reading comprehension gre 700

7/25/2019 Reading Comprehension GRE 700

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Reading Comprehension 700

Scientifc advances in the latter hal o the twentieth century have allowed researchers tostudy the chemical activities taking place in the human brain during the sleep cycle inmore detail. In the !70s" #acobs employed these advances to postulate that dreams andhallucinations share a common neurochemical mechanism with respect to theneurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine that accounts or the observablesimilarities between the two states o mind. $o test the theory" researchers attempted to

elucidate the role o these transmitters in the normal sleep cycle and the e%ect ohallucinogenic drugs on them.&lthough scientists still have much to discover about the chemical comple'ities o thebrain" serotonin appears important or managing sleep" mood" and appetite" amongother important unctions" while neurons release norepinephrine to acilitate alertnessand mental ocus. (oth are discharged in high )uantities only during waking states. &tthe onset o sleep" the activity levels o neurons that release both the neurotransmittersdrop" allowing the brain frst to enter the our non*rapid eye movement +,on*R-/stages o sleep. hen the brain is ready to enter the fth stage" R-" which isassociated with dreaming" the levels o these two chemicals drop virtually to 1ero. $he #acobs hypothesis held that the absence o norepinephrine was re)uired to enable thebrain to remain asleep" while the absence o serotonin was necessary to allow dreamingto occur.2ysergic acid diethylamide" or 2S3" is a semi*synthetic psychedelic drug which causessignifcant alteration o the senses" memories and awareness4 at doses higher than 50micrograms" it can have a hallucinogenic e%ect. 2S3 mimics serotonin well enough to beable to bind at most o the neurotransmitter6s receptor sites" largely inhibiting normaltransmission. In addition" the drug causes the locus ceruleus" a cluster o neuronscontaining norepinephrine" to greatly accelerate activity. I the drug stimulatesnorepinephrine" thereby precluding sleep" and inhibits serotonin" which #acobs hadpostulated was a necessary condition or dreaming" then the resulting hallucinationscould merely be dreaming while awake.8 $he research thus ar is promising butinconclusive4 uture scientifc advances should allow this theory to be tested morerigorously. . &ccording to the passage" which o the ollowing is true o the drug lysergic aciddiethlyamide9 Research into the drug is promising but inconclusive. $he neuron receptor sites that normally bind serotonin will also bind the drug. $he locus ceruleus causes the drug to a%ect bodily systems more rapidly than normal. $he drug stimulates norepinephrine and serotonin.& person who ingests more than 50 micrograms o the drug will have hallucinations. 5. hich o the ollowing best represents the author:s primary goal in writing thepassage9 to outline a theory and suggest options or urther researchto act as an advocate or additional research to help elucidate a particular theory:svalidityto introduce a theoretical construct that has not yet been su;ciently provento demonstrate the comple'ities involved in conducting a certain type o scientifcresearch



to articulate a hypothesis and lay out the case or proving it <. hich o the ollowing" i true" would most undermine the central premise o the #acobs hypothesis9 2S3 does not cause as much long*term neurological damage as previously thought.Serotonin and norepinephrine rise and all in tandem.Researchers prove conclusively that the level o norepinephrine in the brain is a

signifcant actor in enabling the brain to sleep.Some semi*synthetic hallucinogenic drugs other than 2S3 do not inhibit serotonin. $he frst our stages o sleep are as crucial to the process o dreaming as is the fthstage.

=http>??gmatclub.com?orum?dreams*[email protected]@0bae<dd5b5<<0e!D0daE************It can be argued that much consumer dissatisaction with marketing strategies arisesrom an inability to aim advertising at only the likely buyers o a given product. $here are three groups o consumers who are a%ected by the marketing process. First"

there is the market segmentGpeople who need the commodity in )uestion. Second"there is the program targetGpeople in the market segment with the best ft8characteristics or a specifc product. 2ots o people may need trousers" but only a ew)ualiy as likely buyers o very e'pensive designer trousers. Finally" there is the programaudienceHall people who are actually e'posed to the marketing program without regardto whether they need or want the product. $hese three groups are rarely identical. &n e'ception occurs occasionally in cases wherecustomers or a particular industrial product may be ew and easily identifable. Suchcustomers" all sharing a particular need" are likely to orm a meaningul target" ore'ample" all companies with a particular application o the product in )uestion" such ashigh*speed fllers o bottles at breweries. In such circumstances" direct selling +marketingthat reaches only the program target/ is likely to be economically ustifed" and highlyspeciali1ed trade media e'ist to e'pose members o the program targetGand onlymembers o the program targetGto the marketing program.ost consumer*goods markets are signifcantly di%erent. $ypically" there are many ratherthan ew potential customers. -ach represents a relatively small percentage o potentialsales. Rarely do members o a particular market segment group themselves neatly into ameaningul program target. $here are substantial di%erences among consumers withsimilar demographic characteristics. -ven with all the past decade6s advances ininormation technology" direct selling o consumer goods is rare" and mass marketingGamarketing approach that aims at a wide audienceGremains the only economicallyeasible mode. Jnortunately" there are ew media that allow the marketer to direct amarketing program e'clusively to the program target. Inevitably" people get e'posed toa great deal o marketing or products in which they have no interest and so theybecome annoyed.

. $he passage suggests which o the ollowing about highly speciali1ed trade media9+&/ $hey should be used only when direct selling is not economically easible.+(/ $hey can be used to e'clude rom the program audience people who are not part othe program target.+C/ $hey are used only or very e'pensive products.

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+3/ $hey are rarely used in the implementation o marketing programs or industriaproducts.+-/ $hey are used only when direct selling has not reached the appropriate marketsegment.5. &ccording to the passage" most consumer*goods markets share which o the ollowingcharacteristics9I. Customers who di%er signifcantly rom each otherII. 2arge numbers o potential customers

III. Customers who each represent a small percentage o potential sales+&/ I only+(/ II only+C/ I and II only+3/ II and III only+-/ I" II" and III<. $he passage suggests which o the ollowing about direct selling9+&/ It is used in the marketing o most industrial products.+(/ It is oten used in cases where there is a large program target.+C/ It is not economically easible or most marketing programs.+3/ It is used only or products or which there are many potential customers.

+-/ It is less successul at directing a marketing program to the target audience than areother marketing approaches.@. $he author mentions trousers8 +lines ! and / most likely in order to+&/ make a comparison between the program target and the program audience+(/ emphasi1e the similarities between the market segment and the program target+C/ provide an e'ample o the way three groups o consumers are a%ected by amarketing program+3/ clariy the distinction between the market segment and the program target+-/ introduce the concept o the program audienceD. hich o the ollowing best e'emplifes the situation described in the last twosentences o the passage9+&/ & product suitable or women age 5*<0 is marketed at meetings attended only bypotential customers.+(/ & company develops a new product and must develop an advertising campaign tocreate a market or it.+C/ &n idea or a speciali1ed product remains une'plored because media e'posure o theproduct to its ew potential customers would be too e'pensive.+3/ & new product is developed and marketers collect demographic data on potentiaconsumers beore developing a specifc advertising campaign.+-/ & product suitable or men age 0 and over is advertised in a maga1ine readby adults o all ages.. $he passage suggests that which o the ollowing is true about the marketing oindustrial products like those discussed in the third paragraph9+&/ $he market segment and program target are identical.+(/ ass marketing is the only easible way o advertising such products.+C/ $he marketing program cannot be directed specifcally to the program target.+3/ ore customers would be needed to ustiy the e'pense o direct selling.+-/ $he program audience would necessarily be made up o potential customersregardless o the marketing approach that was used.7. $he passage supports which o the ollowing statements about demographiccharacteristics and marketing9



+&/ 3emographic research is o no use in determining how successul a product will bewith a particular group o consumers.+(/ & program audience is usually composed o people with similar demographiccharacteristics.+C/ Ksychological actors are more important than demographic actors in defning amarket segments.+3/ Consumers with similar demographic characteristics do not necessarily orm ameaningul program target.

+-/ Collecting demographic data is the frst step that marketers take in designing amarketing program.B. It can be inerred rom the passage that which o the ollowing is true or mostconsumer*goods markets9+&/ $he program audience is smaller than the market segment.+(/ $he program audience and the market segment are usually identical.+C/ $he market segment and the program target are usually identical.+3/ $he program target is larger than the market segment.+-/ $he program target and the program audience are not usually identical.

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****************** $he identifcation o emininity with morality and a belie in the innate moral superiorityo women were undamental to the cult o emale domesticity in the nineteenth*centuryJnited States. Ironically" this ideology o emale benevolence empowered women in therealm o social activism" enabling them to escape the confnes o their traditionadomestic spheres and to enter prisons" hospitals" battlefelds" and slums. (y ollowingthis path" some women came to wield considerable authority in the distribution oresources and services in their communities. $he sentimentali1ed concept o emale benevolence bore little resemblance to women:sactual work" which was decidedly unsentimental and businesslike" in that it involvedchartering societies" raising money" and paying salaries. oreover" in the ace o legalimitations on their right to control money and property" women had to fnd ingeniouslegal ways to run and fnance organi1ed philanthropy. In contrast to the day*to*dayreality o this work" the ideali1ed image o emale benevolence lent a sentimental andgracious aura o altruism to the very real authority and privilege that some womencommanded**which e'plains why some women activists clung tenaciously to thisideology. (ut clinging to this ideology also prevented these women rom even attemptingto gain true political power because it implied a moral purity that precluded participationin the messy world o partisan politics. . &ccording to the passage" the ideology o emale benevolence was consistent withwomen taking part in each o the ollowing spheres o activity -LC-K$

& organi1ed philanthropy( domestic lieC electoral politics3 und*raising or worthy causes- social work

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5. Inormation in the passage suggests that the author would be most likely to agree withwhich o the ollowing statements concerning the cult o emale domesticity9

& $he cult o emale domesticity developed independently o the concept o emalebenevolence.( $he cult o emale domesticity was incompatible with women:s participation in sociaactivism.

C $he cult o emale domesticity incorporated ideological elements that actually helpedsome women to escape rom their traditional domestic roles.3 $he original motivation behind the promotion o the cult o emale domesticity was toe'clude women rom partisan politics.- $he growth o organi1ed philanthropy in the nineteenth*century Jnited States isultimately attributable to the cult o emale domesticity.

<. hich o the ollowing best summari1es the main point o the passage9

& $he identifcation o emininity with morality promoted the notion o women:s moralpurity while e'cluding women rom positions o authority in their communities.

( $he belie in women:s innate moral superiority allowed women to e'ercise politicalpower without participating in partisan politics.C $he cult o emale domesticity helped some women to gain power and privilege butkept most women confned to the domestic sphere.3 $he ideology o emale benevolence empowered women in the realm o social activismbut placed limits on their direct political power.- $he ideali1ation o emale altruism enabled women to engage in philanthropic activitiesbut prevented them rom managing money and property.

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*************************&rt historians6 approach to French Impressionism has changed signifcantly in recentyears. hile a decade ago Rewald6s Mistory o Impressionism" which emphasi1esImpressionist painters6 stylistic innovations" was unchallenged" the literature onimpressionism has now become a kind o ideological battlefeld" in which more attentionis paid to the subect matter o the paintings" and to the social and moral issues raisedby it" than to their style. Recently" politically charged discussions that address theimpressionists6 une)ual treatment o men and women and the e'clusion o modernindustry and labor rom their pictures have tended to crowd out the stylistic analysisavored by Rewald and his ollowers. In a new work illustrating this trend" Robert 2Merbert dissociates himsel rom ormalists whose preoccupation with the stylisticeatures o impressionist painting has" in Merbert6s view" let the history out o arthistory4 his aim is to restore impressionist paintings to their sociocultural conte't.8Mowever" his arguments are not fnally persuasive. In attempting to place impressionist painting in its proper historical conte't" Merbert hasredrawn the traditional boundaries o impressionism. 2imiting himsel to the two decadesbetween B0 and BB0" he assembles under the impressionist banner what can only bedescribed as a somewhat eccentric grouping o painters. Ce1anne" Kisarro" and Sisley arealmost entirely ignored" largely because their paintings do not suit Merbert6s emphasis

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on themes o urban lie and suburban leisure" while anet" 3egas" and CaillebotteGwhopaint scenes o urban lie but whom many would hardly characteri1e as impressionistsGdominate the frst hal o the book. &lthough this new description o Impressionistpainting provides a more unifed conception o nineteenth*century French painting bygrouping )uite disparate modernist painters together and emphasi1ing their commonconcerns rather than their stylistic di%erence" it also orces Merbert to overlook some othe most important genres o impressionist paintingGportraiture" pure landscape" andstill*lie painting.

oreover" the rationale or Merbert6s emphasis on the social and political realities thatImpressionist paintings can be said to communicate rather than on their style is fnallyundermined by what even Merbert concedes was the ailure o Impressionist painters toserve as particularly conscientious illustrators o their social milieu. $hey let muchordinary e'perienceGwork and poverty" or e'ampleGout o their paintings and whatthey did put in was transormed by a style that had only an indirect relationship to thesocial realities o the world they depicted. ,ot only were their pictures inventions ratherthan photographs" they were inventions in which style to some degree disrupteddescription. $heir painting in e%ect have two levels o subect> what is represented andhow it is represented" and no art historian can a%ord to emphasi1e one at the e'pense o

the other.

. hich one o the ollowing best e'presses the main point o the passage9+&/ $he style o impressionist paintings has only an indirect relation to their subectmatter.+(/ $he approach to impressionism that is illustrated by Merbert6s recent book isinade)uate.+C/ $he historical conte't o impressionist paintings is not relevant to their interpretation.+3/ impressionism emerged rom a historical conte't o ideological conNict and change.+-/ &ny ade)uate uture interpretation o impressionism will have to come to terms withMerbert6s view o this art movement.5. &ccording to the passage" Rewald6s book on impressionism was characteri1ed bywhich one o the ollowing9+&/ evenhanded obectivity about the achievements o impressionism+(/ bias in avor o certain impressionist painters+C/ an emphasis on the stylistic eatures o impressionist painting+3/ an idiosyncratic view o which painters were to be classifed as impressionists+-/ a reusal to enter into the ideological debates that had characteri1ed earlierdiscussions o impressionism<. $he author implies that Merbert6s redefnition o the boundaries o impressionismresulted rom which one o the ollowing9+&/ an e'clusive emphasis on orm and style+(/ a bias in avor o the representation o modern industry+C/ an attempt to place impressionism within a specifc sociocultural conte't+3/ a broadening o the term impressionism to include all nineteenth*century Frenchpainting+-/ an insu;cient amiliarity with earlier interpretations o impressionism@. $he author states which one o the ollowing about modern industry and labor assubects or painting9+&/ $he impressionists neglected these subects in their paintings.+(/ Merbert6s book on impressionism ails to give ade)uate treatment o these subects.+C/ $he impressionists6 treatment o these subects was ideali1ed.



+3/ Rewald6s treatment o impressionist painters ocused inordinately on theirrepresentations o these subects.+-/ odernist painters presented a distorted picture o these subects.D. hich one o the ollowing most accurately describes the structure o the author6sargument in the passage9+&/ $he frst two paragraphs each present independent arguments or a conclusion thatis drawn in the third paragraph.+(/ & thesis is stated in the frst paragraph and revised in the second paragraph and

revised in the second paragraph" and the revised thesis is supported with argument inthe third paragraph.+C/ $he frst two paragraphs discuss and critici1e a thesis" and the third paragraphpresents an alternative thesis.+3/ a claim is made in the frst paragraph" and the ne't two paragraph" and the ne't twoparagraphs each present reasons or accepting that claim.+-/ &n argument is presented in the frst paragraph" a counterargument is presented inthe second paragraph" and the third paragraph suggests a way to resolve the dispute.. $he author6s statement that impressionist paintings were inventions in which style tosome degree disrupted description8 +lines D7*D!/ serves to+&/ strengthen the claim that impressionist sought to emphasi1e the di%erences between

painting and photography+(/ weaken the argument that style is the only important eature o impressionistpaintings+C/ indicate that impressionists recogni1ed that they had been strongly inNuence byphotography+3/ support the argument that an e'clusive emphasis on the impressionists subectmatter is mistaken+-/ undermine the claim that impressionists neglected certain kinds o subect matter7. $he author would most likely regard a book on the impressionists that ocused entirelyon their style as+&/ a product o the recent conusion caused by Merbert6s book on impressionism+(/ emphasi1ing what impressionists themselves took to be their primary artistic concern+C/ an overreaction against the traditional interpretation o impressionism+3/ neglecting the most innovative aspects o impressionism+-/ addressing only part o what an ade)uate treatment should cover

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************Krior to !7D" union e%orts to organi1e public*sector clerical workers" most o whom arewomen" were somewhat limited. $he actors avoring unioni1ation drives seem to havebeen either the presence o large numbers o workers" as in ,ew Oork City" to make itworth the e%ort" or the concentration o small numbers in one or two locations" such as ahospital" to make it relatively easy. Receptivity to unioni1ation on the workers6 part wasalso a consideration" but when there were large numbers involved or the clerical workerswere the only unorgani1ed group in a urisdiction" the multi*occupational unions wouldoten try to organi1e them regardless o the workers6 initial receptivity. $he strategicreasoning was based" frst" on the concern that politicians and administrators might playo% unioni1ed against non*unioni1ed workers" and" second" on the conviction that a ullyunioni1ed public work orce meant power" both at the bargaining table and in thelegislature. In localities where clerical workers were ew in number" were scattered in

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several workplaces" and e'pressed no interest in being organi1ed" unions more otenthan not ignored them in the pre*!7D period.(ut since the mid*!706s" a di%erent strategy has emerged. In !77" <@ percent ogovernment clerical workers were represented by a labor organi1ation" compared with @percent o government proessionals" @@ percent o government blue*collar workers" and@ percent o government service workers. Since then" however" the biggest increases inpublic*sector unioni1ation have been among clerical workers. (etween !77 and !B0"the number o unioni1ed government workers in blue*collar and service occupations

increased only about .D percent" while in the white*collar occupations the increase was50 percent and among clerical workers in particular" the increase was 55 percent.hat accounts or this upsurge in unioni1ation among clerical workers9 First" morewomen have entered the work orce in the past ew years" and more o them plan toremain working until retirement age. Conse)uently" they are probably more concernedthan their predecessors were about ob security and economic benefts. &lso" thewomen6s movement has succeeded in legitimi1ing the economic and political activism owomen on their own behal" thereby producing a more positive attitude toward unions $he absence o any comparable increase in unioni1ation among private*sector clericaworkers" however" identifes the primary catalystGthe structural change in the multi*occupational public*sector unions themselves. Pver the past twenty years" the

occupational distribution in these unions has been steadily shiting rom predominantlyblue*collar to predominantly white*collar. (ecause there are ar more women in white*collar obs" an increase in the proportion o emale members has accompanied theoccupational shit and has altered union policy*making in avor o organi1ing women andaddressing women6s issues.

. &ccording to the passage" the public*sector workers who were most likely to belong tounions in !77 were+&/ proessionals+(/ managers+C/ clerical workers+3/ service workers+-/ blue*collar workers

5. $he author cites union e%orts to achieve a ully unioni1ed work orce +line <*!/ inorder to account or why+&/ politicians might try to oppose public*sector union organi1ing+(/ public*sector unions have recently ocused on organi1ing women+C/ early organi1ing e%orts oten ocused on areas where there were large numbers oworkers+3/ union e%orts with regard to public*sector clerical workers increased dramatically ater!7D+-/ unions sometimes tried to organi1e workers regardless o the workers6 initial interestin unioni1ation

<. $he author6s claim that" since the mid*!706s" a new strategy has emerged in theunioni1ation o public*sector clerical workers +line 5</ would be strengthened i theauthor+&/ described more ully the attitudes o clerical workers toward labor unions+(/ compared the organi1ing strategies employed by private*sector unions with those opublic*sector unions



+(/ the union contributed to political campaigns+C/ the union included only public*sector workers+3/ the union included workers rom several urisdictions+-/ the union included members rom only a ew occupations

!. $he author implies that" in comparison with working women today" women working inthe years prior to the mid*!706s showed a greater tendency to+&/ preer smaller workplaces

+(/ e'press a positive attitude toward labor unions+C/ ma'imi1e ob security and economic benefts+3/ side with administrators in labor disputes+-/ )uit working prior o retirement age

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*******************Pne o the many theories about alcoholism is the learning and reinorcement theory"which e'plains alcoholism by considering alcohol ingestion as a reNe' response to some

stimulus and as a way to reduce an inner drive state such as ear or an'ietyCharacteri1ing lie situations in terms o approach and avoidance" this theory holds thatpersons tend to be drawn to pleasant situations and repelled by unpleasant ones. In thelatter case" alcohol ingestion is said to reduce the tension or eelings o unpleasantnessand to replace them with the eeling o euphoria generally observed in most personsater they have consumed one or more drinks.Some e'perimental evidence tends to show that alcohol reduces ear in the approach*avoidance situation. Conger trained one group o rats to approach a ood goal and" usingaversion conditioning" trained another group to avoid electric shock. &ter an inection oalcohol the pull away rom the shock was measurable weaker" while the pull toward theood was unchanged. $he obvious troubles e'perienced by alcoholic persons appear to contradict the learningtheory in the e'planation o alcoholism. $he discomort" pain" and punishment theye'perience should presumably serve as a deterrent to drinking. $he act that alcoholicpersons continue to drink in the ace o amily discord" loss o employment" illness" andother se)uels o repeated bouts is e'plained by the pro'imity o the drive reduction tothe consumption o alcohol4 that is" alcohol has the immediate e%ect o reducing tensionwhile the unpleasant conse)uences o drunken behavior come only later. $he learningparadigm" thereore" avors the establishment and repetition o the resort to alcohol.In act" the an'ieties and eelings o guilt induced by the conse)uences o e'cessivealcohol ingestion may themselves become the signal or another bout o alcohol abuse. $he way in which the cue or another bout could be the an'iety itsel is e'plained by theprocess o stimulus generali1ation> conditions or events occurring at the time oreinorcement tend to ac)uire the characteristics o state o an'iety or ear" theemotional state itsel takes on the properties o a stimulus" thus triggering anotherdrinking bout. $he role o punishment is becoming increasingly important in ormulating a cause oalcoholism based on the principles o learning theory. hile punishment may serve tosuppress a response" e'periments have shown that in some cases it can serve as areward and reinorce the behavior. $hus i the alcoholic person has learned to drinkunder conditions o both reward and punishment" either type o condition mayprecipitate renewed drinking.

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&mple e'perimental evidence supports the hypothesis that e'cessive alcohoconsumption can be learned. (y gradually increasing the concentration o alcohol indrinking water" psychologists have been able to induce the ingestion o larger amountso alcohol by an animal than would be normally consumed. Pther researchers have beenable to achieve similar results by varying the schedule o reinorcementGthat is" byre)uiring the animal to consume larger and larger amounts o the alcohol solutionsbeore rewarding it. In this manner" animals learn to drink enough to become dependenton alcohol in terms o demonstrating withdrawal symptoms.

. $he primary purpose o the passage is to+&/ compare the learning and reinorcement theory to other theories o alcoholism+(/ discuss how the behavior o alcoholic persons is e'plained by learning theory+C/ argue that alcoholism is a learned behavior+3/ e'plain how ear and an'iety stimulate and reinorce drinking in alcoholic persons+-/ present e'perimental evidence in support o the learning and reinorcement theory oalcoholism

5. $he passage contains inormation that answers which o the ollowing )uestions9+&/ hat are some o the psychosocial problems associated with alcoholism9

+(/ hich has proven more e%ective in the treatment o alcoholism" aversionconditioning or reinorcement9+C/ hy does alcohol ingestion reduce tension and give rise to a eeling o euphoria inmost people9+3/ &ccording to the learning theory" in what cases does punishment reinorce ratherthan deter drinking in alcoholic persons9+-/ &re some persons genetically predisposed to alcoholism9

<. It can be inerred rom the passage that aversion conditioning is based primarily onthe principle that+&/ electric shock stimulates a response+(/ behavior that is punished will be avoided+C/ pain is a stronger stimulus than pleasure+3/ alcohol reduces ear+-/ behavior that is rewarded will be repeated

@. &ccording to the passage" which o the ollowing is true o stimulus generali1ation9+&/ It contradicts the learning and reinorcement theory o alcoholism.+(/ It is the process by which an organism learns to respond to one stimulus but not tosimilar stimuli.+C/ It supports the hypothesis that e'cessive alcohol consumption can be learned.+3/ It e'plains why people tend to avoid behavior that is associated with painue'periences.+-/ It occurs when the conditions associated with a stimulus come to evoke the sameresponse as the stimulus itsel evokes.

D. $he author cites Conger6s e'periment with two groups o rats in order to+&/ show that ingestion o alcohol does not a%ect appetite+(/ corroborate the fndings o other academic researchers+C/ show that alcohol decreases ear+3/ disprove the learning and reinorcement theory+-/ convince the reader o the useulness o behavioral research



. &ccording to the passage" which o the ollowing could induce an alcoholic to drink9I. $he need to relieve tensionII. &n'ieties resulting rom guilt eelings about previous drinking boutsIII. Kunishment or alcoholic behavior+&/ I only+(/ II only+C/ I and II only

+3/ II and III only+-/ I" II" and III

7. $he passage contains inormation that supports which o the ollowing statements9+&/ I the pleasurable taste o whisky leads to an ac)uired taste or brandy" then stimulusgenerali1ation has occurred.+(/ Slapping a child or misbehaving may over time encourage the child to repeat themisbehavior.+C/ I a person has learned to drink under two sets o conditions" both must be present inorder to induce that person to drink again.+3/ Continued heavy use o alcohol usually causes severe damage to the body and

nervous system.+-/ hen consumed in moderation" alcohol may beneft health.

B. &ccording to the passage" how does the behavior o alcoholics appear to contradictlearning theory9+&/ 2earning theory holds that people are drawn by pleasant situations and repelled byunpleasant ones" but in alcoholics that pattern appears to be reversed.+(/ Contrary to learning theory" alcoholic persons do not respond to lie situations interms o approach and avoidance.+C/ $he unpleasant conse)uences o e'cessive alcoholic consumption do not deteralcoholics rom drinking" as might be predicted rom learning theory.+3/ &ccording to learning theory" drinking is a reNe' response to an e'ternal stimulus"but or alcoholics it is more oten a way to reduce an inner drive such as ear.+-/ Instead o the eeling o euphoria predicted by learning theory" alcoholics re)uentlye'perience discomort and pain ater drinking.

!. It can be inerred rom the passage that the author views the learning andreinorcement theory o alcoholism as+&/ credible+(/ unassailable+C/ outdated+3/ allacious+-/ revolutionary

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************** $he antigen*antibody immunological reaction used to be regarded as typical oimmunological responses. &ntibodies are proteins synthesi1ed by speciali1ed cells calledplasma cells" which are ormed by lymphocytes +cells rom the lymph system/ when anantigen" a substance oreign to the organism6s body" comes in contact with lymphocytes.

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$wo important maniestations o antigen*antibody immunity are lysis" the rapid physicarupture o antigenic cells and the liberation o their contents into the surroundingmedium" and phagocytosis" a process in which antigenic particles are enguled by andvery oten digested by macrophages and polymorphs. $he process o lysis is e'ecuted bya comple' and unstable blood constituent known as complement" which will not workunless it is activated by a specifc antibody4 the process o phagocytosis is greatlyacilitated when the particles to be enguled are coated by a specifc antibody directedagainst them.

$he reluctance toGabandon this hypothesis" however well it e'plains specifc processesimpeded new research" and or many years antigens and antibodies dominated thethoughts o immunologists so completely that those immunologists overlooked certaindi;culties. Kerhaps the primary di;culty with the antigen*antibody e'planation is theinormational problem o how an antigen is recogni1ed and how a structure e'actlycomplementary to it is then synthesi1ed. hen molecular biologists discovered"moreover" that such inormation cannot Now rom protein to protein" but only romnucleic acid to protein" the theory that an antigen itsel provided the mold that directedthe synthesis o an antibody had to be seriously )ualifed. $he attempts at )ualifcationand the inormation provided by research in molecular biology led scientists to reali1ethat a second immunological reaction is mediated through the lymphocytes that are

hostile to and bring about the destruction o the antigen. $his type o immunologicaresponse is called cell*mediated immunity.Recent research in cell*mediated immunity has been concerned not only with thedevelopment o new and better vaccines" but also with the problem o transplantingtissues and organs rom one organism to another" or although circulating antibodiesplay a part in the reection o transplanted tissues" the primary role is played by cell*mediated reactions. 3uring cell*mediated responses" receptor sites on specifclymphocytes and surace antigens on the oreign tissue cells orm a comple' that bindsthe lymphocytes to the tissue. Such lymphocytes do not give rise to antibody*producingplasma cells but themselves bring about the death o the oreign*tissue cells" probablyby secreting a variety o substances" some o which are to'ic to the tissue cells andsome o which stimulate increased phagocytic activity by white blood cells o themacrophage type. Cell*mediated immunity also accounts or the destruction ointracellular parasites.

. $he author is primarily concerned with+&/ proving that immunological reactions do not involve antibodies+(/ establishing that most immunological reactions involve antigens+C/ critici1ing scientists who will not change their theories regarding immunology+3/ analy1ing the importance o cells in fghting disease+-/ e'plaining two di%erent kinds o immunological reactions

5. $he author argues that the antigen*antibody e'planation o immunity had toseriously )ualifed8 +line <7/ because+&/ antibodies were ound to activate unstable components in the blood+(/ antigens are not e'actly complementary to antibodies+C/ lymphocytes have the ability to bind to the surace o antigens+3/ antibodies are synthesi1ed rom protein whereas antigens are made rom nucleic acid+-/ antigens have no apparent mechanism to direct the ormation o an antibody

<. $he author most probably believes that the antigen*antibody theory o immunologicalreaction.



+&/ is wrong+(/ was accepted without evidence+C/ is unverifable+3/ is a partial e'planation+-/ has been a divisive issue among scientists

@. $he author mentions all o the ollowing as being involved in antigen*antibodyimmunological reactions -LC-K$ the

+&/ synthesis o a protein+(/ activation o complement in the bloodstream+C/ destruction o antibodies+3/ entrapment o antigens by macrophages+-/ ormation o a substance with a structure complementary to that o an antigen

D. $he passage contains inormation that would answer which o the ollowing )uestionsabout cell*mediated immunological reactions9I. 3o lymphocytes orm antibodies during cell*mediated immunological reactions9II. hy are lymphocytes more hostile to antigens during cell*mediated immunologicareactions than are other cell groups9

III. &re cell*mediated reactions more pronounced ater transplants than they are aterparasites have invaded the organism9+&/ I only+(/ I and II only+C/ I and III only+3/ II and III only+-/ I" II" and III

. $he passage suggests that scientists might not have developed the theory o cell*mediated immunological reactions i +&/ proteins e'isted in specifc group types+(/ proteins could have been shown to direct the synthesis o other proteins+C/ antigens were always destroyed by proteins+3/ antibodies were composed only o protein+-/ antibodies were the body6s primary means o resisting disease

7. &ccording to the passage" antibody*antigen and cell*mediated immunologicareactions both involve which o the ollowing processes9I. $he destruction o antigensII. $he creation o antibodiesIII. $he destruction o intracellular parasites+&/ I only+(/ II only+C/ III only+3/ I and II only+-/ II and III only

B. $he author supports the theory o cell*mediated reactions primarily by+&/ pointing out a contradiction in the assumption leading to the antigen*antibody theory+(/ e'plaining how cell mediation accounts or phenomena that the antigen*antibodytheory cannot account or



+C/ revealing new data that scientists arguing or the antigen*antibody theory havecontinued to ignore+3/ showing that the antigen*antibody theory ails to account or the breakup o antigens+-/ demonstrating that cell mediation e'plains lysis and phagocytosis more ully than theantigen*antibody theory does

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****************oodrow ilson was reerring to the liberal idea o the economic market when he saidthat the ree enterprise system is the most e;cient economic system. a'imumreedom means ma'imum productiveness4 our openness8 is to be the measure o ourstability. Fascination with this ideal has made &mericans dey the Pld orld8 categorieso settled possessiveness versus unsettling deprivation" the cupidity o retention versusthe cupidity o sei1ure" a status )uo8 deended or attacked. $he Jnited States" it wasbelieved" had no status )uo ante. Pur only station8 was the turning o a stationarywheel" spinning aster and aster. e did not base our system on property butopportunityGwhich meant we based it not on stability but on mobility. $he more things

changed" that is" the more rapidly the wheel turned" the steadier we would be. $heconventional picture o class politics is composed o the Maves" who want a stability tokeep what they have" and the Mave*,ots" who want a touch o instability and change inwhich to scramble or the things they have not. (ut &mericans imagined a condition inwhich speculators" sel*makers" runners are always using the new opportunities given byour land. $hese economic leaders +ront*runners/ would thus be mainly agents o change. $he nonstarters were considered the ones who wanted stability" a strong reeree to givethem some position in the race" a regulative hand to calm manic speculation4 anauthority that can call things to a halt" begin things again rom compensatorily staggeredstarting lines.8 Reorm8 in &merica has been sterile because it can imagine no change e'cept throughthe e'tension o this metaphor o a race" wider inclusion o competitors" a piece o theaction"8 as it were" or the disenranchised. $here is no attempt to call o% the race. Sinceour only stability is change" &merica seems not to honor the )uiet work that achievessocial interdependence and stability. $here is" in our legends" no heroism o the o;ceclerk" no stable industrial work orce o the people who actually make the systemwork. $here is no pride in being an employee +ilson asked or a return to the time wheneveryone was an employer/. $here has been no boasting about our social workersGtheyare merely signs o the system6s ailure" o opportunity denied or not taken" o things tobe eliminated. e have no pride in our growing interdependence" in the act that oursystem can serve others" that we are able to help those in need4 empty boasts rom thepast make us ashamed o our present achievements" make us try to orget or deny themmove away rom them. $here is no honor but in the onderland race we must all run" alltrying to win" none winning in the end +or there is no end/. . $he primary purpose o the passage is to +&/ critici1e the inNe'ibility o &merican economic mythology+(/ contrast Pld orld8 and ,ew orld8 economic ideologies+C/ challenge the integrity o traditional political leaders+3/ champion those &mericans whom the author deems to be neglected

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+-/ suggest a substitute or the traditional metaphor o a race 5. &ccording to the passage" Pld orld8 values were based on +&/ ability+(/ property+C/ amily connections+3/ guild hierarchies

+-/ education <. In the conte't o the author6s discussion o regulating change" which o the ollowingcould be most probably regarded as a strong reeree8 +line <0/ in the Jnited States9 +&/ & school principal+(/ & political theorist+C/ & ederal court udge+3/ & social worker+-/ & government inspector

@. $he author sets o% the word Reorm8 +line <D/ with )uotation marks in order to +&/ emphasi1e its departure rom the concept o settled possessiveness+(/ show his support or a systematic program o change+C/ underscore the Ne'ibility and even amorphousness o Jnited States society+3/ indicate that the term was one o ilson6s avorites+-/ assert that reorm in the Jnited States has not been undamental D. It can be inerred rom the passage that the author most probably thinks that givingthe disenranchised a pieceo the action8 +line <B/ is +&/ a compassionate" i misdirected" legislative measure+(/ an e'ample o &mericans6 resistance to proound social change+C/ an innovative program or genuine social reorm+3/ a monument to the e%orts o industrial reormers+-/ a surprisingly Pld orld8 remedy or social ills . hich o the ollowing metaphors could the author most appropriately use tosummari1e his own assessment o the &merican economic system +lines <D*0/9 +&/ & windmill+(/ & waterall+C/ & treadmill+3/ & gyroscope+-/ & bellows 7. It can be inerred rom the passage that oodrow ilson6s ideas about the economicmarket +&/ encouraged those who make the system work8 +lines @D*@/+(/ perpetuated traditional legends about &merica



+C/ revealed the preudices o a man born wealthy+3/ oreshadowed the stock market crash o !5!+-/ began a tradition o presidential proclamations on economics B. $he passage contains inormation that would answer which o the ollowing )uestions9 I. hat techni)ues have industrialists used to manipulate a ree market9II. In what ways are ,ew orld8 and Pld orld8 economic policies similar9

III. Mas economic policy in the Jnited States tended to reward independent action9 +&/ I only+(/ II only+C/ III only+3/ I and II only+-/ II and III only !. hich o the ollowing best e'presses the author6s main point9 +&/ &mericans6 pride in their obs continues to give them stamina today.

+(/ $he absence o a status )uo ante has undermined Jnited States economic structure.+C/ $he ree enterprise system has been only a useless concept in the Jnited States.+3/ $he myth o the &merican ree enterprise system is seriously Nawed.+-/ Fascination with the ideal o openness8 has made &mericans a progressive people.

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********************& basic principle o ecology is that population si1e is partly a reNection o available oodresources. Recent e'periments suggest that the relationship is more comple' thanormerly thought. Specifcally" the browsing o certain rodents appears to triggerchemical reactions in ood plants which" in turn" a%ect the si1e o the rodent populations. $wo e'amples o such regulation have been reported. (erger has demonstrated the power o a naturally occurring chemical called *(P& tostimulate reproductive behavior in the mountain vole" a small mouse*like rodent. *(P&orms in young grass in response to browsing by voles. (erger e'perimented by eedingoats coated with *(P& to non*breeding winter populations o voles. &ter three weeks"she ound a high incidence o pregnancy among emales. Since thetiming o reproduction is crucial to the short*lived vole in an environment in which theonset o vegetativegrowth may be considerably delayed" the phytochemical triggering o reproductivebehavior represents a signifcant biological adaptation. In an e'ample reported by (ryant" plants appear to have developed a phytochemicadeense against the depredations o snowshoe hares in Canada. -very ten years" orreasons that are unclear" the hare population swells. $he result is overbrowsing o certaindeciduous trees and shrubs. (ryant ound that trees avored by the hare produce youngshoots high in terpene and phenolic resins" which discourage hare browsing. &tertreating non*resinous willow twigs with resinous e'tracts and placing treated anduntreated samples at hare eeding stations"

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(ryant ound that samples containing at least hal o the resin concentration o naturatwigs were untouched. $he avoidance o resinous shoots" he concludes" may play a rolein the decline o the hare population to normal levels. (oth o these reports suggest areas or urther research. For e'ample" data should bereviewed to determine i periodic population e'plosions among lemmings +another smallrodent living in a northern environment/ occurduring years in which there is an early onset o vegetative growth4 i so" a triggering

mechanism similar to that prompted by the vole may be involved. / $he author provides specifc inormation to answer which o the ollowing )uestions9+&/ hat actors other than ood supply a%ect the population si1e o rodents9+(/ hy is the timing o the voles6 reproductive e%ort important9+C/ &re phytochemical reactions ound only in northern environments9+3/ Mow does *(P& trigger reproductive activity in the mountain vole9+-/ hat are the causes o the periodic increase in the snowshoe hare population9 5/ $he passage describes the e%ect o *(P& on voles as a signifcant biologicaladaptation8 +line 5</ because it

+&/ limits reproductive behavior in times o ood scarcity+(/ prompts the vole population to seek new ood sources+C/ supports species survival during periods o Nuctuating ood supply+3/ ma'imi1es the number o o%spring in individual litters+-/ minimi1es territorial competition

</ hich o the ollowing statements can be inerred about plant shoots containing largeamounts o terpene and phenolic resins9I. $hey serve as a orm o natural deense.II. $heir growth is stimulated by increases in the hare population.III. $hey are unappeti1ing to hares.+&/ I only+(/ II only+C/ III only+3/ I and III only+-/ I" II" and III @/ It can be inerred that the study o lemmings proposed by the author would probably+&/ strengthen the conclusions o (ryant+(/ cast doubt on the conclusions o (ryant+C/ support the specifc fndings o (erger+3/ provide evidence as to whether (erger6s conclusions can be generali1ed+-/ disprove common belies about the relationship between population si1e and oodsupply

D/ $he author o the passage is primarily concerned with+&/ reviewing fndings about phytochemical regulation o rodent populations+(/ outlining the role o *(P& in regulating population si1e+C/ summari1ing knowledge on population si1e o rodents+3/ e'plaining why earlier studies o population si1e were wrong



+-/ describing mechanisms used by plants to protect themselves / (ryant6s interpretation o the results o his e'periment +lines <Q<B/ depends on whicho the ollowing assumptions9+&/ $he response o hares to resinous substances may be di%erent in nature than undere'perimental conditions.+(/ $he periodic rise in the hare population is triggered by an unknown phytochemicalresponse.

+C/ any hares will starve to death rather than eat resinous shoots.+3/ Mares alter their breeding behavior in response to the declining availability o ood.+-/ Signifcant numbers o hares die rom ingesting the resins in shoots 7/ $he e'periments described in the passage did each o the ollowing -LC-K$+&/ measure changes in the behavior o test animals+(/ measure changes in the populations o e'perimental animals+C/ simulate a hypothesi1ed phytochemical e%ect in nature+3/ measure the consumption o oods by test animals+-/ analy1e the e%ects o ood on breeding behavior

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***************Ca%eine" the stimulant in co%ee" has been calledthe most widely used psychoactive substance on -arth .Synder" 3aly and (runs have recently proposed thatca%eine a%ects behavior by countering the activity in+D/ the human brain o a naturally occurring chemical calledadenosine. &denosine normally depresses neuron fringin many areas o the brain. It apparently does this byinhibiting the release o neurotransmitters" chemicalsthat carry nerve impulses rom one neuron to the ne't.+0/ 2ike many other agents that a%ect neuron fring"adenosine must frst bind to specifc receptors onneuronal membranes. $here are at least two classeso these receptors" which have been designated & and&5. Snyder et al propose that ca%eine" which is struc*+D/ turally similar to adenosine" is able to bind to both typeso receptors" which prevents adenosine rom attachingthere and allows the neurons to fre more readily thanthey otherwise would.For many years" ca%eine:s e%ects have been attri*+50/ buted to its inhibition o the production o phosphodi*esterase" an en1yme that breaks down the chemicalcalled cyclic &K.& number o neurotransmitters e'erttheir e%ects by frst increasing cyclic &K concentra*tions in target neurons. $hereore" prolonged periods at+5D/ the elevated concentrations" as might be brought aboutby a phosphodiesterase inhibitor" could lead to a greateramount o neuron fring and" conse)uently" to behav*ioral stimulation. (ut Snyder et al point out that the

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ca%eine concentrations needed to inhibit the production+<0/ o phosphodiesterase in the brain are much higher thanthose that produce stimulation. oreover" other com*pounds that block phosphodiesterase:s activity are notstimulants. $o buttress their case that ca%eine acts instead by pre*+<D/ venting adenosine binding" Snyder et al compared thestimulatory e%ects o a series o ca%eine derivatives with

their ability to dislodge adenosine rom its receptors inthe brains o mice. In general" they reported" the ability o the compounds to competeat the receptors+@0/ correlates with their ability to stimulate locomotion inthe mouse4 i.e." the higher their capacity to bind at thereceptors" the higher their ability to stimulate locomo*tion. $heophylline" a close structural relative o ca%eineand the maor stimulant in tea" was one o the most+@D/ e%ective compounds in both regards. $here were some apparent e'ceptions to the generalcorrelation observed between adenosine*receptor binding

and stimulation. Pne o these was a compound called<*isobuty**methyl'anthine+I(L/" which bound very+D0/ well but actually depressed mouse locomotion. Snyderet al suggest that this is not a maor stumbling block totheir hypothesis. $he problem is that the compound hasmi'ed e%ects in the brain" a not unusual occurrence withpsychoactive drugs. -ven ca%eine" which is generally+DD/ known only or its stimulatory e%ects" displays thisproperty" depressing mouse locomotion at very lowconcentrations and stimulating it at higher ones. . $he primary purpose o the passage is to+&/ discuss a plan or investigation o a phenomenon that is not yet ully understood+(/ present two e'planations o a phenomenon and reconcile the di%erences betweenthem+C/ summari1e two theories and suggest a third theory that overcomes the problemsencountered in the frsttwo+3/ describe an alternative hypothesis and provide evidence and arguments thatsupport it+-/ challenge the validity o a theory by e'posing the inconsistencies and contradictionsin it

5. hich o the ollowing" i true" would most weaken the theory proposed by Snyder etal9+&/ &t very low concentrations in the human brain. both ca%eine and theophylline tendto have depressiverather than stimulatory e%ects on human behavior.+(/ $he ability o ca%eine derivatives at very low concentrations to dislodge adenosinerom its receptors in mouse brains correlates well with their ability to stimulate mouselocomotion at these low concentrations



+C/ $he concentration o cyclic &K in target neurons in the human brain that leads toincreased neuronfring can be produced by several di%erent phosphodi esterase inhibitors in addition toca%eine.+3/ $he concentration o ca%eine re)uired to dislodge adenosine rom its receptors inthe human brain ismuch greater than the concentration that produces behavioral stimulation in humans.+-/ $he concentration o I(L re)uired to dislodge adenosine rom its receptors in

mouse brains is muchsmaller than the concentration that stimulates locomotion in the mouse. <. &ccording so Snyder et al" ca%eine di%ers rom adenosine in that ca%eine+&/ stimulates behavior in the mouse and in humans" whereas adenosine stimulatesbehavior in humansonly+(/ has mi'ed e%ects in the brain" whereas adenosine has only a stimulatory e%ect+C/ increases cyclic &K concentrations in target neurons" whereas adenosine decreasessuch Concentrations+3/ permits release o neurotransmitters when it is bound to adenosine receptors

whereas adenosine inhibits such release+-/ inhibits both neuron fring and the production o phosphodiesterase when there is asu;cient concentration in the brain" whereas adenosine inhibits only neuron fring

@. In response to e'perimental results concerning I(L" Snyder et al contended that it isnot uncommon or psychoactive drugs to have+&/ mi'ed e%ects in the brain+(/ inhibitory e%ects on en1ymes in the brain+C/ close structural relationships with ca%eine+3/ depressive e%ects on mouse locomotion+-/ the ability to dislodge ca%eine rom receptors in the brain D. $he passage suggests that Snyder et al believe that i the older theory concerningca%eine:s e%ects were correct" which o the ollowing would have to be the case9Ⅰ.&ll neurotransmitters would increase the short*term concentration o cyclic &K intarget neurons.Ⅱ.Substances other than ca%eine that inhibit the production o phosphodiesterasewould be stimulants.Ⅲ.&ll concentration levels o ca%eine that are high enough to produce stimulation wouldalso inhibit theproduction o phosphodiesterase.+&/ Ⅰ only+(/ Ⅰ and Ⅱ only+C/ Ⅰand Ⅲ only+3/ Ⅱ and Ⅲ only+-/ Ⅰ"Ⅱ"and Ⅲ . &ccording to Snyder et al" all o the ollowing compounds can bind to specifcreceptors in the brain-LC-K$+&/ I(L+(/ ca%eine



+C/ adenosine+3/ theophylline+-/ phosphodiesterase

7. Snyder et al suggest that ca%eine:s ability to bind to & and &5 receptors can be atleast partially attributed to which o the ollowing9+&/ $he chemical relationship between ca%eine and phosphodiesterase+(/ $he structural relationship between ca%eine and adenosine

+C/ $he structural similarity between ca%eine and neurotransmitters+3/ $he ability o ca%eine to stimulate behavior+-/ $he natural occurrence o ca%eine and adenosine in the brain

B. $he author )uotes Snyder et al in lines <B*@< most probably in order to+&/ reveal some o the assumptions underlying their theory+(/ summari1e a maor fnding o their e'periments+C/ point out that their e'periments were limited to the mouse+3/ indicate that their e'periments resulted only in general correlations+-/ reute the obections made by supporters o the older theory

!. $he last paragraph o the passage perorms which o the ollowing unctions9+&/ 3escribes a disconfrming e'perimental result and reports the e'planation given bySnyder et al inan attempt to reconcile this result with their theory.+(/ Specifes the basis or the correlation observed by Snyder et al and presents ane'planation in an attempt to make the correlation consistent with the operation opsychoactive drugs other than ca%eine.+C/ -laborates the description o the correlation observed by Snyder et al and suggestsan additional e'planation in an attempt to make the correlation consistent with theolder theory.+3/ Reports inconsistent e'perimental data and describes the method Snyder et al wiluse to reanaly1e this data.+-/ Krovides an e'ample o the hypothesis proposed by Snyder et al and relates thise'ample to ca%eine:sproperties.

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*******************&rt historians6 approach to French Impressionism has changed signifcantly in recentyears. hile a decade ago Rewald6s Mistory o Impressionism" which emphasi1esImpressionist painters6 stylistic innovations" was unchallenged" the literature onimpressionism has now become a kind o ideological battlefeld" in which more attentionis paid to the subect matter o the paintings" and to the social and moral issues raisedby it" than to their style. Recently" politically charged discussions that address theimpressionists6 une)ual treatment o men and women and the e'clusion o modernindustry and labor rom their pictures have tended to crowd out the stylistic analysisavored by Rewald and his ollowers. In a new work illustrating this trend" Robert 2Merbert dissociates himsel rom ormalists whose preoccupation with the stylisticeatures o impressionist painting has" in Merbert6s view" let the history out o art

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history4 his aim is to restore impressionist paintings to their sociocultural conte't.8Mowever" his arguments are not fnally persuasive. In attempting to place impressionist painting in its proper historical conte't" Merbert hasredrawn the traditional boundaries o impressionism. 2imiting himsel to the two decadesbetween B0 and BB0" he assembles under the impressionist banner what can only bedescribed as a somewhat eccentric grouping o painters. Ce1anne" Kisarro" and Sisley arealmost entirely ignored" largely because their paintings do not suit Merbert6s emphasis

on themes o urban lie and suburban leisure" while anet" 3egas" and CaillebotteGwhopaint scenes o urban lie but whom many would hardly characteri1e as impressionistsGdominate the frst hal o the book. &lthough this new description o Impressionistpainting provides a more unifed conception o nineteenth*century French painting bygrouping )uite disparate modernist painters together and emphasi1ing their commonconcerns rather than their stylistic di%erence" it also orces Merbert to overlook some othe most important genres o impressionist paintingGportraiture" pure landscape" andstill*lie painting. oreover" the rationale or Merbert6s emphasis on the social and political realities thatImpressionist paintings can be said to communicate rather than on their style is fnally

undermined by what even Merbert concedes was the ailure o Impressionist painters toserve as particularly conscientious illustrators o their social milieu. $hey let muchordinary e'perienceGwork and poverty" or e'ampleGout o their paintings and whatthey did put in was transormed by a style that had only an indirect relationship to thesocial realities o the world they depicted. ,ot only were their pictures inventions ratherthan photographs" they were inventions in which style to some degree disrupteddescription. $heir painting in e%ect have two levels o subect> what is represented andhow it is represented" and no art historian can a%ord to emphasi1e one at the e'pense othe other. . hich one o the ollowing best e'presses the main point o the passage9+&/ $he style o impressionist paintings has only an indirect relation to their subectmatter.+(/ $he approach to impressionism that is illustrated by Merbert6s recent book isinade)uate.+C/ $he historical conte't o impressionist paintings is not relevant to their interpretation.+3/ impressionism emerged rom a historical conte't o ideological conNict and change.+-/ &ny ade)uate uture interpretation o impressionism will have to come to terms withMerbert6s view o this art movement. 5. &ccording to the passage" Rewald6s book on impressionism was characteri1ed bywhich one o the ollowing9+&/ evenhanded obectivity about the achievements o impressionism+(/ bias in avor o certain impressionist painters+C/ an emphasis on the stylistic eatures o impressionist painting+3/ an idiosyncratic view o which painters were to be classifed as impressionists+-/ a reusal to enter into the ideological debates that had characteri1ed earlierdiscussions o impressionism <. $he author implies that Merbert6s redefnition o the boundaries o impressionismresulted rom which one o the ollowing9+&/ an e'clusive emphasis on orm and style



+(/ a bias in avor o the representation o modern industry+C/ an attempt to place impressionism within a specifc sociocultural conte't+3/ a broadening o the term impressionism to include all nineteenth*century Frenchpainting+-/ an insu;cient amiliarity with earlier interpretations o impressionism @. $he author states which one o the ollowing about modern industry and labor assubects or painting9

+&/ $he impressionists neglected these subects in their paintings.+(/ Merbert6s book on impressionism ails to give ade)uate treatment o these subects.+C/ $he impressionists6 treatment o these subects was ideali1ed.+3/ Rewald6s treatment o impressionist painters ocused inordinately on theirrepresentations o these subects.+-/ odernist painters presented a distorted picture o these subects. D. hich one o the ollowing most accurately describes the structure o the author6sargument in the passage9+&/ $he frst two paragraphs each present independent arguments or a conclusion thatis drawn in the third paragraph.

+(/ & thesis is stated in the frst paragraph and revised in the second paragraph" and therevised thesis is supported with argument in the third paragraph.+C/ $he frst two paragraphs discuss and critici1e a thesis" and the third paragraphpresents an alternative thesis.+3/ a claim is made in the frst paragraph" and the ne't two paragraphs each presentreasons or accepting that claim.+-/ &n argument is presented in the frst paragraph" a counterargument is presented inthe second paragraph" and the third paragraph suggests a way to resolve the dispute. . $he author6s statement that impressionist paintings were inventions in which style tosome degree disrupted description8 +lines D7*D!/ serves to+&/ strengthen the claim that impressionist sought to emphasi1e the di%erences betweenpainting and photography+(/ weaken the argument that style is the only important eature o impressionistpaintings+C/ indicate that impressionists recogni1ed that they had been strongly inNuence byphotography+3/ support the argument that an e'clusive emphasis on the impressionists subectmatter is mistaken+-/ undermine the claim that impressionists neglected certain kinds o subect matter 7. $he author would most likely regard a book on the impressionists that ocused entirelyon their style as+&/ a product o the recent conusion caused by Merbert6s book on impressionism+(/ emphasi1ing what impressionists themselves took to be their primary artistic concern+C/ an overreaction against the traditional interpretation o impressionism+3/ neglecting the most innovative aspects o impressionism+-/ addressing only part o what an ade)uate treatment should cover.

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************************Changes in the volume o unemployment are governed by three undamental orces> thegrowth o the labor orce" the increase in output per man*hour" and the growth o totaldemand or goods and services. Changes in the average hours o work enter in e'actlyparallel ashion but have been )uantitatively less signifcant. &s productivity rises" lesslabor is re)uired per dollar o national product" or more goods and services can beproduced with the same number o man*hours. I output does not grow" employment willcertainly all4 i production increases more rapidly than productivity +less any decline in

average hours worked/" employment must rise. (ut the labor orce grows" too. Jnlessgross national product +total fnal e'penditure or goods and services corrected or pricechanges/ rises more rapidly than the sum o productivity increase and labor orce growth+again modifed or any change in hours o work/" the increase in employment will beinade)uate to absorb the growth in the labor orce. Inevitably the unemployment ratewill increase. Pnly when total production e'pands aster than the rate o labor orcegrowth plus the rate o productivity increase and minus the rate at which average annuahours all does the unemployment rate all. Increases in productivity were moreimportant than growth o the labor orce as sources o the wide gains in outpute'perienced in the period rom the end o orld ar II to the mid*si'ties. $heseincreases in potential production simply were not matched by increases in demand

ade)uate to maintain steady ull employment.-'cept or the recession years o !@!" !D@" and !DB" the rate o economic growthe'ceeded the rate o productivity increase. Mowever" in the late !D0s productivity andthe labor orce were increasing more rapidly than usual" while the growth o output wasslower than usual. $his accounted or the change in employment rates.(ut i part o the national purpose is to reduce and contain unemployment" arithmetic isnot enough. e must know which o the basic actors we can control and which we wishto control. Jnemployment would have risen more slowly or allen more rapidly iproductivity had increased more slowly" or the labor orce had increased more slowly" orthe hours o work had allen more steeply" or total output had grown more rapidly. $heseare not independent actors" however" and a change in any o them might have causedchanges in the others.& society can choose to reduce the growth o productivity" and it can probably fnd waysto rustrate its own creativity. Mowever" while a reduction in the growth o productivity atthe e'pense o potential output might result in higher employment in the short run" thelong*run e%ect on the national interest would be disastrous.e must also give consideration to the act that hidden beneath national averages iscontinuous movement into" out o" between" and within labor markets. For e'ample" Dyears ago" the average number o persons in the labor orce was 7<.@ million" with about.7 million employed and <.! million unemployed. Oet @ million e'perienced someterm o unemployment in that year. Some were new entrants to the labor orce4 otherswere laid o% temporarily. $he remainder were those who were permanently orindefnitely severed rom their obs. $hus" the average number unemployed during ayear understates the actual volume o involuntary displacement that occurs.Migh unemployment is not an inevitable result o the pace o technological change butthe conse)uence o passive public policy. e can anticipate a moderate increase in thelabor orce accompanied by a slow and irregular decline in hours o work. It ollows thatthe output o the economyGand the aggregate demand to buy itGmust grow by morethan @ percent a year ust to prevent the unemployment rate rom rising" and by evenmore i the unemployment rate is to all urther. Oet our economy has seldom" i ever"grown at a rate greater than <.D percent or any e'tended length o time. e have no



cause o complacency. Kositive fscal" monetary" and manpower policies will be needed inthe uture.. $he primary purpose o the passage is to+&/ defne the economic terms used in the discussion o employment+(/ critici1e the decisions o past administrations during recession years+C/ call or the application o positive economic control policies in the years that lieahead+3/ allay current ears about increasing unemployment

+-/ document the rise o &merican productivity since orld ar II5. &ccording to the passage" i the labor orce does not grow and there is no decline inthe average number o hours worked" under which o the ollowing conditions will theemployment rate inevitably rise9+&/ $otal production e'pands aster than the total demand or goods and services.+(/ $he total demand or goods and services and productivity both rise.+C/ Putput per man*hour and gross national product both rise.+3/ Kroductivity increases more rapidly than production.+-/ Kroduction increases more rapidly than output per man*hour.<. It can be inerred rom the passage than in the late !D0s" which o the ollowingoccurred9

I. $he growth in output was less than <.D percent.II. $he average number o hours worked declined.III. $he increase in output per man*hour was greater than usual.+&/ I only+(/ II only+C/ III only+3/ I and III only+-/ I" II" and III@. It can be inerred rom the passage that during the recession years o !@!" !D@" and!DB" which o the ollowing most likely occurred9+&/ $he labor orce increased more rapidly than it did in any other year between !@Dand !D.+(/ ore labor was re)uired per dollar o national product than in any other year between!@D and !D.+C/ $he average number o hours worked rose.+3/ Full employment was attained.+-/ $he rate o unemployment increased.D. It can be inerred rom the passage that i a policy to increase employment byreducing the growth o productivity at the e'pense o potential output were adopted" theauthor most likely would regard it as+&/ sound but inade)uate+(/ overly aggressive+C/ rivolous+3/ insidious+-/ unobectionable. It can be inerred rom the passage that" according to the author" the actual number opeople who e'perience some term o unemployment during any given year+&/ is the di%erence between the number o persons in the labor orce and the number opersons employed that year+(/ does not reNect movement into" out o" between" and within labor markets+C/ e'ceeds the average number unemployed during that year+3/ overstate the volume o involuntary displacement that occurs during the year



+-/ is impossible to calculate7. $he passage contains inormation that answers all o the ollowing )uestions -LC-K$>+&/ hat is gross national product9+(/ hat e%ect does a change in productivity invariably have on gross national product9+C/ Jnder what conditions might employment rise in the short run9+3/ hat e%ect does an increase in output and a decrease in number o hours workedhave on productivity9+-/ hat was the average number o people unemployed in !59

B. hich o the ollowing best describes the organi1ation o the fth paragraph o thepassage9+&/ &n assertion is made" data are provided to support it" and the assertion is reiteratedin di%erent words.+(/ Several fgures are given and hypothesis is ormulated to e'plain them.+C/ &n e'ample is given to support the conclusion drawn in the preceding paragraph.+3/ & statement is made" data are provided to illustrate and ampliy the statement" and aconclusion is drawn.+-/ & generali1ation is made and an e'ample is given to reute it.!. hich o the ollowing proposals best responds to the author6s concerns9+&/ $he government should manipulate the si1e o the labor orce to prevent uture

recessions.+(/ $he government should maintain some controls over the economy" but it shouldallow the employment rate to rise and all with the gross national product" as a check onlabor costs.+C/ Keople should accept that unemployment is undesirable but unavoidable.+3/ $he government should manage the economy careully.+-/ $he government should not interere in the interplay among the three orces a%ectingunemployment.0. hich o the ollowing best summari1es the main idea o the passage9+&/ e can and must take steps to ensure that the unemployment rate does not continueto rise as our population and our use o technology increase.+(/ Increases in potential production must be matched by increases in demand in orderto maintain steady ull employment.+C/ Migh unemployment is not an inevitable result o the pace o technological changebut the conse)uence o passive public policy.+3/ I part o the national purpose is to reduce and contain unemployment" arithmetic isnot enough.+-/ Full employment" regardless o Nuctuations in the economy" is within the realm opossibility.

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*******************In a !B@ book" Claire C. Robertson argued that" beore colonialism" age was a moreimportant indicator o status and authority than gender in hana and in &rica generally(ritish colonialism imposed -uropean*style male*dominant notions upon more egalitarianlocal situations to the detriment o women generally" and gender became a defningcharacteristic that weakened womenTs power and authority.

U2ine BVSubse)uent research in Wenya convinced Robertson that she hadovergenerali1ed about &rica. (eore colonialism" gender was more salient in centra

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Wenya than U2ine 5@Vit was in hana" although age was still crucial in determiningauthority. In contrast with hana" where women had traded or hundreds o years andachieved legal maority +not unrelated phenomena/" the evidence regarding centraWenya indicated that women were legal minors and were sometimes treated as maleproperty" as were -uropean women at that time. Factors like strong patrilinearity andpatrilocality" as well as womenTs inerior land rights and lesser involvement in trade"made women more dependent on men than was generally the case in hana. Mowever"since age apparently remained the overriding principle o social organi1ation in central

Wenya" some senior women had much authority. $hus" Robertson revised her hypothesissomewhat" arguing that in determining authority in precolonial &rica age was a primaryprinciple that superseded gender to varying degrees depending on the situation.

X@> $he passage indicates that RobertsonTs research in Kenya caused her to change her mind regarding

which of the following?&. hether age was the prevailing principle o social organi1ation in Wenya beorecolonialism(.hether gender was the primary determinant o social authority in &rica generallybeore colonialism

C. hether it was only ater colonialism that gender became a signifcant determinant oauthority in Wenyan society3.hether age was a crucial actor determining authority in &rica ater colonialism- hether (ritish colonialism imposed -uropean*style male*dominant notions upon locasituations in hana

XD> $he passage suggests that ater conducting the research mentioned in line B" but notbeore" Robertson would have agreed with which o the ollowing about womenTs status

and authority in Ghana?

& reater land rights and greater involvement in trade made women in precolonialhana less dependent on men than were -uropean women at that time.( Colonialism had a greater impact on the status and authority o hanaian women thanon Wenyan women.C Colonialism had less o an impact on the status and authority o hanaian women thatit had on the status and authority o other &rican women.3 $he relative independence o hanaian women prior to colonialism was uni)ue in&rica.- (eore colonialism" the status and authority o hanaian women was similar to that oWenyan women.

X> $he author o the passage mentions the status o age as a principle o social organi1ationin precolonial central Wenya in lines 5@*5 most likely in order to&. indicate that womenTs dependence on men in precolonial Kenya was not absolute

(. contrast the situation o senior women to that o less senior women in precolonialWenyan societyC. di%erentiate between the status and authority o precolonial Wenyan women and thato precolonial hanaian women



3. e'plain why age superseded gender to a greater e'tent in precolonial Wenya than itdid elsewhere in &rica-. identiy a actor that led Robertson to revise her hypothesis about precolonial &rica

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&lthough the recent debate over thee;cacy o capital punishment as adeterrent to violent crime has producedinormed commentary rom both camps"D ew o the e'perts8 cited in publicdiscussion o the issue are aware thatthe basic concept o deterrence wasdeveloped during the eighteenth centuryby the Italian writer Cesare (eccaria in0 his book Crimes and Kunishments+7@/. hile arguing vehemently in

avor o strict punishments or violentcriminals" (eccaria neverthelessreected torture" secret trials" and capitalD punishment as viable deterrents toviolent crime.(eccaria6s writings have had aproound inNuence on the treatment o criminals. Mowever" at present there is50 little evidence to support (eccaria6sundamental contention that strictpunishment leads to a reduction inviolent crime. In a survey o the&merican penal system recently carried5D out by the #ustice 3epartment" a vastmaority o convicted elons revealedthat the threat o strict punishment" evencapital punishment" in no way deterredthem rom committing a particular crime<0 or pursuing a career in crime. Pnewonders how (eccaria would alter hisarguments i evidence like this had beenavailable to him. Me might be pleased tonote that the evidence does support his<D belie that capital punishment is anine%ective deterrent" but he would behard pressed to fnd compelling supportor his other 3raconianrecommendations.

&ccording to the author" which o the ollowing is true o (eccaria6s conception ocriminal punishment9

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It is discounted by most participants in the debate over capital punishment. It typifes eighteenth*century attitudes toward the treatment o violent criminals. It is less relevant to the debate over capital punishment than it was two centuries ago. It orms the basis o the most contemporary discussions o crime and punishment.

It contains an early e'pression o a central issue to the debate over capital punishment.

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*************& maor tenet o the neurosciences has been that all neurons +nerve cells/ in the brainso vertebrate animals are ormed early in development. &n adult vertebrate" it wasbelieved" must make do with a f'ed number o neurons> those lost through disease orinury are not replaced" and adult learning takes place not through generation o new

cells but through modifcation o connections among e'isting ones.

Mowever" new evidence or neurogenesis +the birth o new neurons/ has come rom thestudy o canary song. Ooung canaries and other songbirds learn to sing much as humanslearn to speak" by imitating models provided by their elders. Several weeks ater birth" ayoung bird produces its frst rudimentary attempts at singing4 over the ne't ew monthsthe song becomes more structured and stable" reaching a ully developed state by thetime the bird approaches its frst breeding season. (ut this repertoire o song is notpermanently learned. &ter each breeding season" during late summer and all" the birdloses mastery o its developed vocabulary"8 and its song becomes as unstable as that oa uvenile bird. 3uring the ollowing winter and spring" however" the canary ac)uires newsongs" and by the ne't breeding season it has developed an entirely new repertoire.

Recent neurological research into this learning and relearning process has shown thatthe two most important regions o the canary6s brain related to the learning o songsactually vary in si1e at di%erent times o the year. In the spring" when the bird6s song ishighly developed and uniorm" the regions are roughly twice as large as they are in theall. Further e'periments tracing individual nerve cells within these regions have shownthat the number o neurons drops by about <B percent ater the breeding season" but bythe ollowing breeding season" new ones have been generated to replace them. &possible e'planation or this continual replacement o nerve cells may have to do withthe canary6s relatively long lie span and the re)uirements o Night. Its brain would haveto be substantially larger and heavier than might be easible or Nying i it had to carryall the brain cells needed to process and retain all the inormation gathered over alietime.

&lthough the idea o neurogenesis in the adult mammalian brain is still not generallyaccepted" these fndings might help uncover a mechanism that would enable the humanbrain to repair itsel through neurogenesis. hether such replacement o neurons would

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disrupt comple' learning processes or long*term memory is not known" but songbirdresearch challenges scientists to identiy the genes or hormones that orchestrateneurogenesis in the young human brain and to learn how to activate them in the adultbrain. 1. Which one of the following best expresses the main idea of the passage?+&/ ,ew evidence o neurogenesis in canaries challenges an established neurologicaltheory concerning brain cells in vertebrates and suggests the possibility that human

brains may repair themselves.+(/ $he brains o canaries di%er rom the brains o other vertebrate animals in that thebrains o adult canaries are able to generate neurons.+C/ Recent studies o neurogenesis in canaries" building on established theories overtebrate neurology" provide important clues as to why researchers are not likely todiscover neurogenesis in adult humans.+3/ Recent research into neurogenesis in canaries reutes a long*held belie about thelimited supply o brain cells and provides new inormation about neurogenesis in theadult human brain.+-/ ,ew inormation about neurogenesis in canaries challenges older hypotheses andclarifes the importance o the yearly cycle in learning processes and neurologica

replacement among vertebrates. 2. According to the passage, which one of the following is true of the typicaladult canary during the late summer and fall?+&/ $he canary6s song repertoire takes on a ully structured and stable )uality.+(/ & process o neurogenesis replaces the song*learning neurons that were lost duringthe preceding months.+C/ $he canary begins to learn an entirely new repertoire o songs based on the modelso other canaries.+3/ $he regions in the canary6s brain that are central to the learning o song decrease insi1e.+-/ $he canary perorms slightly modifed versions o the songs it learned during thepreceding breeding season.3. Information in the passage suggests that the author would most lielyregard which one of the following as !"A#$ important in future research onneurogenesis in humans?+&/ research on possible similarities between the neurological structures o humans andcanaries+(/ studies that compare the ratio o brain weight to body weight in canaries to that inhumans+C/ neurological research on the genes or hormones that activate neurogenesis in thebrain o human inants+3/ studies about the ways in which long*term memory unctions in the human brain+-/ research concerning the processes by which humans learn complicated tasks%. Which one of the following, if true, would most seriously undermine theexplanation proposed by the author in the third paragraph?+&/ & number o songbird species related to the canary have a shorter lie span than thecanary and do not e'perience neurogenesis.+(/ $he brain si1e o several types o airborne birds with lie spans similar to those ocanaries has been shown to vary according to a two*year cycle o neurogenesis.+C/ Several species o airborne birds similar to canaries in si1e are known to have brainsthat are substantially heavier than the canary6s brain.



mR,&6s play a maor part in the normal unctioning o a cell by appropriately regulatingprotein synthesis. For e'ample" an e'cess o certain proteins can cause cells toprolierate abnormally and become cancerous4 a lack o the protein insulin results indiabetes. (iologists once assumed that the variable rates at which cells synthesi1e di%erentmR,&6s determine the )uantities o mR,&6s and their corresponding proteins in a cell.Mowever" recent investigations have shown that the concentrations o most mR,&6s

correlate best" not with their synthesis rate" but rather with the e)ually variable rates atwhich cells degrade the di%erent mR,&6s in their cytoplasm. I a cell degrades both arapidly and a slowly synthesi1ed mR,& slowly" both mR,&6s will accumulate to highlevels. &n important e'ample o this phenomenon is the development o red blood cells romtheir unspeciali1ed parent cells in bone marrow. For red blood cells to accumulatesu;cient concentrations o hemoglobin +which transports o'ygen/ to carry out their mainunction" the cells6 parent cells must simultaneously produce more o the constituentproteins o hemoglobin and less o most other proteins. $o do this" the parent cells haltsynthesis o non*hemoglobin mR,&6s in the nucleus and rapidly degrade copies o the

non*hemoglobin mR,&6s remaining in the cytoplasm. Malting synthesis o mR,& alonewould not a%ect the )uantities o proteins synthesi1ed by the mR,&6s still e'isting in thecytoplasm. (iologists now believe that most cells can regulate protein production moste;ciently by varying both mR,& synthesis and degradation" as developing red cells dorather than by ust varying one or the other. . $he passage is primarily concerned with discussing the+&/ inNuence o mR,& concentrations on the development o red blood cells+(/ role o the synthesis and degradation o mR,& in cell unctioning+C/ mechanism by which genes are transcribed into mR,&+3/ di%erences in mR,& concentrations in cell nuclei and in the cytoplasm+-/ way in which mR,& synthesis contributes to the onset o diabetes 5. $he passage suggests that a biologist who held the view described in the frstsentence o the second paragraph would most probably also have believed which o theollowing9+&/ $he rate o degradation o specifc mR,&6s has little e%ect on protein concentrations.+(/ $he rate o degradation o specifc mR,&6s should be studied intensively.+C/ $he rates o synthesis and degradation or any given mR,& are normally e)ual.+3/ 3i%erent mR,&6s undergo degradation at widely varying rates.+-/ ost mR,&6s degrade very rapidly. <. hich o the ollowing best describes the relationship between the second and thirdparagraphs o the passage9+&/ $he second paragraph presents arguments in support o a new theory and the thirdparagraph presents arguments against that same theory.+(/ $he second paragraph describes a traditional view and the third paragraph describesthe view that has replaced it on the basis o recent investigations.+C/ $he third paragraph describes a specifc case o a phenomenon that is describedgenerally in the second paragraph.+3/ $he third paragraph describes an investigation that was undertaken to resolveproblems raised by phenomena described in the second paragraph.



+-/ (oth paragraphs describe in detail specifc e'amples o the phenomenon that isintroduced in the frst paragraph. @. $he accumulation o concentrations o hemoglobin in red blood cells is mentioned inthe passage as an e'ample o which o the ollowing9+&/ $he e%ectiveness o simultaneous variation o the rates o synthesis and degradationo mR,&+(/ $he role o the ribosome in enabling a parent cell to develop properly into a more

speciali1ed orm+C/ $he importance o activating the genes or particular proteins at the correct moment+3/ $he abnormal prolieration o a protein that threatens to make the cell cancerous+-/ $he kind o evidence that biologists relied on or support o a view o mR,& synthesisthat is now considered obsolete D. $o begin to control a disease caused by a protein defciency" the passage suggeststhat a promising e'perimental treatment would be to administer a drug that wouldreduce+&/ only the degradation rate or the mR,& o the protein involved+(/ only the synthesis rate or the mR,& o the protein involved

+C/ both the synthesis and degradation rates or the mR,& o the protein involved+3/ the incidence o errors in the transcription o mR,&6s rom genetic nucleotidese)uences+-/ the rate o activity o ribosomes in the cytoplasm o most cells . &ccording to the passage" which o the ollowing best describes the current view onthe relationship between the synthesis and the degradation o mR,& in regulatingprotein synthesis9+&/ (iologists have recently become convinced that the ribosome controls the rates osynthesis and degradation o mR,&.+(/ $here is no consensus among biologists as to the signifcance o mR,& degradationin regulating protein synthesis.+C/ $he concept o mR,& degradation is so new that most biologists still believe that thevital role in protein regulation belongs to mR,& synthesis.+3/ 3egradation o mR,& is now considered to be the key process and mR,& synthesis isno longer believed to play a signifcant role.+-/ 3egradation o mR,& is now considered to be as important as mR,& synthesis hasbeen" and still is" believed to be. 7. &ccording to the passage" which o the ollowing can happen when protein synthesis isnot appropriately regulated9+&/ 3iabetes can result rom errors that occur when the ribosomes translate mR,& intoprotein.+(/ Cancer can result rom an e'cess o certain proteins and diabetes can result rom aninsulin defciency.+C/ & defciency o red blood cells can occur i bone marrow cells produce too muchhemoglobin.+3/ Cancer can be caused by e'cessively rapid degradation o certain amino acids in thecytoplasm o cells.+-/ -'cessive synthesis o one protein can trigger increased degradation o mR,&6s orother proteins and create severe protein imbalances.



B. $he passage suggests that a biologist who detected high levels o two proteins in acertain type o cell would be likely to consider which o the ollowing as a possiblee'planation9+&/ $he rate o mR,& degradation or one o the proteins increases as this type o celdevelops a more speciali1ed unction.+(/ $he two proteins are most likely constituents o a comple' substance supporting thecells6 speciali1ed unction.+C/ $he cells are likely to prolierate abnormally and possibly become cancerous due to

the levels o these proteins.+3/ $he mR,&6s or both proteins are being degraded at a low rate in that type o cell.+-/ $he mR,&6s or the two proteins are being synthesi1ed at identical rates in that typeo cell.

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**********************&lthough bacteria are unicellular and among the simplest autonomous orms o lie" theyshow a remarkable ability to sense their environment. $hey are attracted to materials

they need and are repelled by harmul substances. ost types o bacteria swim veryerratically> short smooth runs in relatively straight lines are ollowed by brie tumbles"ater which the bacteria shoot o% in random directions. $his leaves researchers with the)uestion o how such bacteria fnd their way to an attractant such as ood or" in the caseo photosynthetic bacteria" light" i their swimming pattern consists only o smooth runsand tumbles" the latter resulting in random changes in direction. Pne clue comes rom the observation that when a chemical attractant is added to asuspension o such bacteria" the bacteria swim along a gradient o the attractant" roman area where the concentration o the attractant is weaker to an area where it isstronger. &s they do so" their swimming is characteri1ed by a decrease in tumbling andan increase in straight runs over relatively longer distances. &s the bacteria encounterincreasing concentrations o the attractant" their tendency to tumble is suppressed"whereas tumbling increases whenever they move away rom the attractant. $he nete%ect is that runs in the direction o higher concentrations o the attractant becomelonger and straighter as a result o the suppression o tumbling" whereas runs away romit are shortened by an increased tendency o the bacteria to tumble and changedirection. (iologists have proposed two mechanisms that bacteria might use in detecting changesin the concentration o a chemical attractant. First" a bacterium might compare theconcentration o a chemical at the ront and back o its cell body simultaneously. I theconcentration is higher at the ront o the cell" then it knows it is moving up theconcentration gradient" rom an area where the concentration is lower to an area whereit is higher. &lternatively" it might measure the concentration at one instant and againater a brie interval" in which case the bacterium must retain a memory o the initiaconcentration. Researchers reasoned that i bacteria do compare concentrations atdi%erent times" then when suddenly e'posed to a uniormly high concentration o anattractant" the cells would behave as i they were swimming up a concentration gradient"with long" smooth runs and relatively ew tumbles. I" on the other hand" bacteria detecta chemical gradient by measuring it simultaneously at two distinct points" ront andback" on the cell body" they would not respond to the ump in concentration because the

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concentration o the attractant in ront and back o the cells" though high" would beuniorm. -'perimental evidence suggests that bacteria compare concentrations atdi%erent times. . It can be inerred rom the passage that which one o the ollowing e'perimentalresults would suggest that bacteria detect changes in the concentration o an attractantby measuring its concentration in ront and back o the cell body simultaneously9+&/ hen suddenly transerred rom a medium in which the concentration o an

attractant was uniormly low to one in which the concentration was uniormly high" thetendency o the bacteria to tumble and undergo random changes in direction increased.+(/ hen suddenly transerred rom a medium in which the concentration o anattractant was uniormly low to one in which the concentration was uniormly high" thebacteria6s e'hibited no change in the pattern o their motion.+C/ hen suddenly transerred rom a medium in which the concentration o anattractant was uniormly low to one in which the concentration was uniormly high" thebacteria6s movement was characteri1ed by a complete absence o tumbling.+3/ hen placed in a medium in which the concentration o an attractant was in someareas low and in others high" the bacteria e'hibited an increased tendency to tumble inthose areas where the concentration o the attractant was high.

+-/ hen suddenly transerred rom a medium in which the concentration o anattractant was uniormly low to one that was completely ree o attractants" the bacteriae'hibited a tendency to suppress tumbling and move in longer" straighter lines. 5. It can be inerred rom the passage that a bacterium would increase the likelihood oits moving away rom an area where the concentration o a harmul substance is high i itdid which one o the ollowing9+&/ Increased the speed at which it swam immediately ater undergoing the randomchanges in direction that result rom tumbling.+(/ 3etected the concentration gradient o an attractant toward which it could begin toswim.+C/ Relied on the simultaneous measurement o the concentration o the substance inront and back o its body" rather than on the comparison o the concentration atdi%erent points in time.+3/ -'hibited a complete cessation o tumbling when it detected increases in theconcentration o substance.+-/ -'hibited an increased tendency to tumble as it encountered increasingconcentrations o the substance" and suppressed tumbling as it detected decreases inthe concentration o the substance. <. It can be inerred rom the passage that when describing bacteria as swimming up aconcentration gradient8 +lines @!*D0/" the author means that they were behaving as ithey were swimming+&/ &gainst a resistant medium that makes their swimming less e;cient.+(/ &way rom a substance to which they are normally attracted.+C/ &way rom a substance that is normally harmul to them.+3/ From an area where the concentration o a repellent is weaker to an area where it iscompletely absent.+-/ From an area where the concentration o a substance is weaker to an area where it isstronger.



@. $he passage indicates that the pattern that characteri1es a bacterium6s motionchanges in response to+&/ $he kinds o chemical attractants present in di%erent concentration gradients.+(/ $he mechanism that the bacterium adopts in determining the presence o anattractant.+C/ $he bacterium6s detection o changes in the concentration o an attractant.+3/ $he e'tent to which neighboring bacteria are engaged in tumbling.+-/ Changes in the intervals o time that occur between the bacterium6s measurement o

the concentration o an attractant. D. hich one o the ollowing best describes the organi1ation o the third paragraph othe passage9+&/ $wo approaches to a problem are discussed" a test that would determine which ismore e;cient is described" and a conclusion is made" based on e'perimental evidence.+(/ $wo hypotheses are described" a way o determining which o them is more likely tobe true is discussed" and one said to be more accurate on the basis o e'perimentalevidence.+C/ $wo hypotheses are described" the Naws inherent in one o them are elaborated" ande'perimental evidence confrming the other is cited.

+3/ &n assertion that a species has adopted two di%erent mechanisms to solve aparticular problem is made" and evidence is then provided in support o that assertion.+-/ &n assertion that one mechanism or solving a particular problem is more e;cientthan another is made" and evidence is then provided in support o that assertion. . $he passage provides inormation in support o which one o the ollowing assertions9+&/ $he seemingly erratic motion e'hibited by a microorganism can in act reNect amechanism by which it is able to control its movement.+(/ (iologists oten overstate the comple'ity o simple organisms such as bacteria.+C/ & bacterium cannot normally retain a memory o a measurement o theconcentration o an attractant.+3/ (acteria now appear to have less control over their movement than biologists hadpreviously hypothesi1ed.+-/ Khotosynthetic bacteria appear to have more control over their movement than dobacteria that are not photosynthetic.

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********************Immigrants6 adoption o -nglish as their primary language is one measure o assimilationinto the larger Jnited States society. enerally languages defne social groups andprovide ustifcation or social structures. Mence" a distinctive language sets a culturagroup o% rom the dominant language group. $hroughout Jnited States history thispattern has resulted in one consistent" unhappy conse)uence" discrimination againstmembers o the cultural minority. 2anguage di%erences provide both a way to rationali1esubordination and a ready means or achieving it. $raditionally" -nglish has replaced the native language o immigrant groups by thesecond or third generation. Some characteristics o today6s Spanish*speaking population"however" suggest the possibility o a departure rom this historical pattern. any amiliesretain ties in 2atin &merica and move back and orth between their present and ormercommunities. $his revolving door8 phenomenon" along with the high probability o







additional immigrants rom the south" means that large Spanish*speaking communitiesare likely to e'ist in the Jnited States or the indefnite uture. $his e'pectation underlies the call or national support or bilingual education in Spanish*speaking communities6 public schools. (ilingual education can serve di%erent purposes"however. In the !0s" such programs were established to acilitate the learning o-nglish so as to avoid disadvantaging children in their other subects because o theirlimited -nglish. ore recently" many advocates have viewed bilingual education as ameans to maintain children6s native languages and cultures. $he issue is important or

people with di%erent political agendas" rom absorption at one pole to separatism at theother. $o date" the evaluations o bilingual education6s impact on learning have beeninconclusive. $he issue o bilingual education has" nevertheless" served to unite theleadership o the nation6s Mispanic communities. rounded in concerns about status thatare directly traceable to the Jnited States history o discrimination against Mispanics" thedemand or maintenance o the Spanish language in the schools is an assertion o theworth o a people and their culture. I the Jnited States is truly a multicultural nationGthat is" i it is one culture reNecting the contributions o manyGthis demand should beseen as a demand not or separation but or inclusion.ore direct e%orts to orce inclusion can be misguided. For e'ample" movements to

declare -nglish the o;cial language do not truly advance the cohesion o a multiculturalnation. $hey alienate the twenty million people who do not speak -nglish as their mothertongue. $hey are unnecessary since the public6s business is already conducted largely in-nglish. Further" given the present state o understanding about the e%ects o bilingualeducation on learning" it would be unwise to re)uire the universal use o -nglish. Finally"it is or parents and local communities to choose the path they will ollow" including howmuch o their culture they want to maintain or their children. . It can be inerred rom the passage that one o the characteristics o immigrant groupsto the Jnited States has traditionally been that" ater immigration" relatively ewmembers o the group+&/ became politically active in their new communities+(/ moved back and orth repeatedly between the Jnited States and their ormercommunities+C/ used their native languages in their new communities+3/ su%ered discrimination in their new communities at the hands o the cultural maority+-/ sought assimilation into the dominant culture o the new communities they wereentering 5. $he passage suggests that one o the e%ects o the debate over bilingual education isthat it has+&/ given the Mispanic community a new*ound pride in its culture+(/ hampered the education o Spanish*speaking students+C/ demonstrated the negative impact on imposing -nglish as the o;cial Jnited Stateslanguage+3/ provided a common banner under which the Spanish*speaking communities couldrally+-/ polari1ed the opinions o local Spanish*speaking community leaders <. In lines <B*<!" the phrase di%erent political agendas8 reers specifcally to conNictingopinions regarding the+&/ means o legislating the assimilation o minorities into Jnited States society



+(/ methods o inducing Mispanics to adopt -nglish as their primary language+C/ means o achieving nondiscriminatory education or Mispanics+3/ o;cial given responsibility or decisions regarding bilingual education+-/ e'tent to which Mispanics should blend into the larger Jnited States society @. In lines @*D the author says that It would be unwise to re)uire the universal use o-nglish.8 Pne reason or this" according to the author" is that+&/ it is not clear yet whether re)uiring the universal use o -nglish would promote or

hinder the education o children whose -nglish is limited+(/ the nation6s Mispanic leaders have shown that bilingual education is most e%ectivewhen it includes the maintenance o the Spanish language in the schools+C/ re)uiring the universal use o -nglish would reduce the cohesion o the nation6sMispanic communities and leadership+3/ the )uestion o language in the schools should be answered by those who evaluatebilingual education" not by people with specifc political agendas+-/ it has been shown that bilingual education is necessary to avoid disadvantaging intheir general learning children whose -nglish is limited D. In the last paragraph" the author o the passage is primarily concerned with discussing

+&/ reasons against enacting a measure that would mandate the orced inclusion oimmigrant groups within the dominant Jnited culture+(/ the virtues and limitations o declaring -nglish the o;cial language o the JnitedStates+C/ the history o attitudes within the Mispanic community toward bilingual education inthe Jnited States+3/ the importance or immigrant groups o maintaining large segments o their cultureto pass on to their children+-/ the di%erence in cultures between Mispanics and other immigrant groups in theJnited States

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**************Faced with the problems o insu;cient evidence" o conNicting evidence" and o evidencerelayed through the Nawed perceptual" retentive" and narrative abilities o witnesses" a ury is orced to draw inerences in its attempt to ascertain the truth. (y applying thesame cognitive tools they have developed and used over a lietime" urors engage in theinerential e'ercise that lawyers call act*fnding. In certain decision*making conte'ts thatare relevant to the trial o lawsuits" however" these normally reliable cognitive tools maycause urors to commit inerential errors that distort rather than reveal the truth.

&lthough uries can make a variety o inerential errors" most o these mistakes in udgment involve the drawing o an unwarranted conclusion rom the evidence" that is" inreality" it does not prove. For e'ample" evidence that the deendant in a criminaprosecution has a prior conviction may encourage urors to presume the deendant6sguilt" because o their preconception that a person previously convicted o a crime mustbe inclined toward repeated criminal behavior. $hat commonly held belie is at least apartial distortion o reality4 not all ormer convicts engage in repeated criminal behavior.&lso" a ury may give more probative weight than obective analysis would allow to vividphotographic evidence depicting a shooting victim6s wounds" or may underestimate the

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weight o deense testimony that is not delivered in a su;ciently orceul or persuasivemanner. Finally" comple' or voluminous evidence might be so conusing to a ury that itsmembers would draw totally unwarranted conclusions or even ignore the evidenceentirely. Recent empirical research in cognitive psychology suggests that people tend to commitinerential errors like these under certain predictable circumstances. (y e'amining theavailable inormation" the situation" and the type o decision being made" cognitive

psychologists can describe the kinds o inerential errors a person or a group is likely tomake. $hese patterns o human decision*making may provide the courts with a guide toevaluating the e%ect o evidence on the reliability o the ury6s inerential processes incertain situations.

$he act that uries can commit inerential errors that eopardi1e the accuracy o the act*fnding process is not unknown to the courts. In act" one o a presiding udge6s duties isto minimi1e ury inerential error through e'planation and clarifcation. ,onetheless" most udges now employ only a limited and primitive concept o ury inerential error> limitedbecause it ails to recogni1e the potential or errors outside certain traditional situations"primitive because it ignores the research and conclusions o psychologists in avor o

notions about human cognition held by lawyers. Xue . hich o the ollowing best e'plains the main idea o the passage9 +&/ hen making decisions in certain predictable situations" uries may commitinerential errors that obscure rather than reveal the truth.+(/ $he views o human cognition held by psychologists on the one hand and by the legaproession are demonstrably dissimilar.+C/ hen conronting powerul preconceptions" particularly shocking evidence" orcomple' situations" urors make errors in udgment.+3/ $he problem o inerential error by uries is typical o the di;culties with cognitiveprocesses that people ace in their everyday lives.+-/ #uries would probably make more reliable decisions i cognitive psychologists" ratherthan udges" instructed them about the problems inherent in drawing unwarrantedconclusions. Xue5 > It can be inerred rom the passage that the author would be most likely to agreewith which o the ollowing generali1ations about lawyers98 +&/ $hey have a less sophisticated understanding o human cognition than dopsychologists.+(/ $hey oten present comple' or voluminous inormation merely in order to conuse a ury.+C/ $hey are no better at making logical inerences rom the testimony at a trial than aremost udges.+3/ $hey have worked to help udges minimi1e ury inerential error.+-/ $hey are unrealistic about the ability o urors to ascertain the truth.

Xue<. $he author would be most likely to agree with which one o the ollowinggenerali1ations about a ury6s decisionmaking process98



+&/ $he more evidence a ury has" the more likely it is that the ury will reach a reliableverdict.+(/ #uries usually overestimate the value o visual evidence such as photographs.+C/ #urors have preconceptions about the behavior o deendants that prevent them rommaking an obective analysis o the evidence in a criminal trial.+3/ ost o the urors who make inerential errors during a trial do so because they areunaccustomed to having to make di;cult decisions based on inerences.+-/ $he manner in which evidence is presented to a ury may inNuence the ury either to

overestimate or to underestimate the value o that evidence.

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**********************,early a century ago" biologists ound that i they separated an invertebrate animaembryo into two parts at an early stage o its lie" it would survive and develop as twonormal embryos. $his led them to believe that the cells in the early embryo areundetermined in the sense that each cell has the potential to develop in a variety odi%erent ways. 2ater biologists ound that the situation was not so simple. It matters in

which plane the embryo is cut. I it is cut in a plane di%erent rom the one used by theearly investigators" it will not orm two whole embryos.& debate arose over what e'actly was happening. hich embryo cells are determined" ust when do they become irreversibly committed to their ates" and what are themorphogenetic determinants8 that tell a cell what to become9 (ut the debate could notbe resolved because no one was able to ask the crucial )uestions in a orm in which theycould be pursued productively. Recent discoveries in molecular biology" however" haveopened up prospects or a resolution o the debate. ,ow investigators think they know atleast some o the molecules that act as morphogenetic determinants in earlydevelopment. $hey have been able to show that" in a sense" cell determination beginseven beore an egg is ertili1ed.Studying sea urchins" biologist Kaul ross ound that an unertili1ed egg containssubstances that unction as morphogenetic determinants. $hey are located in thecytoplasm o the egg cell4 i.e." in that part o the cell6s protoplasm that lies outside o thenucleus. In the unertili1ed egg" the substances are inactive and are not distributedhomogeneously. hen the egg is ertili1ed" the substances become active andpresumably" govern the behavior o the genes they interact with. Since the substancesare unevenly distributed in the egg" when the ertili1ed egg divides" the resulting cellsare di%erent rom the start and so can be )ualitatively di%erent in their own geneactivity. $he substances that ross studied are maternal messenger R,&6sGproducts o certain othe maternal genes. Me and other biologists studying a wide variety o organisms haveound that these particular R,&6s direct" in large part" the synthesis o histones" a classo proteins that bind to 3,&. Pnce synthesi1ed" the histones move into the cell nucleuswhere section o 3,& wrap around them to orm a structure that resembles beads" orknots" on a string. $he beads are 3,& segments wrapped around the histones4 the stringis the intervening 3,&. &nd it is the structure o these beaded 3,& strings that guide theate o the cells in which they are located.. $he passage is most probably directed at which kind o audience9+&/ State legislators deciding about unding levels or a state*unded biological laboratory+(/ Scientists speciali1ing in molecular genetics+C/ Readers o an alumni newsletter published by the college that Kaul ross attended

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+3/ arine biologists studying the processes that give rise to new species+-/ Jndergraduate biology maors in a molecular biology course5. It can be inerred rom the passage that the morphogenetic determinants present inthe early embryo are+&/ located in the nucleus o the embryo cells+(/ evenly distributed unless the embryo is not developing normally+C/ inactive until the embryo cells become irreversibly committed to their fnal unction+3/ identical to those that were already present in the unertili1ed egg

+-/ present in larger )uantities than is necessary or the development o a singleindividual<. $he main topic o the passage is+&/ the early development o embryos o lower marine organisms+(/ the main contribution o modern embryology to molecular biology+C/ the role o molecular biology in disproving older theories o embryonic development+3/ cell determination as an issue in the study o embryonic development+-/ scientifc dogma as a actor in the recent debate over the value o molecular biology@. &ccording to the passage" when biologists believed that the cells in the early embryowere undetermined" they made which o the ollowing mistakes9+&/ $hey did not attempt to replicate the original e'periment o separating an embryo

into two parts.+(/ $hey did not reali1e that there was a connection between the issue o celdetermination and the outcome o the separation e'periment.+C/ $hey assumed that the results o e'periments on embryos did not depend on theparticular animal species used or such e'periments.+3/ $hey assumed that it was crucial to perorm the separation e'periment at an earlystage in the embryo6s lie.+-/ $hey assumed that di%erent ways o separating an embryo into two parts would bee)uivalent as ar as the ate o the two parts was concerned.D. It can be inerred rom the passage that the initial production o histones ater an eggis ertili1ed takes place+&/ in the cytoplasm+(/ in the maternal genes+C/ throughout the protoplasm+3/ in the beaded portions o the 3,& strings+-/ in certain sections o the cell nucleus. It can be inerred rom the passage that which o the ollowing is dependent on theertili1ation o an egg9+&/ Copying o maternal genes to produce maternal messenger R,&6s+(/ Synthesis o proteins called histones+C/ 3ivision o a cell into its nucleus and the cytoplasm+3/ 3etermination o the egg cell6s potential or division+-/ eneration o all o a cell6s morphogenetic determinants7. &ccording to the passage" the morphogenetic determinants present in the unertili1edegg cell are which o the ollowing9+&/ Kroteins bound to the nucleus+(/ Mistones+C/ aternal messenger R,&6s+3/ Cytoplasm+-/ ,onbeaded intervening 3,&B. $he passage suggests that which o the ollowing plays a role in determining whetheran embryo separated into two parts will develop as two normal embryos9



I. $he stage in the embryo6s lie at which the separation occursII. $he instrument with which the separations is accomplishedIII. $he plane in which the cut is made that separates the embryo+&/ I only+(/ II only+C/ I and II only+3/ I and III only+-/ I" II" and III

!. hich o the ollowing circumstances is most comparable to the impasse biologistsencountered in trying to resolve the debate about cell determination +lines 5*B/9+&/ $he problems aced by a literary scholar who wishes to use original source materialsthat are written in an unamiliar oreign language+(/ $he situation o a mathematician who in preparing a proo o a theorem orpublication detects a reasoning error in the proo +C/ $he di;culties o a space engineer who has to design e)uipment to unction in anenvironment in which it cannot frst be tested+3/ $he predicament o a linguist trying to develop a theory o language ac)uisition whenknowledge o the structure o language itsel is rudimentary at best+-/ $he dilemma conronting a oundation when the unds available to it are su;cient to

support one o two e)ually deserving scientifc proects but not both

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********************* #ames Korter +!0D*!70/ was the frst scholar to identiy the &rican inNuence on visuaart in the &mericans" and much o what is known about the cultural legacy that &rican*&merican artists inherited rom their &rican orebears has come to us by way o hiswork. Korter" a painter and art historian" began by studying &rican*&merican crats othe eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. $his research revealed that many o thehousehold items created by &rican*&merican men and womenGwalking sticks" ugs" andte'tilesGdisplayed characteristics that linked them iconographically to artiacts o est&rica. Korter then went on to establish clearly the range o the cultural territory inheritedby later &rican*&merican artists.&n e'ample o this aspect o Korter6s research occurs in his essay Robert S. 3uncanson"idwestern Romantic*Realist.8 $he work o 3uncanson" a nineteenth*century painter othe Mudson River school" like that o his predecessor in the movement" #oshua #ohnston"was commonly thought to have been created by a -uro*&merican artist. Korter proveddefnitively that both 3uncanson and #ohnston were o &rican ancestry. Korter publishedthis fnding and thousands o others in a comprehensive volume tracing the history o&rican*&merican art. &t the time o its frst printing in !@<" only two other booksdevoted e'clusively to the accomplishments o &rican*&merican artists e'isted. (oth othese books were written by &lain 2eRoy 2ocke" a proessor at the university whereKorter also taught. hile these earlier studies by 2ocke are interesting or being the frstto survey the feld" neither addressed the critical issue o &rican precursors4 Korter6sbook addressed this issue" painstakingly integrating the history o &rican*&merican artinto the larger history o art in the &mericas without separating it rom those )ualitiesthat gave it its uni)ue ties to &rican artisanship. Korter may have been especiallyattuned to these ties because o his conscious e%ort to maintain them in his ownpaintings" many o which combine the style o the genre portrait with evidence o ane'tensive knowledge o the cultural history o various &rican peoples.

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In his later years" Korter wrote additional chapters or later editions o his book"constantly revising and correcting his fndings" some o which had been based onecessity on ragmentary evidence. &mong his later achievements were his defnitivereckoning o the birth year o the painter Katrick Reason" long a point o scholarlyuncertainty" and his identifcation o an unmarked grave in San Francisco as that o thesculptor -dmonia 2ewis. &t his death" Korter let e'tensive notes or unfnished proectaimed at e'ploring the inNuence o &rican art on the art o the estern world generally"a body o research whose riches scholars still have not e'hausted.

. hich one o the ollowing most accurately states the main idea o the passage9+&/ (ecause the connections between &rican*&merican art and other art in the &mericashad been established by earlier scholars" Korter6s work ocused on showing &rican*&merican art6s connections to &rican artisanship.+(/ In addition to showing the connections between &rican*&merican art and &ricanartisanship" Korter6s most important achievement was illustrating the links between&rican*&merican art and other art in &mericas.+C/ 3espite the act that his last book remains unfnished" Korter6s work was the frst todevote its attention e'clusively to the accomplishments o &rican*&merican artists.+3/ &lthough showing the connections between &rican*&merican art and &ricanartisanship" Korter6s work concentrated primarily on placing &rican*&merican art in the

conte't o estern art in general.+-/ hile not the frst body o scholarship to treat the subect o &rican*&merican art"Korter6s work was the frst to show the connections between &rican*&merican art and&rican artisanship.7. $he discussion o 2ocke6s books is intended primarily to+&/ argue that Korte6s book depended upon 2ocke6s pioneering scholarship+(/ highlight an important way in which Korter6s work di%ered rom previous work in hisfeld+C/ suggest an e'planation or why Korter6s book was little known outside academiccircles+3/ support the claim that Korter was not the frst to notice &rican inNuences in &rican*&merican art+-/ argue that 2ocke6s e'ample was a maor inNuence o Korter6s decision to publish hisfndingsB. $he passage states which one o the ollowing about the !@< edition o Korter6s bookon &rican*&merican art9+&/ It received little scholarly attention at frst.+(/ It was revised and improved upon in later editions.+C/ It took issue with several o 2ocke6s conclusions.+3/ It is considered the defnitive version o Korter6s work.+-/ It e'plored the inNuence o &rican art on western art in general.!. iven the inormation in the passage" Korter6s identifcation o the ancestry o3uncanson and #ohnston provides conclusive evidence or which one o the ollowingstatements9+&/ Some o the characteristics defning the Mudson River school are iconographicallylinked to eston &rican artisanship.+(/ Some o the works o 3uncanson and #ohnston are not in the style o the MudsonRiver school.+C/ Some o the work o -uro*&merican painters displays similarities to &rican*&mericancrats o the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.+3/ Some o the works o the Mudson River school were done by &rican*&mericanpainters.



+-/ Some o the works o 3uncanson and #ohnston were inNuenced by est &ricanartiacts.0. hich one o the ollowing can most reasonably be inerred rom the passage aboutthe study that Korter let unfnished at his death9+&/ I completed" it would have contradicted some o the conclusions contained in hisearlier book.+(/ I completed" it would have amended some o the conclusions contained in his earlierbook.

+C/ I completed" it would have brought up to date the comprehensive history o &rican*&merican art begun in his earlier book.+3/ I completed" it would have e'panded upon the proect o his earlier book bybroadening the scope o in)uiry ound in the earlier book.+-/ I completed" it would have supported some o the theories put orth by Korter6scontemporaries since the publication o his earlier book.. hich o the ollowing hypothetical observations is most closely analogous to thediscoveries Korter made about &rican*&merican crats o the eighteenth and nineteenthcenturies9+&/ Contemporary Maitian social customs have a uni)ue character dependent on butdi%erent rom both their &rican and French origins.

+(/ Kopular music in the Jnited States" some o which is based on &rican musicaltraditions" oten inNuences music being composed on the &rican continent.+C/ any novels written in Canada by Chinese immigrants e'hibit narrative themes verysimilar to those ound in Chinese olktales.+3/ -'tensive Indian immigration to -ngland has made traditional Indian oods nearly aspopular there as the traditional -nglish oods that had been popular there beore Indianimmigration.+-/ Some e'ican muralists o the early twentieth century consciously imitated the art onative peoples as a response to the Spanish inNuences that had predominated ine'ican art.5. $he passage most strongly supports which one o the ollowing inerences aboutKorter6s own paintings9+&/ $hey oten contained fgures or images derived rom the work o &rican artisans.+(/ $hey ueled his interest in pursuing a career in art history.+C/ $hey were used in Korter6s book to show the e'tent o &rican inNuence on &rican*&merican art.+3/ $hey were a deliberate attempt to prove his theories about art history.+-/ $hey were done ater all o his academic work had been completed.<. (ased on the passage" which one o the ollowing" i true" would have been mostrelevant to the proect Korter was working on at the time o his death9+&/ &rican*&merican crats o the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries have certainresemblances to -uropean olk crats o earlier periods.+(/ $he paintings o some twentieth*century -uropean artists prefgured certain stylisticdevelopments in ,orth &rican graphic art.+C/ $he designs o many o the )uilts made by &rican*&merican women in thenineteenth century reNect designs o -uropean trade goods.+3/ &ter the movement o large numbers o &rican*&mericans to cities" the &ricaninNuences in the work o many &rican*&merican painters increased.+-/ Several portraits by certain twentieth*century -uropean painters were modeled atere'amples o Central &rican ceremonial masks.



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********************** $he frst and most important rule o legitimate or populargovernment" that is to say" o government whose obect is thegood o the people" is thereore" as I have observed" to ollowin everything the general will. (ut to ollow this will it is

D necessary to know it" and above all to distinguish it rom theparticular will" beginning with one:s sel> this distinction isalways very di;cult to make" and only the most sublime virtuecan a%ord su;cient illumination or it. &s" in order to will"it is necessary to be ree" a di;culty no less great than the0 ormer arises 9 that o preserving at once the public libertyand the authority o government. 2ook into the motives which haveinduced men" once united by their common needs in a generalsociety" to unite themselves still more intimately by means o civil societies> you will fnd no other motive than that o D assuring the property" lie and liberty o each member by the

protection o all. (ut can men be orced to deend the libertyo any one among them" without trespassing on that o others9&nd how can they provide or the public needs" without alienatingthe individual property o those who are orced to contribute to50 them9 ith whatever sophistry all this may be covered over" it iscertain that i any constraint can be laid on my will" I am nolonger ree" and that I am no longer master o my own property"i any one else can lay a hand on it. $his di;culty" which wouldhave seemed insurmountable" has been removed" like the frst" by5D the most sublime o all human institutions" or rather by a divineinspiration" which teaches mankind to imitate here below theunchangeable decrees o the 3eity. (y what inconceivable art has ameans been ound o making men ree by making them subect4 o using in the service o the State the properties" the persons and<0 even the lives o all its members" without constraining and withoutconsulting them4 o confning their will by their own admission4 o overcoming their reusal by that consent" and orcing them to punishthemselves" when they act against their own will9 Mow can it be thatall should obey" yet nobody take upon him to command" and that all<D should serve" and yet have no masters" but be the more ree" as" inapparent subection" each loses no part o his liberty but what mightbe hurtul to that o another9 $hese wonders are the work o law. Itis to law alone that men owe ustice and liberty. It is this salutaryorgan o the will o all which establishes" in civil right" the@0 natural e)uality between men. It is this celestial voice whichdictates to each citi1en the precepts o public reason" and teacheshim to act according to the rules o his own udgment" and not tobehave inconsistently with himsel. It is with this voice alone thatpolitical rulers should speak when they command4 or no sooner does@D one man" setting aside the law" claim to subect another to hisprivate will" than he departs rom the state o civil society" andconronts him ace to ace in the pure state o nature" in which

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obedience is prescribed solely by necessity.

. $he parado' in line 5B is resolved according to the author when an individual&. submits to the rule o law and thus is at liberty to do anything that does not harmanother person(. behaves according to the natural rights o man and not according to imposed rulesC. agrees to ollow the rule o law even when it is against his best interests

3. belongs to a society which guarantees individual liberty at all times-. ollows the will o the maority 5. $he author9s attitude to law in this passage is best conveyed as&. respect or its inalienable authority(. e'tolling its importance as a human institutionC. resignation to the need or its imposition on the maority3. acceptance o its restrictions-. praise or its divine origin <. $he author would agree with all o the ollowing e'cept

&. government must maintain its authority without unduly compromising personal liberty(. individual reedom is threatened in the absence o lawC. ustice cannot be ensured in the absence o law3. political leaders should use the law as their guide to correct leadership-. the law recogni1es that all men are capable o recogni1ing what is in the generalinterest

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*************** $he great migration o -uropean intellectuals to the Jnited States in the second )uartero the twentieth century prompted a transormation in the character o estern socialthought. $he inNu' o Continental thinkers Neeing ascist regimes had a great impact on&merican academic circles" leading to new developments in such diverse felds aslinguistics and theology. (ut the greatest impact was on the emigrYs themselves. $hismigration e'perience8 led e'patriates to ree'amine the supposedly sel*evidentpremises inherited rom the Continental intellectual tradition. $he result" according to MStuart Mughes in $he Sea*Change" was an increased sophistication anddeprovinciali1ation in social theory.

Pne problem acing newly arrived emigrYs in the J.S. was the spirit o anti*intellectualism in much o the country. $he empirical orientation o &merican academiccircles" moreover" led to the conscious tempering by many -uropean thinkers o theirown tendencies toward speculative idealism. In addition" reports o oppression in -uropeshook many Pld orld intellectuals rom a stance o moral isolation. any great-uropean social theorists had regarded their work as separate rom all moraconsiderations. $he migration e'perience proved to many intellectuals o the ollowinggenerations that such notions o moral seclusion were unrealistic" even irresponsible.

$his transormation o social thought is perhaps best e'emplifed in the career o theerman theologian Kaul $illich. igration conronted $illich with an ideological as well as

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a cultural dichotomy. Mughes points out that $illich6s thought was suspended betweenphilosophy and theology" ar'ism and political conormity" theism and disbelie.8Comparable to the usion by other e'patriate intellectuals o their own idealist traditionswith the &nglo*&merican empiricist tradition was $illich6s synthesis o erman Romanticreligiosity with the e'istentialism born o the twentieth*century war e'perience. $illich6sbasic goal" according to Mughes" was to move secular individuals by making religioussymbols more accessible to them. Forced to make his ethical orientation e'plicit in theconte't o &merican attitudes" $illich avoided the esoteric academic posture o many Pld

orld scholars" and was able to fnd a wide and sympathetic audience or his sometimesdi;cult theology. In this way" his e'perience in &merica" in his own words"deprovinciali1ed8 his thought. <. $he author6s main concern in the passage is to+&/ characteri1e the e%ects o migration onJ.S. history+(/ show how Kaul $illich6s career was representative o the migration e'perience+C/ discuss the e%ects o the great migration on modern social thought+3/ reveal the increased sophistication o post*migration thought+-/ contrast -uropean social thought with that o the Jnited States

@. $he author probably mentions M. Stuart Mughes +Mighlighted/ in order to+&/ give an e'ample o a -uropean intellectual who migrated to &merica+(/ cite an important source o inormation about the migration e'perience+C/ demonstrate how one &merican academic was inNuenced by -uropean scholars+3/ pay tribute to &mericans who provided -uropean thinkers with a reuge rom ascism+-/ name a leading disciple o Kaul $issich . &ccording to the passage" reports o oppression in -urope8 +Mighlighted/ a%ectedsocial thinkers by orcing them to+&/ rethink their moral responsibilities+(/ ree'amine the morality o -uropean leaders+C/ analy1e the e%ects o migration on morality+3/ reconsider their anti*social behavior+-/ ustiy the moral value o social thought 7. It can be inerred that postmigration social thought is distinguished rompremigration thought by its+&/ less secular nature+(/ greater social consciousness+C/ more di;cult theology+3/ diminished accessibility+-/ more theoretical nature

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***************** $he human species came into being at the time o the greatest biological diversity in thehistory o the -arth. $oday" as human populations e'pand and alter the naturaenvironment" they are reducing biological diversity to its lowest level since the end o theeso1oic era" D million years ago. $he ultimate conse)uences o this biological collision

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are beyond calculation" but they are certain to be harmul. $hat" in essence" is thebiodiversity crisis. $he history o global diversity can be summari1ed as ollows> ater the initial Nowering omulticellular animals" there was a swit rise in the number o species in early Kaleo1oictimes +between 00 and @<0 million years ago/" then plateaulike stagnation or theremaining 500 million years o the Kaleo1oic era" and fnally a slow but steady climbthrough the eso1oic and Ceno1oic eras to diversity6s all*time high. $his history suggeststhat biological diversity was hard won and a long time in coming. Furthermore" this

pattern o increase was set back by fve massive e'tinction episodes. $he most recent othese" during the Cretaceous period" is by ar the most amous" because it ended the ageo the dinosaurs" conerred hegemony on the mammals" and ultimately made possiblethe ascendancy o the human species. (ut the cretaceous crisis was minor comparedwith the Kermian e'tinctions 5@0 million years ago" during which between 77 and !percent o marine animal species perished. It took D million years" well into eso1oictimes" or species diversity to begin a signifcant recovery.ithin the past 0"000 years biological diversity has entered a wholly new era. Mumanactivity has had a devastating e%ect on species diversity" and the rate o human*inducede'tinctions is accelerating. Mal o the bird species o Kolynesia have been eliminatedthrough hunting and the destruction o native orests. Mundreds o fsh species endemic

to 2ake Zictoria are now threatened with e'tinction ollowing the careless introduction oone species o fsh" the ,ile perch. $he list o such biogeographic disasters is e'tensive.(ecause every species is uni)ue and irreplaceable" the loss o biodiversity is the mostproound process o environmental change. Its conse)uences are also the leastpredictable because the value o -arth6s biota +the auna and Nora collectively/ remainslargely unstudied and unappreciated4 unlike material and cultural wealth" which weunderstand because they are the substance o our everyday lives" biological wealth isusually taken or granted. $his is a serious strategic error" one that will be increasinglyregretted as time passes. $he biota is not only part o a country6s heritage" the producto millions o years o evolution centered on that place4 it is also a potential source orimmense untapped material wealth in the orm o ood" medicine" and othercommercially important substance.7. hich one o the ollowing best e'presses the main idea o the passage9+&/ $he reduction in biodiversity is an irreversible process that represents a setback bothor science and or society as a whole.+(/ $he material and cultural wealth o a nation are insignifcant when compared with thecountry6s biological wealth.+C/ $he enormous diversity o lie on -arth could not have come about without periodice'tinctions that have conerred preeminence on one species at the e'pense o another.+3/ $he human species is in the process o initiating a massive e'tinction episode thatmay make past episodes look minor by comparison.+-/ $he current decline in species diversity is human*induced tragedy o incalculableproportions that has potentially grave conse)uences or the human species.B. hich one o the ollowing situations is most analogous to the history o globaldiversity summari1ed in lines 0*B o the passage9+&/ $he number o fsh in a lake declines abruptly as a result o water pollution" thenmakes a slow comeback ater cleanup e%orts and the passage o ordinances againstdumping.+(/ $he concentration o chlorine in the water supply o large city Nuctuates widelybeore stabili1ing at a constant and sae level.+C/ &n old*ashioned article o clothing goes in and out o style periodically as a result oeatures in ashion maga1ines and the popularity o certain period flms.



+3/ &ter valuable mineral deposits are discovered" the population o a geographic regionbooms then levels o% and begins to decrease at a slow and steady pace.+-/ $he variety o styles stocked by a shoe store increases rapidly ater the store opens"holds constant or many months" and then gradually creeps upward.!. $he author suggests which one o the ollowing about the Cretaceous crisis9+&/ It was the second most devastating e'tinction episode in history.+(/ It was the most devastating e'tinction episode up until that time.+C/ It was less devastating to species diversity than is the current biodiversity crisis.

+3/ $he rate o e'tinction among marine animal species as a result o the crisis did notapproach 77 percent.+-/ $he dinosaurs comprised the great maority o species that perished during the crisis.0. $he author mentions the ,ile perch in order to provide an e'ample o +&/ a species that has become e'tinct through human activity+(/ the typical lack o oresight that has led to biogeographic disaster+C/ a marine animal species that survived the Kermian e'tinctions+3/ a species that is a potential source o material wealth+-/ the kind o action that is necessary to reverse the decline in species diversity. &ll o the ollowing are e'plicitly mentioned in the passage as contributing to thee'tinction o species -LC-K$

+&/ hunting+(/ pollution+C/ deorestation+3/ the growth o human populations+-/ human*engineered changes in the environment5. $he passage suggests which one o the ollowing about material and cultural wealth9+&/ (ecause we can readily assess the value o material and cultural wealth" we tend notto take them or granted.+(/ #ust as the biota is a source o potential material wealth" it is an untapped source ocultural wealth as well.+C/ Some degree o material and cultural wealth may have to be sacrifced i we are toprotect our biological heritage.+3/ aterial and cultural wealth are o less value than biological wealth because theyhave evolved over a shorter period o time.+-/ aterial wealth and biological wealth are interdependent in a way that materialwealth and cultural wealth are not.<. $he author would be most likely to agree with which one o the ollowing statementsabout the conse)uences o the biodiversity crisis9+&/ $he loss o species diversity will have as immediate an impact on the material onations as on their biological wealth.+(/ $he crisis will likely end the hegemony o the human race and bring about theascendancy o another species.+C/ $he e%ects o the loss o species diversity will be dire" but we cannot yet tell howdire.+3/ It is more ruitul to discuss the conse)uences o the crisis in terms o the potentialloss to humanity than in strictly biological loss to humanity than in strictly biologicaterms.+-/ $he conse)uences o the crisis can be minimi1ed" but the pace o e'tinctions can notbe reversed.

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************&nole li1ard species that occur together +sympatrically/ on certain Caribbean islandsoccupy di%erent habitats> some live only in the grass" some only on tree trunks" andsome only on twigs. $hese species also di%er morphologically> grass dwellers are slenderwith long tails" tree dwellers are stocky with long legs" twig dwellers are slender butstubby*legged. hat is striking about these li1ards is not that coe'isting species di%er inmorphology and habitat use +such di%erences are common among closely related

sympatric species/" but that the same three types o habitat specialists occur on each oour islands> Kuerto Rico" Cuba" Mispaniola" and #amaica. oreover" the Kuerto Rican twigspecies closely resembles the twig species o Cuba" Mispaniola" and #amaica inmorphology" habitat use" and behavior. 2ikewise" the specialists or other habitats aresimilar across the islands. $he presence o similar species on di%erent islands could be variously e'plained. &nancestral species might have adapted to e'ploit a particular ecological niche on oneisland and then traveled over water to coloni1e other islands. Pr this ancestral speciesmight have evolved at a time when the islands were connected" which some o theseislands may once have been. &ter the islands separated" the isolated li1ard populations

would have become distinct species while also retaining their ancestors: nicheadaptations. (oth o these scenarios imply that speciali1ation to each niche occurredonly once. &lternatively" each specialist could have arisen independently on each o theislands. I each type o specialist evolved ust once" then similar specialists on di%erent islandswould be closely related. Conversely" i the specialists evolved independently on eachisland" then a specialist on one island would be more closely related to other types oanoles on the same islandGregardless o their ecological nichesGthan it would be to asimilar specialist on a di%erent island. (iologists can iner how species are related evolutionarily by comparing 3,& se)uencesor the same genes in di%erent species. Species with similar 3,& se)uences or thesegenes are generally more closely related to each other than to species with less*similar3,& se)uences. 3,& evidence concerning the anoles led researchers to conclude thathabitat specialists on one island are not closely related to the same habitat specialistselsewhere" indicating that specialists evolved independently on each island. . $he primary purpose o the passage is to

&. describe some unusual eatures o anole li1ard species(. account or a particular type o behavior ound among anole li1ard speciesC. contrast two types o evidence that have been used to support a particular hypothesisconcerning anole li1ard species3. e'plain how researchers resolved a particular scientifc )uestion concerning anoleli1ard species-. e'amine di%erent e'planations or a particular trait common to certain anole li1ardspecies

5. hich o the ollowing best describes the purpose o the highlighted sentence9



&. It raises a )uestion about why coe'isting anole li1ard species occupy the di%erenttypes o habitats mentioned in the frst sentence.(. It introduces a act about anole li1ard species that the passage will go on to e'plore.C. It identifes a particular aspect o anole li1ard behavior that distinguishes anoles romother li1ard species.3. It e'plains why one aspect o anole li1ard species: habitat use has been di;cult toaccount or.-. It points out a surprising relationship between morphology and habitat use that is

e'plained in the concluding paragraph.&nswer>

<. It can be inerred orm the passage that which o the ollowing is true o the Cubantree*dwelling anole li1ard and the #amaican tree*dwelling anole li1ard9

&. $hey share a morphology characteri1ed by stocky bodies and long legs.(. $hey have bodies that are relatively slender compared to their stubby legs.C. $hey di%er signifcantly orm one another in si1e.3. $hey di%er signifcantly rom one another in behavior and habitat use.-. $hey are genetically closely related to one another.

&nswer>

@. $he passage suggests that i a grass*dwelling anole li1ard species evolved on oneisland and then traveled over water to coloni1e a second island" the grass*dwellinganoles on the two islands would eventually

&. develop very di%erent 3,& se)uences(. develop into di%erent species that are more distantly related to each other than totree* and twig*dwelling anoles on their own islandsC. come to di%er signifcantly rom one another in habitat use3. develop into di%erent" but closely related" species-. evolve signifcant morphological di%erences

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***************** $here is no consensus amongresearchers regarding what )ualifes asubstance as a pheromone. hile mostagree on a basic defnition o pheromonesas chemicals released by one individualo a species which" when detected byanother individual o the same species"elicit a specifc behavioral or physiologicalresponse" some researchers also speciythat the response to pheromones must beunconscious. In addition" the distinctionbetween pheromones and odorantsGchemicals that are consciously detectedas odors***can be blurry" and someresearchers classiy pheromones as atype o odorant. -vidence that pheromone

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http://gmatclub.com/forum/anole-lizard-112513.html



Commonplace items sometimes play surprising roles in world development. For e'amplethough most people today associate nutmeg with simple baked goods" this commonspice once altered the course o political history. For centuries" the nutmeg tree grewonly in the (anda Islands" a small chain in the southwest Kacifc. 2ocals harvested thearomatic nuts o the tree and sold them to traders. -ventually these nuts" rom which thespice is made" ended up as a lu'ury item in the -uropean market" via Zenetian spicemerchants. -ager to establish a monopoly over this valuable spice" the 3utch attackedthe (andas" subugating the native people in a mostly successul attempt to control the

nutmeg trade.Mowever" one island in the (anda chain remained in the hands o the (ritish and was theobect o much conNict between the ,etherlands and -ngland. &ter many battles" the(ritish o%ered to cede control o the island in e'change or ,ew &msterdam" a 3utchoutpost on the east coast o ,orth &merica. &t the time" the 3utch" inveterate traders"were more interested in the spice trade than in the mercantile value o ,ew &msterdamand so accepted the o%er. In 7" the $reaty o (reda gave the 3utch complete controlo the (anda Islands" and thus o the nutmeg trade" and gave the (ritish ,ew&msterdam" which they promptly renamed ,ew Oork. V$he passage suggests which o the ollowing about the (anda Islands9

V$he (ritish arrived in the islands beore the 3utch.5V,utmeg was the only spice that grew on the islands.<V,atives o the islands produced nutmeg rom the nuts o the nutmeg tree.@V$he (anda Islands are still in the possession o the 3utch.DV$he local economy o the islands depended completely on nutmeg. 5V$he second paragraph perorms which o the ollowing unctions in the passage9 VIt o%ers specifc inormation to complete the logic o the author:s claims.5VIt summari1es and evaluates the evidence given thus ar.<VIt presents the author:s main point to e'plain a uni)ue situation.@VIt cites a particular case to demonstrate the importance o historical change.DVIt discusses the necessary outcome o the author:s assertions. DVhich o the ollowing" i true" most strengthens the claim that ,ew &msterdam wouldhave remained a 3utch possession i not or the conNict over nutmeg9 V&ttempts to cultivate nutmeg trees outside o the (anda Islands had ailed.5VFew people lived in ,ew &msterdam beore it was ceded to the (ritish.<V$he (ritish controlled trade in other valuable spices" such as cloves.@V,ew &msterdam served as a trading center or urs e'ported to -urope.DV$he ,etherlands controlled no ,orth &merican territories other than ,ew &msterdam.

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******************** #oseph latthaar6s Forged in (attle is not the frst e'cellent study o (lack soldiers andtheir hite o;cers in the Civil ar" but it uses more soldiers6 letters and diariesGincluding rare material rom (lack soldiersGand concentrates more intensely on (lack*hite relations in (lack regiments than do any o its predecessors. latthaar6s title

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e'presses his thesis> loyalty" riendship" and respect among hite o;cers and (lacksoldiers were ostered by the mutual dangers they aced in combat.latthaar accurately describes the government6s discriminatory treatment o (lacksoldiers in pay" promotion" medical care" and ob assignments" appropriatelyemphasi1ing the campaign by (lack soldiers and their o;cers to get the opportunity tofght. $hat chance remained limited throughout the war by army policies that kept most(lack units serving in rear*echelon assignments and working in labor battalions. $hus"while their combat death rate was only one*third that o hite units" their mortality rate

rom disease" a maor killer in his war" was twice as great. 3espite these obstacles" thecourage and e%ectiveness o several (lack units in combat won increasing respect rominitially skeptical or hostile hite soldiers. &s one hite o;cer put it" they have oughttheir way into the respect o all the army.8In trying to demonstrate the magnitude o this attitudinal change" however" latthaarseems to e'aggerate the prewar racism o the hite men who became o;cers in (lackregiments. Krior to the war"8 he writes o these men" virtually all o them held powerulracial preudices.8 hile perhaps true o those o;cers who oined (lack units orpromotion or other sel*serving motives" this statement misrepresents the attitudes othe many abolitionists who became o;cers in (lack regiments. Maving spent yearsfghting against the race preudice endemic in &merican society" they participated

eagerly in this military e'periment" which they hoped would help &rican &mericansachieve reedom and postwar civil e)uality. (y current standards o racial egalitarianism"these men6s paternalism toward &rican &mericans was racist. (ut to call their eelingspowerul racial preudices8 is to indulge in generational chauvinismGto udge past erasby present standards.

. $he passage as a whole can best be characteri1ed as which o the ollowing9+&/ &n evaluation o a scholarly study+(/ & description o an attitudinal change+C/ & discussion o an analytical deect+3/ &n analysis o the causes o a phenomenon+-/ &n argument in avor o revising a view 5. &ccording to the author" which o the ollowing is true o latthaar6s Forged in (attlecompared with previous studies on the same topic9+&/ It is more reliable and presents a more complete picture o the historical events onwhich it concentrates than do previous studies.+(/ It uses more o a particular kind o source material and ocuses more closely on aparticular aspect o the topic than do previous studies.+C/ It contains some unsupported generali1ations" but it rightly emphasi1es a themeignored by most previous studies.+3/ It surpasses previous studies on the same topic in that it accurately describesconditions oten neglected by those studies.+-/ It makes skillul use o supporting evidence to illustrate a subtle trend that previousstudies have ailed todetect. <. $he author implies that the title o latthaar6s book reers specifcally to which o theollowing9+&/ $he sense o pride and accomplishment that (lack soldiers increasingly elt as aresult o their Civil ar e'periences



+(/ $he civil e)uality that &rican &mericans achieved ater the Civil ar" partly as aresult o their use o organi1ational skills honed by combat+C/ $he changes in discriminatory army policies that were made as a direct result o theperormance o (lack combat units during the Civil ar+3/ $he improved interracial relations that were ormed by the races6 acing o commondangers and their waging o a common fght during the Civil ar+-/ $he standards o racial egalitarianism that came to be adopted as a result o hiteCivil ar veterans6 repudiation o the previous racism

@. $he passage mentions which o the ollowing as an important theme that receivesspecial emphasis in latthaar6s book9+&/ $he attitudes o abolitionist o;cers in (lack units+(/ $he struggle o (lack units to get combat assignments+C/ $he conse)uences o the poor medical care received by (lack soldiers+3/ $he motives o o;cers serving in (lack units+-/ $he discrimination that (lack soldiers aced when trying or promotions D. $he passage suggests that which o the ollowing was true o (lack units6 diseasemortality rates in the Civil ar9

+&/ $hey were almost as high as the combat mortality rates o hite units.+(/ $hey resulted in part rom the relative ine'perience o these units when in combat.+C/ $hey were especially high because o the nature o these units6 usual dutyassignments.+3/ $hey resulted in e'tremely high overall casualty rates in (lack combat units.+-/ $hey e'acerbated the morale problems that were caused by the army6sdiscriminatory policies. . $he author o the passage )uotes the hite o;cer in lines 5<*5@ primarily in order toprovide evidence to support the contention that+&/ virtually all hite o;cers initially had hostile attitudes toward (lack soldiers+(/ (lack soldiers were oten orced to deend themselves rom physical attacks initiatedby soldiers rom hite units+C/ the combat perormance o (lack units changed the attitudes o hite soldierstoward (lack soldiers+3/ hite units paid especially careul attention to the perormance o (lack units inbattle+-/ respect in the army as a whole was accorded only to those units" whether (lack orhite" that perormed well in battle 7. hich o the ollowing best describes the kind o error attributed to latthaar in lines5D*5B9+&/ Insisting on an unwarranted distinction between two groups o individuals in order torender an argument concerning them internally consistent+(/ Supporting an argument in avor o a given interpretation o a situation with evidencethat is not particularly relevant to the situation+C/ Kresenting a distorted view o the motives o certain individuals in order to providegrounds or a negative evaluation o their actions+3/ 3escribing the conditions prevailing beore a given event in such a way that thecontrast with those prevailing ater the event appears more striking than it actually is+-/ &sserting that a given event is caused by another event merely because the otherevent occurred beore the given event occurred



B. hich o the ollowing actions can best be described as indulging in generationalchauvinism8 +lines @0*@/ as that practice is defned in the passage9+&/ Condemning a present*day monarch merely because many monarchs have beentyrannical in the past.+(/ Clinging to the ormal standards o politeness common in one6s youth to such adegree that any rela'ation o those standards is intolerable.+C/ Xuestioning the accuracy o a report written by an employee merely because o the

employee6s gender.+3/ 3eriding the superstitions accepted as science8 in past eras without acknowledgingthe prevalence o irrational belies today.+-/ 2abeling a nineteenth*century politician as corrupt8 or engaging in once*acceptablepractices considered intolerable today.

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**************&s the economic role o multinational" global corporations e'pands" the internationaeconomic environment will be shaped increasingly not by governments or international

institutions" but by the interaction between governments and global corporationsespecially in the Jnited States" -urope" and #apan. & signifcant actor in this shitingworld economy is the trend toward regional trading blocs o nations" which has apotentially large e%ect on the evolution o the world trading system. $wo e'amples othis trend are the Jnited States*Canada Free $rade &greement +F$&/ and -urope !!5"the move by the -uropean Community +-C/ to dismantle impediments to the ree Now ogoods" services" capital" and labor among member states by the end o !!5. Mowever"although numerous political and economic actors were operative in launching the moveto integrate the -C6s markets" concern about protectionism within the -C does notappear to have been a maor consideration. $his is in sharp contrast to the F$&4 theoverwhelming reason or that bilateral initiative was ear o increasing Jnited Statesprotectionism. ,onetheless" although markedly di%erent in origin and nature" bothregional developments are highly signifcant in that they will oster integration in the twolargest and richest markets o the world" as well as provoke )uestions about the uturedirection o the world trading system.

. $he primary purpose o the passage as a whole is to+&/ describe an initiative and propose its continuance+(/ chronicle a development and illustrate its inconsistencies+C/ identiy a trend and suggest its importance+3/ summari1e a process and )uestion its signifcance+-/ report a phenomenon and outline its probable uture5. &ccording to the passage" all o the ollowing are elements o the shiting worldeconomy -LC-K$+&/ an alteration in the role played by governments+(/ an increase in interaction between national governments and international regulatoryinstitutions+C/ an increase in the ormation o multinational trading alliances+3/ an increase in integration in the two richest markets o the world+-/ a ear o increasing Jnited States protectionism<. $he passage suggests which o the ollowing about global corporations9

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http://gmatclub.com/forum/forged-in-battle-rc-passage-99005.html



+&/ $heir continued growth depends on the e'istence o a ully integrated internationalmarket.+(/ $heir potential e%ect on the world market is a matter o ongoing concern tointernational institutions.+C/ $hey will have to assume )uasi*governmental unctions i current economic trendscontinue.+3/ $hey have provided a model o economic success or regional trading blocs.+-/ $heir inNuence on world economics will continue to increase.

@. &ccording to the passage" one similarity between the F$& and -urope !!5 is thatthey both+&/ overcame concerns about the role o politics in the shiting world economy +(/ originated out o concern over unair trade practices by other nations+C/ e'empliy a trend toward regionali1ation o commercial markets+3/ place the economic needs o the trading bloc ahead o those o the member nations+-/ help to ensure the continued economic viability o the world communityD. hich o the ollowing can be inerred rom the passage about the -uropeanCommunity prior to the adoption o the -urope !!5 program9+&/ $here were restrictions on commerce between the member nations.

+(/ $he economic policies o the member nations ocused on global trading issues.+C/ $here were ew impediments to trade between the member nations and the JnitedStates.+3/ $he Now o goods between the member nations and Canada was insignifcant.+-/ Relations between multinational corporations and the governments o the membernations were strained.. $he author discusses the F$& and -urope !!5 most likely in order to+&/ point out the similarities between two seemingly disparate trading alliances+(/ illustrate how di%erent economic motivations produce di%erent types o trading blocs+C/ provide contrasting e'amples o a trend that is inNuencing the world economy+3/ identiy the most important characteristics o successul economic integration+-/ trace the history o regional trading blocs7. hich o the ollowing best describes the organi1ation o the passage9 +&/ &n argument is put orth and evidence or and against it given.+(/ &n assertion is made and opposing evidence presented.+C/ $wo hypotheses are described and shown to inconsistent with one another.+3/ & phenomenon is identifed and illustrations o this phenomenon o%ered.+-/ & specifc case o a phenomenon is discussed a generali1ation drawn.

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****************oodrow ilson was reerring to the liberal idea o the economic market when he saidthat the ree enterprise system is the most e;cient economic system. a'imumreedom means ma'imum productiveness4 our openness8 is to be the measure o ourstability. Fascination with this ideal has made &mericans dey the Pld orld8 categorieso settled possessiveness versus unsettling deprivation" the cupidity o retention versusthe cupidity o sei1ure" a status )uo8 deended or attacked. $he Jnited States" it wasbelieved" had no status )uo ante. Pur only station8 was the turning o a stationarywheel" spinning aster and aster. e did not base our system on property butopportunityGwhich meant we based it not on stability but on mobility. $he more things

http://gmatclub.com/forum/economic-role-of-multinational-104461.html

http://gmatclub.com/forum/economic-role-of-multinational-104461.html



changed" that is" the more rapidly the wheel turned" the steadier we would be. $heconventional picture o class politics is composed o the Maves" who want a stability tokeep what they have" and the Mave*,ots" who want a touch o instability and change inwhich to scramble or the things they have not. (ut &mericans imagined a condition inwhich speculators" sel*makers" runners are always using the new opportunities given byour land. $hese economic leaders +ront*runners/ would thus be mainly agents o change. $he nonstarters were considered the ones who wanted stability" a strong reeree to givethem some position in the race" a regulative hand to calm manic speculation4 an

authority that can call things to a halt" begin things again rom compensatorily staggeredstarting lines.8Reorm8 in &merica has been sterile because it can imagine no change e'cept throughthe e'tension o this metaphor o a race" wider inclusion o competitors" a piece o theaction"8 as it were" or the disenranchised. $here is no attempt to call o% the race. Sinceour only stability is change" &merica seems not to honor the )uiet work that achievessocial interdependence and stability. $here is" in our legends" no heroism o the o;ceclerk" no stable industrial work orce o the people who actually make the system work. $here is no pride in being an employee +ilson asked or a return to the time wheneveryone was an employer/. $here has been no boasting about our social workersGtheyare merely signs o the system6s ailure" o opportunity denied or not taken" o things to

be eliminated. e have no pride in our growing interdependence" in the act that oursystem can serve others" that we are able to help those in need4 empty boasts rom thepast make us ashamed o our present achievements" make us try to orget or deny themmove away rom them. $here is no honor but in the onderland race we must all run" alltrying to win" none winning in the end +or there is no end/.. $he primary purpose o the passage is to+&/ critici1e the inNe'ibility o &merican economic mythology+(/ contrast Pld orld8 and ,ew orld8 economic ideologies+C/ challenge the integrity o traditional political leaders+3/ champion those &mericans whom the author deems to be neglected+-/ suggest a substitute or the traditional metaphor o a race5. &ccording to the passage" Pld orld8 values were based on+&/ ability+(/ property+C/ amily connections+3/ guild hierarchies+-/ education<. In the conte't o the author6s discussion o regulating change" which o the ollowingcould be most probably regarded as a strong reeree8 +line <0/ in the Jnited States9+&/ & school principal+(/ & political theorist+C/ & ederal court udge+3/ & social worker+-/ & government inspector@. $he author sets o% the word Reorm8 +line <D/ with )uotation marks in order to+&/ emphasi1e its departure rom the concept o settled possessiveness+(/ show his support or a systematic program o change+C/ underscore the Ne'ibility and even amorphousness o Jnited States society+3/ indicate that the term was one o ilson6s avorites+-/ assert that reorm in the Jnited States has not been undamentalD. It can be inerred rom the passage that the author most probably thinks that givingthe disenranchised a piece o the action8 +line <B/ is



+&/ a compassionate" i misdirected" legislative measure+(/ an e'ample o &mericans6 resistance to proound social change+C/ an innovative program or genuine social reorm+3/ a monument to the e%orts o industrial reormers+-/ a surprisingly Pld orld8 remedy or social ills. hich o the ollowing metaphors could the author most appropriately use tosummari1e his own assessment o the &merican economic system +lines <D*0/9+&/ & windmill

+(/ & waterall+C/ & treadmill+3/ & gyroscope+-/ & bellows7. It can be inerred rom the passage that oodrow ilson6s ideas about the economicmarket+&/ encouraged those who make the system work8 +lines @D*@/+(/ perpetuated traditional legends about &merica+C/ revealed the preudices o a man born wealthy+3/ oreshadowed the stock market crash o !5!+-/ began a tradition o presidential proclamations on economics

B. $he passage contains inormation that would answer which o the ollowing )uestions9I. hat techni)ues have industrialists used to manipulate a ree market9II. In what ways are ,ew orld8 and Pld orld8 economic policies similar9III. Mas economic policy in the Jnited States tended to reward independent action9+&/ I only+(/ II only+C/ III only+3/ I and II only+-/ II and III only!. hich o the ollowing best e'presses the author6s main point9+&/ &mericans6 pride in their obs continues to give them stamina today.+(/ $he absence o a status )uo ante has undermined Jnited States economic structure.+C/ $he ree enterprise system has been only a useless concept in the Jnited States.+3/ $he myth o the &merican ree enterprise system is seriously Nawed.+-/ Fascination with the ideal o openness8 has made &mericans a progressive people.

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************2ysosomal storage diseases orm a category o genetic disorders resulting rom deectiveen1ymes that normally unction to break down unneeded molecules in cells. $heseen1ymes do their work in the lysosome" a small compartment in a cell analogous to agarbage disposal. hen any one o the lysosomal en1ymes is deective" the moleculesthat would have been broken down by that en1yme instead accumulate and cause thatindividual:s lysosomes to swell enormously" resulting in motor and mental deterioration"oten to the point o premature death. $he age o onset" rate o progression" and severityo the clinical symptoms observed in patients with the same deective lysosomal en1ymeare highly variable. For many years" this variability in patients with the same deectiveen1yme pu11led scientists. Pnly recently have researchers begun to answer the riddle"thanks to a genetic analysis o a particular lysosomal storage disorder known as $ay*Sachs disease.

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http://gmatclub.com/forum/3000-rc-88873.html



&s in most lysosomal storage diseases" patients su%ering rom $ay*Sachs disease showboth mental and motor deterioration and variability in age o onset" progression" andseverity. Khysicians have categori1ed the patients into three groups based on onset othe disease> inantile" uvenile" and adult. $he inantile group begins to showneurodegeneration as early as si' months o age and children rarely live beyond < yearsold. $he frst symptoms o the disease appear in uvenile cases between 5 and D years oage" with death usually occurring around age D. $hose with the adult orm generally liveout a normal liespan" su%ering rom milder symptoms than those with the inantile and

uvenile orms. In $ay*Sachs disease" scientists were aware that molecules accumulated mainly in thebrains o patients" but they did not discover the specifc identity o the deectivelysosomal en1yme responsible or the malunction" he'osaminidase" until the !0s. In!BD" the 3,& se)uence or the normal en1yme was determined. Shortly thereater" the3,& se)uences o genes encoding he'osaminidase rom many $ay*Sachs patients werestudied. It soon became apparent that not one or two but many di%erent types omutations in the he'osaminidase gene could result in $ay*Sachs disease. $hese di%erentmutations resulted in various levels o impaired en1ymatic activity4 those in the inantilecategory had little to no normal activity" while those in the adult category su%ered only

moderate impairment. Scientists )uickly hypothesi1ed that the variation in age o onsetand severity o $ay*Sachs disease correlated with the amount o residual en1ymaticactivity allowed by the particular genetic mutation a patient had. $hough more researchis needed to demonstrate similarity with other lysosomal storage diseases" the workdone on $ay*Sachs disease has already o%ered a promising glimpse into the underlyingmechanisms o these disorders. $he passage suggests that which o the ollowing lines o in)uiry would be most useul indetermining the relevance o the research done on $ay*Sachs disease to lysosomastorage diseases generally9 =E3o patients su%ering rom other lysosomal storage diseases have the same mortalityrate as those su%ering rom $ay*Sachs9=E3o other lysosomal storage diseases a%ect the he'osaminidase gene9=EMow many di%erent mutations are present in the deective genes responsible orother lysosomal storage diseases9=E3oes the age o onset or severity o other lysosomal storage diseases vary with thespecifc genetic mutation observed in the patient9=Ehat purpose does he'osaminidase serve in the human body9

It can be inerred rom the passage that which o the ollowing statements is true olysosomal storage diseases9 $hey are generally caused by mutations to the he'osaminidase gene. $hey are undetectable until physical symptoms are present. $hey can be atal even when allowing some en1ymatic activity $hey are most lethal when onset is in a patient:s inancy. $heir causes were unknown beore the !D0s.



$he author o the passage is primarily concerned with =Eilluminating the physiological conse)uences o $ay*Sachs disease=Ee'plaining the importance o research on a specifc disease to other diseases o thattype=Earguing or a more detailed e'amination o lysosomal storage diseases

=Echallenging a traditional view o a class o diseases as incomplete=Edescribing the implications o genetic mutations or mortality rates

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****************(y regarding the e'panding universe as a motion picture" you can easily imagineHrunning the flm backward.[ I you do so" you fnd the universe getting smaller andsmaller" and eventually you come to the moment when its whole mass is crammed intoan infnitely dense point. (eore that time it didn\t e'ist" or at least it didn\t e'ist in itspresent orm.

$hough there is some controversy about its e'act age" most cosmologists would beinclined to agree that the universe has e'isted or about ten to twenty billion years. Forscale" this can be compared to the our*and*a*hal*billion*year age o the solar system"the time since the disappearance o the dinosaurs +si'ty*fve million years/" and the ageo the human race +about three million years/. $he event that marked the beginning o the universe was christened the (ig (ang4 theterm has now entered the vernacular o our culture. Priginally the name reerred only tothe single initiating event4 now" however" astronomers have come to use it to mean theentire developmental process o the birth and e'pansion o the cosmos. $he simple statement that the universe had a beginning in time is by now so obvious toastrophysicists that ew give it a second thought. Oet it is a statement that has prooundimplications. ost civili1ations embrace one o two opposite concepts o time. 2ineartime has a beginning" a duration" and an end4 cyclical time" as its name suggests"continues around and around orever. In a universe that unctions through cyclical time"the )uestion o creation never arises4 the universe always was and always will be. $heminute you switch to linear time you immediately conront the ve'ing )uestion not onlyo creation" but also o the Creator. &lthough there is no logical reason or theassumption" many people believe that i something comes into e'istence" it must do soin response to the actions o some rational being. (ecause o that belie" astronomers"even though they resist becoming involved in theological discussion" fnd themselves inone when they posit the (ig (ang universe. It puts them s)uarely in the middle o anage*old debate. Pne common misconception about the (ig (ang that should be disposed o immediatelyis the notion that the universal e'pansion is analogous to the e'plosion o an artilleryshell. $he gala'ies are not like bits o shrapnel speeding away rom a central e'plosion. $he raisin*in*dough analogy is a more satisactory way to think about the whole process. . In the conte't o the passage" the phrase age*old debate +line <!/ reers to>

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http://gmatclub.com/forum/urgent-help-on-tough-mgmat-rc-97444.html



&. the )uestion o whether Hthe Creator[ created the universe.(. the controversy over linear versus cyclical time.C. the debate over the disappearance o the dinosaurs.3. the disagreement over the movement o gala'ies-. whether od e'ists or not 5. &ccording to the passage" which o the ollowing statements is ,P$ true9&. any people believe that a rational impetus created the universe.

(. $he solar system was created immediately ater the (ig (ang.C. $he universe is larger today than it was in the past.3. 3i%erent societies measure time di%erently.-. ost cosmologists believe the universe to be 0 to 50 billion years old <. hy does the author compare the universe to a motion picture9&. illustrate that the universe has operated according to linear time.(. demonstrate that the universe is actually older than most astronomers believe.C. show that gala'ies were ormed about fve billion years ago.3. prove that the universe was created by a rational being.-. to show the analogy between ]od\ and a ]director\

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******************* #on Clark6s study o the e%ect o themoderni1ation o a telephone e'change on e'changemaintenance work and workers is a solidcontribution to a debate that encompasses twolively issues in the history and sociology o technology> technological determinism and socialconstructivism.Clark makes the point that the characteristics o atechnology have a decisive inN uence on ob skillsand work organi1ation. Kut more strongly"technology can be a primary determinant o socialand managerial organi1ation. Clark believes thispossibility has been obscured by the recentsociological ashion" e'emplif ed by (raverman6sanalysis" that emphasi1es the way machineryreN ects social choices. For (raverman" the shape o a technological system is subordinate to themanager6s desire to wrest control o the laborprocess rom the workers. $echnological change isconstrued as the outcome o negotiations amonginterested parties who seek to incorporate their owninterests into the design and conf guration o themachinery. $his position represents the newmainstream called social constructivism. $he constructivists gain acceptance bymisrepresenting technological determinism>technological determinists are supposed to believe"or e'ample" that machinery imposes appropriate

http://gmatclub.com/forum/universe-106160.html

http://gmatclub.com/forum/universe-106160.html



orms o order on society. $he alternative toconstructivism" in other words" is to view technologyas e'isting outside society" capable o directlyinN uencing skills and work organi1ation.Clark reutes the e'tremes o the constructivistsby both theoretical and empirical arguments. $heoretically he def nes technology8 in terms o relationships between social and technical variables.

&ttempts to reduce the meaning o technology tocold" hard metal are bound to ail" or machinery is ust scrap unless it is organi1ed unctionally andsupported by appropriate systems o operation andmaintenance. &t the empirical level Clark shows howa change at the telephone e'change rommaintenance*intensive electromechanical switchesto semielectronic switching systems altered worktasks" skills" training opportunities" administration"and organi1ation o workers. Some changes Clarkattributes to the particular way management and

labor unions negotiated the introduction o thetechnology" whereas others are seen as arising romthe capabilities and nature o the technology itsel. $hus Clark helps answer the )uestion> hen issocial choice decisive and when are the concretecharacteristics o technology more important98

50. $he primary purpose o the passage is to+&/ advocate a more positive attitude towardtechnological change+(/ discuss the implications or employees o themoderni1ation o a telephone e'change+C/ consider a successul challenge to theconstructivist view o technological change+3/ challenge the position o advocates o technological determinism+-/ suggest that the social causes o technologicalchange should be studied in real situations 5. hich o the ollowing statements about themoderni1ation o the telephone e'change is supportedby inormation in the passage9+&/ $he new technology reduced the role o managers in labor negotiations.+(/ $he moderni1ation was implemented without theconsent o the employees directly a%ected by it.+C/ $he moderni1ation had an impact that wentsignif cantly beyond maintenance routines.+3/ Some o the maintenance workers elt victimi1edby the new technology.+-/ $he moderni1ation gave credence to the view o



advocates o social constructivism. 55. hich o the ollowing most accurately describesClark6s opinion o (raverman6s position9+&/ Me respects its wide*ranging popularity.+(/ Me disapproves o its misplaced emphasis onthe inN uence o managers.+C/ Me admires the consideration it gives to the

attitudes o the workers a%ected.+3/ Me is concerned about its potential to impedethe implementation o new technologies.+-/ Me is sympathetic to its concern about theimpact o modern technology on workers. 5<. $he inormation in the passage suggests that which o the ollowing statements rom hypotheticalsociological studies o change in industry most clearlye'emplif es the social constructivists6 version o technological determinism9

+&/ It is the available technology that determinesworkers6 skills" rather than workers6 skillsinN uencing the application o technology.+(/ &ll progress in industrial technology grows outo a continuing negotiation betweentechnological possibility and human need.+C/ Some organi1ational change is caused bypeople4 some is caused by computer chips.+3/ ost maor technological advances in industryhave been generated through research anddevelopment.+-/ Some industrial technology eliminates obs" buteducated workers can create whole new skillsareas by the adaptation o the technology. 5@. $he inormation in the passage suggests that Clarkbelieves that which o the ollowing would be true i social constructivism had not gained widespreadacceptance9+&/ (usinesses would be more likely to moderni1ewithout considering the social conse)uences o their actions.+(/ $here would be greater understanding o therole played by technology in producing socialchange.+C/ (usinesses would be less likely to understandthe attitudes o employees a%ected bymoderni1ation.+3/ oderni1ation would have occurred at a slowerrate.+-/ $echnology would have played a greater part indetermining the role o business in society.



5D. &ccording to the passage" constructivists employedwhich o the ollowing to promote their argument9+&/ -mpirical studies o business situations involvingtechnological change+(/ Citation o managers supportive o their position+C/ Construction o hypothetical situations thatsupport their view

+3/ Contrasts o their view with a misstatement o an opposing view+-/ 3escriptions o the breadth o impact o technological change 5. $he author o the passage uses the e'pression aresupposed to8 in line 57 primarily in order to+&/ suggest that a contention made byconstructivists regarding determinists isinaccurate+(/ def ne the generally accepted position o

determinists regarding the implementation o technology+C/ engage in speculation about the motivation o determinists+3/ lend support to a comment critical o theposition o determinists+-/ contrast the historical position o deterministswith their position regarding the e'changemoderni1ation 57. hich o the ollowing statements about Clark6s studyo the telephone e'change can be inerred rominormation in the passage9+&/ Clark6s reason or undertaking the study was toundermine (raverman6s analysis o the unctiono technology.+(/ Clark6s study suggests that the implementationo technology should be discussed in the conte'to conN ict between labor and management.+C/ Clark e'amined the impact o changes in thetechnology o switching at the e'change interms o overall operations and organi1ation.+3/ Clark concluded that the implementation o newswitching technology was e)ually benef cial tomanagement and labor.+-/ Clark6s analysis o the change in switchingsystems applies only narrowly to the situation atthe particular e'change that he studied.

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**************

http://gmatclub.com/forum/og-rc-tough-one-88689.html

http://gmatclub.com/forum/og-rc-tough-one-88689.html



In Forces o Kroduction" 3avid ,oble e'amines the transormation o the machine*toolindustry as the industry moved rom reliance on skilled artisans to automation. ,oblewrites rom a ar'ist perspective" and his central argument is that management" in itsdecisions to automate" conspired against labor> the power that the skilled machinistswielded in the industry was intolerable to management. ,oble ails to substantiate thisclaim" although his argument is impressive when he applies the ar'ist concept o de*skilling8Gthe use o technology to replace skilled laborGto the automation o themachine*tool industry. In automating" the industry moved to computer*based" digiti1ed

numerical*control8 +,?C/ technology" rather than to artisan*generated record*playback8+R?K/ technology.&lthough both systems reduced reliance on skilled labor" ,oble clearly preers R?K" withits inherent acknowledgment o workers6 skills> unlike ,?C" its programs were producednot by engineers at their computers" but by skilled machinists" who recorded their ownmovements to teach8 machines to duplicate those movements. Mowever" ,oble6s onlyevidence o conspiracy is that" although the two approaches were roughly e)ual intechnical merit" management chose ,?C. From this he concludes that automation isundertaken not because e;ciency demands it or scientifc advances allow it" butbecause it is a tool in the ceaseless war o capitalists against labor.. $he author o the passage is primarily concerned with

+&/ ree'amining a political position and deending its validity+(/ e'amining a management decision and deending its necessity +C/ analy1ing a scholarly study and pointing out a central weakness+3/ e'plaining a trend in automation and warning about its dangers+-/ chronicling the history o an industry and critici1ing its development5. &ccording to inormation in the passage" the term de*skilling8 reers to the+&/ loss o skills to industry when skilled workers are replaced by unskilled laborers+(/ substitution o mechani1ed processes or labor ormerly perormed by skilled workers+C/ labor theory that automation is technologically comparable to skilled labor+3/ process by which skilled machinists teach8 machines to perorm certain tasks+-/ e'clusion o skilled workers rom participation in the development o automatedtechnology<. hich o the ollowing best characteri1es the unction o the second paragraph o thepassage9+&/ It develops a topic introduced in the frst paragraph.+(/ It provides evidence to reute a claim presented in the frst paragraph.+C/ It gives e'amples o a phenomenon mentioned in the frst paragraph.+3/ It presents a generali1ation about e'amples given in the frst paragraph.+-/ It suggests two possible solutions to a problem presented in the frst paragraph.@. $he passage suggests which o the ollowing about ,?C automation in the machine*tool industry9+&/ It displaced ewer skilled workers than R?K automation did.+(/ It could have been implemented either by e'perienced machinists or by computerengineers. +C/ It was designed without the active involvement skilled machinists.+3/ It was more di;cult to design than R?K automation was.+-/ It was technically superior to R?K automation.D. hich o the ollowing phrases most clearly reveals the attitude o the author o thepassage toward ,oble6s central argument9+&/ conspired against8 +line /



+(/ intolerable to management8 +line 7/+C/ impressive when he applies the ar'ist concept8 +line !/+3/ clearly preers8 +line /+-/ only evidence o conspiracy8 +line 5/. $he author o the passage commends ,oble6s book or which o the ollowing9+&/ Concentrating on skilled as opposed to unskilled workers in its discussion o themachine*tool industry+(/ P%ering a generali1ation about the motives behind the machine*tool industry6s

decision to automate+C/ aking an essential distinction between two kinds o technology employed in themachine*tool industry+3/ Calling into )uestion the notion that managers conspired against labor in theautomation o the machine*tool industry+-/ &pplying the concept o de*skilling to the machine tool industry7. hich o the ollowing best characteri1es Forces o Kroduction as it is described in thepassage9+&/ & comparison o two interpretations o how a particular industry evolved+(/ &n e'amination o the origin o a particular concept in industrial economics+C/ & study that points out the weakness o a particular interpretation o an industrial

phenomenon +3/ & history o a particular industry rom an ideological point o view+-/ &n attempt to relate an industrial phenomenon in one industry to a similarphenomenon in another industry

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***************It can be argued that much consumer dissatisaction with marketing strategies arisesrom an inability to aim advertising at only the likely buyers o a given product. $here are three groups o consumers who are a%ected by the marketing process. First"there is the market segmentGpeople who need the commodity in )uestion. Second"there is the program targetGpeople in the market segment with the best ft8characteristics or a specifc product. 2ots o people may need trousers" but only a ew)ualiy as likely buyers o very e'pensive designer trousers. Finally" there is the programaudienceHall people who are actually e'posed to the marketing program without regardto whether they need or want the product. $hese three groups are rarely identical. &n e'ception occurs occasionally in cases wherecustomers or a particular industrial product may be ew and easily identifable. Suchcustomers" all sharing a particular need" are likely to orm a meaningul target" ore'ample" all companies with a particular application o the product in )uestion" such ashigh*speed fllers o bottles at breweries. In such circumstances" direct selling +marketingthat reaches only the program target/ is likely to be economically ustifed" and highlyspeciali1ed trade media e'ist to e'pose members o the program targetGand onlymembers o the program targetGto the marketing program.ost consumer*goods markets are signifcantly di%erent. $ypically" there are many ratherthan ew potential customers. -ach represents a relatively small percentage o potentialsales. Rarely do members o a particular market segment group themselves neatly into ameaningul program target. $here are substantial di%erences among consumers withsimilar demographic characteristics. -ven with all the past decade6s advances ininormation technology" direct selling o consumer goods is rare" and mass marketingGa

http://gmatclub.com/forum/forces-of-production-104462.html

http://gmatclub.com/forum/forces-of-production-104462.html



by adults o all ages.. $he passage suggests that which o the ollowing is true about the marketing oindustrial products like those discussed in the third paragraph9+&/ $he market segment and program target are identical.+(/ ass marketing is the only easible way o advertising such products.+C/ $he marketing program cannot be directed specifcally to the program target.+3/ ore customers would be needed to ustiy the e'pense o direct selling.+-/ $he program audience would necessarily be made up o potential customers

regardless o the marketing approach that was used.7. $he passage supports which o the ollowing statements about demographiccharacteristics and marketing9+&/ 3emographic research is o no use in determining how successul a product will bewith a particular group o consumers.+(/ & program audience is usually composed o people with similar demographiccharacteristics.+C/ Ksychological actors are more important than demographic actors in defning amarket segments.+3/ Consumers with similar demographic characteristics do not necessarily orm ameaningul program target.

+-/ Collecting demographic data is the frst step that marketers take in designing amarketing program.B. It can be inerred rom the passage that which o the ollowing is true or mostconsumer*goods markets9+&/ $he program audience is smaller than the market segment.+(/ $he program audience and the market segment are usually identical.+C/ $he market segment and the program target are usually identical.+3/ $he program target is larger than the market segment.+-/ $he program target and the program audience are not usually identical.

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*******************& game o strategy" as currently conceived in game theory" is a situation in which two ormore players8 make choices among available alternatives +moves/. $he totality ochoices determines the outcomes o the game" and it is assumed that the rank order opreerences or the outcomes is di%erent or di%erent players. $hus the interests8 o theplayers are generally in conNict. hether these interests are diametrically opposed oronly partially opposed depends on the type o game. Ksychologically" most interesting situations arise when the interests o the players arepartly coincident and partly opposed" because then one can postulate not only a conNictamong the players but also inner conNicts within the players. -ach is torn between atendency to cooperate" so as to promote the common interests" and a tendency tocomplete" so as to enhance his own individual interests. Internal conNicts are always psychologically interesting. hat we vaguely calinteresting8 psychology is in very great measure the psychology o inner conNict. InnerconNict is also held to be an important component o serious literature as distinguishedrom less serious genres. $he classical tragedy" as well as the serious novel" reveals theinner conNict o central fgures. $he superfcial adventure story" on the other hand"depicts only e'ternal conNict4 that is" the threats o the person with whom the leader +or

http://gmatclub.com/forum/consumer-disatisfaction-104394.html

http://gmatclub.com/forum/consumer-disatisfaction-104394.html



viewer/ identifes stem in these stories e'clusively rom e'ternal obstacles and rom theadversaries who create them. Pn the most primitive level this sort o e'ternal conNict ispsychologically empty. In the fsticu%s between the protagonists o good and evil" nopsychological problems are involved or" at any rate" none are depicted in uvenilerepresents o conNict. $he detective story" the adult8 analogue o a uvenile adventure tale" has at times beendescribed as a glorifcation o intellectuali1ed conNict. Mowever" a great deal o the

interest in the plots o these stories is sustained by withholding the unraveling o asolution to a problem. $he e%ort o solving the problem is in itsel not a conNict i theadversary +the unknown criminal/ remains passive" like ,ature" whose secrets thescientist supposedly unravels by deduction. I the adversary actively puts obstacles inthe detective6s path toward the solution" there is genuine conNict. (ut the conNict ispsychologically interesting only to the e'tent that it contains irrational components suchas tactical error on the criminal6s part or the detective6s insight into some psychological)uick o the criminal or something o this sort. ConNict conducted in a perectly rationalmanner is psychologically no more interesting than a standard estern. For e'ample" $ic*tac*toe" played perectly by both players" is completely devoid o psychologicainterest. Chess may be psychologically interesting but only to the e'tent that it is played

not )uite rationally. Klayed completely rationally" chess would not be di%erent rom $ic*tac*toe. In short" a pure conNict o interest +what is called a 1ero*sum game/ although it o%ers awealth o interesting conceptual problems" is not interesting psychologically" e'cept tothe e'tent that its conduct departs rom rational norms.

/&ccording to the passage" internal conNicts are psychologically more interesting thane'ternal conNicts because &/internal conNicts" rather than e'ternal conNicts" orm an important component oserious literature as distinguished rom less serious genres.(/only uveniles or very ew adults8 actually e'perience e'ternal conNict" while internaconNict is more widely prevalent in society.C/in situations o internal conNict" individuals e'perience a dilemma in resolving theirown preerences or di%erent outcomes.3/there are no threats to the reader +or viewer/ in case o e'ternal conNicts 5/ hich" according to the author" would )ualiy as interesting psychology9&/ & statistician6s dilemma over choosing the best method to solve an optimi1ationproblem.(/ & chess player6s predicament over adopting a deensive strategy against anaggressive opponentC/ & mountaineer6s choice o the best path to t. -verest rom the base camp.3/ & fnance manger6s )uandary over the best way o raising money rom the market. </&ccording to the passage" which o the ollowing options about the application o agame theory to a conNict*o*interest situation is true9&/ &ssuming that the rank order o preerences or options is di%erent or di%erentplayers.(/ &ccepting that the interests o di%erent players are oten in conNict.



C/ ,ot assuming that the interests are in complete disagreement.3/ &ll o the above @/$he problem solving process o a scientist is di%erent rom that o a detective because&/ scientists study inanimate obects" while detectives deal with living criminals or lawo%enders.(/ scientists study known obects" while detectives have to deal with unknown criminalsor law o%enders.

C/ scientists study phenomena that are not actively altered" while detectives deal withphenomena that have been deliberately inNuenced to mislead.3/scientists study psychologically interesting phenomena" while detectives deal withadult8 analogues o uvenile adventure tales.

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*****************Mow many really su%er as a result o labor market problems9 $his is one o the mostcritical yet contentious social policy )uestions. In many ways" our social statisticse'aggerate the degree o hardship. Jnemployment does not have the same dire

conse)uences today as it did in the !<06s when most o the unemployed were primarybreadwinners" when income and earnings were usually much closer to the margin osubsistence" and when there were no countervailing social programs or those ailing inthe labor market. Increasing a^uence" the rise o amilies with more than one wageearner" the growing predominance o secondary earners among the unemployed" andimproved social welare protection have un)uestionably mitigated the conse)uences o oblessness. -arnings and income data also overstate the dimensions o hardship. &mongthe millions with hourly earnings at or below the minimum wage level" the overwhelmingmaority are rom multiple*earner" relatively a^uent amilies. ost o those counted bythe poverty statistics are elderly or handicapped or have amily responsibilities whichkeep them out o the labor orce" so the poverty statistics are by no means an accurateindicator o labor market pathologies. Oet there are also many ways our social statistics underestimate the degree o labor*market*related hardship. $he unemployment counts e'clude the millions o ullyemployed workers whose wages are so low that their amilies remain in poverty. 2owwages and repeated or prolonged unemployment re)uently interact to undermine thecapacity or sel*support. Since the number e'periencing oblessness at some timeduring the year is several times the number unemployed in any month" those who su%eras a result o orced idleness can e)ual or e'ceed average annual unemployment" eventhough only a minority o the obless in any month really su%er. For every personcounted in the monthly unemployment tallies" there is another working part*timebecause o the inability to fnd ull*time work" or else outside the labor orce but wantinga ob. Finally" income transers in our country have always ocused on the elderly"disabled" and dependent" neglecting the needs o the working poor" so that the dramatice'pansion o cash and in*kind transers does not necessarily mean that those ailing inthe labor market are ade)uately protected.&s a result o such contradictory evidence" it is uncertain whether those su%eringseriously as a result o labor market problems number in the hundreds o thousands orthe tens o millions" and" hence" whether high levels o oblessness can be tolerated ormust be countered by ob creation and economic stimulus. $here is only one area oagreement in this debateGthat the e'isting poverty" employment" and earnings statistics

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http://gmatclub.com/forum/one-of-the-good-rc-100969.html



are inade)uate or one their primary applications" measuring the conse)uences o labormarket problems. 7. &ccording to the passage" one actor that causes unemployment and earnings fguresto overpredict the amount o economic hardship is the+&/ recurrence o periods o unemployment or a group o low*wage workers+(/ possibility that earnings may be received rom more than one ob per worker+C/ act that unemployment counts do not include those who work or low wages and

remain poor+3/ establishment o a system o record*keeping that makes it possible to compilepoverty statistics+-/ prevalence" among low*wage workers and the unemployed" o members o amilies inwhich others are employed B. $he conclusion stated in lines <<*<! about the number o people who su%er as a resulto orced idleness depends primarily on the point that+&/ in times o high unemployment" there are some people who do not remainunemployed or long+(/ the capacity or sel*support depends on receiving moderate*to*high wages

+C/ those in orced idleness include" besides the unemployed" both underemployed part*time workers and those not actively seeking work+3/ at di%erent times during the year" di%erent people are unemployed+-/ many o those who are a%ected by unemployment are dependents o unemployedworkers

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************* $he number o women directors appointed to corporate boards in the Jnited States hasincreased dramatically" but the ratio o emale to male directors remains low. &lthoughpressure to recruit women directors" unlike that to employ women in the general workorce" does not derive rom legislation" it is nevertheless real.&lthough small companies were the frst to have women directors" large corporationscurrently have a higher percentage o women on their boards. hen the chairs o theselarge corporations began recruiting women to serve on boards" they initially soughtwomen who were chie e'ecutive o;cers +C-P6s/ o large corporations. Mowever" suchwomen C-P6s are still rare. In addition" the ideal o si' C-P6s +emale or male/ serving onthe board o each o the largest corporations is reali1able only i every C-P serves on si'boards. $his raises the specter o director over*commitment and the resultant dilution ocontribution. Conse)uently" the chairs ne't sought women in business who had thee)uivalent o C-P e'perience. Mowever" since it is only recently that large numbers owomen have begun to rise in management" the chairs began to recruit women o highachievement outside the business world. any such women are well known or theircontributions in government" education" and the nonproft sector. $he act that thewomen rom these sectors who were appointed were oten ac)uaintances o the boards6chairs seems )uite reasonable> chairs have always considered it important or directorsto interact comortably in the boardroom.&lthough many successul women rom outside the business world are unknown tocorporate leaders" these women are particularly )ualifed to serve on boards because othe changing nature o corporations. $oday a company6s ability to be responsive to theconcerns o the community and the environment can inNuence that company6s growth

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http://gmatclub.com/forum/1000-rc-passage-5-labor-market-98265.html



and survival. omen are uni)uely positioned to be responsive to some o theseconcerns. &lthough conditions have changed" it should be remembered that mostdirectors o both se'es are over fty years old. omen o that generation were otenencouraged to direct their attention toward e%orts to improve the community. $his act isreNected in the career development o most o the outstandingly successul women othe generation now in their fties" who currently serve on corporate boards> 5D percentare in education and 55 percent are in government" law" and the nonproft sector.Pne organi1ation o women directors is helping business become more responsive to the

changing needs o society by raising the level o corporate awareness about socialissues" such as problems with the economy" government regulation" the agingpopulation" and the environment. $his organi1ation also serves as a resource center oinormation on accomplished women who are potential candidates or corporate boards. . &ccording to the passage" which o the ollowing is true about women outside thebusiness world who are currently serving on corporate boards9+&/ ost do not serve on more than one board.+(/ & large percentage will eventually work on the sta% o corporations.+C/ ost were already known to the chairs o the board to which they were appointed.+3/ & larger percentage are rom government and law than are rom the nonproft sector.

+-/ ost are less than fty years old.

5. It can be inerred rom the passage that actors making women uni)uely valuablemembers o modern corporate boards would include which o the ollowing9I. $he nature o modern corporationsII. $he increased number o women C-P6sIII. $he careers pursued by women currently available to serve on corporate boards+&/ I only+(/ II only+C/ III only+3/ I and III only+-/ I" II" and III

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****************Conventional wisdom has it that large defcits in the Jnited States budget cause interestrates to rise. $wo main arguments are given or this claim. &ccording to the frst" as thedefcit increases" the government will borrow more to make up or the ensuing shortageo unds. Conse)uently" it is argued" i both the total supply o credit +money available orborrowing/ and the amount o credit sought by nongovernment borrowers remainrelatively stable" as is oten supposed" then the price o credit +the interest rate/ willincrease. $hat this is so is suggested by the basic economic principle that i supplies o acommodity +here" credit/ remain f'ed and demand or that commodity increases" itsprice will also increase. $he second argument supposes that the government will tend tofnance its defcits by increasing the money supply with insu;cient regard or whetherthere is enough room or economic growth to enable such an increase to occur withoutcausing inNation. It is then argued that fnanciers will e'pect the defcit to cause inNationand will raise interest rates" anticipating that because o inNation the money they lendwill be worth less when paid back.

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Jnortunately or the frst argument" it is unreasonable to assume that nongovernmentborrowing and the supply o credit will remain relatively stable. ,ongovernmentborrowing sometimes decreases. hen it does" increased government borrowing will notnecessarily push up the total demand or credit. &lternatively" when credit availabilityincreases" or e'ample through greater oreign lending to the Jnited States" then interestrates need not rise" even i both private and government borrowing increase.

$he second argument is also problematic._nbsp4 Financing the defcit by increasing the

money supply should cause inNation only when there is not enough room or economicgrowth._nbsp4 Currently" there is no reason to e'pect defcits to cause inNation._nbsp4Mowever" since many fnanciers believe that defcits ordinarily create inNation" thenadmittedly they will be inclined to raise interest rates to o%set mistakenly anticipatedinNation._nbsp4 $his e%ect" however" is due to ignorance" not to the defcit itsel" andcould be lessened by educating fnanciers on this issue.

X/It can be inerred rom the passage that proponents o the second argument wouldmost likely agree with which o the ollowing statements9

&/$he Jnited States government does not usually care whether or not inNationincreases.(/Keople in the Jnited States government generally know very little about economics.C/$he Jnited States government is sometimes careless in ormulating its economicpolicies.3/$he Jnited States government sometimes relies too much on the easy availability ooreign credit.-/$he Jnited States government increases the money supply whenever there is enoughroom or growth to support the increase.

X5/$he author uses the term admittedly +see highlighted te't/ in order to indicate that

&/the second argument has some truth to it" though not or the reasons usuallysupposed(/the author has not been successul in attempting to point out inade)uacies in the twoargumentsC/the thesis that large defcits directly cause interest rates to rise has strong supportater all3/fnanciers should admit that they were wrong in thinking that large defcits will causehigher inNation rates-/fnanciers generally do not think that the author:s criticisms o the second argumentare worthy o consideration

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*********************-arly models o the geography o the metropolis were unicellular> that is" they assumedthat the entire urban district would normally be dominated by a single central district"around which the various economic unctions o the community would be ocused. $hiscentral business district +C(3/ is the source o so*called high*order goods and services"which can most e;ciently be provided rom a central location rather than rom numerouswidely dispersed locations. $hus" retailers o inre)uently and irregularly purchased

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http://gmatclub.com/forum/gprep-us-budget-93347.html



goods" such as ur coats" ewelry" and anti)ue urniture" and speciali1ed service outlets"such as theaters" advertising agencies" law frms" and government agencies" wilgenerally be ound in the C(3. (y contrast" less costly" more re)uently demandedgoods" such as groceries and housewares" and low*order services" such as shoe repairand hairdressing" will be available at many small" widely scattered outlets throughout themetropolis.(oth the concentric*ring model o the metropolis" frst developed in Chicago in the latenineteenth century" and the sector model" closely associated with the work o Momer

Moyt in the !<0s" make the C(3 the ocal point o the metropolis. $he concentric*ringmodel assumes that the varying degrees o need or accessibility to the C(3 o variouskinds o economic entities will be the main determinant o their location. $hus" wholesaleand manuacturing frms" which need easy accessibility to the speciali1ed legal" fnancialand governmental services provided in the C(3" will normally be located ust outside theC(3 itsel. Residential areas will occupy the outer rings o the model" with low*incomegroups residing in the relatively crowded older housing close to the business 1one andhigh*income groups occupying the outermost ring" in the more spacious" newerresidential areas built up through urban e'pansion.Momer Moyt6s sector model is a modifed version o the concentric*ring modelRecogni1ing the inNuence o early established patterns o geographic distribution on the

later growth o the city" Moyt developed the concept o directional inertia. &ccording toMoyt" custom and social pressures tend to perpetuate locational patterns within the city. $hus" i a particular part o the city +say" the east side/ becomes a common residentiaarea or higher*income amilies" perhaps because o a particular topographicaadvantage such as a lake or other desirable eature" uture e'pansion o the high*incomesegment o the population is likely to proceed in the same direction. In our e'ample" asthe metropolis e'pands" a wedge*shaped sector would develop on the east side o thecity in which the higher*income residence would be clustered. 2ower*income residences"along with manuacturing acilities" would be confned" thereore" to the western marginso the C(3.&lthough Moyt6s model undoubtedly represented an advance in sophistication over thesimpler concentric*ring model" neither model ully accounts or the increasingimportance o ocal points other than the traditional C(3. Recent years have witnessedhe establishment around older cities o secondary nuclei centered on suburban businessdistricts. In other cases" particular kinds o goods" services" and manuacturing acilitieshave clustered in speciali1ed centers away rom the C(3" encouraging the developmento particular housing patterns in the adacent areas. & new multicellular model ometropolitan geography is needed to e'press these and other emerging trends o urbangrowth. 7. &ll o the ollowing are e'amples o the emerging trends o urban growth described inthe last paragraph o the passage -LC-K$+&/ the construction in a suburban community o a large shopping mall where many othe local residents do most o their buying+(/ the opening o an industrial park on the outskirts o a declining older city+C/ the construction o hospital*medical school comple' near a highway fteen milesrom a downtown business district+3/ the building o a residential development near a suburban tool actory to house theactory workers and their amilies+-/ the creation o a lu'ury housing development in a rural setting thirty miles rom thecenter o a city



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***************Species interdependence in nature coners many benefts on the species involved" but itcan also become a point o weakness when one species involved in the relationship isa%ected by a catastrophe. $hus" Nowering plant species dependent on insect pollination"as opposed to sel*pollination or wind pollination" could be endangered when thepopulation o insect*pollinators is depleted by the use o pesticides.

In the orests o ,ew (runswick" or e'ample" various pesticides have been sprayed inthe past 5D years in e%orts to control the spruce budworm" an economically signifcantpest. Scientists have now investigated the e%ects o the spraying o atacil" one o theanti*budworm agents that is least to'ic to insect*pollinators. $hey studied atacil6se%ects on insect mortality in a wide variety o wild insect species and on plant ecundity"e'pressed as the percentage o the total Nowers on an individual plant that actuallydeveloped ruit and bore seeds. $hey ound that the most pronounced mortality ater thespraying o atacil occurred among the smaller bees and one amily o Nies" insects thatwere all important pollinators o numerous species o plants growing beneath the treecanopy o orests. $he ecundity o plants in one common indigenous species" the red*

osier dogwood" was signifcantly reduced in the sprayed areas as compared to that oplants in control plots where atacil was not sprayed. $his species is highly dependenton the insect*pollinators most vulnerable to atacil. $he creeping dogwood" a speciessimilar to the red*osier dogwood" but which is pollinated by large bees" such asbumblebees" showed no signifcant decline in ecundity. Since large bees are not a%ectedby the spraying o atacil" these results add weight to the argument that spraying wherethe pollinators are sensitive to the pesticide used decreases plant ecundity. $he )uestion o whether the decrease in plant ecundity caused by the spraying opesticides actually causes a decline in the overall population o Nowering plant speciesstill remains unanswered. Klant species dependent solely on seeds or survival ordispersal are obviously more vulnerable to any decrease in plant ecundity that occurswhatever its cause. I" on the other hand" vegetative growth and dispersal +by means oshoots or runners/ are available as alternative reproductive strategies or a species" thendecreases in plant ecundity may be o little conse)uence. $he ecundity e%ectsdescribed here are likely to have the most proound impact on plant species with all ouro the ollowing characteristics> a short lie span" a narrow geographic range" anincapacity or vegetative propagation" and a dependence on a small number o insect*pollinator species. Kerhaps we should give special attention to the conservation o suchplant species since they lack key actors in their deenses against the environmentadisruption caused by pesticide use.

. hich o the ollowing best summari1es the main point o the passage9 +&/ Species interdependence is a point o weakness or some plants" but is generallybenefcial to insects involved in pollination.+(/ -%orts to control the spruce budworm have had deleterious e%ects on the red*osierdogwood.+C/ $he used o pesticides may be endangering certain plant species dependent oninsects or pollination.

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http://gmatclub.com/forum/toughie-models-of-the-geography-101976.html



+3/ $he spraying o pesticides can reduce the ecundity o a plant species" but probablydoes not a%ect its overall population stability.+-/ Klant species lacking key actors in their deenses against human environmentaldisruption will probably become e'tinct. 5. &ccording to the author" a Nowering plant species whose ecundity has declined due topesticide spraying may not e'perience an overall population decline i the plant speciescan do which o the ollowing9

+&/ Reproduce itsel by means o shoots and runners.+(/ Survive to the end o the growing season.+C/ Survive in harsh climates.+3/ Respond to the ecundity decline by producing more Nowers.+-/ &ttract large insects as pollinators. <. $he passage suggests that the lack o an observed decline in the ecundity o thecreeping dogwood strengthens the researchers conclusions regarding pesticide usebecause the

+&/ creeping dogwood is a species that does not resemble other orest plants+(/ creeping dogwood is a species pollinated by a broader range o insect species thanare most dogwood species+C/ creeping dogwood grows primarily in regions that were not sprayed with pesticide"and so served as a control or the e'periment+3/ creeping dogwood is similar to the red*osier dogwood" but its insect pollinators areknown to be insensitive to the pesticide used in the study+-/ geographical range o the creeping dogwood is similar to that o the red*osierdogwood" but the latter species relies less on seeds or reproduction @. $he passage suggests that which o the ollowing is true o the orest regions in ,ew(runswick sprayed with most anti*budworm pesticides other than atacil9 +&/ $he ecundity o some Nowering plants in those regions may have decreased to aneven greater degree than in the regions where atacil is used.+(/ Insect mortality in those regions occurs mostly among the larger species o insects"such as bumblebees.+C/ $he number o seeds produced by common plant species in those regions is probablycomparable to the number produced where atacil is sprayed.+3/ any more plant species have become e'tinct in those regions than in the regionswhere atacil is used.+-/ $he spruce budworm is under better control in those regions than in the regionswhere atacil is sprayed. D. It can be inerred that which o the ollowing is true o plant ecundity as it is defnedin the passage9 +&/ & plant6s ecundity decreases as the percentage o unpollinated Nowers on the plantincreases.+(/ & plant6s ecundity decreases as the number o Nowers produced by the plantdecreases.



+C/ & plant6s ecundity increases as the number o Nowers produced by the plantincreases.+3/ & plant6s ecundity is usually low i the plant relies on a small number o insectspecies or pollination.+-/ & plant6s ecundity is high i the plant can reproduce )uickly by means o vegetativegrowth as well as by the production o seeds. . It can be inerred rom the passage that which o the ollowing plant species would be

2-&S$ likely to e'perience a decrease in ecundity as a result o the spraying o apesticide not directly to'ic to plants9 +&/ & Nowering tree pollinated by only a ew insect species+(/ & kind o insect*pollinated vine producing ew Nowers+C/ & wind*pollinated Nowering tree that is short*lived+3/ & Nowering shrub pollinated by a large number o insect species+-/ & type o wildNower typically pollinated by larger insects 7. hich o the ollowing assumptions most probably underlies the author6s tentativerecommendation in lines D*D@9

+&/ Muman activities that result in environmental disruption should be abandoned.+(/ $he use o pesticides is likely to continue into the uture.+C/ It is economically benefcial to preserve endangered plant species.+3/ Kreventing the endangerment o a species is less costly than trying to save analready endangered one.+-/ Conservation e%orts aimed at preserving a ew well*chosen species are more cost*e%ective than are broader*based e%orts to improve the environment.

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*****************In contrast to traditional analyses o minority business" the sociological analysis contendsthat minority business ownership is a group*level phenomenon" in that it is largelydependent upon social*group resources or its development. Specifcally" this analysisindicates that support networks play a critical role in starting and maintaining minoritybusiness enterprises by providing owners with a range o assistance" rom the inormalencouragement o amily members and riends to dependable sources o labor andclientele rom the owner6s ethnic group. Such sel*help networks" which encourage andsupport ethnic minority entrepreneurs" consist o primary8 institutions" those closest tothe individual in shaping his or her behavior and belies. $hey are characteri1ed by theace*to*ace association and cooperation o persons united by ties o mutual concern. $hey orm an intermediate social level between the individual and larger secondary8institutions based on impersonal relationships. Krimary institutions comprising thesupport network include kinship" peer" and neighborhood or community subgroups.& maor unction o sel*help networks is fnancial support. ost scholars agree thatminority business owners have depended primarily on amily unds and ethniccommunity resources or investment capital. Kersonal savings have been accumulated"oten through rugal living habits that re)uire sacrifces by the entire amily and are thusa product o long*term amily fnancial behavior. &dditional loans and gits rom relativesorthcoming because o group obligation rather than narrow investment calculation" havesupplemented personal savings. Individual entrepreneurs do not necessarily rely on their

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kin because they cannot obtain fnancial backing rom commercial resources. $hey mayactually avoid banks because they assume that commercial institutions either cannotcomprehend the special needs o minority enterprise or charge unreasonably highinterest rates.ithin the larger ethnic community" rotating credit associations have been used to raisecapital. $hese associations are inormal clubs o riends and other trusted members othe ethnic group who make regular contributions to a und that is given to eachcontributor in rotation. Pne author estimates that @0 percent o ,ew Oork Chinatown

frms established during !00*!D0 utili1ed such associations as their initial source ocapital. Mowever" recent immigrants and third or ourth generations o older groups nowemploy rotating credit associations only occasionally to raise investment unds. Somegroups" like (lack &mericans" ound other means o fnancial support or theirentrepreneurial e%orts. $he frst (lack*operated banks were created in the latenineteenth century as depositories or dues collected rom raternal or lodge groups"which themselves had sprung rom (lack churches. (lack banks made limitedinvestments in other (lack enterprises. Irish immigrants in &merican cities organi1edmany building and loan associations to provide capital or home construction andpurchase. $hey" in turn" provided work or many Irish home*building contractor frms.Pther ethnic and minority groups ollowed similar practices in ounding ethnic*directed

fnancial institutions.. (ased on the inormation in the passage" it would be 2-&S$ likely or which o theollowing persons to be part o a sel*help network9+&/ $he entrepreneur6s childhood riend+(/ $he entrepreneur6s aunt+C/ $he entrepreneur6s religious leader+3/ $he entrepreneur6s neighbor+-/ $he entrepreneur6s banker5. hich o the ollowing illustrates the working o a sel*help support network" as suchnetworks are described in the passage9+&/ & public high school o%ers courses in book*keeping and accounting as part o itsopen*enrollment adult education program.+(/ $he local government in a small city sets up a program that helps teen*agers fndsummer obs.+C/ & maor commercial bank o%ers low*interest loans to e'perienced individuals whohope to establish their own businesses.+3/ & neighborhood*based raternal organi1ation develops a program o on*the*obtraining or its members and their riends.+-/ & community college o%ers country residents training programs that can lead tocertifcation in a variety o technical trades.<. hich o the ollowing can be inerred rom the passage about rotating creditassociations9+&/ $hey were developed e'clusively by Chinese immigrants.+(/ $hey accounted or a signifcant portion o the investment capital used by Chineseimmigrants in ,ew Oork in the early twentieth century.+C/ $hird*generation members o an immigrant group who started businesses in the!506s would have been unlikely to rely on them.+3/ $hey were re)uently oint endeavors by members o two or three di%erent ethnicgroups.+-/ Recent immigrants still re)uently turn to rotating credit associations instead o banksor investment capital.@. $he passage best supports which o the ollowing statements9



+&/ & minority entrepreneur who had no assistance rom amily members would not beable to start a business.+(/ Sel*help networks have been e%ective in helping entrepreneurs primarily in the lastD0 years.+C/ inority groups have developed a range o alternatives to standard fnancing obusiness ventures.+3/ $he fnancial institutions ounded by various ethnic groups owe their success to theiruni)ue ormal organi1ation.

+-/ Successul minority*owned businesses succeed primarily because o the personastrengths o their ounders.D. hich o the ollowing best describes the organi1ation o the second paragraph9+&/ &n argument is delineated" ollowed by a counter*argument.+(/ &n assertion is made and several e'amples are provided to illustrate it.+C/ & situation is described and its historical background is then outlined.+3/ &n e'ample o a phenomenon is given and is then used as a basis or generalconclusions.+-/ & group o parallel incidents is described and the distinctions among the incidents arethen clarifed.. &ccording to the passage" once a minority*owned business is established" sel*help

networks contribute which o the ollowing to that business9+&/ Inormation regarding possible e'pansion o the business into nearby communities+(/ -ncouragement o a business climate that is nearly ree o direct competition+C/ Ppportunities or the business owner to reinvest profts in other minority*ownedbusinesses+3/ Contact with people who are likely to be customers o the new business+-/ Contact with minority entrepreneurs who are members o other ethnic groups7. It can be inerred rom the passage that traditional analyses o minority businesswould be 2-&S$ likely to do which o the ollowing9+&/ -'amine businesses primarily in their social conte'ts+(/ Focus on current" rather than historical" e'amples o business enterprises+C/ Stress common e'periences o individual entrepreneurs in starting businesses+3/ Focus on the maintenance o businesses" rather than means o starting them+-/ Focus on the role o individual entrepreneurs in starting a businessB. hich o the ollowing can be inerred rom the passage about the Irish building andloan associations mentioned in the last paragraph9+&/ $hey were started by third* or ourth*generation immigrants.+(/ $hey originated as o%shoots o church*related groups.+C/ $hey re)uently helped Irish entrepreneurs to fnance business not connected withconstruction.+3/ $hey contributed to the employment o many Irish construction workers.+-/ $hey provided assistance or construction businesses owned by members o otherethnic groups.

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**************For millennia" the ,ile River Nooded nearly every year as a natural conse)uence o heavysummer rains on the -thiopian Klateau4 in the last century" as the population in theregion e'ploded" the cycle o Nooding interspersed with periodic drought causedwidespread su%ering or the local population. In the mid*!D0s" the -gyptiangovernment concluded that a signifcant dam was necessary to enable the country:s

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http://gmatclub.com/forum/minority-owned-business-103101.html



economic development to be on a par with that o estern nations. $he &swan 3amwould prevent the annual Nooding" generate hydroelectric power and supply a steadysource o water or residents and agricultural activities" though it would also have other"less positive e%ects.(y the !70s" most -gyptian villages had electric power" and the dam providedappro'imately hal o -gypt:s entire output o electricity. $he benefts were counteractedhowever" by conse)uences which were sometimes slow to appear but ruinous in theirlong*term e%ects. 3ams prevent silt rom Nowing through to downstream lands. $he silt

is essential or renewing the minerals and nutrients that make the land ertile4 beore thedam" the ,ile Noodplain was amously productive. Farmers have had to substituteartifcial ertili1ers" reducing profts and causing pervasive chemical pollution withdeleterious e%ects or the human" animal and plant populations living near or in theriver. It is di;cult to draw defnite conclusions about a proect with such substantial andvaried results" but it would be untenable to assert that the -gyptian government shouldnever have built the &swan 3am. $he author:s attitude toward the &swan 3am Kroect is best reNected by which o theollowing phrases9

&/ inconsistent support(/ strict neutrality C/ keen enthusiasm 3/ mild endorsement -/ cautious opposition (ased upon the content o the passage" the author would most likely agree with which othe ollowing propositions9

&/ I a plan achieves its stated goals" it should still be carried out" even in the ace ounintended negative results.

(/ Klanners o highly comple' proects should e'pect some unintended negativeconse)uences" even i they cannot oresee what those conse)uences will be.

C/&lthough a maor undertaking may have unpredictable results" those results are notnecessarily grounds or condemning the entire endeavor.

3/&ny potential positive and negative e%ects should be weighed beore starting a proecto considerable magnitude or comple'ity.

-/It is necessary to determine the net impact o all outcomes" good and bad" beoredeciding whether to denounce the overall proect.

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************** $he labor orce is oten organi1ed as i workers had no amily responsibilities. Kreschool*age children need ull*time care4 children in primary school need care ater school andduring school vacations. &lthough day*care services can resolve some schedulingconNicts between home and o;ce" workers cannot always fnd or a%ord suitable care.

http://gmatclub.com/forum/i-don-t-agree-with-these-answers-what-do-you-think-101994.html






-ven when they obtain such care" parents must still cope with emergencies" such asillnesses" that keep children at home. oreover" children need more than tending4 theyalso need meaningul time with their parents. Conventional ull*time workdaysespecially when combined with unavoidable household duties" are too inNe'ible orparents with primary child*care responsibility.&lthough a small but increasing number o working men are single parents" thosebarriers against successul participation in the labor market that are related to primarychild*care responsibilities mainly disadvantage women. -ven in amilies where both

parents work" cultural pressures are traditionally much greater on mothers than onathers to bear the primary child*rearing responsibilities.In reconciling child*rearing responsibilities with participation in the labor market" manyworking mothers are orced to make compromises. For e'ample" appro'imately one*thirdo all working mothers are employed only part*time" even though part*time obs aredramatically underpaid and oten less desirable in comparison to ull*time employment-ven though part*time work is usually available only in occupations o%ering minimaemployee responsibility and little opportunity or advancement or sel*enrichment" suchemployment does allow many women the time and Ne'ibility to ulfll their amily duties"but only at the e'pense o the advantages associated with ull*time employment.oreover" even mothers with ull*time employment must compromise opportunities in

order to adust to barriers against parents in the labor market. any choose obsentailing little challenge or responsibility or those o%ering Ne'ible scheduling" otenavailable only in poorly paid positions" while other working mothers" although willing andable to assume as much responsibility as people without children" fnd that their need tospend regular and predictable time with their children inevitably causes them to losecareer opportunities to those without such demands. $hus" women in education are morelikely to become teachers than school administrators" whose more conventional ull*timework schedules do not correspond to the schedules o school*age children" while emalelawyers are more likely to practice law in trusts and estates" where they can control theirwork schedules" than in litigation" where they cannot. ,onproessional women areconcentrated in secretarial work and department store sales" where their absences canbe covered easily by substitutes and where they can enter and leave the work orce withlittle loss" since the obs o%er so little personal gain. Indeed" as long as the labor marketremains hostile to parents" and amily roles continue to be allocated on the basis ogender" women will be seriously disadvantaged in that labor market.

. &ccording to the passage" many working parents may be orced to make any o theollowing types o career decisions -LC-K$+&/ declining proessional positions or nonproessional ones" which typically have lessconventional work schedules+(/ accepting part*time employment rather than ull*time employment+C/ taking obs with limited responsibility" and thus more limited career opportunities" inorder to have a more Ne'ible schedule+3/ pursuing career speciali1ations that allow them to control their work schedulesinstead o pursuing a more desirable speciali1ation in the same feld+-/ limiting the career potential o one parent" oten the mother" who assumes greaterchild*care responsibility7. hich one o the ollowing statements would most appropriately continue thediscussion at the end o the passage9+&/ &t the same time" most men will remain better able to enoy the career and salaryopportunities o%ered by the labor market.



+(/ P course" men who are married to working mothers know o these employmentbarriers but seem unwilling to do anything about them.+C/ Pn the other hand" salary levels may become more e)uitable between men andwomen even i the other career opportunities remain more accessible to men than towomen.+3/ Pn the contrary" men with primary child*rearing responsibilities will continue to enoymore advantages in the workplace than their emale counterparts.+-/ $hus" institutions in society that avor men over women will continue to widen the

gap between the career opportunities available or men and or women.

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*************&lthough much has been written about the theological conNicts with 3arwinian theory"little is known o the powerul scientifc obections that modifed 3arwin6s belies.3uring 3arwin6s lietime" the accepted theory o heredity was not endel6s theory oparticulate inheritance" which" though published" was unrecogni1ed" but the theory oblending inheritance" which holds that orms intermediate between those o the parentsresult rom mating. #enkin pointed out that i a rare and avorable mutation occurred" it

would soon be blended out by repeated crossings rom the wild*type orm. 3isputing3arwin6s conception o evolution as proceeding through the natural selection o thosewith slightly better characteristics that arose randomly" #enkin concluded that naturaselection could not account or the tremendous diversity o lie" hypothesi1ing that largenumbers o organisms mutated simultaneously in the same directionGa controlledorthogenetic process resembling a series o special creations.8Since special creationism8 was an ideological target o his" 3arwin ound himsel in a)uandary. &lthough he did not abandon his theory" he admitted that natural selectionplayed a much smaller part in evolution than he had previously claimed. Me alsoembraced the 2amarckian concept that ac)uired traits in parents are transmitted to theiro%spring" thus providing a mechanism by which an entire population could change in thesame direction at once.&nother potent obection came rom the physicists led by 2ord Welvin" who contested theassumption o previous geologists and biologists that lie had e'isted or billions o years"i not infnitely. Mow" they asked" could evolution proceed by slow steps in millions oyears" and how could advanced orms recently evolved show such great di%erences9 $heWelvinists" basing their conclusion on the assumption that the sun was an incandescentli)uid mass rapidly radiating heat" calculated that the age o the earth was between 50and @0 million years.&dmitting that their calculations were correct and their premises rational" 3arwin wasorced to adust this theory. Me proposed that change had occurred much more rapidly inthe past than in the present" where species seemed static" and that more advancedorms varied more rapidly than lower orms. $his provided urther reason to advocate2amarck6s theory o inheritance" because that could account or the rapid change.Interestingly" both these retreats o 3arwin were later shown to be aulty. $he discoverythat the sun runs on a nearly infnite amount o atomic uel totally invalidated Welvin6sargument" endel was rediscovered8 in the twentieth century" when it was pointed outthat the particulate nature o inheritance meant that avorable mutation not only couldpersist" but could rapidly become prevalent.. $he primary purpose o the passage is to+&/ outline the process by which 3arwin ormulated and modifed his theory o naturalselection

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http://gmatclub.com/forum/the-labor-force-is-often-organized-as-if-101781.html



+(/ propose a new interpretation o 3arwin6s theory o evolution+C/ e'plain how other scientists o the time helped 3arwin modiy and perect histheories+3/ deend 3arwinian theory against the obections raised by 3arwin6s contemporaries inthe scientifc community+-/ discuss some o the scientifc controversy that 3arwin sparked and describe hisresponse to it5. It can be inerred rom the passage that the theory o blending inheritance would

predict that the o%spring o +&/ two strains o snapdragons" one with abnormal" radically symmetrical Nowers and theother with normal" bilaterally symmetrical Nowers" would always have normal" bilaterallysymmetrical Nowers+(/ a white horse and a black horse would always be gray+C/ a man with type & blood and a woman with type ( blood would always have type &"type (" or type &( blood+3/ a Ny with large eyes and a Ny with small eyes would always have one large eye andone small eye+-/ two pink*Nowered plants would always be red or white. &ccording to the passage" 3arwin modifed his belies in order to

+&/ bring them into line with the theory o particulate inheritance+(/ disprove 2ord Welvin6s view on the age o the earth+C/ meet the obections o #enkin and 2amarck+3/ resolve theological conNicts about evolution+-/ dissociate himsel rom those who believed in special creationism8 +line 5/!. &ll o the ollowing can be reasonably inerred rom the passage -LC-K$>+&/ $he idea that evolution occurs by means o natural selection was not widely accepteduntil the twentieth century.+(/ 3arwin6s theories were originally predicated on the assumption that the earth is morethan @0 million years old.+C/ any o 3arwin6s ideas about heredity were later shown to be incorrect.+3/ Pther scientists o 3arwin6s time" including both #enkin and 2amarck" believed inevolution.+-/ 3arwin was the only scientist o his day who believed in natural selection.

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************Jntil recently" nearly everyone thought o intelligence as a single entity that could bemeasured by a simple IX test. In !B<" however" 3r. Moward ardner" a proessor oeducation at Marvard Jniversity" introduced his theory o multiple intelligences. $oday"there are two maor schools o thought on intelligence. 3espite e'tensive and ongoingresearch" scientists have been unable to prove defnitively one theory over the other. $he single intelligence model is based on the idea o one general intelligence" known aspositive maniold or simply g. Kerhaps the most convincing evidence in support o thistheory is the act that individuals who perorm well on tests o one cognitive ability alsoperorm well on tests o a second cognitive ability. For e'ample" those who do well onverbal tests also do well on mathematics tests" and vice versa. &nother argument insupport o the general intelligence theory is the strong positive correlation betweenintelligent )uotient" or IX" as measured by psychometric tests" and reaction timeIndividuals with aster reaction times or neural processing speeds have higher IXs"suggesting that neural processing speed is e)uivalent to the one general intelligence.

http://gmatclub.com/forum/theological-conflicts-with-darwinian-theory-99089.html

http://gmatclub.com/forum/theological-conflicts-with-darwinian-theory-99089.html



$he theory o multiple intelligences asserts that there is more than one type ointelligence. Kroponents o this model di%er on the number o intelligences. ardner" ore'ample" originally proposed seven" but has since added an eighth. Mis categories arelinguistic" logical*mathematical" musical" spatial" bodily kinesthetic" interpersonalintrapersonal" and naturalist. 3r. Robert Sternberg" a proessor o psychology andeducation at Oale Jniversity" proposes a triarchic theory o intelligence" which dividesintelligence into three categories> analytical" creative" and practical. ardner6s theory issupported primarily by biological evidence. (y studying individuals with paralysis

speech impairment" or other disabilities" ardner has been able to identiy specifc partso the brain associated with di%erent physical and cognitive skills. Sternberg6s modelrelies on observations o real*lie situations. Me notes that in (ra1il" or e'ample" streetchildren can do the math they need to know to survive" thereby demonstrating practicalintelligence" but cannot pass a school math class" which re)uires analytical intelligence.

&ccording to the passage" the term positive maniold8 can be most closely identifedwith which o the ollowing9

&/$he correlation between IX and reaction time(/$he observation that individuals with speech impairment are able to demonstrate

other orms o intelligenceC/$he relationship between IX and perormance on standardi1ed tests3/$he three intelligences proposed by 3r. Robert Sternberg-/,eural processing speed

$he author mentions the correlation between IX and reaction time in order to

&/provide ustifcation or Moward ardner6s theory o multiple intelligences(/e'plain the triarchic model o intelligence proposed by Robert SternbergC/introduce the idea o positive maniold3/point out one argument in support o general intelligence-/prove that the single intelligence model is superior to the theory o multipleintelligences

$he author o this passage would most likely agree with which o the ollowing9

&/$he theory o multiple intelligences is relatively new and untested.(/ithin the ne't decade" discoveries about the human brain will resolve the debateabout intelligence.C/3r. Sternberg6s theory would be strengthened by the discovery o biological evidenceor his conclusions.3/$he theory o multiple intelligences is undermined by disagreements among itsproponents as to the number o intelligences.-/$here is stronger biological evidence in avor o the single*intelligence model than othe theory o multiple intelligences.

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*************

http://gmatclub.com/forum/rc-you-got-6-mins-66351.html

http://gmatclub.com/forum/rc-you-got-6-mins-66351.html



,early a century ago" biologists ound that i they separated an invertebrate animaembryo into two parts at an early stage o its lie" it would survive and develop as twonormal embryos. $his led them to believe that the cells in the early embryo areundetermined in the sense that each cell has the potential to develop in a variety odi%erent ways. 2ater biologists ound that the situation was not so simple. It matters inwhich plane the embryo is cut. I it is cut in a plane di%erent rom the one used by theearly investigators" it will not orm two whole embryos.& debate arose over what e'actly was happening. hich embryo cells are determined"

ust when do they become irreversibly committed to their ates" and what are themorphogenetic determinants8 that tell a cell what to become9 (ut the debate could notbe resolved because no one was able to ask the crucial )uestions in a orm in which theycould be pursued productively. Recent discoveries in molecular biology" however" haveopened up prospects or a resolution o the debate. ,ow investigators think they know atleast some o the molecules that act as morphogenetic determinants in earlydevelopment. $hey have been able to show that" in a sense" cell determination beginseven beore an egg is ertili1ed.Studying sea urchins" biologist Kaul ross ound that an unertili1ed egg containssubstances that unction as morphogenetic determinants. $hey are located in thecytoplasm o the egg cell4 i.e." in that part o the cell6s protoplasm that lies outside o the

nucleus. In the unertili1ed egg" the substances are inactive and are not distributedhomogeneously. hen the egg is ertili1ed" the substances become active andpresumably" govern the behavior o the genes they interact with. Since the substancesare unevenly distributed in the egg" when the ertili1ed egg divides" the resulting cellsare di%erent rom the start and so can be )ualitatively di%erent in their own geneactivity. $he substances that ross studied are maternal messenger R,&6sGproducts o certain othe maternal genes. Me and other biologists studying a wide variety o organisms haveound that these particular R,&6s direct" in large part" the synthesis o histones" a classo proteins that bind to 3,&. Pnce synthesi1ed" the histones move into the cell nucleuswhere section o 3,& wrap around them to orm a structure that resembles beads" orknots" on a string. $he beads are 3,& segments wrapped around the histones4 the stringis the intervening 3,&. &nd it is the structure o these beaded 3,& strings that guide theate o the cells in which they are located. 5. It can be inerred rom the passage that the morphogenetic determinants present inthe early embryo are+&/ located in the nucleus o the embryo cells+(/ evenly distributed unless the embryo is not developing normally+C/ inactive until the embryo cells become irreversibly committed to their fnal unction+3/ identical to those that were already present in the unertili1ed egg+-/ present in larger )uantities than is necessary or the development o a singleindividual

D.It can be inerred rom the passage that the initial production o histones ater an eggis ertili1ed takes place+&/ in the cytoplasm+(/ in the maternal genes+C/ throughout the protoplasm+3/ in the beaded portions o the 3,& strings+-/ in certain sections o the cell nucleus



. It can be inerred rom the passage that which o the ollowing is dependent on theertili1ation o an egg9+&/ Copying o maternal genes to produce maternal messenger R,&6s+(/ Synthesis o proteins called histones+C/ 3ivision o a cell into its nucleus and the cytoplasm+3/ 3etermination o the egg cell6s potential or division+-/ eneration o all o a cell6s morphogenetic determinants

!. hich o the ollowing circumstances is most comparable to the impasse biologistsencountered in trying to resolve the debate about cell determination +lines 5*B/9+&/ $he problems aced by a literary scholar who wishes to use original source materialsthat are written in an unamiliar oreign language+(/ $he situation o a mathematician who in preparing a proo o a theorem orpublication detects a reasoning error in the proo +C/ $he di;culties o a space engineer who has to design e)uipment to unction in anenvironment in which it cannot frst be tested+3/ $he predicament o a linguist trying to develop a theory o language ac)uisition whenknowledge o the structure o language itsel is rudimentary at best

+-/ $he dilemma conronting a oundation when the unds available to it are su;cient tosupport one o two e)ually deserving scientifc proects but not both

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***************ost economists in the Jnited States seem captivated by the spell o the ree market.Conse)uently" nothing seems good or normal that does not accord with the re)uirementso the ree market. & price that is determined by the seller or" or that matter"established by anyone other than the aggregate o consumers seems pernicious&ccordingly" it re)uires a maor act o will to think o price*f'ing +the determination oprices by the seller/ as both normal8 and having a valuable economic unction. In act"price*f'ing is normal in all industriali1ed societies because the industrial system itselprovides" as an e%ortless conse)uence o its own development" the price*f'ing that itre)uires. odern industrial planning re)uires and rewards great si1e. Mence" acomparatively small number o large frms will be competing or the same group oconsumers. $hat each large frm will act with consideration o its own needs and thusavoid selling its products or more than its competitors charge is commonly recogni1edby advocates o ree*market economic theories. (ut each large frm will also act with ullconsideration o the needs that it has in common with the other large frms competingor the same customers. -ach large frm will thus avoid signifcant price*cutting" becauseprice*cutting would be preudicial to the common interest in a stable demand orproducts. ost economists do not see price*f'ing when it occurs because they e'pect itto be brought about by a number o e'plicit agreements among large frms4 it is not.oreover" those economists who argue that allowing the ree market to operate withoutintererence is the most e;cient method o establishing prices have not considered theeconomies o non*socialist countries other than the Jnited states. $hese economiesemploy intentional price*f'ing" usually in an overt ashion. Formal price*f'ing by carteand inormal price*f'ing by agreements covering the members o an industry arecommonplace. ere there something peculiarly e;cient about the ree market andine;cient about price*f'ing" the countries that have avoided the frst and used the

http://gmatclub.com/forum/1000rc-98626.html

http://gmatclub.com/forum/1000rc-98626.html



second would have su%ered drastically in their economic development. $here is noindication that they have.Socialist industry also works within a ramework o controlled prices. In the early !706s"the Soviet Jnion began to give frms and industries some o the Ne'ibility in adustingprices that a more inormal evolution has accorded the capitalist system. -conomists inthe Jnited States have hailed the change as a return to the ree market. (ut Soviet frmsare no more subect to prices established by a ree market over which they e'ercise littleinNuence than are capitalist frms4 rather" Soviet frms have been given the power to f'

prices. <. $he author6s attitude toward ost economists in the Jnited States8+line / can bestbe described as+&/ spiteul and envious+(/ scornul and denunciatory+C/ critical and condescending+3/ ambivalent but deerential+-/ uncertain but interested@. It can be inerred rom the author6s argument that a price f'ed by the seller seemspernicious8 +line 7/ because

+&/ people do not have confdence in large frms+(/ people do not e'pect the government to regulate prices+C/ most economists believe that consumers as a group should determine prices+3/ most economists associate f'ed prices with communist and socialist economies+-/ most economists believe that no one group should determine pricesB. ith which o the ollowing statements regarding the behavior o large frms inindustriali1ed societies would the author be most likely to agree9+&/ $he directors o large frms will continue to anticipate the demand or products.+(/ $he directors o large frms are less interested in achieving a predictable level oproft than in achieving a large proft.+C/ $he directors o large frms will strive to reduce the costs o their products.+3/ any directors o large frms believe that the government should establish the pricesthat will be charged or products.+-/ any directors o large frms believe that the price charged or products is likely toincrease annually.

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**************It can be argued that much consumer dissatisaction with marketing strategies arisesrom an inability to aim advertising at only the likely buyers o a given product. $here are three groups o consumers who are a%ected by the marketing process. First"there is the market segmentGpeople who need the commodity in )uestion. Second"there is the program targetGpeople in the market segment with the best ft8characteristics or a specifc product. 2ots o people may need trousers" but only a ew)ualiy as likely buyers o very e'pensive designer trousers. Finally" there is the programaudienceHall people who are actually e'posed to the marketing program without regardto whether they need or want the product. $hese three groups are rarely identical. &n e'ception occurs occasionally in cases wherecustomers or a particular industrial product may be ew and easily identifable. Suchcustomers" all sharing a particular need" are likely to orm a meaningul target" ore'ample" all companies with a particular application o the product in )uestion" such as

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http://gmatclub.com/forum/rc-free-market-rc1000-real-toughie-98279.html



high*speed fllers o bottles at breweries. In such circumstances" direct selling +marketingthat reaches only the program target/ is likely to be economically ustifed" and highlyspeciali1ed trade media e'ist to e'pose members o the program targetGand onlymembers o the program targetGto the marketing program.ost consumer*goods markets are signifcantly di%erent. $ypically" there are many ratherthan ew potential customers. -ach represents a relatively small percentage o potentialsales. Rarely do members o a particular market segment group themselves neatly into ameaningul program target. $here are substantial di%erences among consumers with

similar demographic characteristics. -ven with all the past decade6s advances ininormation technology" direct selling o consumer goods is rare" and mass marketingGamarketing approach that aims at a wide audienceGremains the only economicallyeasible mode. Jnortunately" there are ew media that allow the marketer to direct amarketing program e'clusively to the program target. Inevitably" people get e'posed toa great deal o marketing or products in which they have no interest and so theybecome annoyed.. $he passage suggests which o the ollowing about highly speciali1ed trade media9+&/ $hey should be used only when direct selling is not economically easible.+(/ $hey can be used to e'clude rom the program audience people who are not part othe program target.

+C/ $hey are used only or very e'pensive products.+3/ $hey are rarely used in the implementation o marketing programs or industriaproducts.+-/ $hey are used only when direct selling has not reached the appropriate marketsegment.5. &ccording to the passage" most consumer*goods markets share which o the ollowingcharacteristics9I. Customers who di%er signifcantly rom each otherII. 2arge numbers o potential customersIII. Customers who each represent a small percentage o potential sales+&/ I only+(/ II only+C/ I and II only+3/ II and III only+-/ I" II" and III<. $he passage suggests which o the ollowing about direct selling9+&/ It is used in the marketing o most industrial products.+(/ It is oten used in cases where there is a large program target.+C/ It is not economically easible or most marketing programs.+3/ It is used only or products or which there are many potential customers.+-/ It is less successul at directing a marketing program to the target audience than areother marketing approaches.@. $he author mentions trousers8 +lines ! and / most likely in order to+&/ make a comparison between the program target and the program audience+(/ emphasi1e the similarities between the market segment and the program target+C/ provide an e'ample o the way three groups o consumers are a%ected by amarketing program+3/ clariy the distinction between the market segment and the program target+-/ introduce the concept o the program audienceD. hich o the ollowing best e'emplifes the situation described in the last twosentences o the passage9



+&/ & product suitable or women age 5*<0 is marketed at meetings attended only bypotential customers.+(/ & company develops a new product and must develop an advertising campaign tocreate a market or it.+C/ &n idea or a speciali1ed product remains une'plored because media e'posure o theproduct to its ew potential customers would be too e'pensive.+3/ & new product is developed and marketers collect demographic data on potentiaconsumers beore developing a specifc advertising campaign.

+-/ & product suitable or men age 0 and over is advertised in a maga1ine read byadults o all ages.. $he passage suggests that which o the ollowing is true about the marketing oindustrial products like those discussed in the third paragraph9+&/ $he market segment and program target are identical.+(/ ass marketing is the only easible way o advertising such products.+C/ $he marketing program cannot be directed specifcally to the program target.+3/ ore customers would be needed to ustiy the e'pense o direct selling.+-/ $he program audience would necessarily be made up o potential customersregardless o the marketing approach that was used.7. $he passage supports which o the ollowing statements about demographic

characteristics and marketing9+&/ 3emographic research is o no use in determining how successul a product will bewith a particular group o consumers.+(/ & program audience is usually composed o people with similar demographiccharacteristics.+C/ Ksychological actors are more important than demographic actors in defning amarket segments.+3/ Consumers with similar demographic characteristics do not necessarily orm ameaningul program target.+-/ Collecting demographic data is the frst step that marketers take in designing amarketing program.B. It can be inerred rom the passage that which o the ollowing is true or mostconsumer*goods markets9+&/ $he program audience is smaller than the market segment.+(/ $he program audience and the market segment are usually identical.+C/ $he market segment and the program target are usually identical.+3/ $he program target is larger than the market segment.+-/ $he program target and the program audience are not usually identical.

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*************any literary detectives have pored over a great pu11le concerning the writer arcelKroust> what happened in !0!9 Mow did Contre Saint*(euve" an essay attacking themethods o the critic Saint (euve" turn into the start o the novel Remembrance o $hings Kast9 & recently published letter rom Kroust to the editor Zallette confrms thatFallois" the editor o the !D@ edition o Contre Saint*(euve" made an essentially correctguess about the relationship o the essay to the novel. Fallois proposed that Kroust hadtried to begin a novel in !0B" abandoned it or what was to be a long demonstration oSaint*(euve6s blindness to the real nature o great writing" ound the essay giving rise to

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personal memories and fctional developments" and allowed these to take over in asteadily developing novel.3rat passages in Kroust6s !0! notebooks indicate that the transition rom essay tonovel began in Contre Saint*(euve" when Kroust introduced several e'amples to showthe powerul inNuence that involuntary memory e'erts over the creative imagination. Ine%ect" in trying to demonstrate that the imagination is more proound and lesssubmissive to the intellect than Saint*(euve assumed" Kroust elicited vital memories ohis own and" fnding subtle connections between them" began to amass the material or

Remembrance. (y &ugust" Kroust was writing to Zallette" inorming him o his intentionto develop the material as a novel. aurice (ardeche" in arcel Kroust" romancier" hasshown the importance in the drats o Remembrance o spontaneous and apparentlyrandom associations o Kroust6s subconscious. &s incidents and reNections occurred toKroust" he continually inserted new passages altering and e'panding his narrative. (uthe ound it di;cult to control the drit o his inspiration. $he very richness andcomple'ity o the meaningul relationships that kept presenting and rearrangingthemselves on all levels" rom abstract intelligence to proound dreamy eelings" made itdi;cult or Kroust to set them out coherently. $he beginning o control came when hesaw how to connect the beginning and the end o his novel.Intrigued by Kroust6s claim that he had begun and fnished8 Remembrance at the same

time" Menri (onnet discovered that parts o Remembrance6s last book were actuallystarted in !0!. &lready in that year" Kroust had drated descriptions o his novel6scharacters in their old age that would appear in the fnal book o Remembrance" wherethe permanence o art is set against the ravages o time. $he letter to Zallette" drats othe essay and novel" and (onnet6s researches establish in broad outline the process bywhich Kroust generated his novel out o the ruins o his essay. (ut those o us whohoped" with Wolb" that Wolb6s newly published complete edition o Kroust6scorrespondence or !0! would document the process in greater detail are disappointed.For until Kroust was confdent that he was at last in sight o a viable structure orRemembrance" he told ew correspondents that he was producing anything moreambitious than Contre Saint*(euve.. $he passage is primarily concerned with+&/ the role o involuntary memory in Kroust6s writing+(/ evidence concerning the genesis o Kroust6s novel Remembrance o $hings Kast+C/ conNicting scholarly opinions about the value o studying the drats o Remembranceo $hings Kast+3/ Kroust6s correspondence and what it reveals about Remembrance o $hings Kast+-/ the inNuence o Saint*(euve6s criticism on Kroust6s novel Remembrance o $hingsKast5. It can be inerred rom the passage that all o the ollowing are literary detectives whohave tried" by means o either scholarship or criticism" to help solve the great pu11le8mentioned in lines *5 -LC-K$>+&/ (ardeche+(/ (onnet+C/ Fallois+3/ Wolb+-/ Zallette<. &ccording to the passage" in drats o Contre Saint (euve Kroust set out to show thatSaint*(euve made which o the ollowing mistakes as a critic9I. Saint*(euve made no e%ort to study the development o a novel through its drats andrevisions.



II. Saint*(euve assigned too great a role in the creative process to a writer6s consciousintellect.III. Saint*(euve concentrated too much on plots and not enough on imagery and otherelements o style.+&/ II only+(/ III only+C/ I and II only+3/ I and III only

+-/ I" II" and III@. hich o the ollowing best states the author6s attitude toward the inormation thatscholars have gathered about Kroust6s writing in !0!9+&/ $he author is disappointed that no new documents have come to light since Fallois6sspeculations.+(/ $he author is dissatisfed because there are too many gaps and inconsistencies in thedrats.+C/ $he author is confdent that Fallois6s !D@ guess has been proved largely correct" butregrets that still more detailed documentation concerning Kroust6s transition rom theessay to the novel has not emerged.+3/ $he author is satisfed that Fallois6s udgment was largely correct" but eels that

Kroust6s early work in designing and writing the novel was probably ar more deliberatethan Fallois6s description o the process would suggest.+-/ $he author is satisfed that the acts o Kroust6s lie in !0! have been thoroughlyestablished" but believes such documents as drats and correspondence are only olimited value in a critical assessment o Kroust6s writing.D. $he author o the passage implies that which o the ollowing would be the 2-&S$useul source o inormation about Kroust6s transition rom working on Contre Saint*(euve to having a viable structure or Remembrance o $hings Kast9+&/ Fallois6s comments in the !D@ edition o Contre Saint*(euve+(/ Kroust6s !0! notebooks" including the drats o Remembrance o $hings Kast+C/ Kroust6s !0! correspondence" e'cluding the letter to Zallette+3/ (ardeche6s arcel Kroust" romancier+-/ (onnet6s researches concerning Kroust6s drats o the fnal book o Remembrance o $hings Kast. $he passage o%ers inormation to answer which o the ollowing )uestions9+&/ Krecisely when in !0! did Kroust decide to abandon Contre Saint*(euve9+(/ Krecisely when in !0! did Kroust decide to connect the beginning and the end oRemembrance o $hings Kast9+C/ hat was the subect o the novel that Kroust attempted in !0B9+3/ hat specifc criticisms o Saint*(euve appear" in fctional orm" in Remembrance o $hings Kast9+-/ hat is a theme concerning art that appears in the fnal book o Remembrance o $hings Kast97. hich o the ollowing best describes the relationship between Contre Saint*(euve andRemembrance o $hings Kast as it is e'plained in the passage9+&/ Immediately ater abandoning Contre Saint*(euve" at Zallette6s suggestion" Krouststarted Remembrance as a fctional demonstration that Saint*(euve was wrong aboutthe imagination.+(/ Immediately ater abandoning Contre Saint*(euve" at Zallette6s suggestion" Kroustturned his attention to Remembrance" starting with incidents that had occurred to himwhile planning the essay.



+C/ 3espondent that he could not fnd a coherent structure or Contre Saint*(euve" anessay about the role o memory in fction" Kroust began instead to write Remembrance" anovel devoted to important early memories.+3/ hile developing his argument about the imagination in Contre Saint*(euve" Kroustdescribed and began to link together personal memories that became a oundation orRemembrance.+-/ hile developing his argument about memory and imagination in Contre Saint*(euve" Kroust created fctional characters to embody the abstract themes in his essay.

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***********Ca%eine" the stimulant in co%ee" has been called the most widely used psychoactivesubstance on -arth .8Synder" 3aly and (runs have recently proposed that ca%eine a%ects behavior bycountering the activity in+D/the human brain o a naturally occurring chemical called adenosine. &denosinenormally depresses neuron fring in many areas o the brain. It apparently does this byinhibiting the release o neurotransmitters" chemicals that carry nerve impulses rom one

neuron to the ne't.+0/2ike many other agents that a%ect neuron fring" adenosine must frst bind to specifcreceptors on neuronal membranes. $here are at least two classes o these receptors"which have been designated & and&5. Snyder et al propose that ca%eine" which is struc*+D/turally similar to adenosine" is able to bind to both types o receptors" whichprevents adenosine rom attaching there and allows the neurons to fre more readily thanthey otherwise would.For many years" ca%eine6s e%ects have been attri*+50/buted to its inhibition o the production o phosphodi*esterase" an en1yme thatbreaks down the chemical called cyclic &K.& number o neurotransmitters e'ert theire%ects by frst increasing cyclic &K concentra*tions in target neurons. $hereoreprolonged periods at+5D/the elevated concentrations" as might be brought about by a phosphodiesteraseinhibitor" could lead to a greater amount o neuron fring and" conse)uently" to behav*ioral stimulation. (ut Snyder et al point out that the ca%eine concentrations needed toinhibit the production+<0/o phosphodiesterase in the brain are much higher than those that producestimulation. oreover" other com*pounds that block phosphodiesterase6s activity are notstimulants. $o buttress their case that ca%eine acts instead by pre*+<D/venting adenosine binding" Snyder et al compared the stimulatory e%ects o a serieso ca%eine derivatives with their ability to dislodge adenosine rom its receptors in thebrains o mice. In general"8 they reported" the ability o the compounds to compete atthe receptors 50B+@0/correlates with their ability to stimulate locomotion in the mouse4 i.e." the highertheir capacity to bind at the receptors" the higher their ability to stimulate locomo*tion.8 $heophylline" a close structural relative o ca%eine and the maor stimulant in tea" wasone o the most+@D/ e%ective compounds in both regards. $here were some apparent e'ceptions to thegeneral correlation observed between adenosine*receptor binding and stimulation. Pneo these was a compound called

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http://gmatclub.com/forum/challenging-questions-rc-arts-and-literature-90413.html



<*isobuty**methyl'anthine+I(L/" which bound very+D0/well but actually depressed mouse locomotion. Snyder et al suggest that this is not amaor stumbling block to their hypothesis. $he problem is that the compound has mi'ede%ects in the brain" a not unusual occurrence with psychoactive drugs. -ven ca%eine"which is generally+DD/known only or its stimulatory e%ects" displays this property" depressing mouselocomotion at very low concentrations and stimulating it at higher ones.

. $he primary purpose o the passage is to+&/discuss a plan or investigation o a phenomenon that is not yet ully understood+(/present two e'planations o a phenomenon and reconcile the di%erences betweenthem+C/summari1e two theories and suggest a third theory that overcomes the problemsencountered in the frst two+3/describe an alternative hypothesis and provide evidence and arguments that supportit+-/challenge the validity o a theory by e'posing the inconsistencies and contradictionsin it

5. &ccording so Snyder et al" ca%eine di%ers rom adenosine in that ca%eine+&/stimulates behavior in the mouse and in humans" whereas adenosine stimulatesbehavior in humans only+(/has mi'ed e%ects in the brain" whereas adenosine has only a stimulatory e%ect+C/increases cyclic &K concentrations in target neurons" whereas adenosine decreasessuch concentrations+3/permits release o neurotransmitters when it is bound to adenosine receptors"whereas adenosine inhibits such release+-/inhibits both neuron fring and the production o phosphodiesterase when there is asu;cient concentration in the brain" whereas adenosine inhibits only neuron fring <. In response to e'perimental results concerning I(L" Snyder et al contended that it isnot uncommon or psychoactive drugs to have+&/mi'ed e%ects in the brain+(/inhibitory e%ects on en1ymes in the brain+C/close structural relationships with ca%eine+3/depressive e%ects on mouse locomotion+-/the ability to dislodge ca%eine rom receptors in the brain @. &ccording to Snyder et al" all o the ollowing compounds can bind to specifc receptorsin the brain -LC-K$+&/I(L+(/ca%eine50!+C/adenosine+3/theophylline+-/phosphodiesterase D. Snyder et al suggest that ca%eine6s ability to bind to & and &5 receptors can be atleast partially attributed to which o the ollowing9+&/$he chemical relationship between ca%eine and phosphodiesterase+(/$he structural relationship between ca%eine and adenosine+C/$he structural similarity between ca%eine and neurotransmitters



+3/$he ability o ca%eine to stimulate behavior+-/$he natural occurrence o ca%eine and adenosine in the brain . $he author )uotes Snyder et al in lines <B*@< most probably in order to+&/reveal some o the assumptions underlying their theory+(/summari1e a maor fnding o their e'periments+C/point out that their e'periments were limited to the mouse+3/indicate that their e'periments resulted only in general correlations

+-/reute the obections made by supporters o the older theory

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*********Pne o the )uestions o interest in the study o the evolution o spiders is whether theweaving o orb webs evolved only once or several times. &bout hal the <D"000 knownkinds o spiders make webs4 a third o the web weavers make orb webs. Since most orbweavers belong either to the &raneidae or the Jloboridae amilies" the origin o the orbweb can be determined only by ascertaining whether the amilies are related.Recentta'onomic analysis o individuals rom both amilies indicates that the amilies evolved

rom di%erent ancestors" thereby contradicting iehle6s theory. $his theory postulatesthat the amilies must be related" based on the assumption that comple' behavior" suchas web building" could evolve only once. &ccording to Wullman" web structure is the onlycharacteristic that suggests a relationship between amilies. $he amilies di%er inappearance" structure o body hair" and arrangement o eyes. Pnly Jloborids lack venomglands. Further identifcation and study o characteristic eatures will undoubtedlyanswer the )uestion o the evolution o the orb web. 7. $he primary purpose o the passage is to+&/ settle the )uestion o whether orb webs evolved once or more than once+(/ describe scientifc speculation concerning an issue related to the evolution o orbwebs+C/ analy1e the di%erences between the characteristic eatures o spiders in the&raneidae and Jloboridae amilies+3/ )uestion the methods used by earlier investigators o the habits o spiders+-/ demonstrate that &raneidae spiders are not related to Jloboridae spidersB. It can be inerred rom the passage that all orb*weaving spiders belong to typesospiders that +&/ lack venom glands+(/ are included either in the Jloboridae or &raneidae amilies+C/ share ew characteristic eatures with other spider types+3/ comprise less than a third o all known types o spiders+-/ are more recently evolved than other types o spiders !. &ccording to the passage" members o the &raneidae amily can be distinguishedrom members o the Jloboridae amily by all o the ollowing -LC-K$>+&/ the presence o venom glands+(/ the type o web they spin+C/ the structure o their body hair+3/ the arrangement o their eyes+-/ their appearance

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http://gmatclub.com/forum/rc-caffeine-84536.html



$he point is that the sharp contrast between the enthusiastic supporters o the railroadin the B<0s and the minority o intellectual dissenters during that period e'tended intothe BB0s and beyond. . $he passage provides inormation to answer all o the ollowing )uestions -LC-K$>+&/ 3uring what period did the railroad reach the 1enith o its popularity in the JnitedStates9+(/ Mow e'tensive was the impact o the railroad on the Industrial Revolution in the

Jnited States" relative to that o other modern innovations9+C/ ho are some o the writers o the B<0s who e'pressed ambivalence toward therailroad9+3/ In what way could Stilgoe have strengthened his argument regarding intellectuals6attitudes toward the railroad in the years ater the BB0s9+-/ hat arguments did the writers ater the BB0s" as cited by Stilgoe" o%er to ustiytheir support or the railroad9 5. &ccording to the author o the passage" Stilgoe uses the phrase romantic*eradistrust8 +line </ to imply that the view he is reerring to was+&/ the attitude o a minority o intellectuals toward technological innovation that began

ater B<0+(/ a commonly held attitude toward the railroad during the B<0s+C/ an ambivalent view o the railroad e'pressed by many poets and novelists betweenBB0 and !<0+3/ a criti)ue o social and economic developments during the B<0s by a minority ointellectuals+-/ an attitude toward the railroad that was disseminated by works o popular cultureater BB0 <. &ccording to the author" the attitude toward the railroad that was reNected in writingso Menry #ames" Sinclair 2ewis" and F. Scott Fit1gerald was+&/ inNuenced by the writings o Frank ,orris" -ugene P6,eill" and Menry &dams+(/ similar to that o the minority o writers who had e'pressed ambivalence toward therailroad prior to the BB0s+C/ consistent with the public attitudes toward the railroad that were reNected in works opopular culture ater the BB0s+3/ largely a reaction to the works o writers who had been severely critical o therailroad in the B<0s+-/ consistent with the prevailing attitude toward the railroad during the B<0s @. It can be inerred rom the passage that the author uses the phrase works o popularculture8 +line @/ primarily to reer to the+&/ work o a large group o writers that was published between BB0 and !<0 and thatin Stilgoe6s view was highly critical o the railroad+(/ work o writers who were heavily inNuenced by Mawthorne and $horeau+C/ large volume o writing produced by Menry &dams" Sinclair 2ewis" and -ugene P6,eill+3/ work o ournalists" novelists" and illustrators who were responsible or creatingenthusiasm or the railroad during the B<0s+-/ work o ournalists" novelists" and illustrators that was published ater BB0 and thathas received little attention rom scholars other than Stilgoe



D. hich one o the ollowing can be inerred rom the passage regarding the work oFrank ,orris" -ugene P6,eill" and Menry &dams9+&/ $heir work never achieved broad popular appeal.+(/ $heir ideas were disseminated to a large audience by the popular culture o the earlyB00s.+C/ $heir work e'pressed a more positive attitude toward the railroad than did that oMenry #ames" Sinclair 2ewis" and F. Scott Fit1gerald.+3/ &lthough they were primarily novelists" some o their work could be classifed as

ournalism.+-/ &lthough they were inNuenced by $horeau" their attitude toward the railroad wassignifcantly di%erent rom his. . It can be inerred rom the passage that Stilgoe would be most likely to agree withwhich one o the ollowing statements regarding the study o cultural history9+&/ It is impossible to know e'actly what period historians are reerring to when they usethe term romantic era.8+(/ $he writing o intellectuals oten anticipates ideas and movements that are laterembraced by popular culture.+C/ riters who were not popular in their own time tell us little about the age in which

they lived.+3/ $he works o popular culture can serve as a reliable indicator o public attitudestoward modern innovations like the railroad.+-/ $he best source o inormation concerning the impact o an event as large as theIndustrial Revolution is the private letters and ournals o individuals. 7. $he primary purpose o the passage is to+&/ evaluate one scholar6s view o public attitudes toward the railroad in the JnitedStates rom the early nineteenth to the early twentieth century+(/ review the treatment o the railroad in &merican literature o the nineteenth andtwentieth centuries+C/ survey the views o cultural historians regarding the railroad6s impact on maorevents in Jnited States history+3/ e'plore the origins o the public support or the railroad that e'isted ater thecompletion o a national rail system in the Jnited States+-/ defne what historians mean when they reer to the romantic*era distrust8 o therailroad

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**************hile acknowledging thatthere are greater employmentopportunities or 2atin &meri*2ine can women in cities than in the+D/ countryside" social sciencetheorists have continued toargue that urban migrationhas une)uivocally hurtwomen6s status. Mowever"+0/ the e%ects o migration aremore comple' than these

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lowest socioeconomic classdi%er in their opinions aboutthe e%ects o urban migration+D/ on their lives. Some fndurban living" with access toelectricity and running water"an improvement and wouldnever return to the country*

+70/ side. Pthers" disliking theovercrowding and crime"would return to the countrysidei there were workopportunities or them there.+7D/ $hus" urban lie has had bothnegative and positive impactson women6s lives. In general"urban migration has notprovided economic pros*+B0/ perity or upward mobility or

women in the lowest socioeconomicclass" despite theirintelligent and energetic utili1ationo the resourcesavailable to them.********************************************************************************X55>In the frst paragraph" the author reers to the e'periences o (ra1ilian women mostprobably in order to5&. support an earlier assertion made by social science theorists about the e%ects ourban migration(. provide an e'ample o one area in which urban migration has ailed to improve 2atin&merican women6s livesC. substantiate the claim that the e%ects o urban migration cannot be easilycharacteri1ed3. illustrate the e%ect that urban migration has had on the economic status o 2atin&merican women-. compare the e%ect that urban migration has had on the economic status o 2atin&merican women with its e%ect on the economic status o 2atin &merican men

********************************************************************************X5<>,P$-> Oou must scroll to read the answer choices or this )uestion.hich o the ollowing best summari1es the main point o the passage9&. &lthough 2atin &merican women disagree about the e%ects urban migration has hadon their lives" they agree that migration has provided them with greater opportunities orstable employment outside the home.(. &lthough urban migration has improved the )uality o lie or 2atin &merican women"it has weakened the social support systems that these women enoyed in ruracommunities.



C. $he e%ects that urban migration has had on 2atin &merican women6s lives arecomple' and are best evaluated in light o a range o issues concerning 2atin &mericanwomen6s overall )uality o lie.3. $he e%ects o urban migration in 2atin &merica are di%erent or men than they are orwomen because o the relatively greater ob opportunities and ob security enoyed bywomen in urban areas.-. Jrban migration has led to an increasing disparity between the economic prosperity o2atin &merican women in the lowest socioeconomic classes and that o women in the

higher socioeconomic classes.&nswer>********************************************************************************X5@> $he author mentions which o the ollowing as a disadvantage o urban employment or2atin &merican women in the lowest socioeconomic group9&. It is di;cult or these women to obtain reliable" long*term employment.(. It is di;cult or these women to organi1e e%ectively in order to obtain better wages.C. It is di;cult or these women to fnd employers who are supportive when emergenciesarise.3. $he structure o their obs makes it di;cult or these women to participate in

e'change networks.-. orking in urban areas makes these women more vulnerable to health problems thanthey would be in rural areas.********************************************************************************X5D> $he author o the passage would most likely agree that the opinions o the 2atin&merican women discussed in the third paragraph +lines 0*BD/ are inNuenced by the&. act that urban lie has provided them with greater opportunities or upward mobilitythan did rural lie(. relative importance they place on the benefts o urban e'change networks incomparison to those o rural networks.C. relative importance they place on the conveniences and drawbacks o urban lie incomparison to those o rural lie3. di%erence in the e%ects o urban migration on women o higher and lowersocioeconomic classes-. di%erence in the e%ects o urban migration on men and women o the same social andeconomic class

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*************Pne type o violation o the antitrust laws is the abuse o monopoly power. onopolypower is the ability o a frm to raise its prices above the competitive levelGthat is"above the level that would e'ist naturally i several frms had to competeGwithoutdriving away so many customers as to make the price increase unproftable. In order toshow that a frm has abused monopoly power" and thereby violated the antitrust laws"two essential acts must be established. First" a frm must be shown to possess monopolypower" and second" that power must have been used to e'clude competition in themonopoli1ed market or related markets. $he price a frm may charge or its product is constrained by the availability o closesubstitutes or the product. I a frm attempts to charge a higher priceGasupracompetitive priceGconsumers will turn to other frms able to supply substitute

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http://gmatclub.com/forum/women-84343.html



products at competitive prices. I a frm provides a large percentage o the productsactually or potentially available" however" customers may fnd it di;cult to buy romalternative suppliers. Conse)uently" a frm with a large share o the relevant market osubstitutable products may be able to raise its price without losing many customers. Forthis reason courts oten use market share as a rough indicator o monopoly power.Supracompetitive prices are associated with a loss o consumers6 welare because suchprices orce some consumers to buy a less attractive mi' o products than they wouldordinarily buy. Supracompetitive prices" however" do not themselves constitute an abuse

o monopoly power. &ntitrust laws do not attempt to counter the mere e'istence omonopoly power" or even the use o monopoly power to e'tract e'traordinarily highprofts. For e'ample" a frm enoying economies o scaleGthat is" low unit productioncosts due to high volumeGdoes not violate the antitrust laws when it obtains a largemarket share by charging prices that are proftable but so low that its smaller rivalscannot survive. I the antitrust laws posed disincentives to the e'istence and growth osuch frms" the laws could impair consumers6 welare. -ven i the frm" upon ac)uiringmonopoly power" chose to raise prices in order to increase profts" it would not be inviolation o the antitrust laws. $he antitrust prohibitions ocus instead on abuses o monopoly power that e'cludecompetition in the monopoli1ed market or involve leverageGthe use o power in one

market to reduce competition in another. Pne such orbidden practice is a tyingarrangement" in which a monopolist conditions the sale o a product in one market onthe buyer6s purchase o another product in a di%erent market. For e'ample" a frmenoying a monopoly in the communications systems market might not sell its productsto a consumer unless that customer also buys its computer systems" which arecompeting with other frms6 computer systems. $he ocus on the abuse o monopoly power" rather than on monopoly itsel" ollows romthe primary purpose o the antitrust laws> to promote consumers6 welare throughassurance o the )uality and )uantity o products available to consumers. 1. Which one of the following distinctions between monopoly power and theabuse of monopoly power would the author say underlies the antitrust lawsdiscussed in the passage?+&/ onopoly power is assessed in term o market share" whereas abuse o monopolypower is assessed in term o market control.+(/ onopoly power is easy to demonstrate" whereas abuse o monopoly power isdi;cult to demonstrate.+C/ onopoly power involves only one market" whereas abuse o monopoly powerinvolves at least two or more related markets.+3/ onopoly power is the ability to charge supracompetitive prices" whereas abuse omonopoly power is the use o that ability.+-/ onopoly power does not necessarily hurt consumer welare" whereas abuse omonopoly power does. 2. Would the use of le(erage meet the criteria for abuse of monopoly poweroutlined in the /rst paragraph?+&/ ,o" because leverage involves a nonmonopoli1ed market.+(/ ,o" unless the leverage involves a tying arrangement.+C/ Oes" because leverage is a characteristic o monopoly power.+3/ Oes" unless the frm using leverage is charging competitive prices.+-/ Oes" because leverage is used to eliminate competition in a related market.



3. What is the main purpose of the third paragraph *lines 20%+?+&/ to distinguish between supracompetitive prices and supracompetitive profts+(/ to describe the positive use o monopoly power+C/ to introduce the concept o economies o scale+3/ to distinguish what is not covered by the antitrust law under discussion rom what iscovered+-/ to remind the reader o the issue o consumers welare %. i(en only the information in the passage, with which one of the followingstatements about competition would those responsible for the antitrust lawsmost liely agree?+&/ Competition is essential to consumers6 welare.+(/ $here are acceptable and unacceptable ways or frms to reduce their competition.+C/ $he preservation o competition is the principal aim o the antitrust laws.+3/ Supracompetitive prices lead to reductions in competition.+-/ Competition is necessary to ensure high*)uality products at low prices. &. Which one of the following sentences would best complete the lastparagraph of the passage?

+&/ (y limiting consumers6 choices" abuse o monopoly power reduces consumers6welare" but monopoly alone can sometimes actually operate in the consumers6 bestinterest.+(/ hat is needed now is a set o related laws to deal with the negative impacts thatmonopoly itsel has on consumers6 ability to purchase products at reasonable cost.+C/ Pver time" the antitrust laws have been very e%ective in ensuring competition and"conse)uently" consumers6 welare in the volatile communications and computer systemsindustries.+3/ (y controlling supracompetitive prices and corresponding supracompetitive profts"the antitrust laws have" indeed" gone a long way toward meeting that obective.+-/ &s noted above" the necessary restraints on monopoly itsel have been let to themarket" where competitive prices and economies o scale are rewarded throughincreased market share. =http>??gmatclub.com?orum?rc*antitrust*laws*[email protected]***********In inters v. Jnited States+!0B/" the Supreme Court heldthat the right to use waters Now*2ine ing through or adacent to the+D/ Fort (erthold Indian Reservationwas reserved to &merican Indiansby the treaty establishing the reservation.&lthough this treaty didnot mention water rights" the Court+0/ ruled that the ederal government"when it created the reservation"intended to deal airly with&merican Indians by preservingor them the waters without which+D/ their lands would have been useless.2ater decisions" citinginters" established that courts

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can fnd ederal rights to reservewater or particular purposes i +50/ +/ the land in )uestion lies withinan enclave under e'clusive ederal urisdiction" +5/ the land has beenormally withdrawn rom ederalpublic lands G i.e." withdrawn rom+5D/ the stock o ederal lands available

or private use under ederalland use laws G and set aside orreserved" and +</ the circumstancesreveal the government+<0/ intended to reserve water as wellas land when establishing thereservation.Some &merican Indian tribeshave also established water rights+<D/ through the courts based on theirtraditional diversion and use o

certain waters prior to the JnitedStates6 ac)uisition o sovereignty.For e'ample" the Rio rande+@0/ pueblos already e'isted when theJnited States ac)uired sovereigntyover ,ew e'ico in B@B. &lthoughthey at that time became part o theJnited States" the pueblo lands+@D/ never ormally constituted a parto ederal public lands4 in anyevent" no treaty" statute" or e'ecutiveorder has ever designatedor withdrawn the pueblos rom+D0/ public lands as &merican Indianreservations. $his act" however"has not barred applicationo the inters doctrine. hatconstitutes an &merican Indian+DD/ reservation is a )uestion o practice" not o legal defnition"and the pueblos have alwaysbeen treated as reservations bythe Jnited States. $his pragmatic+0/ approach is buttressed by &ri1onav. Caliornia +!</" wherein theSupreme Court indicated that themanner in which any type o ederalreservation is created does not+D/ a%ect the application to it o theinters doctrine. $hereore" thereserved water rights o KuebloIndians have priority over other



citi1ens6 water rights as o B@B"+70/ the year in which pueblos mustbe considered to have becomereservations.********************************************************************************XB> $he author cites the act that the Rio rande pueblos were never ormally withdrawnrom public lands primarily in order to do which o the ollowing9

&. Suggest why it might have been argued that the inters doctrine ought not to applyto pueblo lands(. Imply that the Jnited States never really ac)uired sovereignty over pueblo landsC. &rgue that the pueblo lands ought still to be considered part o ederal public lands3. Support the argument that the water rights o citi1ens other than &merican Indiansare limited by the inters doctrine-. Suggest that ederal courts cannot claim urisdiction over cases disputing thetraditional diversion and use o water by Kueblo Indians********************************************************************************X!> $he passage suggests that" i the criteria discussed in lines Q <5 were the only criteria

or establishing a reservation6s water rights" which o the ollowing would be true9&. $he water rights o the inhabitants o the Fort (erthold Indian Reservation would nottake precedence over those o other citi1ens.(. Reservations established beore B@B would be udged to have no water rights.C. $here would be no legal basis or the water rights o the Rio rande pueblos.3. Reservations other than &merican Indian reservations could not be created withreserved water rights.-. $reaties establishing reservations would have to mention water rights e'plicitly inorder to reserve water or a particular purpose.********************************************************************************X0>&ccording to the passage" which o the ollowing was true o the treaty establishing theFort (erthold Indian Reservation9&. It was challenged in the Supreme Court a number o times.(. It was rescinded by the ederal government" an action that gave rise to the interscase.C It cited &merican Indians6 traditional use o the land6s resources

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