu
te p
erso
ns
dyi
ng in
Tab
riz,
ass
ista
nce
to
po
or
wid
ow
s,ca
re a
nd e
duca
tio
n o
f o
rph
ans
un
til th
ey w
ere
taugh
t a
man
ual
art,
up
kee
p a
nd m
ain
ten
ance
of
road
s an
d b
ridges
up
to
a d
is-
tan
ce o
f eig
ht
fars
ak
hs
fro
m T
abri
z, gra
in f
or
bir
ds
wh
en t
he
gro
un
d is
cover
ed w
ith
sn
ow
, an
d a
ssis
tan
ce t
o s
ervan
ts e
mb
ar-
rass
ed b
ecau
se o
f h
avin
g b
roken
th
eir
mas
ters
' ju
gs.
4
Gh
azan
Kh
an f
oun
ded
oth
er c
har
itab
le in
stit
uti
on
s al
so in
var
ious
par
ts o
f h
is k
ingdo
m. °
Th
ere
is m
enti
on
of
a cl
ock
in
sR
ash
id a
l D
in,
Td
rik
h-i
Mubfi
rak
,p
p.
207,
208.
*R
ash
id a
l D
in,
Td
rik
h-i
Mu
bfi
rak
,p
p.
209-2
17;
Kii
pri
ilii
,Va
kif
MU
-ess
ese
si,
p.
21;
Nak
hja
wan
i,S
han6-i G
hazan,
pp
. 81-
97.
sS
ee,
e.g.,
Rash
id a
l D
in,
Td
rik
h-i
Mu
bfi
rak
,p
p.
215, 217, 324-3
25.
con
nec
tio
n w
ith
th
e o
bse
rvat
ory
; fu
nds
set
asid
e fo
r th
e in
stru
-m
ents
an
d t
oo
ls o
f th
is c
lock
an
d f
or
the
ob
serv
ato
ry f
orm
on
e
sin
gle
ite
m, an
d t
he
clo
ck is
men
tio
ned
on
th
is o
ccas
ion
. °
On
em
ay c
on
clude
ther
efo
re t
hat
th
e cl
ock
was
at
the
ob
serv
ato
ryan
d w
as o
ne
of
som
e co
mp
lexi
ty.
Ras
hid
al D
in t
ells
us
that
, in
th
e sp
rin
g o
f 1300, w
hen
re-
turn
ing
fro
m h
is S
yria
n e
xp
edit
ion
, G
haz
an K
han
sto
pp
ed a
t M
a-
ragh
a an
d s
taye
d t
her
e fo
r so
me
tim
e. D
uri
ng t
his
so
journ
he
vis
ited
th
e M
arag
ha
Ob
serv
ato
ry; h
e sh
ow
ed in
tere
st in
ever
y
min
ute
det
ail an
d a
sked
man
y ques
tio
ns.
He
then
ord
ered
th
eco
nst
ruct
ion
of
an o
bse
rvat
ory
at
his
Ab
wab
al B
irr
of
Sh
am.
He
gav
e in
stru
ctio
ns
con
cern
ing t
his
mat
ter
and t
hes
e co
nta
ined
idea
s th
at w
ere
new
an
d o
rigin
al. T
he
con
stru
ctio
n w
as s
tart
edin
acc
ord
ance
wit
h h
is in
stru
ctio
ns
and b
rough
t to
co
mp
leti
on
.In
th
e co
urs
e o
f h
is in
stru
ctio
ns
Gh
azan
Kh
an is
said
to
hav
e
spec
ifie
d t
he
kin
d o
f w
ork
to
be
do
ne
at t
he
ob
serv
ato
ry, b
ut
no
thin
g in
th
e n
ature
of
spec
ific
det
ails
is
giv
en c
on
cern
ing t
his
mat
ter.
7
Th
is w
as
no
t G
hazan
Kh
an
's o
nly
vis
it t
o t
he M
ara
gh
a
Ob
serv
ato
ry, an
d n
eith
er w
as it
the
firs
t. H
e vis
ited
th
at in
stit
u-
tio
n s
ever
al t
imes
on
oth
er o
ccas
ion
s.9
Ras
hid
al D
in p
rais
es G
haz
an K
han
fo
r h
is k
no
wle
dge
indif
fere
nt
fiel
ds
and h
is a
cco
mp
lish
men
ts in
lea
rnin
g. A
cco
rdin
gto
him
, G
haz
an K
han
was
ver
y w
ell ac
quai
nte
d w
ith
th
e h
isto
ry
of
the
Mo
ngo
ls; h
e h
ad a
ver
y go
od k
no
wle
dge
of
med
icin
e an
ddis
cover
ed a
new
dru
g c
alle
dtiry
dq-i
Ghd
zdni;
he
could
fo
rete
llth
e m
iner
al a
nd m
etal
lic
rich
es o
f a
dis
tric
tth
rough
his
kn
ow
-le
dge
of
geo
logy;
he
was
pro
foun
dly
in
tere
sted
in
ast
ron
om
y;an
d h
e p
oss
esse
d m
ech
anic
al a
bilit
y an
d e
xh
ibit
ed g
reat
skill in
craf
tsm
ansh
ip.9
Ras
hid
al D
in s
pea
ks
of
Gh
azan
Kh
an's
skill in
th
e m
anual
arts
on
dif
fere
nt
occ
asio
ns,
addin
g t
hat
exp
erts
wer
e as
ton
ish
edat
his
pro
fici
ency
in
th
eir
ow
n f
ield
s.
6R
ash
id a
l D
in,
Td
rik
h-i
Mubfi
rak
,p
. 210
.9
Rash
id a
l D
in,
Tfi
rik
h-i
Mubfi
rak
, p.
131.
9R
ash
id a
l D
in,
Tfi
rik
h-i
Mubfi
rak
,p
p.
104,
173.
'T
dri
kh
-iM
ubfi
rak
,p
p.
171-
174.
228
TH
E O
BSE
RV
AT
OR
Y I
N I
SL
AM
TH
E F
OU
RT
EE
NT
H C
EN
TU
RY
229
On
e s
uch
cir
cu
msta
nce is c
on
necte
d w
ith
th
e c
on
str
ucti
on
an
d p
lan
of th
e T
abriz
Observato
ry.
Accordin
g t
o R
ash
id a
l D
in,
Gh
azan
Kh
an
in
ven
ted a
hem
isph
eric
al in
str
um
en
t fo
r s
ola
r
observati
on
s.
Th
e a
str
on
om
ers d
ecla
red it
to b
e a
n e
nti
rely
ori-
gin
al in
ven
tion
an
d fou
nd it
to b
e v
ery w
ell t
hou
gh
t ou
t bu
t
difficu
lt t
o r
ealize in
actu
al con
str
ucti
on
.Th
eir
hesit
ati
on
s
con
cern
ing its
con
str
ucti
on
were d
issip
ate
d, h
ow
ever, aft
er t
hey
heard s
pecific
in
str
ucti
on
s g
iven
by G
hazan
Kh
an
. R
ash
id a
l D
in
adds t
hat
the o
bservato
ry
"w
hic
h n
ow
sta
nds in
th
e A
bw
ab a
l
Bir
r o
f S
ham
" con
tain
s a
dom
ed s
tru
ctu
re w
hic
h is b
ased u
pon
the p
rin
cip
les o
f th
e d
esig
n o
f th
e s
aid
in
str
um
en
t."
No d
eta
ils
are
available
con
cern
ing t
his
devic
e.
Th
e p
assage d
ealin
g w
ith
Gh
azan
Kh
an
' svis
it t
o M
aragh
a,
du
rin
g w
hic
h h
e d
ecid
ed t
o fou
nd h
is n
ew
observato
ry, in
dic
ate
s
that
the c
on
str
ucti
on
of
Gh
azan
Kh
an
' sO
bserv
ato
ry w
as s
tart
-
ed in
1300 o
r s
hortl
y a
fter.
Th
at
the c
on
str
ucti
on
was c
om
-
ple
ted b
efo
re 1
304, i. e
., b
efo
re G
hazan
Kh
an
's d
eath
, m
ay b
e
safe
ly in
ferred from
th
e d
eta
ils g
iven
by R
ash
id a
l D
in, especia
l-
ly t
hose c
on
cern
ing t
he
wa
gf
docu
men
t pre
pare
d f
or
the e
ndow
-
men
ts.
l'
Th
e s
tate
men
t of
the s
am
e a
uth
or r
efe
rrin
g t
o t
his
insti
tuti
on
as t
he
"observato
ry w
hic
h n
ow
sta
nds in
th
e A
bw
ab
al
Bir
r o
f S
ham
,"12
not
on
ly c
on
firm
s t
he c
on
clu
sio
n t
hat
the
con
str
ucti
on
was c
om
ple
ted,
bu
t it
als
o s
how
s t
hat
the o
bserv-
ato
ry w
as s
till s
tan
din
g a
t th
e t
ime w
hen
Rash
id a
l D
in w
rote
his
book,
i, e
., in
1317.
13
Th
us,
the o
bservato
ry s
eem
s t
o h
ave
had a
min
imu
m life o
f abou
t fift
een
or s
ixte
en
years.
Ibn
Batu
ta,
wh
o v
isit
ed t
he S
han
b-i
Gh
azan
i in
1331 o
r
1332, m
en
tion
s t
he t
om
b o
f G
hazan
Kh
an
as w
ell a
s a
madrasa
an
d a
mon
aste
ry t
here, bu
t h
e s
peaks n
eit
her o
f th
e o
bservato
ry
nor o
f th
e o
ther in
sti
tuti
on
s b
uilt
by G
hazan
Kh
an
at
Sh
am
.14
Th
ew
aqfof
this
observ
ato
ryprovid
ed r
even
ues f
or t
he s
a-
larie
s o
f a p
rofe
ssor
(mu
da
rris
)an
d a
n a
ssis
tan
t(m
u`i
d),
as
10T
ari
kh
-iM
ubarak
,p
p.
131,
173-
174.
11
Ta
rik
h-i
Mu
bd
rak
,p
p.
210
, 215
.11
Ta
rik
h-i
Mubdrak
,p
.174.
'sT
ari
kh
-iM
ubdrak
,In
tro
du
cti
on
, p
. X
III.
i4Ib
n B
ati
lta,
vo
l. 2
, p
. 12
9.
well a
s f
or a
treasu
rer a
nd s
everal oth
er e
mplo
yees;
fun
ds w
ere
als
o s
et
asid
e f
or t
he b
en
efit
of
stu
den
ts, an
d f
or t
he n
eeded
furn
itu
re, provis
ion
s, an
d o
ther m
ate
ria
ls.
15
As o
ther m
adrasas
of
Isla
m t
oo g
en
erally h
ad o
ne
mu
da
rris
,th
e t
each
ing s
taff
of
this
observato
ry s
hou
ld b
e c
on
sid
ered a
s o
f a s
ize n
ot
very d
iffe
-
ren
t fr
om
th
e s
ch
ools
of h
igh
er e
du
cati
on
of th
e t
ime.
It is t
hu
s s
een
th
at
this
observato
ry o
ffic
ially in
clu
ded a
sch
ool fo
r t
he t
each
ing o
f astr
on
om
y a
nd t
he r
ela
ted
aw
dil
scie
n-
ces
(hik
am
iyiit)
.Th
is r
epresen
ts a
con
tin
uati
on
of th
e t
radit
ion
sta
rte
d a
t M
aragh
a.
It w
ou
ld s
eem
als
o t
hat
that
tradit
ion
is
fou
nd h
ere in
a m
ore d
evelo
ped s
tate
. F
or w
e h
ave,
in t
his
case,
cle
ar e
vid
en
ce t
hat
fun
ds w
ere s
et
asid
e in
th
ew
aqf
en
dow
men
ts
especia
lly f
or
this
pu
rpose.
Th
ere is a
poem
wh
erein
Gh
azan
Kh
an
speaks o
f th
e n
ew
cale
ndar,
called K
han
i, w
hic
h w
as e
sta
blish
ed b
y h
im.
He s
ays
here t
hat
as d
iffe
ren
t kin
ds o
f cale
ndars w
ere in
use in
his
realm
he d
ecid
ed t
o u
nify t
hem
, an
d t
his
gave o
ccasio
n t
o h
is n
ew
cale
ndar.
In h
is c
ale
ndar t
he y
ear s
tarte
d a
t vern
al equ
inox."
Th
is c
ale
ndar w
as a
dopte
d in
1302, an
d its
begin
nin
g c
oin
cid
ed
wit
h t
he fir
st
day
of
aT
urk
ish
month
.17
Th
e K
han
i cale
ndar o
f G
hazan
Kh
an
was s
ola
r a
nd t
he s
am
e
as t
he J
ala
li c
ale
ndar o
f M
aliksh
ah
except
for a
sm
all d
eta
il c
on
-
necte
d w
ith
th
e b
egin
nin
g o
f th
e y
ear.
Here t
he y
ear s
tarte
d
on
th
e d
ay o
f vern
al equ
inox if th
e e
qu
inox o
ccu
rred b
efo
re s
un
set;
bu
t if it
cam
e a
fter s
un
set,
th
en
th
e n
ext
day w
as t
aken
as t
he
first
day o
f th
e y
ear.
Th
e n
am
es o
f m
on
ths in
th
e J
ala
li c
ale
ndar
were t
hose o
f th
e o
ld P
ersia
n m
on
ths,
wh
ereas in
th
e K
han
ica-
len
dar n
am
es o
f Tu
rkis
h m
on
ths w
ere u
sed.
18
It is p
ossib
le t
hat
the n
ew
cale
ndar
was b
ased o
n w
ork
don
e a
t th
e n
ew
observ
ato
ry,
bu
t th
ere is n
o s
pecific
sta
tem
en
t to
th
is e
ffect.
Al
Wabkan
wi w
as a
mon
g t
he a
str
on
om
ers w
ho m
ade t
he
new
cale
ndar,
1°
wh
ich
was
in u
se
in o
ffic
ial
Ilkhani
cir
cle
sduri
ng
16
Rash
idal
Din
,T
ari
kh
-iM
ubd
rak
,p
. 210.
Tag
izad
a, p
p. 296-2
97.
Tag
izad
a, p
p. 297, 161, 163.
isW
abkan
wi, p
p. 28a-
29a.
'°W
abkan
wi, p
.2b
.
230
TH
E O
BSE
RV
AT
OR
Y I
N I
SLA
MT
HE
FO
UR
TE
EN
TH
CE
NT
UR
Y23
1
the
reig
n o
f A
bu S
aid
Bah
ad
ur
(131
6-36
).20
Al W
abkan
wi st
ates
,h
ow
ever
, th
at it
was
no
t as
yet
use
d m
uch
am
on
g a
stro
no
mer
s
and t
hat
it
was
fo
r th
e p
urp
ose
of
mak
ing it
mo
re w
idel
y kn
ow
nth
at h
e ad
op
ted it
in h
is o
wn
zij.
21
Acc
ord
ing t
o R
ash
id a
l D
in, in
Tab
riz,
"T
her
e w
ere
gat
her
-ed
un
der
the
eyes
of
the
pddis
hah
of
Isla
m (
i, e
., G
haz
an K
han
)p
hilo
sop
her
s, a
stro
no
mer
s, s
cho
lars
, h
isto
rian
s, o
f al
l re
ligio
ns,
of
all se
cts,
peo
ple
of
Cat
hay
, o
f M
ach
in (
So
uth
Ch
ina)
, o
f In
dia
,o
f K
ash
mir
, o
f T
ibet
, o
f th
e U
ygh
ur,
an
d o
ther
Turk
ish
nat
ion
s,A
rab
s an
d F
ran
ks.
"22
It is
thus
seen
th
at t
he
inte
rnat
ion
alis
mo
f th
e ti
me
of
Hula
ga a
s re
pre
sen
ted b
y th
e M
arag
ha
Ob
serv
ato
ryw
as s
till c
on
tin
uin
g in
th
e ti
me
of
Gh
azan
Kh
an. A
s in
th
is c
ase
we
wit
nes
s so
me
emp
has
is o
n t
he
Turk
ish
cal
endar
, re
fere
nce
toU
ygh
ur
and o
ther
Turk
ish
scie
nti
sts
is o
f in
tere
st. It
may
be
added
her
e th
at t
he
Turk
ish
cal
endar
fig
ure
s p
rom
inen
tly
inth
eIl
khani
Ta
ble
sal
so,
It is
no
t kn
ow
n w
het
her
an
y o
f th
ese
fore
ign
ast
ron
om
ers
wo
rked
at
the
new
ob
serv
ato
ry. In
fac
t, o
ur
sourc
es h
ave
no
t
spec
ific
ally
rev
eale
d s
o f
ar a
ny
nam
es o
f as
tro
no
mer
s w
ho
wer
eat
tach
ed t
o t
his
in
stit
uti
on
, an
d n
eith
er d
o w
e p
oss
ess
clea
r in
-
form
atio
n c
on
cern
ing a
ny
wo
rk d
on
e th
ere.
Th
is s
ituat
ion
has
,in
fac
t, g
iven
ris
e t
o c
ert
ain
do
ub
ts c
on
cern
ing t
he n
ature
of
this
in
stit
uti
on
. It
has
bee
n s
ugges
ted t
hat
th
is w
as n
ot
in r
eality
an o
bse
rvat
ory
an
d t
hat
it
was
a s
mal
l-sc
ale
un
der
takin
g c
on
-si
stin
g o
f a
sch
oo
l o
f as
tro
no
my.
23
It is
clea
r at
an
y ra
te t
hat
th
is o
bse
rvat
ory
was
no
t co
mp
arab
lein
siz
e o
r im
po
rtan
ce t
o t
he
Mar
agh
a O
bse
rvat
ory
. A
s w
e h
ave
seen
, th
e ac
coun
t giv
en c
on
cern
ing G
haz
an K
han
' s in
stru
ctio
ns
abo
ut
the c
on
stru
cti
on
of
the n
ew
ob
serv
ato
ry s
uggest
s th
atit
was
des
tin
ed f
or
cert
ain
sp
ecif
ic k
inds
of
wo
rk. In
th
is r
esp
ect,
ho
wev
er, th
ere
is n
o c
lear
in
form
atio
n w
ith
th
e ex
cep
tio
n t
hat
its
pro
ject
ed p
rogra
m o
f w
ork
in
cluded
so
lar
ob
serv
atio
ns.
It
isp
oss
ible
th
at t
he
ob
serv
ato
ry o
f G
haz
an K
han
was
no
t co
n-
20W
abka
nwi,
pp. 2
b, 2
8a-2
9a.
21W
abka
nwi,
p. 3
b.2'
Ras
hid
al D
in,
Jdm
ia
lT
aw
dri
kh
,pp.
38, 3
9;C
arte
r, p
. 128
.2'
Kop
riilti
,M
ara
ga
Ra
sa
tha
nesi, p
p.
224,
22
5.
ceiv
ed a
s an
ela
bo
rate
ob
serv
ato
ry. In
dee
d, at
no
oth
er t
ime,
wer
e th
ere
two
ob
serv
ato
ries
in
Isl
am f
un
ctio
nin
g s
ide
by
side;
asw
e h
ave
seen
, th
is is
true
for
the
tim
e o
f A
l M
amun
als
o.
It is
sign
ific
ant
that
Al W
abkan
wi, w
ho
wo
rked
on
Gh
azan
Kh
an's
new
cal
endar
, se
ems
to s
ay n
oth
ing a
bo
ut
the
Tab
riz
Ob
serv
ato
ry. T
his
fo
rms
a cl
ear
con
tras
t w
ith
his
att
ach
men
t
of
grea
t im
po
rtan
ce t
o t
he
Mar
agh
a O
bse
rvat
ory
an
d t
o t
he
wo
rkdo
ne
in it.
24
Th
e cr
eati
on
of
an o
bse
rvat
ory
was
co
nsi
der
ed a
dif
ficu
lt a
ffai
r w
hic
h c
ould
be
real
ized
on
ly w
ith
th
e h
elp
of
firs
t-
-rat
e as
tro
no
mer
s. T
his
ob
serv
ato
ry a
nd its
mai
n in
stru
men
t, o
nth
e o
ther
han
d, w
ere
con
stru
cted
in
co
nfo
rmit
y w
ith
th
e in
s-tr
uct
ion
s o
f G
haz
an K
han
him
self
wh
o w
as, at
th
e m
ost
, an
am
a-
teur
in a
stro
no
my.
It
wo
uld
see
m lik
ely
ther
efo
re t
hat
th
e o
bse
rv-
ato
ry w
as n
ot
.a s
ucc
ess.
It is
cert
ain
, h
ow
ever
, th
at t
he
inst
ituti
on
fo
un
ded
by
Gh
azan
Kh
an w
as a
n o
bse
rvat
ory
an
d n
ot
mer
ely
a sc
ho
ol fo
r in
stru
ctio
nin
ast
ron
om
y. T
his
is
clea
rly
bo
rne
out
by
the
stat
emen
ts o
f R
ash
idal
Din
alr
eady
refe
rred
to
. O
ther
so
urc
es a
lso
co
nfi
rm t
his
po
int.
Was
saf
spea
ks
of
Gh
azan
Kh
an' s
ob
serv
ato
ry a
nd d
escr
ibes
it
as `
a p
lace
fo
r th
e o
bse
rvat
ion
of
the
mo
vem
ents
of
the
pla
net
s(k
aw
ak
ib)
and f
or
the
inst
ruct
ion
of
studen
ts d
esir
ous
of
lear
nin
gast
ron
om
y; as
a c
en
ter
of
acti
vit
y o
n c
alc
ula
tio
ns
an
d c
om
-
pilat
ion
of
astr
on
om
ical
tab
les
and t
he d
ete
rmin
atio
n o
f th
eev
ents
of
the
tim
e.'
25
Th
us,
acc
ord
ing t
o W
assa
f, t
his
was
a f
ull-f
ledged
ob
serv
-
ato
ry, an
d a
stro
logic
al w
ork
was
am
on
g t
he
fun
ctio
ns
assi
gn
edto
it.
It
is t
rue t
hat
th
is a
uth
or
is r
ath
er
giv
ing h
ere
a g
en
era
l
def
init
ion
fo
r th
e o
bse
rvat
ory
as
such
; b
ut
it is
cert
ain
th
at e
ven
if h
e do
es s
o, h
e co
nsi
der
s G
haz
an K
han
's O
bse
rvat
ory
as
on
e w
hic
hco
nfo
rmed
to
th
is g
e 9a.
eral
des
crip
tio
n.
Mo
reo
ver
, it
is
of
inte
rest
that
he
con
sider
ediin
stru
ctio
n in
ast
ron
om
y, a
s w
ell as
ast
rolo
-gic
alw
ork
, )a
mo
ng t
he
stan
dar
d f
un
ctio
ns
of
an o
bse
rvat
ory
.W
assa
f, R
ash
id a
l D
in, an
d K
ho
ndm
ir,
26
all th
ree,
sp
eak
of
a lib
rary
at
the
Sh
anb
-i G
haz
an, b
ut
it is
no
t sa
id t
o h
ave
form
-
24
See,
Wab
kanw
i, e.
g.,
pp. 2
b-3a
.2s
Was
saf,
Ind
ia, v
ol.
1, p.
382.
2°
Kho
ndm
ir, v
ol. 3
,p.
65
.
232
TH
E O
BS
ER
VA
TO
RY
INIS
LA
MTH
E F
OU
RTE
EN
TH
CE
NTU
RY
233
ed a
part
of
the o
bservato
ry.
It w
as a
pparen
tly a
n in
depen
den
t
fou
ndati
on
from
wh
ich
, n
eedle
ss t
o s
ay,
the a
str
on
om
ers o
f th
e
observ
ato
ry a
lso c
ou
ld p
rofit.
27
Fin
ally, it
sh
ou
ld b
e a
dded t
hat,
as w
e h
ave s
een
, th
e p
ropert
y
wh
ose r
even
ues w
ere a
ttach
ed t
o t
he in
sti
tuti
on
s o
f th
e S
han
b-i
Gh
azan
is k
now
n t
o h
ave b
een
made u
p o
f th
e p
erson
al posses-
sio
ns o
f th
e fou
nder a
nd t
hat
the
wa
qf
here w
as a
perfe
ctl
y o
r-
thodox a
nd
str
ictl
y legal on
e.
22
Gil
lian K
han
' sviz
ier R
ash
id a
l D
in t
oo h
ad a
suburb
con
s-
tru
cte
d a
t Tabriz
, an
d t
his
was c
alled R
ab'-i R
ash
idi. I
t w
as a
cen
ter o
f in
tellectu
al acti
vit
y w
ith
its
sch
ools
, m
adrasas a
nd
hospit
al,
an
dm
an
y f
acilit
ies w
ere p
rovid
ed in
it in
order
to a
ttract
sch
ola
rs a
nd s
eekers o
f kn
ow
ledge.
A c
erta
in s
tru
ctu
re
at
the R
ab'-i R
ash
idi h
as b
rou
gh
t to
min
d t
he p
ossib
ilit
y o
f
the e
xis
ten
ce o
f an
observato
ry t
here, bu
t n
o r
ecord in
dic
ati
ng
the f
ou
ndati
on
of
su
ch
an
in
sti
tuti
on
has b
een
fou
nd,
an
d t
he
exis
ten
ce o
f su
ch
an
observato
ry d
oes n
ot
seem
lik
ely
at
all.
2°
PO
SS
IBIL
ITY
OF
IN
FLU
EN
CE
S F
RO
M T
HE
EA
ST —
In
speakin
g o
f th
e M
aragh
a O
bservato
ry,
it h
ad b
een
poin
ted o
ut
that
we h
ad n
o c
on
clu
siv
e e
vid
en
ce o
f C
hin
ese in
flu
en
ce u
pon
Isla
m in
th
e fie
ld o
f th
e o
bservato
ry.
30
Th
is is a
good p
lace t
o
dw
ell u
pon
th
is q
uesti
on
in
a s
om
ew
hat
greate
r len
gth
. For p
os-
sib
ly,
ou
r c
on
clu
sio
n o
n t
his
matt
er m
ay p
artl
y b
e d
ue t
o in
su
f-
ficie
nt
info
rm
ati
on
.
Th
eT
an
ksu
gn
am
a-i I
lkh
an
iof
Rash
id a
l D
in d
ealin
g w
ith
Ch
inese s
cie
nce,
wh
ich
was
pro
bably
prepared d
urin
g t
he r
eig
n
of U
ljaytt
i,31
isa c
lear w
itn
ess o
f th
e liv
ely
cu
ltu
ral con
tact
of
Isla
m w
ith
Ch
ina d
urin
g t
he I
lkh
an
tim
es.
Rash
id a
l D
in s
tate
s
" C
on
cern
ing t
his
observ
ato
ry s
ee a
lso,
Ham
mer,
Ges
chichte
der
Ilchan
e,vol. 2
, p.
153;
Bart
hold
,1935,
p.
166;
Kopri
ilii,
Mar
dga
Rasa
than
esi,
pp.
223-
225;
Sayi
li,
1946, pp.
625-6
40.
23
Rash
id a
l D
in,
Tfir
ikh-
iM
ubdr
ak,
p.
215.
See
als
o a
bove
,p.
210,
note
98.
2s
Wilber
an
d M
inovi,
pp.
254, 247-2
54.
i0S
ee a
bove
,pp.
192-1
93,
not
es23-2
4.
i'
Inver
an
d G
olp
marh
; A
dn
an
(A
div
ar)
,Is
is, pp.
44-4
7;
Min
ovi,
Ulu
m-i
Ch
ini,
pp.
1-2
6.
in it,
how
ever, th
at
no t
ran
sla
tion
s from
Ch
inese h
ad b
een
made
befo
re h
is t
ime,
32
an
d t
here is n
o e
vid
en
ce t
hat
this
scie
nti
fic
con
tact
con
tin
ued w
ith
an
y c
om
parable
in
ten
sit
y a
fter R
ash
id
al
Din
.
Th
eM
aragh
a O
bservato
ry its
elf w
as a
sym
bol of
su
ch
con
tact
of
cou
rse,
an
d R
ash
id a
l D
in t
oo s
peaks o
f th
is.
He s
ays
that
Nasir
al D
in p
rofite
d f
rom
a C
hin
ese s
cie
nti
st,
wh
o h
ad
com
e f
rom
Mon
golia in
th
e c
om
pan
y o
f H
ula
gu
, an
d o
bta
ined
from
him
his
kn
ow
ledge c
on
cern
ing C
hin
ese a
str
on
om
y w
hic
h
he u
tilized in
his
zij,3
3F
urth
er s
pecific
deta
ils t
oo a
re a
vailable
on
th
ese p
arti
cu
lar q
uesti
on
s.3
4
As far a
s t
he h
isto
ry o
f th
e I
sla
mic
observato
ry is c
on
cern
ed,
ou
r p
resen
t qu
esti
on
can
be t
reate
d o
nly
in
a r
ath
er v
agu
e a
nd
gen
eral m
an
ner,
an
d in
doin
g s
o it
is a
dvis
able
to g
o f
urth
er b
ack
to S
alju
q t
imes,
i. e
., t
o t
he M
aliksh
ah
Observato
ry.
For I
sla
m' s
con
tact
wit
h t
he F
areast
seem
s t
o h
ave r
each
ed a
pprecia
ble
dim
en
sio
ns a
lready w
ith
th
e a
dven
t of
the S
alju
gs.
An
d w
e h
ave
seen
, on
th
e o
ther h
an
d,
that
the M
aliksh
ah
Observato
ry s
how
ed
sig
ns o
f represen
tin
g o
ne o
f th
e im
porta
nt
sta
ges o
f develo
pm
en
t
of
the I
sla
mic
observato
ry,
alt
hou
gh
at
presen
t ou
r in
form
ati
on
on
th
is p
oin
t is
not
su
ffic
ien
tly c
lear e
ith
er.
It is o
f great
inte
rest
that
wit
h t
he S
alju
q T
urks t
he u
se o
f
the s
ign
s o
f zodia
c a
nd o
f pla
nets
for p
urposes o
f decorati
on
gain
ed im
porta
nce a
nd b
ecam
e w
idespread in
Isla
mic
art
both
in P
ersia
an
d in
An
ato
lia.
Moreover,
these s
ign
s w
ere n
ot
of
the
con
ven
tion
al ty
pe,
bu
t th
ere
appears
als
o a
t th
is t
ime t
he C
hin
ese
type o
f zodia
c in
th
e S
alju
q a
rt.
35
Th
is in
dic
ate
s in
creased p
re-
occu
pati
on
wit
h a
str
on
om
y a
s w
ell a
s a
n in
flu
x o
f F
areaste
rn
influ
en
ce a
t th
e t
ime o
f th
e S
alju
gs.
It is a
pparen
ly w
ith
in s
uch
a c
on
text
that
certa
in in
teresti
ng
observati
on
s o
f A
l B
irft
ni sh
ou
ld b
e in
terprete
d.
Al B
iriin
i div
ides
the
world
civ
iliz
ati
on
in
to t
wo m
ajo
r p
arts
, th
e O
rie
nt
an
d
32
Un
ver
an
d G
olp
marh
,p.
11;
Adn
an
(A
div
ar)
,Is
is, pp.
44-4
6;
Min
ovi,
Ulu
m-i
Ch
ini,
p.
16.
33
Olive
r an
d G
olp
marl
i,p.
11;
Min
ovi
,U
lum
-iC
hin
i,p.
16.
II'
See
, e.
g.,
See
man
n,
p.
119;
Nee
dh
am
,pp.
50, 105, 372 if.
asS
ee,
e.
g.,
Die
z,1949,
pp.
99-1
04.
Iow
e t
his
in
form
ati
on
to P
rofe
ssor
K.
Ott
o-D
orn
, w
ho is
pre
pari
ng a
n a
rtic
le o
n t
his
su
bje
ct.
234
TH
E O
BS
ER
VA
TO
RY
IN
IS
LA
M
the O
ccid
en
t, a
nd h
e c
on
sid
ers
th
e C
hin
ese,
the T
urk
s,
an
d t
he
India
ns a
s t
he r
epre
sen
tati
ves o
f O
rien
tal civ
iliz
ati
on
. For
him
Isla
m is a
con
tin
uati
on
of G
reek c
iviliz
ati
on
, an
d in
his
cla
ssi-
ficati
on
th
e w
orl
d o
f Is
lam
form
s p
art
of
Occid
en
tal civ
iliz
ati
on
.
Al
Bir
iln
ist
ate
sth
at
man
kin
d,
an
d e
specia
lly s
cie
nce,
has
gre
atl
y p
rofite
d fro
m t
he s
pre
ad o
f th
e I
sla
mic
civ
iliz
ati
on
over
wid
e a
reas a
s a
resu
lt o
f th
e a
ccepta
nce o
f th
e M
osle
m r
eligio
n
by t
he T
urk
s.3
s
We h
ave s
een
th
at
there
was m
uch
in
tere
st
in t
he T
urk
ish
cale
ndar
in t
he M
ara
gh
a O
bserv
ato
ry a
nd e
specia
lly in
th
e t
ime
of
Gh
aza
n K
han
. Th
e f
act
that
scie
nti
sts
or
sch
ola
rs o
f th
e U
y-
gh
urs
an
d o
ther
Tu
rkis
h n
ati
on
s, oth
er
than
th
ose w
hic
h h
ad
lon
g b
een
in
tegra
ted in
to I
sla
m,
made t
heir
appeara
nce a
rou
nd
Gh
azan
Kh
an
is a
lso o
f in
tere
st
in t
his
respect.
All t
his
poin
ts
to C
en
tral A
sia
tic a
nd F
are
aste
rn in
flu
en
ce u
pon
Isla
m in
cer-
tain
aspects
at
least
of
the g
en
era
l field
of
astr
on
om
y.
Bu
t w
he-
ther t
his
in
flu
en
ce d
id a
ctu
ally e
xte
nd t
o t
he r
ealm
of
the
obse
rvato
ryas
an
in
sti
tuti
on
, on
ly f
utu
re r
esearc
h c
an
be
expecte
d t
o c
lari
fy 3
7
Itw
ou
ld s
eem
th
at,
gen
era
lly s
peakin
g,
the M
ara
gh
a O
bserv
-
ato
ry n
ot
on
ly s
erv
ed a
s a
model fo
r la
rge I
sla
mic
observ
ato
ries
of la
ter
date
bu
t th
at
it a
lso m
ade t
he o
bserv
ato
ry a
s a
n in
sti
tu-
tion
more
wid
ely
kn
ow
n in
th
e M
osle
m r
ealm
. E
ven
th
e w
ord
s
serv
ing t
o d
esig
nate
th
at
insti
tuti
on
becam
e m
ore
nu
mero
us,
more
specific
, an
d m
ore
wid
ely
kn
ow
n a
fter
the t
ime o
f th
e M
ara
-
gh
a O
bserv
ato
ry.
It is d
ifficu
lt, h
ow
ever,
to c
lari
fy t
he c
on
necti
on
betw
een
th
is s
itu
ati
on
an
d t
he a
ppeara
nce, or
the in
cre
ase in
nu
mber,
of"
min
or"
observ
ato
ries s
hort
ly a
fter
Mara
gh
a.
Alt
hou
gh
difficu
lt t
o a
nsw
er
it a
t th
e p
resen
t sta
te o
f ou
r
kn
ow
ledge, it
is c
lear
nevert
hele
ss t
hat
the q
uesti
on
of dir
ect
or
indir
ect
Fare
aste
rn in
flu
en
ces u
pon
th
e I
sla
mic
observ
ato
ry
con
stit
ute
sa p
roble
m o
f con
sid
era
ble
sig
nific
an
ce.
Begin
nin
g
wit
h t
he M
aliksh
ah
Observ
ato
ry, an
d m
ost
cert
ain
ly w
ith
th
e
Mara
gh
a O
bserv
ato
ry, E
aste
rn I
sla
m c
am
e t
o p
ossess a
mu
ch
98T
ogan
, B
irun
i, p
. 638.
" A
co
llecti
on
of
mate
rial o
n T
urk
ish
ast
ron
om
y f
oun
d in
Turf
an
is
availab
le in
pri
nt
(see, R
ach
mati
, 1936).
TH
E F
OU
RT
EE
NT
H C
EN
TU
RY
235
more
hig
hly
advan
ced s
tan
din
g in
th
e e
volu
tion
of th
e o
bserv
-
ato
ry a
s c
om
pare
dw
ith
Spain
an
d t
he M
agh
rib.
Cou
ld t
his
there
fore
be in
an
y d
egre
e r
ela
ted t
o p
ossib
le F
are
aste
rn in
-
flu
en
ces?
Itw
ou
ld s
eem
th
at
no d
irect
influ
en
ces c
am
e fro
m t
he F
ar-
east
as f
ar
as t
he o
bserv
ato
ry its
elf a
s a
n in
sti
tuti
on
is c
on
cern
ed.
Th
ere
is n
o e
vid
en
ce t
hat
an
y C
hin
ese o
bserv
ato
ry s
erv
ed a
s a
model in
th
e f
orm
ati
on
or
the e
volu
tion
of
the c
hara
cte
risti
c
featu
res o
f th
e I
sla
mic
observ
ato
ry.
Th
is d
oes n
ot
pre
clu
de,
how
ever,
th
e p
ossib
ilit
y o
f fr
uit
ful con
tacts
of a m
ore
in
dir
ect
natu
re w
hic
h in
flu
en
ced t
he c
ou
rse o
f th
e e
volu
tion
of th
e o
b-
serv
ato
ry in
Easte
rn I
sla
m.
It is q
uit
e p
ossib
le,
e.
g.,
th
at
the e
xte
nti
on
of
the m
agi sys-
tem
to t
he s
upport
of th
e fu
ncti
on
ing a
nd t
he m
ain
ten
an
ce o
f
the o
bserv
ato
ry w
as facilit
ate
d b
y t
he fact
that
the I
lkh
an
s
were
ru
lers
of
fore
ign
ori
gin
not
thoro
ugh
ly in
doctr
inate
d w
ith
Isla
mic
tra
dit
ion
s a
nd c
usto
ms a
nd t
hat
they t
here
by c
on
tri-
bu
ted a
lso t
o t
he len
gth
en
ing o
f th
e life o
f th
eobse
rvato
ry.
It
isposs
ible
,again
,th
at
cri
ticis
m o
f astr
on
om
y a
nd a
str
olo
gy
con
sti
tute
d a
han
dic
ap t
o t
he d
evelo
pm
en
t of th
eobse
rvato
ryas
an
in
sti
tuti
on
an
d t
hat
this
was o
verc
om
e p
art
ly a
s a
resu
lt o
f
the T
urk
ish
-Mon
gol dom
inati
on
over
Easte
rn I
sla
m.
In s
peakin
g o
f th
e M
ara
gh
a O
bserv
ato
ry I
have t
ou
ch
ed
upon
th
e in
tere
st
sh
ow
n b
y M
an
gii,
Hu
legu
, an
d h
is s
uccessors
in a
str
olo
gy a
s w
ell a
s in
th
eaw
dil
scie
nces in
gen
era
l. I
sh
all
appen
d h
ere
a p
assage fro
m t
he
Quta
dgu
Bilig
(th
eK
now
ledge
that
Bri
ngs H
appin
ess) w
ritt
en
in
Tu
rkis
h a
nd in
th
e U
ygh
ur
scri
pt
about
the
tim
ew
hen
the
Mali
ksh
ah O
bse
rvato
ryw
as
found-
ed.
Th
is p
assage m
ay b
e o
f in
tere
st
to u
s h
ere
especia
lly b
ecau
se
itadvocate
s a
milder
an
d m
ore
favora
ble
att
itu
de t
ow
ard
th
e
astr
olo
ger
an
d t
he s
cie
nces in
gen
era
l th
an
th
at
wh
ich
had
com
e t
o b
e p
revale
nt
am
on
g t
he c
ircle
s o
f th
e learn
ed in
Isla
m.
Speakin
g o
f m
en
of
vari
ou
s p
rofe
ssio
ns a
nd h
ow
th
ey s
hou
ld
be t
reate
d,
Yu
su
f K
has H
ajib s
ays,"Th
en c
om
e th
e ast
ron
om
ers.
•Th
ey m
ake t
he c
alc
ula
tion
s c
on
cern
ing t
he y
ears
, th
e m
on
ths,
an
d t
he d
ays.
Oh
pow
erf
ul m
an
, th
is c
alc
ula
tion
is v
ery
necessary
.
If y
ou
wis
h t
o learn
th
is,
you
mu
st
stu
dy g
eom
etr
y;
then
is it
on
ly t
hat
the d
oor
of
ari
thm
eti
c w
ill open
to y
ou
...
Th
is is a
236
TH
E O
BS
ER
VA
TO
RY
IN
IS
LA
M
perfe
ct
test
for a
perfe
ct
person
. ..
. H
old
th
e f
irm
am
en
t w
ith
its s
even
sph
eres in
th
e p
alm
of
you
r h
an
d a
s if
it w
ere a
mere
ch
ip.
If y
ou
wis
h t
o learn
more,
learn
alg
ebra,
an
d k
nock t
he
door o
f E
uclid w
ith
earn
estn
ess.
"W
heth
er it
is a
qu
esti
on
of th
e a
ffair
s o
f th
is w
orld
or t
hose
perta
inin
g t
o t
he life h
ereaft
er,
you
mu
st
kn
ow
th
at
the learn
ed
man
ru
les o
ver t
hem
th
rou
gh
dis
tin
gu
ish
ing t
hem
wit
h t
he h
elp
of arit
hm
eti
c.
If t
he c
alc
ula
tion
s a
re w
ron
g, th
e w
orld
ly a
ffair
s
as w
ell a
s t
hose o
f th
e o
ther
worl
d b
ecom
e d
istu
rbed a
nd u
pset.
"W
hen
you
wis
h t
o s
tart
doin
g a
nyth
ing,
it is f
irst
neces-
sary t
o in
qu
ire w
heth
er t
he t
ime is f
avorable
for it
or n
ot.
Th
ere
are lu
cky a
s w
ell a
s u
nlu
cky d
ays a
nd m
on
ths.
Inqu
ire a
bou
t
them
an
d c
hoose t
he lu
cky o
nes, oh
good-n
atu
red m
an
. Th
e learn
-
ed a
nd e
xperie
nced o
ld m
an
expressed it
very w
ell.
He s
aid
,` A
lways c
on
su
lt k
now
ledge a
nd a
ct
accordin
gly
.'
"Accept
it a
s t
ru
e t
hat
if o
ne s
tarts
wit
h k
now
ledge o
ne
will su
cceed in
all u
nderta
kin
gs.
It is u
sefu
l to
alw
ays a
cqu
ire
kn
ow
ledge b
efo
reh
an
d in
every a
ffair
. If
th
is k
now
ledge f
ollow
s
on
e's a
ffair
s in
ste
ad o
f precedin
g t
hem
, on
e w
ill n
ot
su
cceed in
his
un
dert
akin
gs.
"Ask t
he a
dvic
e o
f th
e a
str
olo
gers,
bu
t do n
ot
be h
asty
in
believin
g in
th
em
. It
is G
od w
ho k
now
s e
veryth
ing, an
d it
is o
nly
in h
im t
hat
on
e s
hou
ld h
ave s
tron
g t
ru
st.
Treat
the a
str
on
om
ers
(or a
str
olo
gers) kin
dly
, h
ow
ever,
an
d b
e in
good t
erm
s w
ith
th
em
.
Do n
ot
scold
th
em
, an
d d
o n
ot
hu
rt
their
feelin
gs b
y h
arsh
words."
"
Th
e f
act
that
Maliksh
ah
was a
pparen
tly m
ore e
nth
usia
sti
c
than
his
astr
on
om
ers in
th
e m
att
er o
f fo
un
din
g a
new
observ-
ato
ry t
oo is o
f in
terest
in t
hese c
on
necti
on
s.
TH
E "
OB
SE
RV
ATO
RY
" O
F T
HE
TIM
E A
ND
TH
E H
OU
R
In t
he c
ity o
f Y
azd,
in I
ran
, a c
erta
in R
ukn
al D
in f
ou
nded
a g
rou
p o
f in
sti
tuti
on
s in
th
e fir
st
half o
f th
e fou
rte
en
th c
en
tury.
Arth
ur U
. Pope s
ays,
"Th
e b
adly
dam
aged M
asjid-i
Waqt
wa
Sa' a
t ..
. w
as o
rig
inally o
ne o
f an
im
porta
nt
grou
p o
f bu
ildin
gs
" Yu
su
f K
has H
ajib, p.
316.
TH
E F
OU
RTE
EN
TH
CE
NTU
RY
237
all e
recte
d b
y t
his
patr
on
, com
pris
ing a
madrasa,
a lib
rary,
an
d
a r
em
arkable
observato
ry w
hic
h w
as fille
d w
ith
extr
aordin
ary
con
triv
an
ces f
or t
ellin
g t
ime a
nd m
arkin
g t
he c
ale
ndar b
y in
ge-
nio
us a
nd a
mu
sin
g m
eth
ods."
as
Th
e a
uth
orit
y f
or t
his
in
form
ati
on
is g
iven
as S
ir P
ercy
Sykes,9
0an
d t
he u
ltim
ate
sou
rce is a
six
teen
th c
en
tury h
isto
ry
of
the c
ity o
f Y
azd.
I reprodu
ce t
he p
assage in
th
at
sou
rce w
ith
som
e a
bbrevia
tion
s:
"TH
E I
NN
ER
AN
D T
HE
OU
TE
R M
AD
RA
SA
S A
ND
TH
E O
BS
ER
V-
ATO
RY
OF
TH
E T
IME
AN
D T
HE
HO
UR
— F
irst
the R
ukn
iya
Madrasa w
hic
h is t
he m
ost
imposin
g o
f all b
uildin
gs.
Th
ere is
noth
ing e
qu
al to
it
in a
ny c
ou
ntr
y,
just
as in
th
e c
ase o
f th
e
Observato
ry o
f th
e T
ime a
nd t
he H
ou
r t
he lik
e o
f w
hic
h e
xis
ts
inn
o o
ther lan
d a
nd for w
hic
h n
o t
raveller h
as r
eporte
d a
n
equ
ivale
nt
els
ew
here
.
"Th
e f
ou
nder o
f both
th
e m
adrasa a
nd t
he o
bservato
ry is
the e
min
en
t lo
rd .
.. R
ukn
al D
in A
hm
ad ibn
Niz
am
al H
usayn
.
He w
as t
he f
orem
ost
of
the
sa
yy
ids
(descen
den
t of
the P
roph
et)
an
d b
earers o
f th
e t
urban
. H
is a
cts
of
ph
ilan
thropy a
re in
nu
mer-
able
,an
d h
is m
adrasa b
uildin
g is a
wit
ness t
o t
he loft
iness o
f
his
zeal. I
ts s
ublim
e p
orta
l is
th
e s
ubje
ct
of
en
vy o
f th
e m
ost
prosperou
s o
f th
e c
lim
es,
an
d its
pair
of
tall m
inarets
is u
niq
ue
upon
th
e f
ace o
f th
e e
arth
. Th
ere is a
world
of
beau
ty in
th
e in
-
sid
e o
f th
e m
adrasa b
uildin
g w
ith
th
e d
esig
n o
f it
s d
om
e a
nd
the m
agn
ific
en
ce o
f it
s a
lcoves a
nd n
ich
es.
"An
d t
he O
bservato
ry o
f th
e T
ime a
nd t
he H
ou
r is lik
e a
firm
am
en
t fu
ll o
f ligh
t, a
ll s
tellar p
osit
ion
s a
nd p
erio
ds h
avin
g
there b
een
made t
o d
escen
d t
o t
he g
rou
nd.
It is t
he w
hole
sky
ren
dered s
olid a
nd s
tate
ly u
pon
th
e e
arth
. Th
e e
yes o
f perspi-
cu
ou
s p
eople
are a
sto
nis
hed b
y its
sig
ht,
an
d t
he m
inds o
f saga-
cio
us p
erson
s a
re p
erple
xed b
y its
dis
posit
ion
an
d d
esig
n.
.. .
"CO
NC
ER
NIN
G [TH
E O
BS
ER
VA
TO
Y O
F] TH
E T
IME
AN
D T
HE
HO
UR
— O
pposit
e t
he d
oorw
ay o
f th
e m
adrasa s
tan
d t
wo t
ow
ers;
they a
re locate
d a
t th
e t
wo c
orn
ers o
f th
e m
adrasa's
veran
da.
9BPope,
vol. 2
, p.
1089.
4°
Perc
y S
ykes,
Ten
Th
ou
sa
nd
Miles in
Pers
ia,
Lon
don
1902,
p.
421,
note
2 (accord
ing t
o A
. U
. Pope).
On
on
e t
ow
er
there
is a
bir
d m
ade o
f copper.
No m
att
er
from
wh
ich
dir
ecti
on
th
e s
un
appears
, th
is b
ird a
lways f
aces t
he
su
n,
an
d it
moves a
rou
nd.
An
oth
er
obje
ct
appears
on
th
e
oth
er
tow
er
at
the fiv
e g
iven
tim
es o
f th
e d
ay w
hen
dru
ms a
re
beate
n.
On
top o
f th
is t
ow
er
at
the m
idst
of
the o
bserv
ato
ry
sta
nds a
wooden
wh
eel. I
t is
div
ided in
to 3
60 d
egre
es.
Every
day, w
hen
th
e s
un
ris
es, it
s d
irecti
on
, w
hate
ver
degre
e it
may
be, is
in
dic
ate
d h
ere
wit
h a
lph
abeti
cal n
um
era
ls.
"O
n t
he fou
r corn
ers
of th
e w
heel fo
ur
cir
cle
s a
re p
laced,
each
div
ided in
to t
hir
ty p
art
s,
an
d u
pon
each
cir
cle
are
wri
tten
the n
am
es o
f th
e T
urk
ish
, G
reek, A
rabic
, an
d t
he J
ala
li m
on
ths.
Wit
h t
he p
assage o
f each
day o
ne o
f th
e d
ivis
ion
s o
n t
he c
ircle
s
becom
es b
lack.
Fro
m t
wo o
pen
ings a
bove t
he w
heel tw
o b
irds
bri
ng t
heir
heads o
ut
an
d d
rop p
ew
ter
balls in
to a
vessel pla
ced
belo
w,
an
d t
he w
heel begin
s t
o m
ove.
Th
ere
upon
, on
e o
f th
e
twelv
e w
hit
e b
oard
s w
hic
h in
dic
ate
th
e t
welv
e h
ou
rs falls a
nd
a b
lack b
oard
com
es t
o o
ccu
py its
pla
ce.
An
d a
t th
e fiv
e g
iven
poin
ts o
f ti
me w
hen
th
e b
alls a
re d
ropped t
he d
rum
-beati
ng in
-
sid
e t
he o
bserv
ato
ry t
akes p
lace s
imu
ltan
eou
sly
, an
d a
n o
bje
ct
appears
on
top o
f th
e t
ow
er.
"A
cir
cle
is s
et
up a
bove t
he w
heel, a
nd t
hir
ty w
hit
e c
ircle
s
are
pla
ced u
pon
it;
wit
h t
he p
assage o
f each
day o
f th
e m
on
th
on
e o
f th
ese c
ircle
s b
ecom
es b
lack.
In t
he m
iddle
of
each
cir
cle
the d
eta
ils o
f th
e c
orr
espon
din
g m
on
th a
re w
ritt
en
in
fu
ll.
On
an
oth
er
sid
e a
nd o
pposit
e t
he a
bove-m
en
tion
ed c
on
triv
an
ce in
-
dic
ati
ng t
he t
welv
e h
ou
rs t
welv
e o
ther
board
s a
re s
et
up.
Wit
h
the p
assage o
f each
hou
r of th
e n
igh
t on
e o
f th
e t
welv
e lam
ps
pla
ced t
here
com
es in
to a
ppeara
nce.
...
Th
e e
clipti
c a
nd t
he
("fo
rty s
even
")
man
sio
ns o
f th
e m
oon
are
als
o in
dic
ate
d b
y
nam
e.
...
Above t
he c
ircle
of th
e m
oon
deta
ils c
on
necte
d w
ith
each
day a
re in
scri
bed for
each
of th
e fiv
e p
lan
ets
, S
atu
rn, Ju
pi-
ter,
Mer
cury
, M
ars
, an
d V
enu
s."In
sid
e t
he o
bserv
ato
ry t
here
is a
copper
tan
k o
f tw
ice a
man
' sh
eig
ht.
It
is f
ille
d u
p w
ith
wate
r every
day.
Th
e t
an
k is
pro
vid
ed w
ith
a c
opper
float
to w
hic
h a
ch
ain
is a
ttach
ed.
Aro
un
d
the b
ott
om
of
the t
an
k is p
laced a
pew
ter
astr
obla
b t
hro
ugh
wh
ose a
lidade w
ate
r com
es o
ut
of
a h
ole
. A
s t
he t
an
k loses w
ate
r
the flo
at
sin
ks; th
e fu
ncti
on
ing o
f th
is d
evic
e d
epen
ds c
om
ple
tely
THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
239
on
th
e flo
at.
A s
mall b
ow
l w
hic
h is s
uspen
ded lik
e a
cu
p in
di-
cate
s t
he m
inu
tes.
For
each
min
ute
is s
tru
ck o
n t
he b
ow
l an
d a
sou
nd is t
here
by p
rodu
ced.
A w
ooden
latt
ice is c
on
str
ucte
d b
e-
tween
it
an
d t
he o
bserv
ato
ry w
heel, a
nd f
rom
th
is latt
ice w
ate
r
com
es o
ut
in s
ucc
essi
ve s
trea
ms.
"Th
is c
lock w
as c
on
str
ucte
d b
y A
bu
Bakr
ibn
Mu
ham
mad
Kh
alil,
may G
od's
ble
ssin
g b
e u
pon
him
, an
d t
he c
om
ple
tion
of
the o
bserv
ato
ry w
as in
th
e y
ear
725.
"To t
he s
ide o
f th
e M
adra
sa s
tan
ds a
loft
y m
osqu
e w
ith
gla
zed t
ile,
an
d a
noth
er
su
perb
bu
ildin
g locate
d n
ear
the latt
er
iscalled t
he H
ou
se o
f M
edic
am
en
ts.
Opposit
e t
he M
osqu
e a
nd
the w
ell o
f cold
wate
r th
ere
is s
till a
noth
er
str
uctu
re o
n t
hre
e
walls o
f w
hic
h t
he
wa
gf
en
dow
men
ts o
f th
e m
adra
sa s
tan
d
insc
ribed
.Th
ere
is a
lso a
sple
ndid
lib
rary
con
tain
ing t
hre
e
thou
san
dbooks.
"It
is r
ela
ted t
hat
wh
en
Sayyid
Ru
kn
al D
in h
ad h
ad t
his
madra
sa c
on
str
ucte
d t
he g
overn
ors
hip
of Yazd
was in
th
e h
an
ds
of
the A
tabaks a
nd t
hat
Ata
bak Y
usu
f-S
hah
becam
e jealo
us
wh
en
he s
aw
th
e S
ayyid
bu
ild, in
th
e v
icin
ity o
f th
e S
afw
ati
ya
Madra
sa .
..,
an
oth
er
on
e w
hic
h c
om
ple
tely
eclipsed t
he f
orm
er.
Th
e A
tabak h
ad t
here
fore
th
e d
om
e o
f th
e S
afw
ati
ya M
osqu
e
covere
d w
ith
gre
en
gla
zed t
ile a
nd a
dded a
min
are
t to
it;
he a
lso
had t
he S
afw
ati
ya M
adra
sa r
en
ovate
d.
An
d h
e w
ish
ed t
o b
rin
g
som
e h
arm
to S
ayyid
Ru
kn
al D
in.
"A
bou
t th
at
tim
e a
ric
h C
hri
sti
an
had c
om
e t
o Y
azd a
nd
sett
led t
here
. H
e h
ad a
gard
en
an
d a
man
sio
n s
et
up in
sid
e t
he
cit
y n
ear
the `
Ata
-Kh
an
Madra
sa.
Th
e g
ard
en
is s
till t
here
an
d
is c
alled t
he G
ard
en
of
the C
hri
sti
an
. In
Ah
rista
n (a p
lace n
ear
Yazd
) h
e b
uilt
a m
ill w
hic
h is k
now
n a
s t
he M
ill of th
e C
hri
sti
an
.
He w
as v
ery
wealt
hy.
"B
an
dit
s w
en
t to
his
bedro
om
on
e n
igh
t; t
hey k
ille
d h
im
an
dto
ok
mu
ch
of
his
belo
ngin
gs.
En
em
ies o
fSayyid
Ru
kn
al
Din
accu
sed h
im a
nd h
is p
eople
of
havin
g m
urd
ere
d t
he C
hri
s-
tian
.Th
ey h
eld
cou
rt, bu
t n
o e
vid
en
ce w
hate
ver
was fou
nd o
f
an
y c
on
necti
on
of S
ayyid
Ru
kn
al D
in' s
people
wit
h t
he m
urd
er.
Th
ey t
hen
said
th
at
su
ch
su
perb
con
str
ucti
on
s r
equ
ire m
uch
gold
an
d t
hat
the S
ayyid
has u
ndou
bte
dly
been
carr
yin
g o
ut
his
bu
ildin
g a
cti
vit
y w
ith
mon
ey r
obbed f
rom
th
e C
hri
sti
an
.
238
THE OBSERVATORY IN ISLAM
240
TH
E O
BSE
RV
AT
OR
Y I
N I
SL
AM
"Th
ey a
rreste
d t
he S
ayyid
by t
rickeri
es a
nd r
esort
ed t
o
man
y t
hre
ats
bu
t w
ere
un
able
to o
bta
in fro
m h
im t
he fals
e c
on
-
fessio
ns t
hey w
ish
ed t
o h
ave.
Th
ey f
inally b
egan
tort
uri
ng a
nd
floggin
g h
im.
In a
peri
od o
f tw
o d
ays t
hey s
tru
ck h
im n
earl
y
on
e t
hou
san
d b
low
s w
ith
th
e s
tick, an
d a
qu
an
tity
of skin
cam
e
off
fro
m v
ari
ou
s p
art
s o
f h
is b
ody.
Th
ey t
orm
en
ted h
im a
nd m
ade
him
go a
rou
nd t
he c
ity r
idin
g a
cam
el n
ude..
.. T
hey f
inally t
ook
him
to K
hu
rmiz
an
d im
pri
son
ed h
im in
th
e fort
's d
un
geon
th
ere
."D
uri
ng a
ll t
hese e
ven
ts h
is s
on
...
Said
Sh
am
s a
l D
in
Mu
ham
mad w
as in
hid
ing .
.. in
th
e h
ou
se o
f H
aji `
Ali-i
Asta
-rabadi. .
..K
hw
aja
`A
li-S
hah
ibn
Kh
waja
`A
li-S
hah
saw
th
e
Pro
ph
et
— m
ay G
od b
less a
nd k
eep h
im a
nd h
is fam
ily —
in
his
dre
am
an
d w
as t
old
by h
im t
o g
o t
o t
he h
ou
se o
f K
hw
aja
Haji-i
Ast
rabadi.
`For'
, th
e P
roph
et
said
,` m
y s
on
Am
ir S
ham
s a
l D
in
is in
hid
ing t
here
. G
ive h
im y
ou
r m
ule
an
d o
ne t
hou
san
d s
ilver
din
ars
so
that
he m
ay g
o t
o T
abri
z.
For
his
aff
air
s w
ill ta
ke a
sati
sfa
cto
ry t
urn
th
ere
; you
r fa
vor
will soon
be r
etu
rned t
o y
ou
,
an
d I
sh
all in
terc
ede in
you
r fa
vor
on
th
e D
ay o
f R
esu
rrecti
on
.'"K
hw
aja
`A
li-S
hah
wen
t to
th
e d
oor
of
Haji's
hou
se a
nd
told
him
of
his
experi
en
ce.
Kh
waja
Haji r
efu
sed t
o c
oopera
te
wit
h h
im a
nd d
ecla
red t
hat
nobody w
as in
his
hou
se.
Kh
waja
`Ali-S
hah
in
sis
ted a
nd s
poke o
nce m
ore
of
his
dre
am
, w
here
upon
Kh
waja
Hap let
him
in
. H
e s
aw
th
ere
Sayyid
Sh
am
s a
l D
in
an
d p
rostr
ate
d h
imself a
t h
is f
eet.
He g
ave t
he S
ayyid
on
eth
ou
san
dd
ina
rsan
d p
resen
ted h
im w
ith
a f
ine m
ule
.
Sayyid
Sh
am
s a
l D
in left
Yazd t
hat
very
day a
nd r
each
ed
Nu
hgu
mbad in
on
e n
igh
t. A
few
cou
pola
s w
ere
in
a r
uin
ed s
tate
there
, an
d t
he f
ou
nta
in's
wate
r w
as n
ot
su
itable
for
dri
nk.
Th
e
Sayyid
was t
hir
sty
. H
e im
plo
red G
od,
an
d G
od,
he is e
xalt
ed,
sen
t
rain
, an
d a
ll t
he fie
lds b
ecam
e d
ren
ch
ed w
ith
wate
r. .
.. I
n s
ix
days h
e r
each
ed A
wja
n o
f Tabri
z f
rom
Yazd a
nd f
ou
nd a
pla
ce
of
rest
there
. Th
at
nig
ht
the P
roph
et
appeare
d t
o K
hw
aja
Gh
i-
yath
al D
in M
uh
am
mad R
ash
id in
his
dre
am
an
d s
aid
to h
im,
` My s
on
Am
ir S
ham
s a
l D
in h
as c
om
e t
o T
abri
z.
Tell h
is s
tory
to A
bu
Sa'id a
nd p
ut
his
affair
s in
ord
er.
'
"Th
e n
ext
day K
hw
aja
Gh
iyath
al D
in M
uh
am
mad w
en
t
to t
he h
ou
se o
f S
ayyid
Sh
am
s a
l D
in a
nd f
ou
nd h
im t
here
. H
e
took h
im t
o A
bu
Sa'id a
nd e
xte
nded t
o h
im t
he d
epu
tysh
ip o
f
the w
hole
realm
an
d m
ade h
im ju
dge-s
ubsti
tute
for
all t
he m
agis
-
trate
s o
f th
e c
ou
ntr
y; h
e a
lso in
veste
d h
im w
ith
th
e r
an
k o
f viz
ier
an
d p
resen
ted h
im w
ith
his
pers
on
al garb
, th
us c
on
ferr
ing u
pon
him
ran
ks o
f h
igh
dig
nit
y.
Th
e S
ult
an
Abu
Sa'id s
en
t an
en
voy
wit
h a
specia
l ro
yal m
an
date
to Y
azd for
the r
ele
ase o
f S
ayyid
Ru
kn
al D
in,
for
his
in
vesti
ture
wit
h t
he r
an
k o
f ju
dge,
an
d f
or
the t
horo
ugh
pu
nis
hm
en
t of
his
en
em
ies.
He a
lso s
en
t a r
obe o
f
hon
or
for
him
."W
hen
th
e e
nvoy a
rriv
ed in
Yazd t
he p
eople
cele
bra
ted
the o
ccasio
n a
nd w
en
t to
Kh
urm
iz.
Wh
en
th
e S
ayyid
was b
ein
g
taken
ou
t of
his
du
ngeon
a b
lack s
nake w
as s
een
to h
ave r
olled
itself u
p n
ear
Sayyid
Ru
kn
al D
in;
at
that
mom
en
t it
got
up a
nd
dis
appeare
d.
Aft
er
his
rele
ase f
rom
th
e d
un
geon
th
e S
ayyid
was
insta
lled u
pon
th
e ju
dge's
seat
in h
is o
wn
madra
sa..
. .
Ru
kn
al D
in p
erf
orm
ed t
he p
ilgri
mage t
hat
year,
an
d w
hen
he r
etu
rned t
o Y
azd
he h
ad w
ate
r bro
ugh
t to
th
e c
ity.
"H
e m
ade
itpass t
hro
ugh
th
e g
ard
en
of th
e H
ospit
al an
d b
y t
he d
oor
of
the
Ward
an
-Ru
z M
adra
sa;
from
th
ere
th
e w
ate
r passed n
ear
the d
oor
of th
e F
riday M
osqu
e a
nd r
each
ed t
he R
ukn
iya M
ad-
rasa.
At
the M
adra
sa its
elf h
e h
ad a
larg
e b
asin
con
str
ucte
d a
nd
made t
he w
ate
r flow
th
rou
gh
it.
...
"41
Ja'far
ibn
Mu
ham
mad-i
Ja`f
ari
-i Y
azdi, a
uth
or
of th
eT
a-
rikh
-iK
abir
,giv
es t
he n
am
e o
f th
e p
ers
on
wh
o c
on
str
ucte
d t
he
Observ
ato
ry o
f th
e T
ime a
nd t
he H
ou
r as K
halil ib
n A
bi B
akr.
42
As is s
een
, th
is p
assage,
wh
ich
has b
een
qu
ote
d a
lmost
in
full, is
not
alw
ays v
ery
cle
ar,
alt
hou
gh
it
is q
uit
e in
tere
sti
ng a
nd
deta
iled.
On
e t
hin
g is c
lear,
how
ever,
an
d t
his
is t
hat
all t
ech
ni-
cal
deta
ils c
on
cern
tim
e a
nd c
ale
ndar
dete
rmin
ati
on
s.
Th
ere
are
no r
efe
ren
ces t
o a
ny o
bserv
ati
on
s o
r to
th
e p
repara
tion
of
astr
on
om
ical ta
ble
s;
no s
cie
nti
fic s
taff
of
astr
on
om
ers
are
men
-
tion
ed e
ith
er.
Th
is "
observ
ato
ry"
seem
s t
here
fore
to h
ave b
een
a
very
ela
bora
tem
aw
aggit
-kh
an
a,
an
excepti
on
ally r
ich
off
ice o
fm
uw
aqqit
.
Th
ere
are
severa
l exam
ple
s o
f ela
bora
te c
locks c
on
str
ucte
d
in I
sla
m; th
ey h
ave b
een
left
ou
tsid
e t
he s
cope o
f th
e p
resen
t
41A
hm
ad
ib
nH
usa
yn, p
p. 133-1
39.
Afs
har
, p
. 147. C
ourt
esy
of
Pro
fess
or
Min
ovi.
TH
E F
OU
RT
EE
NT
H C
EN
TU
RY
241
16
242
THE OBSERVATORY IN ISLAM
work
, an
d t
he s
am
e is t
rue f
or
the o
ffic
es o
f th
em
uw
aqqit
s,
bu
tth
e p
resen
t case d
oes p
robably
deserv
e t
o b
e t
reate
d a
s a
n e
xcep-
tion
. In
tw
o p
revio
us e
xam
ple
s,
nam
ely
th
e M
aliksh
ah
an
d t
he
Gh
azan
Kh
an
Observ
ato
ries,
the e
mph
asis
was s
een
to h
ave
pro
bably
been
pla
ced u
pon
work
on
th
e c
ale
ndar,
i.
e.,
on
work
an
d o
bserv
ati
on
s o
n t
he s
un
an
d t
he m
oon
. Th
e"
Observ
ato
ry"
of
the T
ime a
nd t
he H
ou
r w
as p
erh
aps a
case in
term
edia
ry b
e-
tween
th
is latt
er
an
d a
ric
hly
equ
ipped
muw
aqqit
-kh
ana.
It is o
f in
tere
st
that
this
in
sti
tuti
on
was a
ctu
ally c
alled a
n"observ
ato
ry".
Th
e n
am
e is R
asad-i
Waqt
wa (or
Waqt-
i) S
a`a
t(o
r S
a`a
t);
i. e
., t
he last
word
,"
hou
r"
,occu
rs b
oth
in
th
e s
ingu
-
lar
an
d t
he p
lura
l fo
rms in
ou
r passage, an
d a
sim
ilar
con
fusio
n
exis
ts in
th
e c
ase o
f th
e w
ord
wa
qt;
it is t
here
fore
im
possib
le t
o
fin
d o
ut
wh
ich
fro
m w
as t
he c
orr
ect
nam
e.
I h
ave a
ccepte
d h
ere
the f
orm
wh
ich
occu
rs a
lso in
th
eT
6ri
kh
-iK
abir
of
Ja'fari
. A
sw
e h
ave s
een
, th
e w
ord
rasa
dh
ad b
een
used v
ery
spari
ngly
up
to t
he t
hir
teen
th c
en
tury
; th
e p
resen
t case s
eem
s t
o in
dic
ate
that
it h
ad b
y t
his
tim
e c
om
e t
o b
e u
sed in
a r
ath
er
bro
ad s
en
se.
Th
is"observ
ato
ry"
is s
aid
to h
ave b
een
com
ple
ted in
th
e
year
725, i. e
., a
bou
t 1325 A
. D
., a
nd t
his
corr
espon
ds t
o t
he
reig
n o
f th
e I
lkh
an
ru
ler
Abu
Said
Bah
adu
r (1
316-1
335), a
s
sta
ted in
th
e p
assage.
It is o
f in
tere
st
that
it d
id n
ot
su
ffer
an
y
dam
age d
uri
ng t
he t
ime w
hen
its
fou
nder
was in
dis
gra
ce.
More
o-
ver,
it
is s
een
th
at
it w
as s
till f
un
cti
on
ing d
uri
ng t
he lifeti
me
of
the a
uth
or
of
ou
r sou
rce.
Th
e d
eta
ils g
iven
in
th
e b
egin
ing o
f
that
book in
dic
ate
th
at
it w
as w
ritt
en
in
th
e s
econ
d h
alf o
f th
e
fift
een
th c
en
tury
, i. e
., a
bou
t on
e h
un
dre
d a
nd f
ifty
years
aft
er
the f
ou
ndati
on
of
the "
observ
ato
ry".
Th
is m
inim
um
lifeti
me is a
lready e
xcepti
on
ally lon
g, an
d
this
corr
obora
tes o
ur
con
clu
sio
n t
hat
it w
as n
ot
an
observ
ato
ry
in t
he t
rue s
en
se o
f th
e w
ord
, bu
t ra
ther
am
uw
aqqit
-kh
ana,
anin
sti
tuti
on
that
can
be m
ore
clo
sely
ass
ocia
ted w
ith
pio
us f
ou
nd-
ati
on
sw
hic
h e
njo
yed lon
g life a
s a
ru
le.
Indeed,
Ru
kn
al D
in
su
ffere
d a
ll h
is m
isfo
rtu
ne b
ecau
se o
f th
e jealo
usie
s h
e a
rou
sed
by h
isvery
gen
ero
sit
y a
nd m
un
ific
en
ce a
s a
fou
nder.
Tw
o I
sla
mic
observ
ato
ries,
nam
ely
, th
e A
I A
fdal-
Al B
ata
ihi an
d t
he I
sta
nbu
l
Observ
ato
ries,
cam
e t
o a
n a
bru
pt
en
d p
art
ly a
s a
resu
lt o
f su
ch
jealo
usie
s.
Bu
t a s
imilar
fate
wou
ld n
ot
be e
xpecte
d in
th
e c
ase
THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
243
of
a p
iou
s a
nd c
hari
table
in
sti
tuti
on
su
ch
as a
mosqu
e,
a m
ad-
rasa, a h
ospit
al, o
r an
offic
e o
f th
em
uw
aqqit
.
It is t
o b
e n
ote
d t
hat
both
th
e G
hazan
Kh
an
Observ
ato
ry
an
d t
he O
bserv
ato
ry o
f th
e T
ime a
nd t
he H
ou
r w
ere
bu
ilt
am
on
g
a g
rou
p o
f pio
us in
sti
tuti
on
s o
f ch
ari
ty a
nd s
ocia
l aid
. If
we c
ou
ld
be c
ert
ain
th
at
both
th
ese in
sti
tuti
on
s a
nd e
specia
lly t
he latt
er
on
e w
hic
h is k
now
n t
o h
ave e
njo
yed lon
g life,
were
fu
ll-f
ledged
obse
rvato
ries
,th
isw
ou
ld in
dic
ate
sig
nific
an
t pro
gre
ss t
ow
ard
the a
ccepta
nce o
f th
e o
bserv
ato
ry a
s a
n in
tegra
l part
of
the I
s-
lam
ic c
iviliz
ati
on
. Th
ere
is s
om
e e
vid
en
ce, in
fact,
th
at
a d
eve-
lopm
en
t of th
is n
atu
re a
ctu
ally t
ook p
lace; bu
t if s
o, th
is w
as
appare
ntl
y a
ch
ieved a
t th
e e
xpen
se o
f cre
ati
ng m
inor
observ
ato
-
ries
wh
ich
were
more
akin
to t
he o
ffic
e o
f th
e m
uw
aqqit
th
an
to t
he o
bserv
ato
ry its
elf.
Oth
er
exam
ple
s w
hic
h m
ay b
e t
aken
as e
vid
en
ce o
f th
e e
xis
t-
en
ce o
f su
ch
a lin
e o
f develo
pm
en
t are
un
fort
un
ate
ly q
uit
e v
agu
e.
On
e e
xam
ple
has a
lready b
een
men
tion
ed f
rom
th
e t
welfth
cen
-
tury
, n
am
ely
, th
e T
ow
er
of S
tar
in M
oro
cco:`
,I s
hall n
ow
giv
e t
he
oth
er
exam
ple
s w
hic
h h
ave c
om
e t
o m
y a
tten
tion
; th
ey r
an
ge
from
th
e t
hir
teen
th c
en
tury
to t
he s
even
teen
th,
an
d s
om
e o
f
them
are
based m
ere
ly o
n local tr
adit
ion
s.
Ou
r kn
ow
ledge c
on
cern
ing t
hese
"m
inor
observ
ato
ries"
is
not
deta
iled e
nou
gh
to in
dic
ate
wh
eth
er
all t
he e
xam
ple
s m
en
-
tion
ed r
epre
sen
t on
e a
nd t
he s
am
e t
ype o
f in
sti
tuti
on
. Th
eir
bein
g
here
gro
uped t
ogeth
er
un
der
the s
am
e h
eadin
g is t
here
fore
part
ly
for
reason
s o
f con
ven
ien
ce.
It is lik
ely
th
at
most
of
them
do
not
deserv
e t
o b
e c
alled o
bserv
ato
ries,
bu
t in
vie
w a
t le
ast
of
ou
r la
ck o
f det
ailed
kn
ow
ledge
con
cern
ing t
hem
it
has
bee
n d
eem
ed
advis
able
not
to leave t
hem
ou
t of
con
sid
era
tion
in
a b
ook d
ealin
g
wit
h t
he h
isto
ry o
f observ
ato
ries.
It is t
o b
e n
ote
d t
oo t
hat
non
e o
f th
ese is o
f, th
e s
am
e t
ype
as t
he "
observ
ati
on
posts
"of
the n
inth
an
d t
en
th c
en
turi
es.
Th
ose
observ
ati
on
posts
repre
sen
ted a
sta
ge o
r pro
cess o
f develo
pm
en
t
leadin
g t
o t
he e
merg
en
ce o
f th
e o
bserv
ato
ry a
s a
specia
lize
d s
cie
n-
tific in
sti
tuti
on
,w
here
as t
he
"m
inor
observ
ato
ries"
con
stit
ute
a b
ackw
ard
ste
p f
rom
th
e o
bserv
ato
ry a
s e
volv
ed in
Isla
m.
More
o-
ver,
th
e "
min
or
observ
ato
ries"
do n
ot
repre
sen
t n
earl
y a
s v
igor-
244
TH
E O
BS
ER
VA
TO
RY I
N I
SLA
MTH
E F
OU
RTE
EN
TH
CE
NTU
RY
245
ou
s a
spir
it o
f scie
nti
fic r
esearc
h a
s d
id t
he e
arl
ier
observ
ati
on
post
s,an
d n
eit
her
do t
hey s
eem
to h
ave b
een
as c
losely
asso-
cia
ted a
s t
he latt
er
wit
h p
ure
astr
on
om
y.
QA
L'A
AL N
AJM
or T
HE
CA
STLE
OF
STA
R
Th
e f
ifte
en
th c
en
tury
wri
ter
'AM
al R
ash
id ibn
Salih
ibn
Nu
ri a
l Yagiiti
(A
l B
aqu
i ?) m
en
tion
s t
his
castl
e w
hic
h w
as lo-
cate
d o
n t
he E
uph
rate
s n
ot
far
from
th
e c
ity o
f H
ala
b.
In its
vic
init
y t
here
was a
pla
ce fro
m w
hic
h t
he p
hases o
f th
e m
oon
were
observ
ed.
43
Both
its
nam
e a
nd its
fu
ncti
on
bri
ng t
o m
ind
the T
ow
er
of S
tar
in M
oro
cco, bu
t th
is s
eem
s n
ot
to h
ave b
een
mere
ly a
pla
ce u
sed f
or
the o
bserv
ati
on
of
the n
ew
moon
at
the
begin
nin
gs o
f m
on
ths.
Qal'a a
l N
ajm
was b
uilt
or
rebu
ilt
by N
ur
al D
in M
ah
mu
d
al Z
an
gi in
541-6
9 (1146-7
4).
44
Nu
r al D
in f
ou
nded s
evera
l in
s-
titu
tion
s o
f ch
ari
ty a
nd learn
ing.
Ou
r sou
rce for
this
ite
m s
eem
s
to r
efe
r on
ly t
o t
he fifte
en
th c
en
tury
, h
ow
ever,
an
d t
here
is n
o
evid
en
ce t
hat
the p
ost
for
the o
bserv
ati
on
of th
e p
hases o
f th
e
moon
date
s b
ack t
o N
ur
al D
in's
tim
e.
QA
L`A
RU
ZN
AM
A
Abou
t th
e e
nd o
f th
e s
even
teen
th c
en
tury
th
ere
was in
Cair
o
a p
lace c
alled Q
al'a R
uzn
am
a (Th
e C
astl
e o
f E
ph
em
eri
des o
r
Alm
an
ac). T
he h
ead o
f th
is o
ffic
e w
as e
nti
tled R
uzn
am
aji a
nd
his
cow
ork
ers
were
scie
nti
sts
an
d a
str
on
om
ers
wh
o w
ere
in
pos-
sessio
n o
f astr
on
om
ical in
str
um
en
ts.
It is lik
ely
th
ere
fore
th
at
the w
ord
ruzndm
aji
was a
tit
le g
iven
to t
he d
irecto
r of
the a
str
o-
nom
ers
wh
o d
ete
rmin
ed m
att
ers
pert
ain
ing t
o t
he c
ale
ndar
an
d
made c
hro
nolo
gic
ally a
rran
ged a
str
olo
gic
al pre
dic
tion
s a
nd t
hat
the Q
al'a R
uzn
am
a w
as a
noth
er
"m
inor
observ
ato
ry".
45
Th
ere
is,
in f
act,
evid
en
ce f
or
the u
se o
f th
e w
ord
ruzn
&m
ain
th
e m
ean
-in
g o
f a c
ale
ndar
con
tain
ing a
str
olo
gic
al in
dic
ati
on
s o
f vari
ou
skin
ds.
4e
43
Gu
ign
e, p.
451; S
Sdillo
t, 1
847, p.
CV
II.
44
Ric
e,
p.
41.
See a
lso,
"Nesjim
un
" in
th
e g
eogra
ph
ical in
dex o
f A
. S
ch
ul-
ten
s,
Vita
et r
esge
stae
Sala
din
i...,
1775; Le S
tran
ge, 1890, p.
501.
45D
orn
, pp. 33-3
6.
9'
See, e.
g.,
Ru
znam
a-i
Sha
ykh
Waf
t,m
s.,
Ista
nbu
l, M
ille
t Lib
rary
, N
o 2
21.
IBN
AL S
HA
TIR
`Ali ibn
Ibra
him
ibn
Mu
ham
mad ibn
al S
hati
r (1
304-1
375/6),
wh
o w
as t
he
muw
aqqit
of th
e U
mayyad M
osqu
e in
Dam
ascu
s,
is a
mon
g t
he m
ost
dis
tin
gu
ish
ed a
str
on
om
ers
of
the late
medie
val
tim
es a
nd t
he a
uth
or
of
severa
l books in
clu
din
g t
he
New
Ast
ro-
nom
ical
Table
s.'"
He w
as n
ot
sati
sfied w
ith
th
e P
tole
maic
syste
m a
nd d
evis
ed a
new
on
e w
hic
h, th
ou
gh
geocen
tric
, w
as
very
sim
ilar
to t
hat
of C
opern
icu
s.4
e
Ibn
al S
hati
r speaks o
f h
avin
g d
on
e m
uch
work
on
astr
on
o-
mic
al in
str
um
en
ts, an
d h
e c
riti
ciz
es t
he in
str
um
en
ts for
their
difficu
lty o
f con
str
ucti
on
an
d t
he d
ifficu
lty o
f m
ovin
g t
heir
part
s
rela
tively
to o
ne a
noth
er.
49
Th
is latt
er
idea is s
een
in
Tych
o
Bra
he a
lso a
nd lie
s a
t th
e f
ou
ndati
on
of
som
e o
f h
is m
ost
import
-
an
t ach
ievem
en
ts in
th
e fie
ld o
f astr
on
om
ical in
str
um
en
ts.
50
An
oth
er
muw
aqqit,
Su
laym
an
ibn
Mu
sta
fa ibn
al K
arn
ali,
wh
o w
as a
ttach
ed t
o t
he V
alide S
ult
an
Mosqu
e o
f Is
tan
bu
l, s
peaks
of
Ibn
al S
hati
r as t
he o
wn
er
of
observ
ato
ry(s
dhib
-i r
asa
d)
inh
isM
ir'd
t al M
anzildt,
wri
tten
in
1200 (1785-1
786).
51
Th
is w
ou
ld
seem
to b
e c
orr
obora
ted b
y t
he s
tate
men
t of
Taqi al D
in w
ho
men
tion
s I
bn
al S
hati
r am
on
g t
hose
wh
o h
ad c
onst
ructe
da
dhdt
al sa
mt w
a' l
e.,
azi
mu
thal qu
adra
nt.
52N
o o
ther
info
rm-
ati
on
con
cern
ing I
bn
al S
hati
r's
"observ
ato
ry"
has c
om
e t
o
my a
tten
tion
.
It is p
ossib
le t
hat
Ibn
al S
hati
r h
ad t
he m
ost
import
an
t
observ
ato
ry o
f th
e fou
rteen
th c
en
tury
, an
d if h
e r
eally h
ad a
n
observ
ato
ry,
this
may h
ave b
een
th
e m
ost
eff
icie
nt
observ
ato
ry
of th
e O
ttom
an
Em
pir
e fro
m t
he s
tan
dpoin
t of th
e w
ork
don
e
in it.
Bu
t ou
r kn
ow
ledge c
on
cern
ing a
ny facilit
ies a
t th
e d
isposal
of Ib
n a
l S
hati
r fo
r m
akin
g s
yste
mati
c o
bserv
ati
on
s is v
ery
mea-
ger
, an
d a
ny d
ecis
ion
on
th
ese
matt
ers
mu
st a
wait
fu
ture
res
earc
h.
4'
Su
ter,
1900, p.
168.
4'
See b
elo
w, p.
384, n
ote
s 1
46, 147.
4°
Wie
dem
an
n,
Beit
rage,
57,
p.
28.
soD
reyer,
Tyc
ho
Bra
he,
p.
317.
S1
Su
laym
an
ibn
Mu
sta
fa,
p.
19b.
s2S
ee a
bove, p.
73, n
ote
99.
OB
SE
RV
ATO
RIE
S C
LA
IME
D B
Y L
OC
AL
TR
AD
ITIO
NS
, A
ND
BR
AN
CH
ES
OF
SPE
CIA
LIZ
ATIO
N
IN A
STR
ON
OM
Y
Th
ere
are
a n
um
ber
of lo
cal tr
adit
ion
s c
on
cern
ing t
he e
xis
t-en
ce o
f old
obse
rvato
ries,
or
madra
sas w
here
astr
on
om
y is s
aid
to h
ave b
een
tau
gh
t an
d a
str
on
om
ical observ
ati
on
s m
ade.
Th
ese
local tr
adit
ion
s a
re u
su
ally v
agu
e,
an
d t
he m
ost
import
an
t am
on
g
them
seem
s t
o b
e t
he o
ne in
Kiita
hya, Tu
rkey, w
hic
h c
en
ters
aro
un
d t
he p
ers
on
of `A
bd a
l W
ajid o
f th
e fou
rteen
th c
en
tury
.
In E
uro
pe t
wo a
t le
ast
of
su
ch
tra
dit
ion
s h
ave g
ain
ed s
om
e
cred
ence
.
Th
us G
un
ther
says,"
Tra
dit
ion
has it
that
the e
arl
iest
astr
o-
nom
ical
obse
rvato
ryin
Oxfo
rd w
as s
itu
ate
d in
th
eonly
spot
that
isdefin
itely
con
necte
d w
ith
th
e n
am
e o
f R
oger
Bacon
. ..
. Th
e
ori
gin
al bu
ildin
g w
as s
acri
ficed in
th
e e
igh
teen
th c
en
tury
to a
n
ill-
con
sid
ere
d s
ch
em
e o
f ro
ad w
iden
ing.
...
Fri
ar
Bacon
' s s
tudy
sto
od o
n F
olly B
rid
ge .
.. O
ld d
raw
ings s
how
us t
he h
ou
se
ath
wart
th
e b
ridge a
nd b
uilt
over
an
arc
hw
ay t
hat
span
ned it:
ith
ad e
vid
en
tly b
een
ere
cte
d f
or
a g
ate
hou
se .
.. o
r as a
watc
h-
tow
er
for
the d
efe
nse o
f th
e c
ity .
.."A
ccord
ing t
o t
radit
ion
...
Bacon
did
som
eti
mes u
se in
th
e` n
igh
t se
aso
n'
to a
scen
d t
his
pla
ce .
.. a
nd t
o t
ake t
he a
ltit
ude
an
d d
ista
nce o
f sta
rs.
"It
wou
ld b
e d
ifficu
lt t
o f
ind a
ny s
itu
ati
on
in
th
e c
ity
more
favora
bly
sit
uate
d f
or
the q
uadra
nt
an
d a
str
ola
be o
bserv
-
ati
on
s o
f th
e f
irst
astr
on
om
ers
of
Mert
on
College .
.. B
ut
of
an
y
regu
lar
obse
rvato
ryth
ere
is n
o r
ecord
befo
re t
he s
even
teen
th
cen
tury
."53
Th
e"
Observ
ato
ry"
of
Pri
nce H
en
ry t
he N
avig
ato
r (1
394-
1460) seem
s t
o c
on
sti
tute
a s
imilar
case.
Th
is p
rin
ce fou
nded
a v
ery
im
port
an
t sch
ool of n
avig
ati
on
at
Sagre
s (C
ape o
f S
t. V
in-
cen
t);
bu
t as t
o h
is"observ
ato
ry"
at
the s
am
e p
lace, it
seem
s
to r
est
upon
no r
eliable
record
s.
Vari
ou
s a
uth
ors
speak o
f th
is
observ
ato
ry,
54
an
d its
exis
ten
ce h
as b
een
record
ed o
n a
mon
u-
s3G
un
ther
,pp. 7
4-7
6.
54S
ee,
e. g
., M
arti
n s
,pp.
80.8
1;
Bea
zley
,p. 61;
Pled
ge,
p. 34.
TH
E F
OU
RTE
EN
TH
CE
NTU
RY
247
men
t ere
cte
d a
t S
agre
s t
o t
he h
on
or
of
that
pri
nce.
55
Dou
bt
too h
as b
een
expre
ssed c
on
cern
ing t
hese in
sti
tuti
on
s in
gen
era
l,
an
d a
bou
t th
e o
bserv
ato
ry in
part
icu
lar.
ss
Th
e s
ch
ool of n
avig
ati
on
its
elf r
ests
appare
ntl
y u
pon
good
evid
en
ce, bu
t th
e o
bserv
ato
ry s
eem
s t
o b
e b
ased o
n v
agu
e t
radi-
tion
.N
oth
ing s
pecific
seem
s t
o b
e k
now
n c
on
cern
ing it,
an
d t
he
exis
ten
ce o
f a s
ch
ool of
navig
ati
on
wou
ld c
ert
ain
ly n
ot
imply
the fou
ndati
on
of an
observ
ato
ry.
As w
e h
ave s
een
, a s
imilar
tradit
ion
exis
ts c
on
cern
ing t
he
Mara
gh
a O
bserv
ato
ry; an
d a
lth
ou
gh
it
teach
es u
s p
racti
cally
noth
ing n
ew
, it
con
sti
tute
s a
n e
xam
ple
of a p
erf
ectl
y ju
sti
fied
local tr
adit
ion
. In
Ista
nbu
l to
o t
here
seem
s t
o h
ave b
een
su
ch
a local tr
adit
ion
, con
necti
ng `
Ali Q
ush
ji o
f th
e f
ifte
en
th c
en
tury
,
inste
ad o
f Taqi al D
in,
wit
h t
he s
ixte
en
th c
en
tury
Ista
nbu
l O
bserv
-
ato
ry o
r t
he
"observ
ati
on
well"
there
. S
uch
at
least
is t
he
impre
ssio
n g
ain
ed f
rom
th
e a
ccou
nt
giv
en
by E
vliya c
ele
bi.
57
Th
is a
ppare
ntl
y r
epre
sen
ts a
com
bin
ati
on
of th
e m
ost
import
an
t
observ
ati
on
pro
gra
m w
hic
h t
ook p
lace in
th
at
cit
y w
ith
its
most
fam
ou
s a
str
on
om
er.
Th
ere
has b
een
men
tion
of
a local tr
adit
ion
con
cern
ing t
he
exis
ten
ce o
f an
observ
ato
ry in
th
e c
ity o
f Tir
e, in
Tu
rkey, an
d
this
has b
een
record
ed in
a lit
tle p
am
ph
let.
58
No s
uffic
ien
tly
reliable
evid
en
ce s
eem
s t
o b
e a
vailable
con
cern
ing t
he e
xis
ten
ce
of su
ch
an
in
sti
tuti
on
th
ere
, h
ow
ever.
Th
e a
lleged o
bserv
ato
ry
bu
ildin
g,
a s
mall a
nn
ex t
o t
he Y
avu
klu
oglu
Mosqu
e,
con
sis
tin
g
of tw
o s
tori
es, each
con
tain
ing a
sin
gle
room
, is
locate
d a
t th
e
extr
em
ity o
f th
e c
ou
rtyard
of
the m
osqu
e.
Th
is lit
tle b
uildin
g
may h
ave b
een
am
uw
aqqit
' s-o
ffic
econ
necte
d w
ith
th
e m
osqu
e,
an
d t
his
may h
ave g
iven
ris
e t
o t
he r
um
or
in q
uesti
on
. B
ut
there
is n
o r
efe
ren
ce t
o a
mu
wa
qqit' s
-off
ice in
th
e local tr
adit
ion
wh
ich
itself is r
ath
er
vagu
e.59
55
Maj
or,
18
77
,p.
192.
See
als
o, M
ajor
,1868,
p.
315.
''M
ees,
pp.
42,
50
.S
ee a
lso,
Mar
tin
s,p. 8
1.
5']
Evl
iya
cele
bi, v
ol.
1,p.
44
3.
L'A
dm
inis
tra
tion
de l'E
vka
fa
laV
.F
oir
e I
nte
rna
tion
al d
u 9
Septe
mbre
1Iz
mir
, A
rts a
Cu
ltu
res, U
rba
nis
me, T
ou
rism
e,
Izm
ir1935
(Mar
ifet
Pre
ss).
A
pict
ure
of
the
buil
ding
in q
ues
tion
is
give
n o
n t
he
bac
k c
over
of
this
pam
phle
t.5e
See
, S
ayrh
,R
asa
tha
ne K
on
usu
,pp.
683-6
89.
24
6TH
E O
BS
ER
VA
TO
RY
INIS
LA
M
248
TH
E O
BS
ER
VA
TO
RY
IN
IS
LA
M
Th
ere
exis
ted a
local tr
adit
ion
in
Kon
ya, cen
tral A
nato
lia,
accord
ing t
o w
hic
h P
lato
had a
n o
bserv
ato
ry t
here
. Th
is t
radi-
tion
con
cern
ing P
lato
's O
bserv
ati
on
Tow
er
has a
lso p
assed in
to
the lit
era
ture
on
Pla
to.6
0
Th
ere
is a
lso a
rep
ort
con
cern
ing a
n"
observ
ato
ry"
in H
arr
an
,
Tu
rkey.
It m
ay r
efe
r to
an
old
tem
ple
of
the S
abia
ns,
or
pos-
sib
ly t
o a
tow
er
wh
ose r
em
ain
s a
re s
till s
tan
din
g.
Th
is r
eport
,
as it
has r
each
ed m
e,
con
sis
ts o
f th
e s
tate
men
ts o
f tw
o p
ers
on
s
from
Urf
a, separa
ted b
y a
n in
terv
al of severa
l years
, to
th
e e
ffect
that
there
is s
uch
a t
radit
ion
, bu
t at
Harr
an
its
elf n
obody s
eem
s
to h
ave h
eard
of
it.
Th
e r
eport
is t
oo b
rief
an
d v
agu
e t
o b
e o
f
mu
ch
valu
e.
It h
as b
een
men
tion
ed h
ere
, h
ow
ever,
in
vie
w o
fth
epossib
ilit
y t
hat
furt
her
deta
ils o
n it
may b
e d
iscovere
d
som
ew
here
in
th
e s
ou
rces.
For
the s
ubje
ct
wou
ld b
e o
f in
tere
st
especia
lly if
it r
efe
rred t
o p
re-I
sla
mic
or
earl
y I
sla
mic
tim
es.
Harr
an
was a
pagan
cu
ltu
ral cen
ter
wh
ich
had r
eceiv
ed s
tron
g
Hellen
isti
c in
flu
en
ce,
an
d it
was,
by t
he n
atu
re o
f it
s r
eligio
us
beliefs
, in
tere
ste
d in
th
e s
tudy o
f cele
sti
al bodie
s.
Th
ere
is e
vid
en
ce in
dic
ati
ng t
hat,
by t
he s
ide o
f th
e m
ore
specific
ally
Gre
ek s
cie
nti
fic h
eri
tage,
the M
esopota
mia
n s
cie
nti
fic
tradit
ion
s t
oo c
on
tin
ued in
Isla
m in
vari
ou
s b
ran
ch
es o
f m
ath
-
em
ati
cs a
nd e
specia
lly in
alg
ebra
.81
Th
e m
eth
ods o
f in
str
ucti
on
pre
vale
nt
in I
slam
wou
ld a
lso s
eem
to b
e of in
tere
st in
th
is r
espec
t.
Th
is m
eth
od w
as b
ased m
ain
ly o
n t
he p
rin
cip
le o
f m
akin
g t
he
stu
den
t firs
tm
em
ori
ze b
rief an
d c
on
cis
ely
expre
ssed ite
ms o
f
kn
ow
ledge;
then
gra
du
ally f
ollow
ed t
he p
rocess o
f expla
nati
on
an
d u
nders
tan
din
g.
Most
zijs
too,
thou
gh
gen
era
lly n
ot
wri
tten
for
begin
ners
, exem
plify
th
e c
on
cis
ely
wri
tten
type o
f books,
wh
ile t
he c
usto
m o
f w
riti
ng c
om
men
tari
es m
ade p
ossib
le a
more
thoro
ugh
gra
sp o
f th
e c
on
ten
ts o
f su
ch
Looks.
At
the f
irst
sig
ht
at
least,
th
e form
er
cate
gory
is r
em
inis
cen
t of old
Mesopota
mia
n
an
d E
gypti
an
scie
nti
fic t
exts
.
Al
Wabkan
wi's
Astr
on
om
ica
lT
able
sm
ay
serv
e a
s a
good
exam
ple
for
us h
ere
. S
hort
ly b
efo
re t
his
book a
com
men
tary
was
Haslu
ck,
Pla
toin
Fol
klo
re,
p.
269;
Haslu
ck,
Chri
stia
nity
and
Isla
m,
p. 193, pla
te.
etS
ee, e.
g.,
Gan
dz, 1936, pp.
263-2
77; G
an
dz, 1938, pp.
405-5
57; N
eu
ge-
bau
er,
1957, pp.
80, 146-1
47.
See a
lso, Levy, pp.
376-3
89.
wri
tten
by N
izam
al D
in H
asan
ibn
Mu
ham
mad a
l N
ish
abu
rial
Qu
mi, s
urn
am
ed A
'raj, t
o N
asir
al D
in's
Ilkh
dn
i T
able
s.
Niz
am
al
Din
's b
ook, w
hic
h is c
alled
Ka
sh
f a
l H
aga
iq(T
he U
ncoveri
ng
of
Tru
ths) an
dS
ha
rh-i Z
ij-i I
lkh
dn
i,62
con
tain
sm
ath
em
ati
cal an
a-
lyses a
nd e
xpla
nati
on
s o
f vari
ou
s o
pera
tion
s a
nd p
rocedu
res o
c-
cu
rrin
g in
th
eIlkh
dn
i T
able
s,
an
d,
needle
ss t
o s
ay,
it is a
diffe
ren
tty
pe o
f astr
on
om
ical tr
eati
se, com
pare
d t
o A
lW
abkan
wi's
Zij
Al
Wabkan
wi sta
tes, in
th
e in
trodu
cto
ry p
art
s o
f h
is o
wn
siz
eable
book t
hat
he h
as b
rou
gh
t abou
t im
pro
vem
en
ts in
cert
ain
pro
cedu
res a
nd h
as m
ade u
sefu
l an
d p
racti
cal in
novati
on
s w
hic
h
will be o
f m
uch
help
to t
he a
depts
in
th
e p
rofe
ssio
n a
s w
ell a
s
to b
egin
ners
"so t
hat
the s
tuden
t w
ill n
ot
be s
topped b
y it
an
d
becom
e p
erp
lexed a
s is t
he c
ase w
ith
th
e b
ook o
f on
e o
f th
e
wort
hy s
ch
ola
rs o
f ou
r ti
me w
ho h
as w
ritt
en
a c
om
men
tary
to
the
Ilkh
dn
i Zij
an
d h
as c
alled it
Th
e U
nco
veri
ng o
f T
ruth
s,
wh
ich
ison
e t
hou
san
d t
imes m
ore
difficu
lt t
han
th
e t
ext
it c
laim
s t
o
expla
in a
nd f
rom
wh
ich
in
reality
no t
ruth
becom
es u
ncovere
d.
,'63
A m
arg
inal n
ote
of
equ
al severi
ty h
as b
een
added a
t th
is
poin
t to
th
e m
an
uscri
pt
wh
ich
seem
s n
ot
to b
e o
f m
uch
late
r date
than
th
e m
an
uscri
pt
itself.
Th
e a
uth
or
of
this
note
says,
"A
ny-
on
e w
ho is e
xperi
en
ced a
nd s
kille
d in
th
e m
ath
em
ati
cal scie
n-
ces a
nd a
cqu
ain
ted w
ith
th
e law
s o
f geom
etr
y a
nd a
rith
meti
c
gain
s in
sig
ht,
th
rou
gh
th
at
work
( Ka
sh
f a
l H
agd
iq),
into
the t
ruth
con
cern
ing t
he m
ost
difficu
lt q
uesti
on
s a
nd t
he m
ost
pro
fou
nd p
roble
ms im
agin
able
, an
d h
e c
om
pre
hen
ds w
ith
its
help
th
e m
an
ner
in w
hic
h a
str
on
om
ical ru
les a
re d
eri
ved o
n t
he
basis
of th
e law
s o
f geom
etr
y, w
here
as n
eit
her
from
th
is b
ook
(Al
Wabkan
wi's Z
ij) n
or
from
an
y o
ther
of
the w
idely
kn
ow
n
treati
ses is a
tra
ce o
f su
ch
sou
nd k
now
ledge o
bta
inable
. D
en
un
-
cia
tin
g t
hat
book is t
here
fore
du
e t
o n
oth
ing b
ut
a lack o
f fa
cil-
ity f
or
stu
dyin
g it,
an
d its
bein
g f
ou
nd d
ifficu
lt a
rises f
rom
you
r
bein
g d
evoid
of th
e k
now
ledge p
rere
qu
isit
e for
it."
sa
82
See
,N
izam
-i N
ish
abu
ri,
inB
ibli
ogra
ph
y.
saW
abkan
wi, p
p.
3b-4
a.
Th
e t
itle
Wabkan
wi apparen
tly r
efe
rs t
o t
he
villa
ge
Wabkan
(or,
Webkan
a) in
th
e v
icin
ity o
f B
ukh
ara (see,
Bartb
old
,
1928, pp.
132, 511).
84
Wabkan
wi, p
. 4a.
TH
E F
OU
RTE
EN
TH
CE
NTU
RY
249
TH
E F
OU
RT
EE
NT
H C
EN
TU
RY
251
250
T11E
OB
SE
RV
AT
OR
Y I
N I
SL
AM
Th
is d
uel
of w
ord
s se
ems
to r
epre
sen
t an
d s
ym
bolize
a m
utu
al
lack o
f appre
cia
tion
betw
een
tw
o t
ypes o
f astr
on
om
ers
, th
e t
heore
-
ticia
n a
nd t
hose w
ho h
ad a
work
ing k
now
ledge o
f applied a
str
o-
nom
y a
nd k
new
on
ly h
ow
to u
se r
eady-m
ade f
orm
ula
s w
ith
ou
t
un
ders
tan
din
g t
heir
deri
vati
on
s a
nd p
roofs
. Th
is s
itu
ati
on
seem
s
to g
o b
eyon
d w
hat
is im
plied b
y o
ur
pre
sen
t-day c
lassific
ati
on
an
d o
ur
diffe
ren
tiati
on
betw
een
th
eore
tical an
d e
xperi
men
tal
scie
nti
sts.
Th
e f
ollow
ing p
assage f
rom
Giy
ath
al D
in a
l K
ash
i h
elp
s
us g
ain
som
e in
sig
ht
into
th
e s
itu
ati
on
th
at
exis
ted in
Isla
m.
Speakin
g o
f th
e g
rou
p o
f scie
nti
sts
gath
ere
d a
rou
nd U
lugh
Bey
in S
am
arq
an
d,
he s
ays,
"Alt
hou
gh
th
ere
are
man
y p
eople
here
wh
o a
re c
on
vers
an
t w
ith
th
e m
ath
em
ati
cal scie
nces,
non
e o
f
them
is s
uch
th
at
he is a
cqu
ain
ted w
ith
both
th
e t
heore
tical
("scie
nti
fic")
an
d t
he a
pplied ("p
racti
cal"
) sid
es o
f observ
ati
on
s
(rasa
d).
For
non
e o
f th
em
kn
ow
s t
he
Alm
ages
t.O
ne o
f th
em
is
Qadiz
ada w
ho p
ossesses t
he t
heore
tical kn
ow
ledge c
on
tain
ed
in t
he
Alm
ages
tbu
t n
ot
its a
pplied s
ide.
He h
as n
ot
don
e a
ny w
ork
that
pert
ain
s t
o t
he p
racti
cal. .
..
"Applied a
str
on
om
y t
oo is d
ivid
ed in
to s
cie
nti
fic a
nd p
rac-
tica
l.Th
e p
racti
cal sid
e o
f applied a
str
on
om
y m
ay b
e illu
str
ate
d
wit
h t
he f
ollow
ing e
xam
ple
. S
uppose t
hat
two s
tars
have r
each
ed
the f
irst
perp
en
dic
ula
r at
a c
ert
ain
con
dit
ion
. E
levati
on
is m
ea-
su
red w
ith
an
in
str
um
en
t, a
nd t
he lati
tude a
nd lon
git
ude o
f
on
e o
f th
ese s
tars
is k
now
n.
It is r
equ
ired t
o d
eri
ve t
he lati
tude
an
d lon
git
ude o
f th
e o
ther
sta
r fr
om
th
ese d
ata
.
"Th
e k
now
ledge o
f h
ow
to d
eri
ve t
his
, i. e
., t
o k
now
to m
ul-
tiply
wh
ich
qu
an
tity
wit
h w
hic
h a
nd t
o d
ivid
e b
y w
hat
an
d
how
to p
roceed in
ord
er
to o
bta
in t
he d
esir
ed r
esu
lt c
on
sti
tute
s
the s
cie
nti
fic s
ide o
f th
is o
pera
tion
(of
applied a
str
on
om
y). T
he
scie
nti
fic s
ide o
f th
eore
tical astr
on
om
y ("t
he a
bsolu
tely
scie
n-
tific")
is t
he k
now
ledge o
f th
e s
cie
nce its
elf.
Th
e a
bsolu
tely
pra
cti
cal sid
e o
f su
ch
a p
roble
m is t
he e
xe-
cu
tion
of m
ult
iplicati
on
s a
nd d
ivis
ion
s, an
d t
he c
alc
ula
tion
of
the s
ign
s, degre
es, an
d m
inu
tes o
f th
e lon
git
udes o
f th
e s
tars
an
d t
he d
ete
rmin
ati
on
of
their
lati
tudes,
giv
ing t
heir
actu
al
valu
es."
65
eaG
iyath
at
Din
,Lett
er,
pp.
516a-
516b
.
Th
ere
were
th
ere
fore
astr
on
om
ers
wh
o h
ad a
th
eore
tical
kn
ow
ledge o
f astr
on
om
yw
ith
ou
t bein
g c
alc
ula
tors
, as w
ell
as t
hose w
ho k
new
th
eore
tical astr
on
om
y w
ith
ou
t h
avin
g h
ad
pra
cti
ce in
makin
g o
bserv
ati
on
s.
Th
is is a
lso b
orn
e o
ut
by a
sta
te-
men
t A
l K
ash
i m
akes in
th
is c
on
necti
on
con
cern
ing Q
adiz
ada-i
Ru
mi. F
or
he a
dds t
hat
Qadiz
ada, or
cert
ain
oth
ers
, cou
ld m
ake
calc
ula
tion
s o
nly
by o
pen
ing a
book a
nd f
ollow
ing t
he in
str
uc-
tion
s g
iven
th
ere
ste
p b
y s
tep a
nd lin
e b
y lin
e.
b6
It is s
een
, m
ore
over,
th
at
there
were
astr
on
om
ers
wh
o m
ere
ly
kn
ew
th
e p
racti
cal sid
e o
f applied a
str
on
om
y,
i. e
., w
ho w
ere
calc
ula
tors
, an
d o
thers
wh
o h
ad b
een
tra
ined in
th
e s
cie
nti
fic
sid
e o
f applied a
str
on
om
y o
nly
, i. e
., t
hose w
ho c
ou
ld m
ake o
bserv
-
ati
on
s a
nd u
se t
heir
measu
red q
uan
titi
es in
rele
van
t fo
rmu
las
wit
hou
t h
avin
g a
su
ffic
ien
t kn
ow
ledge o
f th
eore
tical astr
on
om
y.
Fie
lds o
f specia
lizati
on
seem
, in
deed,
to h
ave b
een
qu
ite
narr
ow
in
Isla
m,
begin
nin
g w
ith
th
e e
arl
ier
cen
turi
es.
A p
eru
sal
of
the t
itle
s g
iven
to t
he m
ath
em
ati
cia
ns a
nd a
str
on
om
ers
in
accord
an
ce w
ith
th
eir
narr
ow
fie
lds o
f specia
lizati
on
serv
es t
o
illu
str
ate
th
is p
oin
t.
Th
e t
itle
s g
iven
to t
he m
ath
em
ati
cia
ns in
clu
de t
he t
erm
s
riyd
di
(math
em
ati
cia
n),
hdsi
b(c
alc
ula
tor)
,m
uhandis
an
dha
n-
dasi
(pro
bably
two k
inds o
f geom
etr
icia
n,
or
en
gin
eer
an
d g
eom
et-
ricia
n), a
nd
`ada
di(a
rith
meti
cia
n). L
ikew
ise, th
ere
were
diffe
ren
t
titl
es c
orr
espon
din
g t
o d
iffe
ren
t field
s o
f astr
on
om
y s
uch
as
fala
ki
(ast
ronom
er)
,m
unajjim
(ast
rolo
ger)
,rd
sid
(observ
er)
, an
d u
s-
turl
dbi
(inst
rum
ent
des
ign
er).
87
Th
ere
were
, m
ore
over,
com
bin
ati
on
s n
ot
on
ly o
f ti
tles s
uch
as p
hysic
ian
an
d p
oet
(Al Tabib
al S
hk'ir)
or
ph
arm
acis
t an
d a
str
-
olo
ger
(Al S
aydala
ni al M
un
ajjim
), b
ut
als
o s
uch
com
bin
ati
on
s
asA
l R
iyadi al M
uh
an
dis
(m
ath
em
ati
cia
n a
nd g
eom
etr
icia
n),
Al
Hasib
al F
ala
ki (c
alc
ula
tor
an
d a
str
on
om
er)
, A
l R
iyadi al
Fala
ki (m
ath
em
ati
cia
n a
nd a
str
on
om
er)
, an
d A
l H
asib
al M
uh
an
-
dis
(calc
ula
tor
an
d g
eom
etr
icia
n).
We h
ave,
on
a p
revio
us o
ccasio
n,
qu
ote
d a
sta
tem
en
t of
`A-
du
d a
l D
aw
la t
o t
he e
ffect
that
his
teach
er
in t
he a
naly
sis
of
the
88G
iyath
al D
in,
Lett
er,
p.
516b.
67
See a
lso a
bove,
p.
83,
note
s 1
43,
144,
p.
123,
note
s 1
55-1
63.
Zij a
l S
ha
rif
was I
bn
al A
`lam
an
d t
hat
his
teach
er
in t
he s
cie
nce
of
the f
ixed s
tars
was A
l S
ufi."
Sou
rces c
on
tain
su
ch
refe
ren
ces
indic
ati
ng s
pecia
lizati
on
in
teach
ing,
an
d t
his
, as w
ell a
s t
he
larg
e n
um
ber
of
"scie
nces"
en
um
era
ted in
cert
ain
books s
uch
as t
he
Ma
wd
i'a
ta
l` U
lum
of Tash
kopri
izada, again
poin
ts t
o t
he
pre
vale
nce in
Isla
m o
f a t
en
den
cy o
f goin
g t
o e
xtr
em
es in
su
b-
div
idin
g t
he s
cie
nces in
to n
arr
ow
fie
lds o
f specia
lizati
on
.
Th
is s
itu
ati
on
very
lik
ely
con
sti
tute
d o
ne o
f th
e facto
rs
wh
ich
were
respon
sib
le f
or
the a
ppeara
nce o
f la
rge n
um
bers
of
scie
nti
sts
in
th
e s
taff
s o
f th
e o
bserv
ato
ries.
Th
is e
xaggera
ted t
en
-
den
cy t
ow
ard
th
e form
ati
on
of n
arr
ow
fie
lds o
f specia
liza
tion
was
pro
bably
rela
ted t
o t
he c
lum
sin
ess o
f th
e p
revale
nt
meth
ods o
f
instr
ucti
on
, an
d it
appears
to h
ave t
he e
arm
ark
s o
f a legacy
traceable
to o
ld M
esopota
mia
an
d E
gypt.
Fu
rth
er
deta
iled s
tudy
isn
ecessary
on
th
ese q
uesti
on
s, bu
t th
ese s
pecu
lati
on
s p
oin
t to
the p
ossib
ilit
y o
f lo
cal in
flu
en
ces r
ele
van
t to
th
e f
ield
of
the h
is-
tory
of
Isla
mic
observ
ato
ries.
It is r
eason
able
to t
hin
k t
hat
the local cu
ltu
res a
nd t
radit
ion
s
of th
e c
ou
ntr
ies c
on
qu
ere
d b
y t
he A
rab a
rmie
s a
nd in
corp
ora
ted
into
th
e M
osle
m r
ealm
had a
con
sid
era
ble
part
in
th
e e
merg
ing
Isla
mic
civ
iliz
ati
on
wh
ich
develo
ped g
radu
ally in
th
e c
ou
rse o
f
the e
arl
ier
cen
turi
es o
f Is
lam
. R
efe
ren
ce t
o a
ny p
re-I
sla
mic
local
"observ
ato
ries"
wou
ld t
here
fore
be o
f gre
at
inte
rest.
For
as w
e
sh
all s
ee,
the e
arl
iest
observ
ato
ries o
f Is
lam
, i. e
., t
hose o
f A
l
Mam
nn
, seem
to h
ave b
een
far
in a
dvan
ce o
f an
y e
arl
ier
models
to b
e fou
nd a
mon
g t
he G
reeks.
In f
act,
th
ere
seem
s t
o e
xis
t a c
on
sid
era
ble
gap b
etw
een
Pto
lem
y a
nd A
I M
am
un
's t
ime in
th
is r
espect.
Th
e s
tage o
f deve-
lopm
en
t in
th
e o
bserv
ato
ry a
s a
n in
sti
tuti
on
att
ain
ed t
o a
t th
e
very
ou
tset
in I
sla
m a
ppears
th
ere
fore
as a
rath
er
su
dden
ach
ieve-
men
t, a
nd o
ne c
ou
ld w
on
der
wh
eth
er
an
y in
term
edia
ry s
tages
of
evolu
tion
exis
t con
cern
ing w
hic
h w
e h
ave n
o s
pecific
in
form
-
ati
on
. Alt
hou
gh
th
e 2
13 s
ols
tice o
bserv
ati
on
appears
to h
ave s
erv
-
ed a
s a
str
on
g s
tim
ulu
s for
the d
rive for
the p
rodu
cti
on
of bett
er
instr
um
en
ts,
it w
ou
ld s
eem
th
at,
in
depen
den
tly o
f th
is f
acto
r,
e"
See a
bove, p.
106, n
ote
s 9
8, 99.
TH
E F
OU
RTE
EN
TH
CE
NTU
RY
253
the a
str
on
om
ers
of A
l M
am
iin
sh
ow
ed a
degre
e o
f pre
occu
pati
on
wit
h t
he p
recis
ion
of
indiv
idu
al astr
on
om
ical observ
ati
on
s a
nd
the c
on
str
ucti
on
of
good in
str
um
en
ts w
hic
h w
as a
bsen
t in
th
eir
Gre
ek p
redecessors
. Th
e f
irst
appeara
nce o
f su
ch
astr
on
om
ers
an
d in
str
um
en
t desig
ners
in
Isla
m s
eem
s a
lso t
o b
e r
ath
er
su
dden
,
an
d I
bn
al N
adim
's s
tate
men
t to
th
e e
ffect
that
in A
I M
am
itn
's
tim
e t
he b
est
instr
um
en
ts c
am
e fro
m H
arr
an
99
isof in
tere
st
in
this
res
pec
t.
Th
ere
is n
o d
ou
bt
that
Isla
m b
en
efite
d g
reatl
y fro
m t
he local
civ
iliz
ati
on
s o
f th
e c
ou
ntr
ies w
hic
h w
ere
in
corp
ora
ted in
to t
he
Isla
mic
realm
. B
art
hold
sees t
he m
ain
sin
gific
an
ce o
f th
e r
ise o
f
Isla
m in
its
leadin
g t
o t
he f
orm
ati
on
of
a v
ast
com
mu
nit
y in
wh
ich
the c
ult
ura
l coopera
tion
of a c
on
sid
era
ble
part
of m
an
kin
d
bec
am
e poss
ible
.70
It is d
ifficu
lt,
how
ever,
to e
xte
nd t
his
in
tere
st-
ing o
bserv
ati
on
to o
ur
specific
topic
, th
e h
isto
ry o
f th
e o
bserv
-
ato
ry.
Th
ere
are
vagu
e r
efe
ren
ces t
o p
re-I
sla
mic
observ
ato
ries
inPers
ia w
hic
h w
ill be m
en
tion
ed o
n a
noth
er
occasio
n,
71
bu
t
at
pre
sen
t ou
r kn
ow
ledge is in
su
ffic
ien
t fo
r dra
win
g a
ny r
eason
ably
cle
ar
con
clu
sio
ns in
th
ese r
espects
.
TH
E J
AJA
BE
Y M
AD
RA
SA
OF K
IRS
HE
HIR
Accord
ing t
o local tr
adit
ion
th
is m
adra
sa,
locate
d in
Kir
-
sh
eh
ir, Tu
rkey, w
as a
cen
ter
of astr
on
om
ical te
ach
ing.
It is s
aid
,
more
over,
th
at
there
was a
n "
observ
ati
on
well"
at
the c
en
ter
of
the
madra
sa h
all,
dir
ectl
y u
nder
the c
ircu
lar
hole
of
the d
om
e,
an
d t
hat
observ
ati
on
s (day-t
ime) w
ere
made f
rom
th
is w
ell.
Th
e
earl
iest
pri
nte
d r
ecord
of
this
local tr
adit
ion
is f
rom
1325 H
.
(1908-9
A.
D.).7
2
Th
is m
adra
sa w
as b
uilt
in 1
272 A
. D
. by N
ur
al D
in J
ibri
l
ibn
Jaja
, govern
or
of
the d
istr
ict
du
rin
g t
he r
eig
n o
f th
e S
alq
uj
rule
r G
hiy
ath
al D
in K
aykh
usra
w ibn
Qilij A
rsla
n.
Th
ere
is a
lso
a s
tate
men
t to
th
e e
ffect
that
the m
inare
t of
this
madra
sa w
as
'9S
ee a
bove,
p.
74,
note
105.
00
Accordin
g t
o E
berm
an
n (see, E
berm
an
n, p.
136).
11
See b
elo
w, pp.
356-3
58, n
ote
s 3
3-4
1.
92
An
ka
raS
aln
am
esi (1
325) 1909;
Ibrah
im I
sm
ail,
p.
14;
Tarim
, p.
61;
Igen
, p.
225.
252
TH
E O
BS
ER
VA
TO
RY
IN
IS
LA
M
25
4TH
E O
BS
ER
VA
TO
RY I
N I
SLA
M
ori
gin
ally a
n o
bserv
ati
on
tow
er
used for
astr
on
om
ical pu
rposes;
this
ite
m is b
rou
gh
t som
ew
hat
into
pro
min
en
ce in
cert
ain
pu
b-
lica
tion
s.73
Th
e t
radit
ion
is w
idely
kn
ow
n in
th
e locality
, an
d
the p
eople
of th
e d
istr
ict
appear
to h
ave m
uch
fait
h in
its
tru
th-
fuln
ess.
73
Th
ew
aqf
docu
men
t of
this
in
sti
tuti
on
has b
een
stu
die
d.
75
It c
on
tain
s n
o r
ecord
con
cern
ing a
str
on
om
ical acti
vit
y;
the in
s-
cri
pti
on
on
th
e b
ase o
f th
e m
inare
t, t
he o
nly
in
scri
pti
on
of th
e
madra
sa w
hic
h c
ou
ld n
ot
be r
ead,
76
has b
een
decip
here
d b
y
Kem
al E
dib
Kii.r
kciioglu
,77
Mem
ber
of th
e A
dvis
ory
Cou
ncil
of
the M
inis
try o
f E
du
cati
on
, A
nkara
, an
d it
has n
o c
on
necti
on
wit
h a
str
on
om
y (su
ch
a c
on
necti
on
was e
xpecte
d b
y s
om
e local
people
); a
nd n
o w
ritt
en
record
s c
an
be b
rou
gh
t to
su
pport
th
is
local tr
adit
ion
. It
wou
ld b
e d
ifficu
lt t
here
fore
to c
laim
its
vera
-
cit
y a
s f
ar
as t
he e
xis
ten
ce o
f an
astr
on
om
ical observ
ato
ry is
con
cern
ed.
Th
is d
oes n
ot
pre
clu
de t
he p
ossib
ilit
y, h
ow
ever,
th
at
the local tr
adit
ion
con
tain
s s
om
e t
ruth
, e.
g.,
th
at
astr
on
om
y
was a
t som
e t
ime t
au
gh
t in
th
is m
adra
sa.
TH
E W
AJID
IYA
MA
DR
AS
A O
F K
UTA
HYA
Accord
ing t
o a
local tr
adit
ion
th
is m
adra
sa s
erv
ed a
s a
n
observ
ato
ry,
an
d B
adr
al D
in `
Abd a
l W
ajid ibn
Mu
ham
mad (d.
1434) is
con
necte
d w
ith
th
is legen
d.
Th
e m
adra
sa its
elf w
as b
uilt
in 1
308 A
.D.
by M
ubari
z al D
in ibn
Saw
ji,
accord
ing t
o its
fou
nd-
ati
on
in
scri
pti
on
. `A
bd a
l W
ajid m
ust
have b
een
a v
ery
pro
mi-
men
t h
ead-p
rofe
ssor
(mu
da
rris
)at
this
madra
sa,
as h
e g
ave h
is
nam
e t
o t
his
in
sti
tuti
on
; h
e w
as c
ert
ain
ly n
ot
on
e o
f it
s f
irst
pro
fessors
. `A
bd a
l W
ajid w
as a
n a
str
on
om
er
an
d a
uth
or
of seve-
ral books
on
ast
ron
om
y; so
me
of th
ese
wer
e w
ritt
en a
t th
e W
ajidiy
aM
adra
sa.
73
Ibra
him
Ism
ail,
p.
14
;A
nka
ra S
aln
am
esi,
cf.
Tar
im,
p. 61.
"S
ayth
an
d R
uben
,pp.
682-
691.
"Tem
ir,
see,
bib
liogr
aph
y.76
Tar
im,
p.
60
;K
un
ter,
p. 4
34
."
Th
e te
xt
is:
Alld
hu
mm
a'g
hfi
r li
sd
hib
ihi
sea
hd
dh
ad
u'd
un
qad t
ala
ggdh
ura
bbu
nd
bi h
usn
-i g
abiilin
qabla
an
yu
rfa
'a's
-sa
wt
[Oh
my L
ord
, fo
rgiv
e it
sfo
un
der
; th
isis
a p
raye
r, a
nd o
ur
Lor
dw
ill
cert
ain
ly r
ecei
ve it
wit
h c
onse
nt
even
bef
ore
sou
nd is
rais
ed (u
p t
o th
e h
igh
er s
ph
eres
)).
TH
E F
OU
RTE
EN
TH
CE
NTU
RY
25
5
Th
e m
adra
sa b
uildin
g h
as b
een
desig
ned s
o a
s t
o c
on
tain
two d
isti
nct
secti
on
s,
each
un
der
a d
om
e,
an
d t
his
rem
inds o
ne
of th
e p
ossib
ilit
y o
f th
e e
xis
ten
ce o
f tw
o in
depen
den
t cla
ss-r
oom
s
corr
espon
din
g t
o t
wo d
isti
nct
ch
air
s.
Exam
ple
s o
f m
edie
val m
ad-
rasa
sw
ith
fou
r ch
air
s a
nd f
ou
r corr
espon
din
g h
ead-p
rofe
ssors
are
kn
ow
n,
an
d t
heir
arc
hit
ectu
ral pla
ns r
eveal th
is s
ubdiv
isio
n
cle
arl
y.7
8
Itm
ay b
e c
on
jectu
red t
hat
the s
ubdiv
isio
n in
to t
wo o
f th
e
Wajidiy
a M
adra
sa r
epre
sen
ts t
he e
xis
ten
ce o
f tw
o c
hair
s t
here
,
on
e f
or
the
aw
ait
an
d o
ne for
the I
sla
mic
scie
nces.
Fro
m t
he
thir
teen
th c
en
tury
on
, in
fact,
th
ere
is a
ten
den
cy o
f allow
ing
the
aw
ait
scie
nces a
lso t
o b
e in
clu
ded in
th
e c
urr
icu
la o
f cert
ain
madra
sas.
Th
ew
aqf
docu
men
t of an
oth
er
Ku
tah
ya m
adra
sa c
on
-
tain
s t
he s
tipu
lati
on
th
at
its
mu
da
rris
sh
ou
ld b
e learn
ed b
oth
in t
he I
sla
mic
an
d t
he
aw
ait
scie
nce
s.79
Th
e c
on
necti
on
of
`Abd a
l W
ajid w
ith
th
is m
adra
sa c
om
pels
us t
o g
ive s
om
e c
reden
ce t
o t
his
local tr
adit
ion
. It
is lik
ely
th
at
there
was in
str
ucti
on
in
astr
on
om
y in
it
togeth
er
wit
h s
om
e p
rac-
tica
lapplicati
on
s,
bu
t th
at
it w
as a
fu
ll-f
ledged o
bserv
ato
ry
does n
ot
seem
lik
ely
.so
OB
SE
RV
ATIO
N T
OW
ER
S A
ND
OB
SE
RV
ATIO
N W
ELLS
It is s
een
th
at
som
e o
f th
e "
min
or
observ
ato
ries",
in
clu
din
g
those c
laim
ed b
y local tr
adit
ion
s,
reveal con
necti
on
s w
ith
observ
-
ati
on
tow
ers
an
d "
observ
ati
on
wells".
We h
ave a
lready s
een
exam
ple
s o
f to
wers
used in
th
e m
ore
im
port
an
t observ
ato
ries.
Th
is w
as s
een
, e.
g.,
in
th
e M
ara
gh
a O
bserv
ato
ry.
Th
ere
are
wri
tten
report
s, likew
ise, con
cern
ing t
he e
xis
ten
ce o
f an
"observ
ati
on
well"
at
the I
sta
nbu
l O
bserv
ato
ry.
Th
e a
ssocia
tion
of
tow
ers
wit
h "
observ
ato
ries
"occ
urs
spec
i-
fically in
th
e e
xam
ple
of
the S
eville
Tow
er,
th
e "
Observ
ato
ry"
of
the T
ime a
nd t
he H
ou
r of
Yazd
, an
d t
he T
ow
er
of
Sta
r in
Moro
c-
co.
Su
ch
associa
tion
s s
eem
als
o t
o e
xis
t in
a s
om
ew
hat
less c
lear
fash
ion
in
th
e c
ase o
f th
e C
astl
e o
f S
tar
near
Ale
ppo,
the C
astl
e
7s
Cre
swel
l,O
rigin
s o
f th
e C
un
eif
orm
Pla
n ...
Say
ih,
Th
e W
ajid
iya
Ma
dra
sa
,p
.6
72
,n
ote
27
.d0
Say
ilt,
Th
eW
ajid
iya
Ma
dra
sa
, pp. 6
67
-67
7.
256
TH
E O
BS
ER
VA
TO
RY I
N I
SLA
M
of E
ph
em
eri
des in
Cair
o, an
d t
he J
aja
Bey M
adra
sa o
f K
irsh
eh
ir.
It is n
atu
ral an
d r
eason
able
to a
ssocia
te a
str
on
om
ical observ
-
ati
on
wit
h h
igh
pla
ces a
nd t
ow
ers
, bu
t h
ere
may a
lso b
e f
ou
nd
a c
lue f
or
possib
le c
on
fusio
ns.
We h
ave a
lready s
een
an
exam
ple
con
necte
d w
ith
Ham
mer,
wh
ere
in t
here
appare
ntl
y o
ccu
rs a
con
fusio
n b
etw
een
a m
inare
t
or
a m
ilit
ary
observ
ati
on
post
(or
a t
ow
er
in g
en
era
l) a
nd a
n o
b-
serv
ato
ry.8
1S
peakin
g o
f th
e G
ok M
adra
sa,
or
the T
uru
mta
y
Madra
sa,8
Zof
Am
asya,
Tu
rkey,
A.
D.
Mord
tman
n r
efe
rs t
o its
min
are
t w
ith
th
e w
ord
"O
bserv
ato
riu
m",
83
an
d t
his
ch
oic
e o
f
term
inolo
gy w
hic
h is a
ppare
ntl
y n
ot
based o
n a
ny s
ou
rce s
tate
-
men
t cou
ld b
e m
isle
adin
g.
An
oth
er
exam
ple
of th
is n
atu
re w
hic
h h
as c
om
e t
o m
y a
tten
-
tion
con
cern
s t
he M
aza
ndara
n d
istr
ict
of Ir
an
. W
alt
er
Bossh
ard
,
appare
ntl
y r
ely
ing o
n o
ral in
form
ati
on
giv
en
to h
im a
t th
e locality
,
speaks o
f a m
ilit
ary
observ
ati
on
tow
er
there
84
an
d g
ives its
pic
-
ture
;85
that
this
is in
reality
th
e m
au
sole
um
of Q
abiis ibn
Wash
mgir
is c
learl
y s
een
fro
m t
he a
ccom
pan
yin
g p
hoto
gra
ph
.ss
In a
Tu
rkis
h t
ran
sla
tion
of
this
book t
he w
ord
s "
milit
ary
ob-
serv
ati
on
tow
er"
are
ch
an
ged in
to "
observ
ato
ry"
,h
ow
ever,
87
an
d a
s Q
abu
s w
as a
cti
vely
in
tere
ste
d in
astr
on
om
y,
88
this
ite
m o
f
info
rmati
on
in
its
Tu
rkis
h t
ran
sla
tion
cou
ld b
e v
ery
mis
leadin
g
especia
lly in
case it
was n
ot
accom
pan
ied w
ith
th
e p
ictu
re.
On
th
e b
asis
of th
ese e
xam
ple
s, on
e m
ay e
asily im
agin
e t
hat
mis
takes d
ue t
o a
con
fusio
n b
etw
een
non
-astr
on
om
ical observ
a-
tion
tow
ers
an
d a
str
on
om
ical observ
ato
ries m
ay e
asily c
reep
into
local le
gen
ds a
nd t
radit
ion
s.
As t
he w
ord
rasa
dw
as u
sed in
both
sen
ses in
Isla
m,
su
ch
ch
an
ges o
f m
ean
ing c
ou
ld e
asily o
ccu
r
in local tr
an
sm
issio
ns.
It is p
ossib
le t
hat
su
ch
dis
tort
ion
s h
ave
"S
ee a
bove,
pp.
176-1
77,
note
s 4
9-5
1.
tl2
See
,H
useyn
Hiisam
eddin
, vol. 1
, p.
295.
Mord
tman
n,
An
ato
lien
,pp.
94-9
5.
" B
ossh
ard
, p.
166, Fr.
tr.
, p.
90.
Mr.
Bossh
ard
has h
ad t
he k
indn
eses o
f
sen
din
g m
e a
copy o
f th
e F
ren
ch
tra
nsla
tion
of h
is b
ook.
e"B
ossh
ard
, pla
te b
etw
een
pp.
160 a
nd 1
61,
Fr.
tr.
, pla
te,
p.
96-9
7.
" S
ee, e.g
., P
ope, vol. 2
, pp.
972-9
74.
Hu
rriy
et
(Tu
rkis
h d
aily n
ew
spaper), J
uly
27, 1948, p.
2.
" S
ee a
bove, p.
158, n
ote
128.
fou
nd t
heir
way in
to s
om
e o
f th
e local le
gen
ds a
nd a
ccou
nts
con
-
cern
ing "
min
or
observ
ato
ries".
Th
e c
ase o
f"observ
ati
on
wells"
is e
ven
less c
lear.
An
"ob
-
serv
ati
on
well"
is s
aid
to h
ave e
xis
ted a
t th
e M
ara
gh
a O
bserv
a-
tory
by t
he p
eople
of th
at
dis
tric
t, b
ut
this
is n
ot
men
tion
ed in
an
y s
ou
rce c
hro
nolo
gic
ally c
lose t
o t
he lifeti
me o
f th
at
observ
a-
tory
. Th
e o
nly
sou
rce s
tate
men
t con
firm
ing t
his
cla
im is o
ne f
rom
the s
ixte
en
th c
en
tury
. It
is s
tate
d in
th
is s
am
e s
ou
rce t
hat
su
ch
a w
ell is r
eport
ed t
o h
ave e
xis
ted a
t U
lugh
Bey
's
Sam
arq
an
dO
bserv
ato
ry a
lso,
bu
t th
e w
rite
r is
non
-com
mit
tal w
ith
respect
to t
he v
era
cit
y o
f th
ese r
eport
s 8
9O
ther
refe
ren
ces t
oo e
xis
t,
how
ever,
to t
he "
observ
ati
on
well"
of
Sam
arg
an
d.
80
I h
ave a
lready r
efe
rred t
o t
he a
ssert
ion
th
at
`Ali Q
ush
ji h
ad
an
observ
ati
on
well in
Ista
nbu
l. S
uch
a w
ell is m
en
tion
ed m
ore
frequ
en
tly in
con
necti
on
wit
h t
he I
sta
nbu
l O
bserv
ato
ry a
nd
Taqi al D
in.
In a
ddit
ion
to T
urk
ish
sou
rces,
there
are
Eu
ropean
report
s a
lso c
on
cern
ing it;
th
e E
uro
pean
sou
rces s
peak o
f a t
ow
er
in t
his
con
nec
tion
.91
It is a
lso s
tate
d in
vari
ou
s s
ou
rces t
hat
Taqi
al
Din
had h
ad r
ecou
rse t
o s
uch
a d
eep w
ell w
hile h
e w
as in
Cair
o
an
d a
lso t
hat
he h
ad f
ou
nd it
not
to b
e o
f m
uch
use.9
2
It is t
hu
s s
een
th
at
wells a
re m
en
tion
ed in
con
necti
on
wit
h
the t
hre
e m
ajo
r observ
ato
ries o
f th
e late
r cen
turi
es,
nam
ely
th
e
Mara
gh
a,
Sam
arq
an
d,
an
d t
he I
sta
nbu
l O
bserv
ato
ries,
bu
t th
e
refe
ren
ces a
re r
ath
er
vagu
e f
or
the f
orm
er
two a
nd e
specia
lly
in t
he c
ase o
f th
e M
ara
gh
a O
bserv
ato
ry.
Th
e local tr
adit
ion
con
cern
ing t
he J
aja
Bey M
adra
sa o
f K
irsh
eh
ir s
om
ew
hat
em
-
ph
asiz
es t
his
featu
re,
an
d t
here
is a
vagu
e r
efe
ren
ce t
o s
uch
a w
ell
als
o in
th
e c
ase o
f th
e W
ajidiy
a M
adra
sa o
f K
uta
hya.
Th
e fu
ncti
on
of th
e o
bserv
ati
on
well is m
ost
frequ
en
tly a
sso-
cia
ted w
ith
th
e d
ay-t
ime o
bserv
ati
on
of th
e s
tars
, an
d s
uch
wells
are
gen
era
lly p
ictu
red t
o h
ave b
een
dry
. Th
is d
oes n
ot
seem
to
99
Th
is s
ou
rce is t
he
Afit-
iR
asadiy
a li Zij-iShahinshdhiya.
See, S
ayth
,
Th
eO
bserv
ati
on
Well,
p.
150, n
ote
8, p.
152, n
ote
15.
9°
See b
elo
w, p.
266, n
ote
14, p.
277, n
ote
s 5
1, 52.
91
Sayili,
Th
e O
bserv
ati
on
Well, p.
151;
Sayili,
Man
su
r's P
oem
s, p.
434;
Qara
ch
ala
biz
ada,
p.
462.
92
Sayth
,T
he O
bserv
ati
on
Well, p.
152, n
ote
15; S
ayili, M
an
su
r' s
Poem
s,
pp.
450, 473-4
74.
TH
E F
OU
RTE
EN
TH
CE
NTU
RY
257
17
258
TH
E O
BS
ER
VA
TO
RY I
N I
SLA
M
be a
un
ivers
al cla
im,
how
ever,
as c
an
be s
een
fro
m c
ert
ain
local
tradit
ion
s.Th
ere
seem
s t
o e
xis
t th
e idea t
hat
these w
ells w
ere
wate
r w
ells a
nd t
hat
on
e c
ou
ld o
bserv
e in
th
em
th
e r
eflecte
d im
a-
ges o
f th
e s
tars
.B3
Fin
ally,
the t
erm
observ
ati
on
well s
eem
s t
o
have b
een
used t
o d
esig
nate
th
e t
ren
ch
es d
ug t
o r
eceiv
e t
he u
n-
derg
rou
nd p
ort
ion
s o
f th
e K
hu
jan
di-
type m
eri
dia
n a
res,
84
an
dth
ism
ay s
erv
e t
o t
hro
w lig
ht
on
som
e o
f th
e e
xam
ple
s o
f"obse
rv-
ati
on
well"
en
cou
nte
red in
th
e lit
era
ture
, su
ch
as t
hose o
f fu
ll-
-fle
dged o
bserv
ato
ries.
Gen
era
lly t
he o
bserv
ati
on
well is c
on
ceiv
ed
as a
narr
ow
an
dperp
endic
ula
rsh
aft
of con
sid
era
ble
depth
, h
ow
-
ever,
an
d in
th
e P
ari
s O
bserv
ato
ry it
was a
ssocia
ted p
erh
aps
main
ly w
ith
zen
ith
observ
ati
on
ss5
Th
e p
assage g
iven
in
Appen
dix
I b
elo
w is v
ery
in
tere
sti
ng
in t
his
respect.
It
is t
he m
ost
deta
iled t
ext
dealin
g w
ith
day-t
ime
observ
ati
on
, an
d it
is, m
ore
over,
an
astr
on
om
ical te
xt
dealin
g
wit
h c
ert
ain
specific
topic
s.
It t
ies d
ay-t
ime o
bserv
ati
on
wit
h
a d
evic
e s
om
ew
hat
rem
inis
cen
t of
the
su
ds-i
Fa
kh
rian
d w
ith
mer
idia
nobse
rvati
ons.
It w
ou
ld b
e d
esir
able
to h
ave o
ther
texts
thro
win
g f
urt
her
ligh
t on
th
is q
uesti
on
as w
ell a
s o
n o
ther
su
b-
jects
tou
ch
ed u
pon
in
th
is a
non
ym
ou
s t
ract.
°3
Sayili an
d R
uben
, p.
683.
" S
ee b
elo
w,
p.
277,
note
52.
For a
som
ew
hat
sim
ilar o
pin
ion
of
Fa-
tin
Gokm
en
, see,
Adiv
ar,
1943,
p.
82,
note
2.
He b
elieved
"O
bserv
ati
on
wells"
to r
efe
r t
o t
ren
ch
es o
r h
ollow
pla
ces in
to w
hic
h a
str
on
om
ical in
str
um
en
ts
of la
rge d
imen
sio
n w
ere
pla
ced a
s a
pre
cau
tion
ary
measu
re a
gain
st
the e
ffects
of
str
on
g w
inds.
Th
at
Tych
o B
rah
e w
as m
oved b
y s
uch
a c
on
sid
era
tion
in
th
e
con
str
ucti
on
of
the S
tjern
eborg
Observ
ato
ry is k
now
n (D
reyer,
Ty
ch
o B
rah
e,
p.
104), b
ut
I h
ave f
ou
nd n
o e
vid
en
ce in
dic
ati
ng t
hat
this
wou
ld b
e t
ru
e in
the c
ase o
f th
e"
observ
ati
on
wells"
as t
hey o
ccu
r in
th
e lit
era
ture
.
°5S
ee b
elo
w, p.
325, n
ote
52.
CH
APT
ER
VIII
TH
E S
AM
AR
QA
ND
AN
D T
HE
IS
TA
NB
UL
OB
SE
RV
ATO
RIE
S
In t
he f
ifte
en
th a
nd s
ixte
en
th c
en
turi
es w
e w
itn
ess t
he c
on
-
tin
uati
on
, in
a r
ath
er
rem
ark
able
man
ner,
of
the t
radit
ion
of
observ
ato
ry b
uildin
gin
Isla
m.
Th
ere
is a
n im
port
an
t observ
ato
ry
in e
ach
on
e o
f th
ese t
wo c
en
turi
es,
the S
am
arq
an
d O
bserv
ato
ry
in t
he fifte
en
th a
nd t
he I
sta
nbu
l O
bserv
ato
ry in
th
e s
ixte
en
th
cen
tury
. Th
ese m
ay e
ven
repre
sen
t a m
ore
advan
ced s
tage o
f
develo
pm
en
t beyon
d t
he M
ara
gh
a O
bserv
ato
ry,
bu
t ou
r kn
ow
-
ledge c
on
cern
ing t
his
matt
er
is in
su
ffic
ien
t at
the p
resen
t.
Of
these t
wo in
sti
tuti
on
s t
he S
am
arq
an
d O
bserv
ato
ry w
as,
very
lik
aly
, th
e o
ne w
hic
h w
as o
f gre
ate
r im
port
an
ce,
both
as a
scie
nti
fic in
sti
tuti
on
an
d f
rom
th
e s
tan
dpoin
t of
its h
isto
rical fu
nc-
tion
. It
seem
s t
o r
epre
sen
t th
e h
igh
wate
r m
ark
of
Isla
mic
ach
ieve-
men
t in
th
is f
ield
of
acti
vit
y,
an
d it
is a
lso p
robable
th
at
it
con
sti
tute
d t
he m
ost
import
an
t lin
k b
etw
een
Isla
m a
nd E
uro
pe
in t
he t
ran
sm
issio
n o
f th
e t
radit
ion
of fo
un
din
gobse
rvato
ries.
By t
his
tim
e, con
tact
wit
h t
he F
are
ast
had c
eased t
o b
e o
f
cru
cia
l im
port
an
ce in
th
e e
volu
tion
of
the o
bserv
ato
ry in
Isla
m,
bu
t th
e I
sla
mic
observ
ato
ry its
elf s
eem
s t
o c
om
e in
to t
he lim
e
ligh
t in
th
is e
ra a
s a
n in
sti
tuti
on
desti
ned t
o e
xert
sig
nific
an
t
influ
en
ce u
pon
Eu
rope.
In t
he f
ifte
en
th c
en
tury
, Is
lam
had a
cle
arl
y s
uperi
or
sta
tus in
th
is r
ealm
of acti
vit
y a
s c
om
pare
d w
ith
Eu
rope;
it
was
in a
posi
tion
to e
xer
t im
port
an
t in
flu
ence
on
Eu
rope,
an
d E
uro
pe w
as a
ppare
ntl
y e
ager
to a
bsorb
su
ch
in
flu
en
ce.
At
the t
ime t
he I
sta
nbu
l O
bserv
ato
ry w
as fou
nded, Is
lam
had a
lready b
egu
n t
o lose its
leaders
hip
in
th
e f
ield
, bu
t th
is
insti
tuti
on
too m
ay h
ave b
een
in
str
um
en
tal in
th
e t
ran
sm
issio
n
of
the I
sla
mic
tra
dit
ion
of
observ
ato
ry b
uildin
g t
o E
uro
pe.
At
an
y r
ate
, re
mark
able
para
llelism
s a
re s
een
to e
xis
t betw
een
th
is
observ
ato
ry a
nd t
hose o
f Tych
o B
rah
e,
wh
ich
were
con
tem
pora
-
neou
s w
ith
it,
an
d t
his
is in
dic
ati
ve a
t le
ast
of th
e a
ctu
al passage
of
import
an
t in
flu
en
ces f
rom
Isla
m t
o E
uro
pe.