ReadMrSchofield’slightningtourof19thCenturyGermanHistoryandanswerthisessayquestion.

EvaluatetheviewthatGermannationalismonlychangedbetween1800and1919whenmonarchsandpoliticalleaderschosetochangeit.20marks

1800–Therewasno‘Germany’tospeakof.Therewasahotchpotchof314‘states’,looselygatheredintothe‘HolyRomanEmpire’,underthenominal(innameonly)ruleoftheEmperor–whowasalsoemperorofAustria.ThetwolargestpartsoftheHolyRomanEmpirewereAustriaandPrussia.

1806–Napoleon,EmperorofFrance,defeatedAustriaandPrussia,andtheHolyRomanEmpirewaswipedoffthemap.

• TheFarwestofGermany(everythingwestoftheRhine)wasabsorbedintotheFrenchEmpire.

• 17statesinWest-centralGermanywereformedintotheConfederationoftheRhine,underdirectFrenchrule.

• Acrosstheregion,manysmallerstatescombined,tomake39largerstates.

• AustriaandPrussia,defeatedandwithdiminishedinfluence,werestillthetwolargestindependentstatesintheregion.

• UnderNapoleonicrule,westandcentralGermanybegantomoderniseawayfromfeudalsocietytomodern,early-industrialcapitalistsociety.

1813–WithRussianhelp,PrussiaandthenAustriaattackedtheFrenchEmpire,andforcedNapoleontoabdicate.The‘WarofLiberation’isoftenseenasthefirstactof‘German’unity,butintruthAustriaandPrussiawererivals,notallies,andthere’slittleevidenceofpopularattachmenttoanyconceptof‘Germany’.

1815–Thetwogreat‘German’powerscarveduptheirnewly-wonterritory–Prussiamorethandoubledinpopulationasitclaimedlargegainsinthenorthand,weirdly,thenorth-west,wherepeoplewhodidn’tfeelintheleastbitPrussianweregivennewPrussianrulers.AustriapickeduplargechunksofItaly.

InJune1815the‘GermanConfederation’wasborn.Basically,alloftheoldHolyRomanEmpirewasjoinedinadiplomaticunion,39self-governingindividualstates,withsharedambassadorsandshareddiplomatictreatieswithothercountries.Thisdefinitelywasn’taunifiednation,norwasitparticularlyGerman:therewerePoles,Czech’s,DanesandFrench-speakingpeopleinsideit,andsome

German-speakingAustriansandPrussiansoutsideit!RepresentativesfromeachstatemetataDietinFrankfurt,whichensuredstatesdidn’tdotheirowndiplomaticdeals,butdidalmostnothingtoeconomicallyorlegallyunifythe39states.AustriaandPrussiaremainedthedominantrivals,inuneasypeace.

1815-1840

TheGermanstatesatthistimemadelittleprogresstowardsliberaldemocracy(aswasoccurringintheUK,forexample).Somesouthernandcentralstatesopenedelectedassemblies,butthemajorityofstatesretainedstrictautocracies.AustriaremainedundertheabsolutecontrolofitsEmperor,Prussiawasdominatedbylargenobleland-owners(Junkers)inalliancewithitsking.Manystatesdevelopedsophisticatedbureaucracies.

Culturally,twoforcesbegantowellupduringthisperiod–liberalismandnationalism.Particularlyinuniversities,youngeducatedpeoplecalledforaseriesofliberaldemocraticreformsandthecreationofaunifiedGermannation.Therewasawidespreadculturalupswellof‘German’art,literatureandmusic,andsomepoliticalgroupssuchasthe‘YoungGermans’formedtodemandunificationandliberalreforms.UnderthedominanceofPrussiaandparticularlyAustria,undertheleadershipoftheultra-conservativeChancellorMetternich,thesedemandsweremetwithrepression.Somesmallerstatesdidopenrepresentativeassemblies,butmostfollowedMetternich’sfierceoppositiontodemocracy.In1832hepersuadedtheDiettoincreasecentralcontroloveruniversitiesandcensorship.

Economically,onesignificantchangewasthatPrussiapersuadedmostofthestatestojoinafreetrade‘customsunion’(Austriadidnotjoin)whichincreaseditsstatusandcontrolwithintheConfederation.By1848AustriahadpoliticalcontroloftheConfederation,buthadbeenisolatedandweakenedineconomicterms,wherePrussiawastheclearleader.

The1840s

FearsofapossibleFrenchinvasionstokedanewwaveofGermannationalisminthisperiod,withthenewspaperswhippinguppatriotismandnewsongssuchasDeutschlanduberAllesbecomingpopular.Liberalismwasalsoontheincrease,withsomestatesrelaxingcensorship.AnewKingofPrussia,FrederickWilliamIV,openedatemporarynationalDietinBerlinin1847(overhalfofwhomwereJunkers)thencloseditwhenitdemandedtobemadepermanent!WiththehighestliteracyinEurope,liberal-nationalnewspaperssuchas‘TheGermanNewspaper’grewinpopularity.

The1848Revolution

TherewasaneconomiccrisisacrossEuropein1846-7(cholera,potatoblight,landhunger,foodprices,unemployment).Inaddition,aristocraticandroyaldominationofpoliticswasafrustrationtothegrowingmiddleclassinGermany,aswasthelackofprogressonliberalreformandnationalunification.In1847agatheringofliberalsfromallthesouth-westGermanstatesdemandedaGermanPeople’sParliament,whileasimilarradicalgatheringdemandedaunitedGermanRepublic.

On24thFebruary1848,theKingofFrancewasoverthrown.By13thMarchthishadinspiredmassdemonstrationsonthestreetsofVienna–Metternichfledthecity,andfellfrompower.DemonstrationssprangupacrosstheGermanstatesandmostGermanrulersfolded,grantingelections,constitutionsandtheendofthelastremnantsoffeudalism.Inmanyofthesestates,however,afamiliarstoryemerged–prosperousliberals,grantedthepoliticalreformstheydesired,teamedupwiththemonarchiestocrushpeasantandworkerdemandsforsweepingsocialreforms.

InAustria,inMay1848,theEmperoragreedtoanelectedconstituentassembly.

InMarch,Prussia(alongwithseveralotherlargerstates)agreedto“anationalrepresentationelectedinalltheGermanlands”tomeetrapidly,“forthedevelopmentofthestrengthandfloweringofGermannationallife!”

Withinamonth,TheFrankfurtParliamentwaselected,andsetitselfthechallengeofcreatingaunitedGermany,underaUK-styleconstitutionalmonarchyandelectedParliament.

Itfailed–thereweretoomanyconflictsoverthebordersofthenewGermany,whetheronlyGerman-speakersshouldbeincluded,itcouldn’traisetaxesorandarmy,andultimatelytheforcesofconservatismregainedtheirconfidenceintimetoresistit.InMarch1849theFrankfurtParliamentpassedconstitutionandinvitedtheKingofPrussiatobecomeheadofthenewGermany.Herefused,ashewouldhavebecomeaconstitutionalmonarch,boundbyaparliament,andbecauseitmightleadtowarwithAustria(which,bynow,hadanewEmperor,totallyopposedtothewholeproject).TheFrankfurtParliamentdispersedinfailure.

ThemodernisationofPrussia:

Oneotherchangecameoutofthisrevolution.InordertoappeasetheprotestingcrowdsinBerlin(andinordertobuildanewpathwaytodominatingGermany,thatbypassedtheFrankfurtParliament)KingFrederickWilliamIVdidagreetoanewPrussianConstitution–itinvolvedtheruleoflaw,anelectedParliamentoftwohouses(dominatedbythewealthy)andthemaintenanceofautocracyin‘emergencypowers’.TherewasnowaclearpatterntoGermangeo-politics–Prussiawantedtodominatetheregionbyunitingit,Austriabykeepingitdisunited.Culturally,thetidewaswithPrussia–theeventsof1848-9hadstrengthenedaGermannationalconsciousness,eveniftheyhaddemonstratedthehugedivisionsbetweenpeasants,workers,noblesandtheurbanmiddleclassesinGermany.

1850-51–Howunifiedtobe?

In1850Prussiamanagedtopersuade28statestojoinaclosepoliticalunion–theErfurtUnion.Austriarespondedbyre-openingtheoldDietoftheloose‘GermanConfederation’.Austriawonthestand-off,andin1851theGermanConfederationon1815wasrestored,withPrussiaandAustriaalliedwithinit–fornow.ButAustriawasfallingbehindPrussiaeconomicallyand,in1856,wouldbecrippledfinanciallybytheCrimeanWar.Prussia,meanwhile,wasbooming,underleadershipthatbelievedineconomicreformbutpoliticalreaction.

1862–Bismarkarrives

InDecember1861aradicalliberalparty,theProgressives,wontheelectionstothePrussianparliament,andrefusedtosupporttheKingwithoutseriousreforms(particularlymakingthearmyanationalratherthanaroyalarmy).Herefusedanddissolvedparliament,theywonagainin1862,henearlyabdicated.Instead,heappointedanew,conservativeChiefMinister–OttovonBismark.InhisfirstspeechtoParliamenthedeclared“GermanydoesnotlooktoPrussia’sliberalism,buttoitspower.Itisnotthroughspeechesandmajoritydecisionsthatthegreatquestionsofthedayaredecided.Itisbyironandblood.”HecalledtheProgressives’bluff–theydidn’twantaviolentrevolution,andbackedofffromtheirdemands.Prussiahadanew,strong,leader,the‘IronChancellor’.

1866–TheSevenWeeksWar

Confidentthathehadthesuperiorarmy,BismarkspentthenextfouryearstryingtogoadAustriaintoawar,asthemeansofestablishingPrussiandominanceoverGermany.HeusedthedebateoverwhoshouldcontroltwotinystatesinmodernDenmark,SchleswigandHolstein,tofinallygethiswarin

1866.Ittookonedecisivebattle,atSadowainJuly1866,toprovePrussia’smilitarysuperiority,andAustriacalledforpeace.TheTreatyofPragueinAugust1866significantlystrengthenedPrussiaandisolatedAustria:

• Prussiaabsorbedseveralstates,suchasHanover,SchleswigandHolstein.

• AllotherstatesnorthoftheRiverMainjoinedaNorthGermanConfederationunderPrussianControl

• FourCatholicstatesinthesouth(Bavaria,etc)remainedindependent,butsignedasecretmutualdefencepactwithPrussia.

Bismarkcould,perhapshavedemandedaunifiedGermanyin1866,butwascontenttobidehistime–hewantedtoensurePrussiawasnotdamagedbyover-expansion.

1867:Germany’sfirstconstitution?

TheconstitutionoftheNorthGermanFederationisimportant,becauseitbasicallytunedintotheGermanconstitutionin1871.Bismarksawparliamentarydemocracyasweakandinefficient.HecreatedaweakReichstag(HouseofCommons),withrealnopowersofaccountabilityoverministersortheall-powerfulChancellor,inthehopethatGermanswouldgrowdisillusionedwithparliamentarydemocracy.TheReichstagwaselectedbyallGermanmales,soitlookedverydemocratic,andBismarkwaslargelysupportedbyliberals.HewasabletopassaseriesoflawsstrengtheningtheunionbetweentheterritoriesofthenewNorthGermanFederation.

GermannationalistsalsosupportedBismark–eventhoughhisprioritieswerealwaysPrussia’sinterests,notGermany’s,hewasunifyingthe‘nation’.Somehistoriansarguethatinthe1860sanewhardernationalismwasforminginGermany,lessinterestedinromanticideasaboutGermany’sculturalrootsandhistoricalties,moreinterestedinglobalcompetitivenessandpower,andthereforemoresympathetictoBismark.

1870-71TheFranco-SomethingWar

From1867-70BismarkwasseekingapretextforwarwithFrance,believingthatwoulddrivethesouthernGermanstatesintojoininghisConfederation.In1870hegothiswishand,ashoped,alloftheGermanstatesjoinedin.HisarmywasdominatedbyPrussiantroopsandunderPrussiancommand,buteveryGermanstatecontributedmen,hencetheconfusionoverthename‘Franco-PrussiaWar’or‘Franco-GermanWar’.Bismarkorganisedafiercelynationalisticandanti-Frenchpropagandacampaign,whippingupGermannationalistsentiment.Thewarwasaspectacularvictoryandamidafrenzyofpopularnationalism,theheadsofthefoursouthernGermanstateshadnochoicebuttoacceptaunionwithPrussia.

On18thJanuary1871,withBismarkwatchingon,KingWilliamIofPrussiawasdeclared‘GermanKaiser’(Emperor)inthepalaceofVersailles,France!AnewfederalGermanReichconstitutioncameintobeing–therewere25stateswithdomesticresponsibilities,butasingleEmperor(who’dalways,funnilyenough,betheKingofPrussia)withapowerfulChancellordominatingthepoliticalscene,andanationaldemocraticReichstagwithvetopowersoverlegislationbutlimitedpowertoproposelegislation,andnomeansofwieldingaccountabilityoverChancellororKaiser(whocoulddissolvetheReichstagbydecree).

Ofthe25states,byfarthebiggestandmostinfluentialwas,ofcourse,Prussia(with60%ofthepeopleand2/3rdsoftheland)andit’snotablethatPrussia’sgovernmentremainedveryconservative,dominatedbyaristocratsandreactionaryofficersandcivilservants.ThisfactwasvitalininhibitingthedevelopmentofliberaldemocracyinthenewwiderGermany.Bismarkhimself,stillfiercelyanti-democratic,wasnowImperialChancellorandPrussianPrimeMinister.

TheNewReichstag1871-1890

HistoriansdisagreeaboutthenewGermanparliament.Wasit,asthesocialistleaderAugustBebeldeclared,a“fig-leafofdespotism”,orwasitagenuinelysignificantparliament?

- Itdidn’tdeterminewhowasChancellor,liketheUKPrimeMinister- TheChancellorandStateSecretarieswerenotinit- Bismarkregularlydissolveditforbeingobstructive- Itdidhavethepowerofveto,particularlyovernewtaxes,soBismarkdidhavetonegotiatewith

it- Itdidgainwidespreadattentionandstimulatedthedevelopmentofmasspoliticalparties,

whoseleadersBismarkcouldnotignore- SometimesitbowedtoBismark’swill,othertimesheblinkedfirst.

ThenewGermanArmy

AstheforcewhosesuccesshadcreatedthenewGermany,theDeutschesHeerwashugelyinfluential.ItwastheEmperor’sarmy,notthenations,butallmenservedinitfortwo-threeyearsanditwasreveredinGermanculture–it‘svalueswereseenasembodyingGermanvalues.However,itsofficerclasswereamongstthemostreactionaryandanti-democraticgroupsinGermany.

1871-1890–Bismark‘sGermany

Thereareafewnotablepointstobemadeaboutthisperiod.

1. Bismarkwasabletomakegoodprogressinformalisingunification–anationalcurrencyandbankwereintroduced,forexample.

2. Bismarktried,andfailed,torepressoneforcehefeltwasresistingunification–theCatholicChurchinthesouth.Aseriesofrepressiveanti-catholicmeasuresfailed–ifanything,his‘Kulturkampf’anti-catholiccampaignworsenedthefeelingofsouthernCatholicsthattheir‘Germanness’wasn’tthesameasProtestantPrussianGermanness.

3. Bismarkbecameobsessedwiththethreatfromradicaloppositiongroups,especiallysocialists.InMay1878ananarchistattemptedtoassassinatetheKaiser.Bismark,ridingawaveofpopularsupportfortheKaiser,rammedthroughrepressivemeasures,gettingsocialistgroups,includingtradeunions,banned,andgetting1,500socialistleadersarrested.Thisdidn’tendworkingclasssupportforsocialism,though–socialistsgotover1millionvotesin1890.

4. Bismarklaunchedaprogrammeof‘statesocialism’toreconciletheworkingclass–paidsickleave,accidentinsurance,pensions.Thiswashugelyinnovative–butdidn’treallywork,intermsofworkingclasssupportforhisstyleofgovernment.

5. Danish,FrenchandPolish‘Germans’weresubjectedtoofficialharassmentandencouragedtoemigrate.

6. InForeignPolicy,theunificationhadturnedGermany,overnight,intothemostpowerfulforceincontinentalEurope.France,massivelyresentfulhavinglostterritorytoGermanyin1871andRussia,scaredofthisnewsuperpower,wereapossiblethreat,particularlyiftheyallied(orevenworse,triple-teamedupwithAustria!)In1879BismarkneutralisedthisthreatbyformingtheDualAlliancepactwithAustria.Thiswasatreaty,notaunion,butitwassignificant–itwouldstillbeinplaceinAugust1914….Until1890RussiadecideditsbestinterestswereinacautiousalliancewithAustriaandPrussia,knownastheDreikaiserbund(threeEmperors’alliance).

7. In1884BismarkdecidedGermanyneededcolonies!Theyweregoodfortheeconomyandfuelledpatriotism–Germanyacquiredmodern-dayCameroon,NamibiaandmuchofKenya.ThisincreasedtensionswithBritainandfedGermannationalism.

In1890anew,young,Kaiser,WilhelmII,dismissedBismarkforhislackofwillingnesstoconsiderfurthersocialreforms.AgiantofGermanhistoryleftthestage.

1890-1914–WilhelmineGermany

ThisperiodisknownastheWilhelminePeriodbecauseitwasdominatedbythepersonalityofKaiserWilhelmII.Hewasaclassic‘lastEmperor’–irrational,unpredictable,andtotallyconvincedofhisdivinerighttorule.“ThereisonlyoneRulerintheReichandIamhe.”

Politically,thisperiodisoneoffrustrationandconflict–politicalpartieshadhugememberships,publicsupportforradicalsocialchangewasgrowing,buttheKaiserallowedtraditionalelites,particularlythePrussiannobles(Junkers)andthereactionary,aristocratichigh-rankingofficersinhisarmy,todominatepowertoanexcessive(ifdeclining)extent.Thisisacrucialmomentin‘Sonderweg’(specialpath)theory,suggestingthatGermanywasheldbackfromthedevelopmentofafunctioningmassdemocracy,aprocessthattookplaceelsewhereinEuropeatthistime.

Economically,thiswasatimeofrapidgrowth–by1914Germanywasthecontinent’sindustrialsuperpower.Thereweresomequalityoflifeimprovementsforpeasantsandworkers,too,buttherealbeneficiarieswereentrepreneursandskilledworkers.

Culturally,muchhadchanged.Nationalismwasnowafirmlyconservativeforce–focusedon‘dealingwith’non-GermansinsidetheReich,suchasPolesandDanes,andonsupportingthearmyandcolonial

gains.Germannationalismalsobecamecloselyassociatedwithanti-Semitism.AnewbeliefintheracialsuperiorityofGermans(orAryans),fuelledbyamisreadingofDarwinism,combinedwitheconomicresentmentofJewstoconnectanti-Semiticfeelingwithnationalism.Manyanti-Jewishpamphletsandarticleswerepublished,andculturalfiguressuchasWagnersharedanti-Semiticviews.Buthowgenuinelywidespreadtheseideaswereisasubjectforheateddebate–asitgetstotheheartofwhethertheanti-Semitismof1933-45hadnational,regionalorpersonalorigins.

Otherkeymomentsinthisperiod:

1897-98–1914:Weltpolitik(Worldpolitics).Inthisera,Germany’sleadersfacedaseriesofpressurestobecomemore‘imperialistic’andexpandGermany’scolonies,oritsterritoriesinEurope.

- Industrialisationdemandedrawmaterials.- Apopularalternativetosocialismwasneeded–nationalismwastheobviouschoice.- Radicalnationalist-racistgroupslikethePan-GermanLeagueandtheNavyLeaguewere

demandingGermanywasmoreassertive.- PoliticalthoughtwasfocusedontheDarwinianconflictbetweennationsandraces,whichmany

Germansfelttheycouldlose,particularlytoBritain,withoutexpansion.

Weltpolitikwastheensuingpolicy:ofmilitary(particularlynaval)expansiontoacquireimperialterritoryandglobalinfluence.ItputtheReichindirectcompetitionwithBritain,andhelpedforgetheTripleEntenteallianceofBritain,FranceandRussia.Itwasadiplomaticfailure,butstrengthenedmilitarismandaggressivenationalismasapoliticalandculturalforceinGermany.

1900socialreforms:inanattempttoweakenworkingclasssupportforsocialism,theChancellor,Bulow,barredchildlabourandgaveallworkersaccesstolabourrightscourts.

1907theHottentotelection:thisishelpful–therewasacontroversythatyearoverthestate’sbrutalrepressionofarevoltinSouth-WestAfrica,bytheHottentotpeople.TheChancellor,Bulow,decidedtocallelectionsandinafiercelynationalisticcampaigntheanti-socialist,anti-Catholic,pro-governmentpartieswonaclearvictory.Thiseventwouldmeritinvestigation…

1912ThesocialistSPDpartybecamethelargestpartyintheReichstag.Withoutthepowertopasslegislationtheycouldn’tenactasocialistprogramme.Butinresponsetotheirsuccess,nationalist,anti-socialist,anti-SemiticpartiessuchasthePan-GermanLeaguegrewmorevocal,demandinganewIronChancellor,awartocrushGermany’sglobalrivals,andthepromotionoftheAryanraceattheexpenseofJews.

Thefalltowar–historiansdisagreerelentlesslyoverwhywarbrokeoutin1914.Inourcontextthekeyissueisthis–didtheGermanleadershipdesireandplanforawar,orstumbleintoone?There’slotsofevidencethattheyspentmostof1912-14bluffing,appearingreadyforwarinordertonegotiatepeacefromapositionofstrength;buttherearealsoquoteswhichsuggesttheywerefullycommittedtowhatWilhelmcalleda“racialstruggle”withRussiaforcontrolofEasternEuropeandthelebensraum(livingspace)Germanyneededtothrive.

WhatwecansayabouttheFirstWorldWaristhis:

Itbegan(aselsewhere)inafrenzyofpatriotismandover-confidence.TheGermansthoughtitwouldallbeoverbyChristmas,too.

TheGermanyarmywasabletodemonstrateitsexcellenttrainingandequipmentinacoupleofmassivedefeatsofRussia,whichmadenationalheroesofthecommandingofficers,HindeburgandLudendorff.

Thewarwasavastnationalsharedexperience,unlikeanybeforeit:20%ofthewholepopulationsawcombat,andeveryadultmale(andmostadultfemales)wereeventuallymobilisedinsomeway.

Bythestartof1917theciviliancostofthewarbecameincreasinglyhardtobear,rationingexpandedfromgrainproductstoallproducts,therewasahugeshortageoffoodandfuelduringthewinterof1917-18,causingseverermalnutritionandepidemics.Workinghourswereexpandedrelentlessly,togeneratearms,andpublicangeragainsttheprofitsindustrialistsweremakinggrew.From1917onwardssocialistsorganisedaseriesofstrikes,whilenationalistsblamedsocialistsaboteursandJewsforthesuffering.

AsearlyasJuly1917theReichstagpassedaresolutioncallingfor‘peacewithoutvictory’.HindenburgandLudendorff,nowbasicallyrunningthestate,ignoredit.

Inresponse,aright-wingFatherlandpartywaslaunchedinSeptember1917,callingformilitaryruleandfightingonfora‘victoriouspeace’--itsoonhadperhapshalfamillionmembers,largelyintheEastofGermany.

Asweknow,Germanywonthewar!Well,thewaragainstRussia–whereitmademassiveterritorialgainsintheTreatyofBrest-LitovskinMarch1918.Liberatedfromfightingontwofronts,theGermanHighCommandfelttheythenhadarealchanceofvictory–hencetheyignoredUSPresidentWoodrowWilson’searly-1918peaceplan.

TheGermanSpringOffensiveof1918failed(butnotbymuch)andthesummerAlliedcounter-attacksucceeded.InAugust1918desertionsfromtheretreatingarmyincreasedsignificantly,

InSeptembertheGermanHighCommandannouncedtothepoliticiansthatthewarwaslostandhandedcontroltotheReichstag–hopingthatwouldmaketheAllieslesspunitive,towardsafledglingdemocracy,andalsohopingtheReichstagwouldbeartheblameforthedefeat.

Theend

ThetraumaticfewweeksofGermany’scollapsewereacrucialculturalaswellaspoliticalturningpointinthecountry’shistory.

1. LudendorffandHindenburgdidalltheycouldtonurturethe(false)beliefinabetrayaloftheGermanarmybypoliticians(the‘stabintheback’theory)evenorganisingafutilecounter-attackatthelastminute.

2. Ofcourse,oneconditionoftheceasefirewastheabdicationoftheKaiser,makingGermanyarepublic

3. Thefailedrevolutionsof1918-19werenotablefordemonstratingthelackofpublicsupportforaradicalrightorleft-winguprising,apointfurtherprovedinthefirstelectionsafterthewar,inJanuary1919,whenover75%ofvoteswerecastforpartiescommittedtothepeacefulbuildingofanewRepublic.

4. It’simportanttoplacetheVersaillestreatyinculturalterms.VirtuallyallGermansthoughtitwasatravesty,butit’simportanttonoteitsspecificassaultsonnationalism:thelossofcolonies;thedemilitarizationofGermany;thereductioninGermany’slebensraum(livingspace)inEurope;aboveall,theremovalofGerman-speakingpeoplesfromtheGermannation.ItwasalmostdesignedtoaggravateandembitterGermannationalism,whichofcourseitdid.

Nowanswerthisessayquestion:“EvaluatetheviewthatGermannationalismonlychangedbetween1800and1919whenmonarchsandpoliticalleaderschosetochangeit.”20marks