reading ii - guide (nuevo

7/27/2019 Reading II - Guide (Nuevo

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efficiency is a matter of how effective a discourse the reader can create

from the text, either in terms of rapport with the writer or in terms of his

purpose in engaging in the discourse in the first place. In fact, in this view,

reading is regarded not as reaction to a text but as interaction between

writer and reader mediated through the text.

Alderson and Urquhart (1984) assert that it is possible to view reading

both as product and as process. Research has tended to focus upon the

product rather than the process. But this is inadequate because of the

unpredictable and normal variation in product, and because knowing the

product does not tell us what actually happens when a reader interacts

with a text. The process underlies the product (which will vary from reader

to reader, purpose to purpose, time to time and so on). The value of

concentrating on process in research and teaching is that if processes can

be characterized, they may certain elements that are general across

different texts, and learners can learn in order to improve their reading.

The basic rationale behind attempts to describe process is that an

understanding should lead to the possibility of distinguishing the

processing of successful and unsuccessful readers. This view is dynamic

rather than static- that is, it emphasizes a readers progression through a

text rather than as a product. As Alderson and Urquart (ibid) point out, a

product view relates only to what the reader has got out of the text while a

process view investigates how the reader may arrive at a particular

interpretation.

Wallace (1992) reports that researchers into both first and second

language reading have argued against the view that texts are self-

contained 3objects, the meaning of which it is the readers job merely to

recover. Texts do not contain meaning; rather they have potential for

meaning. This potential is realized only in the interaction between text and

reader. That is, meaning is created in the course of reading as the reader

draws both on existing linguistic and schematic knowledge and the input

provided by the printed or written text.


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UNIT I: TEXT ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERNSIdentifying Topics, Main Ideas, Secondary ideas andSupporting DetailsUnderstanding the topic, the gist, or the larger conceptual framework

of a textbook chapter, an article, a paragraph, a sentence or a passage

is a sophisticated reading task. Being able to draw conclusions,

evaluate, and critically interpret articles or chapters is important for

overall comprehension in college reading. Textbook chapters, articles,

paragraphs, sentences, or passages all have topics and main ideas.

The topicis the broad, general theme or message. It is what some call

the subject. The main ideais the "key concept" being

expressed. Details, major and minor, support the main idea by telling

how, what, when, where, why, how much, or how many. Locating the

topic, main idea, and supporting details helps you understand the

point(s) the writer is attempting to express. Identifying the relationship

between these will increase your comprehension.

Applying StrategyThe successful communication of any author's topic is only as good asthe organization the author uses to build and define his/her subject

matter.

Grasping the Main Idea:A paragraph is a group of sentences related to a particular topic, or

central theme. Every paragraph has a key concept or main idea. The

main idea is the most important piece of information the author wants

you to know about the concept of that paragraph.

When authors write they have an idea in mind that they are trying to get

across. This is especially true as authors compose paragraphs. An

author organizes each paragraph's main idea and supporting details in

support of the topic or central theme, and each paragraph supports the

paragraph preceding it.


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core around which the whole wheel (or paragraph) spins. Your strategy

for topic identification is simply to ask yourself the question, "What is

this about?" Keep asking yourself that question as you read a

paragraph, until the answer to your question becomes clear. Sometimes

you can spot the topic by looking for a word or two that repeat. Usually

you can state the topic in a few words.

Let us try this topic-finding strategy. Reread the first paragraph on this

page - the first paragraph under the heading Grasping the Main Idea.

Ask yourself the question, "What is this paragraph about?" To answer,

say to yourself in your mind, "The author keeps talking about

paragraphs and the way they are designed. This must be the topic -

paragraph organization." Reread the second paragraph of the same

section. Ask yourself "What is this paragraph about?" Did you say toyourself, "This paragraph is about different ways to organize a

paragraph"? That is the topic. Next, reread the third paragraph and see

if you can find the topic of the paragraph. How? Write the topic in the

margin next to this paragraph. Remember, getting the main idea of a

paragraph is crucial to reading.

The bulk of an expository paragraphis made up of supporting ideas

(major and minor details), which help to explain or prove the main idea.

These sentences present facts, reasons, examples, definitions,comparison, contrasts, and other pertinent details. They are most

important because they sell the main idea.

The last sentence of a paragraph is likely to be a concluding sentence.

It is used to sum up a discussion, to emphasize a point, or to restate all

or part of the topic sentence so as to bring the paragraph to a close. The

last sentence may also be a transitional sentence leading to the next

paragraph.

Of course, the paragraphs you'll be reading will be part of some longer

piece of writing - a textbook chapter, a section of a chapter, or a

newspaper or magazine article. Besides expository paragraphs, in which

new information is presented and discussed, these longer writings

contain three types of paragraphs: introductory, transitional, and

summarizing.


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Introductoryparagraphs tell you, in advance, such things as (1) the

main ideas of the chapter or section; (2) the extent or limits of the

coverage; (3) how the topic is developed; and (4) the writer's attitude

toward the topic. Transitionalparagraphs are usually short; their sole

function is to tie together what you have read so far and what is to come

- to set the stage for succeeding ideas of the chapter or

section. Summarizingparagraphs are used to restate briefly the main

ideas of the chapter or section. The writer may also draw some

conclusion from these ideas, or speculate on some conclusion based on

the evidence he/she has presented.

All three types should alertyou: the introductory paragraph of things to

come; the transitional paragraph of a new topic; and the summarizing

paragraph of main ideas that you should have gotten.

Exercise:Read the following paragraph and underline the stated main idea.

Write down in your own words what you are able to conclude from

the information.

The rules of conduct during an examination are clear. No books,calculators or papers are allowed in the test room. Proctors will not

allow anyone with such items to take the test. Anyone caught cheating

will be asked to leave the room. His or her test sheet will be taken. The

incident will be reported to the proper authority. At the end of the test

period, all materials will be returned to the proctor. Failure to abide by

these rules will result in a failing grade for this test.

Answer:You should have underlined the first sentence in the paragraph - this is

the stated main idea. What can be concluded from the information is: If

you do not follow the rules, you will automatically fail the test. This

concluding information is found in the last sentence.


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You can't comprehend the subject matter if you haven't identifyied the topic,the main idea, and the supporting details.

Referential Elements: Pronouns, cognates & false cognatesWhat are cognates?Cognates are words in two languages that share a similar meaning,spelling, and pronunciation. While English may share very few cognateswith a language like Chinese, 30-40% of all words in English have arelated word in Spanish. For Spanish-speaking ELLs (English LanguageLearners), cognates are an obvious bridge to the English language.

Not surprisingly, researchers who study first and second languageacquisition have found that students benefit from cognate awareness.Cognate awareness is the ability to use cognates in a primary language asa tool for understanding a second language. Children can be taught to use

cognates as early as preschool. As students move up the grade levels, theycan be introduced to more sophisticated cognates, and to cognates thathave multiple meanings in both languages, although some of thosemeanings may not overlap. One example of a cognate with multiplemeanings is asistir, which means to assist(same meaning) but alsoto attend(different meaning).

False cognatesThere are literally thousands of words that are the same or similar inappearance in English and Spanish, and have the same meaning in both

languages (cognates). There are also, however, many instances whereappearances are deceiving and words that look alike are quite different inmeaning (false cognates). The following list includes some of the mostcommon false cognates, also known as false friends:

la accinIn addition to meaning action in Spanish, it is also used in business tomean share, stock. Las acciones de la compaa = the companysstock (or shares).

actualIn Spanish, means present, current, and not actual as we use it inEnglish, which in Spanish is instead real, verdadero. e.g. Elpresidenteactual no ejerce el verdadero poder = The current presidente does not


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exercise the actual power. Notice how Spanish uses verdadero= true,

instead of actual, which instead of meaning real as it does in English,would only have the meaning of present or current in Spanish. e.g.actualmente: at the present time; en realidad, de veras, realmente =actually.

asistirIn Spanish, means to attend, not to assist, and requires the prepositionabefore a noun. e.g. Casi nunca asiste a sus clases= He almost neverattends class. To assist, with the meaning in English of to help, isayudar.

el colegioGeneral term for school, or often, high school. Does not mean college,

which in Spanish is la universidad.

una conferenciaThis may mean conference as we know it in English, with the meaning ofa convention; it has another, often-used meaning in Spanish, which in

English would be a lecture by a professor or a public speaker.

la decepcinMeans disappointment and sometimes a feeling of having beendeceived; deception in Spanish, however, is usually translated asengao.

una desgraciaMeans misfortune, not necessarily disgrace. Qu desgracia!= What amisfortune! desgraciadamente: unfortunately. A disgrace = unadeshonra.

un disgustoMeans unpleasantness, annoyance as opposed to disgust, which istranslated into Spanish as asco. Me da asco= It disgustsme. e.g. Tuveun disgusto con mi cuado. = I had an unpleasant incident with mybrother-in-law.

embarazadaDoes not mean embarrassed, which in Spanish is avergonzado/a,desconcertado/a, or turbado/a. Est embarazada is one way of sayingShes pregnant in Spanish.


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el xitoMeans success. e.g. Su nueva comedia tuvo un gran xito. = His new playwas a great success. Not to be confused with an exit, which in Spanishis salida.

fastidiosoAnnoying, bothersome. Fastidiar is a commonly used verb; e.g. No mefastidies. = Dont bother (annoy) me. Likewise, the noun is (un/el)fastidio. Es un fastidio. = Its a bother (nuisance, inconvenience). It isdifficult to find an equivalent for fastidious in Spanish. Severalpossibilities are melindroso, quisquilloso, exigente,difcil de complacer.

una firmaSignature. A business firm is compaaor casa(comercial).

una groseraThe adjective groseromeans rude or course and a groserais rudenessor coarseness. Not to be confused as a translation of the English wordgrocery, which is known by a various terms depending on the

country/region of the Hispanic world where it is used. Usuallyuna tiendade ultramarinos in Spain, it is una tienda de abarrotes in Mexico; unabodega in Cuba and Venezuela; un almacn in Argentine, Uruguay andChile; un colmadoin Puerto Rico.

el idiomaIn English, translates as language. What we call an idiom in English,

on the other hand, is modismo in Spanish; e.g. Hay muchos modismos encada idioma. = There are many idiomsin every language.

un indianoThis is a special term used to refer to a Spaniard who went to the Spanishcolonies in the New World and returned to Europe with great wealth. A(North/South/Central)-American Indian is most frequently referred to as

un indgenaor un indio; a person from the Indian continent is also referredto as un indio.

introducir

Means introduce in the sense of to bring up a topic in conversation (=introducir un tema) or to stick in, to put into, to insert, all physicalactions. To introduce a person in Spanish ispresentar.

largoMeans long in English. Large is instead grande.


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una lecturaMeans reading, in English, not lecture. The word for lecture in Spanish, as mentioned above, is conferencia.

la librera

= bookstore. Library is instead la biblioteca.

molestarMay mean to molest but more often is the equivalent of the English tobother, disturb, annoy. e.g. Siento molestarlo = Im sorry to botheryou. Another common phrase is No es ninguna molestia= Its no trouble(or bother).

Oficio= trade, occupation. Office is el despachoor la oficina.

el/la parienteThis is the general word for a relative. The word in Spanish forparent is

padre(father) or madre(mother). parents = los padres

pretender= to attempt, to try to. To pretend =fingir.

la propagandaNot only propaganda as we use it in English but also advertising, publicity.

regularIn addition to having the meaning of regular in English, may also meanaverage, so-so, O.K. In answer to the question Cmo ests?, meansso-so, O.K.

sanoHealthy rather than sane, which is cuerdo/a. Note the expression sanoy salvo= safe and sound.

sensible= sensitive in English. Sensible in English may be sensato, cuerdo,

razonable, de buen sentido. e.g. Es una persona muy sensible. = He is avery sensitive person.

una sentenciaMeans a sentence only in the judicial sense. May also mean asaying orproverb. Sentence in the grammatical sense is (una)frase.


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simpticoThis is one of the finest compliments that can be given to a person. It isroughly the equivalent of pleasant, charming, congenial.Sympathetic = compasivo, simpatizante.

un suceso= event, occurrence, happening. The verb sucedermeans tohappen to,to occur. Remember, as we have mentioned, success= xito.

sujetoMeans subject only in the grammatical sense. It may also mean,

colloquially, fellow, guy, with a derogatory feel. A subject in school is (la)asignatura, (la) materia, (el) curso. When it is the equivalent of topic,

subject = (el) tema. When it refers to a citizen of a country, subject is

sbditoor ciudadano.

tipoNot only type as in category, but also used colloquially, with a

derogatory feel, for guy or character. e.g. No me gusta ese tipo. = I dontlike that guy. Note the economic/financial term tipo de cambio =exchange rate (of currency).

Rethorical patternsA rhetorical pattern is a mode in which an articles details are organized.The rhetorical patterns include:

1) Examples

2) Definition

3) Comparison and contrast

4) Sequence of Event

5) Cause and Effect

6) Description

7) Narration

1) Examples: - Writers often include examples of various kinds in order tosound convincing while writing about a subject. Examples help the writerto be persuasive and to sound convincing; they help him gain authenticity

and increase believability of his/ her arguments and of the subject beingtalked about.


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2) Definition: - Definition is a necessary strategy for all kinds of writing.

Autobiographers occasionally define objects, conditions, events andactivities for research. This unfamiliarity with defining is certain becausethe autobiographers write about something extremely readers is completelyunknown, if they do not define those very personal conditions and terms, it

will not be easy to understand them. Thus to convince the audience of aposition a writer most often defines concepts that are important to anargument.

3) Comparison and Contrast: - Comparison brings similar things togetherfor examination to see how they are alike. Contrast is a form of comparisonthat emphasizes their differences. Comparison and contrast are generallytaken as more than writing strategies. They are basic ways of thinking and

leaving. We attain new perceptions more readily if we can see how thingsare similar to or different from the perception we have already achieved.For professional writers, comparison and contrast are basic strategies of

writing. Some writing may have extended comparison but for all kinds ofwriting comparison and contrast are necessary to be vivid in presentinginformation.

4) Sequence of Events: - After sufficiently analyzing the events they aresupposed to talk about writers, concentrating on presenting them in aneffective and coherence so that the whole composition becomes concrete,clear and effective. Any break in the loose stinging of or an unnecessaryinclusion of event may distort the whole comparison. It should be effectivecombination of events that holds the attention of the reader tightly andhelps him to get in to the intended meaning, motive or purpose of the

writer.

5) Cause and Effect: - When the writers talk about something or states anissue, problem or argument, he should clarify what caused him to say soand simultaneously he must state the possible effect.

6) Description: - Description helps the writers to create some dominantimpression, a mode or atmosphere that helps him/ her to reinforce his/her purpose. While describing something in one way or other, the writeralways assumes a point of view or the writer selects a position from which

to describe the scene. This point of view of the writer brings difference on

the level of description.

7) Narration: - Narration is a basic way of presenting action taking placeover a period of time. One can use narration for a variety of purpose: toillustrate and support ideas with anecdotes, entertain readers withsuspenseful or revealing stories. The most common way of ordering

narrative is to present the action chronologically, beginning with the firstaction and going straight through to the last.


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Writers also bring complication in the narrative sequence by referring to

something that occurred earlier using the techniques of flashback or toone that will occur later using the technique of flash forward. Writing ofnarrative creates a structure to give a sound the central conflict, tensionby manipulating the narrative place. While narrating something the writers

takes a point of view to describe the action which is important when one asa reader detects the position assumed by the writer or his/ her point ofview and it will be easier to get in to the real meaning of the narrative.

Transitional words and phrasesThe prefix "trans" indicates movement from one place to another. Whenwe translate, for instance, we take words from one language to another.When we apply the word "transition" to our lives, such as the transition

from being a high school student to being a college student, we arereferring to our movement from one situation to another. Transitions in

writing do the same thing: they take the writer and the reader from oneplace to another. They also indicate the logical relationship betweenwhere we have been and where we are going. Transitional words andphrases are like sign posts that help lead readers through an essay.

The simplest transitions are coordinating conjunctions, also known asthe "FAN BOYS" words: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. These commonwords help us connect not only our words but our ideas. For example,when you use the word "so," you are saying, "here's something that wecan conclude from what I just said." When you use "or," you are saying,"here's another possibility." The most commonly used coordinating

conjunction, "and," is also the weakest in terms of the meaning itconveys, indicating only that "here's something else." Coordinatingconjunctions do act as transitions, but they are not enough to give an

essay a strong sense of cohesion.

Because transitional words and phrases show logical relationshipsbetween sentences and ideas, they are often organized according to thekinds of relationships that they convey, as they are below. Below aresome common transitional words and phrases that can help youdemonstrate logical relationships between sentences and ideas in your

writing.

Common transitional words and phrases1. To give examples: for example, for instance, such as, specifically


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2. To show cause and effect: therefore, hence, thus, as a result,resulting in, so, consequently

3. To contrast: nevertheless, however, but, on the other hand, incontrast, on the contrary, conversely, at the same time, still,although, even though,despite, in spite of

4. To show similarity: likewise, similarly, just as, equally

5. To concede: although, even though, of course, granted, while

6. To elaborate: in addition, additionally, moreover, also, furthermore

7. To emphasize: more importantly, most importantly, chiefly, indeed,

in fact, primarily, no doubt

8. To restate: again, in other words, in effect, that is, in short

9. To indicate time: last, at last, eventually, before, after, afterwards,finally, during, then, when, as

10. To indicate place: to the right, to the left, in the background, in theforeground, in the distance

11. To conclude: thus, finally, in the end


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The difference transitions can makeYou might be surprised by how much the effective use of transitional

words and phrases can strengthen your writing. Transitions can act as"glue" that helps holds your ideas and your sentences together, andthey can help take you and your readers smoothly and logically fromone part of your essay to the next.

Example Original Sentence: Succeeding in college often is a challenge for

students. Most colleges provide services designed to help students.They include peer tutoring and personal counseling. Colleges need

to provide more services to help students succeed.

Revised with transitions: Succeeding in college often is a challengefor students. Therefore, most colleges provide services designed tohelp students, such as peer tutoring and personalcounseling. However, colleges need to do more to help studentssucceed.

The addition of just a few transitional words in the passage above helpsthe writer indicate how the different parts of the passage are logicallyrelated and strengthens the "flow" of the sentences.

Three problems to avoidTransitional words and phrases help strengthen writing, but they can

be misused. Below are three things to be wary of as you bringtransitional words and phrases into your essays.

Make sure the logical connections are clear as you usetransitions.Because transitions indicate relationships between words andideas, they can be misused if the relationship indicated by thetransitional words is unclear or does not exist.

Example 1:George's wife stands at the window and looks out at therain falling on the empty streets. For example, she sees a cat huddledunder a table in the rain. ("For example" does not make sense herebecause the woman seeing the cat is not a clear "example" of anythingin the first sentence.)


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Example 2:George's wife decides to go out into the rain to get the cat.Consequently, George sits in bed reading his book. ("Consequently"does not make sense here because it is unclear how George sitting inbed reading is a consequence of the woman deciding to get the cat.)

Avoid the overuse of transitions.

Transitions are supposed to guide readers through your writing, butoveruse of transitional words and phrases can have the oppositeeffect and can make your writing confusing.

Example: Writing an essay can be challenging. However, there aretechniques that can make the process a little easier. For example,taking plenty of notes on the subject can help the writer generateideas. Therefore, note-taking is an important "pre-writing" strategy. In

addition, some people "free-write," writing quickly for ten or twentyminutes to see what ideas arise. However, taking notes and free-writing is only the beginning. Ideas must eventually be organized in a

logical way. Consequently, an outline can help the writer make senseof the rough material generated through the note-taking and free-writing process. Therefore, writing an outline is another important

step in the writing process. However, some writers are able toconceptualize a sense of logical order for their ideas without actuallywriting an outline. Nevertheless, these writers seem to have some kindof outline in their minds. In addition, an outline should help thewriter formulate a thesis for the essay. Consequently, an outline can

help give focus to the essay. (This passage could be stronger with fewertransitional words and phrases. Especially when the transitions areused at the beginnings of sentences, they can become annoying or evenconfusing to readers if they are overused.)

Avoid errors that can occur with the use of transitions.

Just like any other words, transitional words and phrases must beused carefully so that they do not cause errors. Both sentencefragments and comma splices sometimes occur when transitional

words are added to an essay. These two errors are illustrated below.

Sentence Fragment: Resulting in the woman's search forcompanionship elsewhere.

Corrected Sentence: George seems to ignore his wife, resultingin the woman's search for companionship elsewhere.


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Comma splice:The woman sees the cat out in the rain, howeverthe cat is gone by the time the woman goes outside.Corrected Sentence: The woman sees the cat out in the rain;

however, the cat is gone by the time the woman goes outside.Corrected Sentence: The woman sees the cat out in the rain.However, the cat is gone by the time the woman goes outside.

You can avoid these problems if you are particularly aware of thepossibility of sentence fragments and comma splices occurring with theuse of transitions.


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UNIT II: CONTEXTUAL REFERENCESThe chief end of punctuation is to mark the grammatical connection

and the dependence of the parts of a composition, but not the actualpauses made in speaking. Very often the points used to denote the deliveryof a passage differ from those used when the passage is written.

Nevertheless, several of the punctuation marks serve to bring out therhetorical force of expression.

The principal marks of punctuation are:

1. The Comma[ , ]

2. The Semicolon[ ; ]

3. The Colon[ : ]

4. The Period or Full Stop[ . ]

5. The Interrogation or Question Mark[ ? ]

6. The Exclamation Mark[ ! ]

7. The Dash[ ]

8. The Hyphen[ - ]

9. The apostrophe[']

10.The Parenthesis[ ( ) ]

11.The Quotation Mark[ " " ]

12.The Ellipses[]


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1.The Comma:

The comma is a punctuation mark (,) which is used to indicate theseparation of elements within the grammatical structure of a sentence.

,We use the comma when:

A series of words or phrases has its parts separated by commas:

"Lying, trickery, chicanery, perjury, were natural to him." "Thebrave, daring, faithful soldier died facing the foe." If the series is inpairs, commas separate the pairs: "Rich and poor, learned andunlearned, Mohammedan and Buddhist must pass through thesame gate."

A comma is used before a short quotation: "It was Patrick Henry who

said, 'Give me liberty or give me death.' "

When the subject of the sentence is a clause or a long phrase, acomma is used after such subject: "That he has no reverence for the

God I love, proves his insincerity." "Simulated piety, with a blackcoat and a sanctimonious look, does not proclaim a Christian."

An expression used parenthetically should be enclosed by commas:

"The old man, as a general rule, takes a morning walk."


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Words in apposition are set off by commas: "McKinley, thePresident,was assassinated.

Relative clauses, if not restrictive, require commas: "The book,which is the simplest, is often the most profound."

In continued sentences each should be followed by a comma:

"Electricity lights our dwellings and streets, pulls cars, trains,drives the engines of our mills and factories."

When a verb is omitted a comma takes its place: "Lincoln was a

great statesman; Grant, a great soldier."

The subject of address is followed by a comma: "John, you are agood man."

In numeration, commas are used to express periods of three figures:

"Mountains 25,000 feet high; 1,000,000 dollars."


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always commence with a capital letter; e.g., New York, Paris." "The boy

was proficient in one branch; viz., Mathematics." "No man is perfect;i.e., free from all blemish."

3.The ColonThe colon is a punctuation mark (:) which is used to direct attention to

matter (such as list, an explanation, a quotation, or amplification) that

follows.

:When to use the Colon:

It is generally put at the end of a sentence introducing a long quotation:

"The cheers having subsided, Mr. Bryan spoke as follows:"

It is also placed before an explanation or illustration of the subject under

consideration:

"This is the meaning of the term:"


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A direct quotation formally introduced is generally preceded by a colon: "Thegreat orator made this funny remark:"

The colon is often used in the title of books when the secondary or subtitle isin apposition to the leading one and when the conjunction or is omitted:

"Acoustics: the Science of Sound."

It is used after the salutation in the beginning of letters: "Sir: My dear Sir:Gentlemen: Dear Mr. Jones:" etc. In this connection a dash very oftenfollows the colon.

It is sometimes used to introduce details of a group of things already referred

to in the mass: "The boy's excuses for being late were: firstly, he did notknow the time, secondly, he was sent on an errand, thirdly, he tripped on arock and fell by the wayside."

4.The Period or Full Stop

The period, or full stop, is a punctuation mark (.) which is used to markthe end of a sentence.

.


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When to use the Period:

After every sentence conveying a complete meaning: "Birds fly.""Plants grow." "Man is mortal."

In abbreviations: after every abbreviated word: Rt. Rev. T. C.Alexander, D.D., L.L.D.

A period is used on the title pages of books after the name of thebook, after the author's name, after the publisher's imprint:

American Trails. By Theodore Roosevelt. New York. ScribnerCompany.:

5.The Interrogation or Question Mark

The interrogation or question mark is a punctuation mark (?) which isused in at the end of a sentence to indicate a direct question.

?When to use the Question Mark:The Mark of Interrogation is used to ask or suggest a question.


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Every question admitting of an answer, even when it is not expected,should be followed by the mark of interrogation: "Who has not heard

of Napoleon?"

When several questions have a common dependence they should befollowed by one mark of interrogation at the end of the series:"Where now are the playthings and friends of my boyhood; thelaughing boys; the winsome girls; the fond neighbors whom I

loved?"

This is also often used parenthetically to suggest doubt: "In 1893

(?) Gladstone became converted to Home Rule f or Ireland."

6.The Exclamation MarkThe exclamation mark is a punctuation mark (!) which is used usedespecially after an interjection or exclamation to indicate forceful utteranceor strong feeling.

!When to use the Exclamation Mark - the Rules

The Exclamation point should be sparingly used, particularly in prose. Itschief use is to denote emotion of some kind.

It is generally employed with interjections or clauses used as

interjections: "Alas! I am forsaken." "What a lovely landscape!"


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of all poetsShakespeare, the intellectual ocean whose waveswashed the continents of all thought."

The Dash is used to indicate a conclusion without expressing it: "He

is an excellent man but"

It is used to indicate what is not expected or what is not the naturaloutcome of what has gone before: "He delved deep into the bowels of

the earth and found instead of the hidden treasurea button.

It is used to denote the omission of letters or figures: "Jn Jsfor John Jones; 19089 for 1908 and 1909; Matthew VII:5-8 forMatthew VII:5, 6, 7, and 8.

When an ellipsis of the words, namely, that is, to wit, etc., takes

place, the dash is used to supply them: "He excelled in three

branchesarithmetic, algebra, and geometry."

A dash is used to denote the omission of part of a word when it is

undesirable to write the full word: He is somewhat of a rl (rascal).This is especially the case in profane words.

Between a citation and the authority for it there is generally a dash:

"All the world's a stage."Shakespeare.


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When questions and answers are put in the same paragraph they

should be separated by dashes: "Are you a good boy? Yes, Sir.Do you "love study? I do."

8. The Apostrophe

An apostrophe is used to used to indicate the omission of a letter or letters from a

word, the possessive case, or the plurals of numbers, letters, and abbreviations.

'Examples of the apostrophe in use include:

Omission of letters from a word:An issue of nat ' l importance.

Possesive case: Sara ' s dog bites.

Plural for numbers: Sixteen people were born on dates with 7 ' s in them.


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9. The Hyphen

A hyphen (- ) is the same symbol as the endash. However, it has slightly different

usage rules. Use a hyphen between the parts of a compound word or name or

between the syllables of a word, especially when divided at the end of a line of

text.

-Examples of this in use include:

Between a compound name:Mrs. Smith - Reynolds

Within a compound word: back - to - back

Between syllables of a word when text is on divided:

The thought -

ful girl brought cookies to her ailing neighbor.

10. The Parenthesis

The parenthesis is a punctuation mark [ ( ) ] which is used to amplify or

explain a word, phrase, or sentence inserted in a passage.

( )


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When to use the Parenthesis:

Marks of Parenthesis are used to separate expressions inserted in the bodyof a sentence, which are illustrative of the meaning, but have no essentialconnection with the sentence, and could be done without. They should be

used as little as possible for they show that something is being broughtinto a sentence that does not belong to it.\

When the unity of a sentence is broken the words causing the break

should be enclosed in parenthesis: "We cannot believe a liar (and Jones isone), even when he speaks the truth."

In reports of speeches marks of parenthesis are used to denote

interpolations of approval or disapproval by the audience: "The

masses must not submit to the tyranny of the classes (hear, hear),we must show the trust magnates (groans), that they cannot riderough-shod over our dearest rights (cheers);" "If the gentleman fromOhio (Mr. Brown), will not be our spokesman, we must select

another. (A voice,Get Robinson)."

When a parenthesis is inserted in the sentence where no comma is

required, no point should be used before either parenthesis. When insertedat a place requiring a comma, if the parenthetical matter relates to thewhole sentence, a comma should be used before each parenthesis; if itrelates to a single word, or short clause, no stop should come before it, buta comma should be put after the closing parenthesis.


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11. Quotation Marks

Quotation marks are a pair of punctuation marks (" ") which are usedchiefly to indicate the beginning and the end of a quotation in which the

exact phraseology of another person, or of a text, is directly cited.

" "When to use the Quotation Marks:

A direct quotation should be enclosed within the quotation marks:

Abraham Lincoln said,"I shall make this land too hot for the feet ofslaves. "

When a quotation is embraced within another, the contained quotation

has only single marks: Franklin said, "Most men come to believe

'honesty is the best policy.'"

When a quotation consists of several paragraphs the quotation marksshould precede each paragraph

Titles of books, pictures and newspapers when formally given are

quoted. Often the names of ships are also quoted though there is no occasion

for it.


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12. The Ellipses

The ellipses is generally represented by three periods:

The ellipses should be used in writing or printing to indicate an omission,especially of letters or words. Ellipses are frequently used within quotations to

jump from one phrase to another, omitting unnecessary words that do not interferewith the meaning. Students writing research papers or newspapers quoting partsof speeches will often employ ellipses to avoid copying lengthy text that is notneeded.

Examples:

"To indicate the omission of a word, phrase, or sentence, use ellipsis dots--

three periods with spaces between them. . . . Since the dots stand for words

omitted, they always go inside the quotation marks or block quotation. Leave a

space between the last quoted word or punctuation mark and the first ellipsisdot and another space after the last dot before the next word or punctuation

mark."

(Kate L. Turabian, et al.A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and

Dissertations: Chicago Style for Students and Researchers, 7th ed. Univ. of Chicago

Press, 2007)

"Staff and family members often have very strong stereotypes about one

another, said Karl Pillemer, a gerontologist at Cornell University who hasresearched these relationships for 20 years. "The staff sometimes feel families

complain excessively--theyre too demanding. On the flip side, families

sometimes feel that staff arent sufficiently caring, that staff are rude to them.. .
http://grammar.about.com/od/pq/g/quotemarksterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/ab/g/blockquotationterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/ab/g/blockquotationterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/pq/g/quotemarksterm.htm


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They often feel they have to coach the staff about how to care for their relative."

(Paula Span, "The Nursing Home as Battle Zone." The New York Times, Oct. 7,

2009)

"Well, as is shown by the astonishing explosion of books and articles entitled

'The Rhetoric of . . .' (see appendix to chapter 2), we are now invited to think

hard about the rhetoric ofeverything."

(Wayne C. Booth, The Rhetoric of Rhetoric: The Quest for Effective Communication.

Blackwell, 2004)

"In contrast to the unpredictable and extravagant lines of stars or points that

burst across the pages of Gothic fiction, the three points have a discretion and a

subtlety that highlight the very ordinariness of such dark perspectives at the

end of the nineteenth century. And as the three points become increasingly

common in the work of early twentieth-century writers--T.S. Eliot and Virginia

Woolf, to name but two--the networks of symmetrical lines connecting one

speaker to another and another that characterised Victorian fiction, are

transformed into ' . . .', a new icon for a new generation."

(Anne C. Henry, "Ellipsis Marks in a Historical Perspective." The Motivated Sign:

Iconicity in Language and Literature 2, ed. by Olga Fischer and Max Nnny. John

Benjamins, 2001)

More Tips on Using Ellipsis Points

"Never alter quotations even to correct minor grammatical errors or word

usage. Casual minor tongue slips may be removed by using ellipses but even

that should be done with extreme caution. If there is a question about a quote,

either don't use it or ask the speaker to clarify."


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Inferences and keywordsMuch of what an author writes is implied. Authors expect their readers tofill in the gaps.

So, to truly comprehend or understand muchof what an author writes, we,as readers, have to use our inference skills.

The more we are able to do this the better our inference and readingcomprehension becomes. And successful inference of written text is oftenreliant on us having good word and world knowledge.

To have a good vocabulary is important. But perhaps even more importantis to have a solid understanding of semantic categories, and the linksbetween words in our mental lexicon, or mental dictionary. If we are ableto access the connections well then our ability to make inferences fromcomplex text is that much stronger.

How do we infer?Successful inferential comprehension requires us to do 3 things.

1.We must use the information presented in the text as our starting

point.

2. We look for key words in the text that give us little hints or clues of a

hidden meaning.

3. Using our background knowledge, or our world knowledge, we fill in

the gaps using the key words to select a best fit answer.

The best way to illustrate this is to use an example from a children's book:Schumann the Shoeman. To give you some background, Schumann theShoeman is an old style cobbler who lovingly makes pairs of shoes that aretrue works of art. No two pairs are the same.


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Example text:'One grey wintery morning, a shoe factory opened in town.

Before long, everyone was wearing the shoes that spilled from its conveyerbelts. The shoes came in just one style - sensible. They came in just onecolour - salmon. And they wore out after only one season.' Excerpt fromSchumann the Shoeman, by John and Stella Danalis.

This excerpt is a particularly rich example of effective language written forchildren, and has much gold buriedjust beneaththe surface.

Often, children, particularly those with oral and written languagedifficulty, need a little push from us to discover for themselves the themesand depth of certain stories.

At a literal level, the author presents us with a shoe factory, which makesshoes that everybody buys. The shoes don't last particularly long in thatthey wear out after one season.

But there's much more going on in the text than is revealed at surfacelevel. We can sense that the author doesn't really approve of this situation.

Nothing is stated explicitly, yet we canfeelthe disapproval nonetheless.We need to dig a little deeper here. We start by identifying the key words.

'One grey wintery morning, a shoe factory opened in town. Before long,everyone was wearing the shoes that spilled from its conveyer belts. Theshoes came in just one style - sensible. They came in just one coloursalmon. And they wore out after only one season.'

The author repeats the words one grey wintery morning, and one style, onecolour, one season. He adds words such as 'conveyer belts'and'spilled'to

denote a lack of care and absence of originality.

At a deeper inferential level, the word 'everyone'carries weight in that ithints that Schumann the Shoeman may face a difficult challenge if hewere to lose all his customers to the shoe factory. This then raises thelarger world view of the small businessman trying to compete with mega-companies and trans-national corporations.


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Antonymsare words that have opposite meanings, such as happy and

sad. For instance,

Ben is fearless, but his brother is timorous.

You may infer the meaning oftimorousby answering the question "IfBen is fearless and Jim is very different from Ben with regard to fear,

then what word describes Jim?"

If you wrote a word such as timid, or afraid, orfearful, you inferred

the meaning oftimorous.

A contrastin the following sentence implies the meaning ofcredence:

Dad gave credence to my story, but Mom's reaction was one of total

disbelief.

You may infer the meaning ofcredenceby answering the question "If

Mom's reaction was disbelief and Dad's reaction was very different from

Mom's, what was Dad's reaction?"

If you wrote that Dad believed the story, you correctly inferred the

meaning of credence; it means "belief."

Be Careful of the Meaning You Infer!

When a sentence contains an unfamiliar word, it is sometimes possible

to infer the general meaning of the sentence without inferring the exact

meaning of the unknown word. For instance,

When we invite the Paulsons for dinner, they never invite us to their home

for a meal; however, when we have the Browns to dinner, they

always reciprocate.

In reading this sentence some students infer that the Browns are more

desirable dinner guests than the Paulsons without inferring the exact

meaning ofreciprocate. Other students conclude that the Browns differ

from the Paulsons in that they do something in return when they are


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invited for dinner; these students conclude correctly that

reciprocatemeans "to do something in return."

In drawing conclusions (making inferences), you are really getting at

the ultimate meaning of things - what is important, why it is

important, how one event influences another, how one happeningleads to another. Simply getting the facts in reading is not enough -

you must think about what those facts mean to you.


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UNIT III: TEXT PURPOSE & AUDIENCEPurpose, audience and contextPurpose, audience and context are very closely linked. This is because the

purpose of a text often involves communicating with a particular audience.A visual text with the purpose of making teenagers laugh should have an

audience of teenagers who want to laugh. In order for this to happen, thecomposer will need to have a good understanding of the context (whatteenagers' circumstances are - particularly their interests and what theyfind humorous).

Another example is a newspaper photograph where the purpose of thevisual text is to inform the public about a specific part of an event. As thepurpose of the photograph is to inform the public, in general its audienceis very wide and hopes to communicate with people from a diverse range ofpersonal contexts. The photographer (composer) of a newspaperphotograph needs to ensure that their personal context does not stop them

from reporting the news objectively (not influenced by personal context) asopposed to subjectively whereby the personal context and opinions of a

composer directly affect the construction of a visual text.

Audience

The audience refers to the group of people who will be looking at (viewing)the visual text. When a composer constructs a visual text he/she is

composing for a particular audience. This will have an impact on how thevisual text is composed.

Imagine, for example, that you are leaving a voice message on a mobilephone (a spoken text). Do you think that the message you leave will bedifferent if your intended audience was your best friend? Your mother? The

manager where you hope to get a job? If you can imagine how what youwould say and how you would say it would change, then you already havean understanding of audience. Now it is a matter of recognising whereaudience has had an affect on how visual texts have been constructed.

Not every visual text that you analyse will have you as the intendedaudience. It is important, therefore, that you can decide what audience thetext has been constructed to reach. In a visual text such as a film clip

where the subject matter is about a famous rapper, the audience may wellbe people whose interests include listening to rap music. The next timeyou see a visual text (in a newspaper, on television, an advertisement on a

bus) try to decide who you think the audience for that visual text is. This is


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particularly relevant when watching (viewing) video clips. Consider how the

images in the visual text reach the audience.

Purpose

Every text that we come across has a purpose. The purpose is the reasonfor the text being composed. The purpose of some visual texts could be to

make teenagers laugh. The purpose of many documentaries is to informand sometimes to persuade. The purpose of advertisements is certainly topersuade. The purpose of a stop sign is to warn of impending (coming)danger. In each case the purpose of a visual text will influence the way inwhich it is composed. Visual texts generally have the purposes ofentertaining, instructing, persuading or warning and so on.

Modes of writing How to read an author depending on whatthey writeFor the purposes of writing, when we refer to rhetoric, we often talk about

it as the art of persuasion. There are many different strategies a

communicator may employ to get his message across. Below is a list of

some of the more basic ones:

Analysis: Analyze why something happens and describe the consequences

of a string of events. Does the essay examine past events or their outcome?

Does it explain why something happened?

Classification: Divide a whole into parts or sort related items into

categories. Does the essay reduce the subject to more manageable parts or

group parts?

Critical: We read the text over and over and look at it every which way inthe hope of seeing something that we could not see directly, meaning thatyou weigh the coherence of the reading, the completeness of its data, andso on, before you accept or reject it.

Imagery: Language that evokes one or all of the five senses: sight, sound,

touch, taste, smell. Does the essay use any provocative language that calls

upon readers senses?

Persuasion: Makes a claim or takes a position and backs it up

with statistics, expert opinions, and other evidence. You may review an

opposing review and explain why it is wrong and you are right.


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Description: Detail sensory perceptions of a person, place, or thing. Does

a person, place, or object play a prominent role in the essay?

Demonstrative: to demonstrate that you can tell about a specific thing,

action, even or place in some kind of readable manner

Support: Introduces a topic clearly, by presenting a precise theses, andsupporting it with strong evidences.

Summary: Restates the main ideas of a complex reading, withoutincluding critique or analysis of the text's ideas. A summary essay reveals

the essayist's opinion by identifying which ideas the essayist deemsimportant.

Warning: Attempts to make readers to be aware of believing or followingcertain ideas that could do any harm.

Caution: Contributes with stating solid arguments by which certain thingsmust or must not be taken into account by the reader when making achoice.

Emphasis: Requires that all information that is being presented in

arranged in the order of the importance of the point. For example, fromstrongest to weakest, or from weakest to strongest is how information isarranged in an emphatic order.

Definition: Provide the meaning of terms you use. Is there any importantword in the essay with many meanings and is defined or clarified?

Expository: It consists on presenting, completely and fairly, other people's

views or to report about an event or a situation.

Prediction: It is based on giving the reader clues and hints about whatmight occur sometime in the future.

Audience classificationAccording to the vocabulary employed in a text, three categories of

audience are defined: the "lay"audience, the "managerial"audience, andthe "experts."

The "lay"audience has no special or expert knowledge. They connect with


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the human interest aspect of articles. They usually need background

information; they expect more definition and description; and they maywant attractive graphics or visuals.

The "managerialaudience may or may have more knowledge than the layaudience about the subject, but they need knowledge so they can make adecision about the issue. Any background information, facts, statisticsneeded to make a decision should be highlighted.

The "experts"may be the most demanding audience in terms of knowledge,presentation, and graphics or visuals. Experts are often "theorists" or

"practitioners." For the "expert" audience, document formats are oftenelaborate and technical, style and vocabulary may be specialized or

technical, source citations are reliable and up-to-date, and documentation

is accurate.

Cohesion in textsHow to recognize cohesive paragraphs

Cohesion is related to the use of transitional expressions as well as otherdevices to guide readers and show how the parts of a composition relate toone other. According to Roy Peter Clark (Writing Tools: 50 EssentialStrategies for Every Writer. Little, Brown, 2006), "The big parts of a storyshould stick together, but the small parts need some stickum as well.When the big parts fit, we call that good feeling coherence; when sentences

connect, we call it cohesion."

Therefore, Cohesion is achieved when writers connecttheir organized parts

with sufficiently clear and numerous signals--like the words 'finally,' 'thus,''however,'--to make the development of their cases intelligible and to leadthe reader safely along the emerging lines of their arguments. But what dowe call these words? The answer is Transitional words and/or phrases.

Transitional words and phrases can help make our writing clear andcohesive. A key quality of an effective paragraph is unity. A unified

paragraph sticks to one topic from start to finish, with every sentencecontributing to the central purpose and main idea of that paragraph.

But a strong paragraph is more than just a collectionof loose sentences.Those sentences need to be clearlyconnectedso that readers can follow

along, recognizing how one detail leads to the next. A paragraph withclearly connected sentences is said to be cohesive.


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Example

In the first place, no "burning" in the sense of combustion, as in theburning of wood, occurs in a volcano; moreover, volcanoes are not

necessarily mountains;furthermore, the activity takes place not always atthe summit but more commonly on the sides or flanks; and finally, the"smoke" is not smoke but condensed steam. (Fred Bullard, Volcanoes inHistory)

2. Cause-Effect Transitions

accordinglyand soas a result

consequentlyfor this reasonhenceso

thenthereforethus

ExampleThe ideologue is often brilliant. Consequentlysome of us distrust brilliancewhen we should distrust the ideologue. (Clifton Fadiman)

3. Comparison Transitions

by the same token

in like mannerin the same wayin similar fashionlikewisesimilarly

Example

When you start with a portrait and search for a pure form, a clear volume,through successive eliminations, you arrive inevitably at the egg. Likewise,

starting with the egg and following the same process in reverse, onefinishes with the portrait. (Pablo Picasso)


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specifically

thusto illustrate

Example

With all the ingenuity involved in hiding delicacies on the body, thisprocess automatically excludes certain foods. For example, a turkeysandwich is welcome, but the cumbersome cantaloupe is not.(Steve Martin, "How to Fold Soup")

7. Insistence Transitions

in factindeedno

yes

ExampleThe joy of giving is indeeda pleasure, especially when you get rid ofsomething you dont want. (Frank Butler, Going My Way)

8. Place Transitions

above

alongside

beneathbeyondfarther alongin backin frontnearbyon top ofto the leftto the rightunderupon

ExampleWhat did it matter where you lay once you were dead? In a dirty sump orin a marble toweron top ofa high hill? You were dead, you were sleepingthe big sleep, you were not bothered by things like that.(Raymond Chandler, The Big Sleep)


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9. Restatement Transitions

in other words

in shortin simpler terms

that isto put it differentlyto repeat

ExampleAnthropologist Geoffrey Gorer studied the few peaceful human tribes anddiscovered one common characteristic: sex roles were not polarized.

Differences of dress and occupation were at a minimum. Society in otherwords, was not using sexual blackmail as a way of getting women to do

cheap labor, or men to be aggressive.

(Gloria Steinem, "What It Would Be Like If Women Win")

10. Time Transitions

afterwardat the same timecurrentlyearlierformerlyimmediately

in the futurein the meantime

in the pastlatermeanwhilepreviouslysimultaneously

subsequentlythenuntil now

ExampleAt first a toy, thena mode of transportation for the rich, the automobile

was designed as man's mechanical servant. Laterit became part of thepattern of living.

Cohession in paragraphsExercise


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This exercise will give you an opportunity to apply the techniques discussed

in previous pages.

Instructions

Combine the sentences in each set into twoclear and concise sentences,eliminating any needless repetition. As you do so, add a transitional wordor phrase (in italics at the head of each set) to the beginning of the secondsentence to show how it relates to the first.After you have completed the exercise, compare your sentences with the

originals. Keep in mind that many combinations are possible, and in somecases you may prefer your own sentences to the original versions.

1. InsteadRetirement should be the reward for a lifetime of work. It is widelyviewed as a sort of punishment. It is a punishment for growing old.

2. ThereforeIn recent years viruses have been shown to cause cancer in chickens.Viruses have also been shown to cause cancer in mice, cats, and evenin some primates. Viruses might cause cancer in humans. This is areasonable hypothesis.

3. In factWe do not seek solitude. If we find ourselves alone for once, we flick aswitch. We invite the whole world in. The world comes in through thetelevision screen.

4. On the contraryWe were not irresponsible. Each of us should do something. Thisthing would be of genuine usefulness to the world. We were trained tothink that.


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5. However

Little girls, of course, don't take toy guns out of their hip pockets.They do not say "Pow, pow" to all their neighbors and friends.The average well-adjusted little boy does this.If we gave little girls the six-shooters, we would soon have double the

pretend body count.

6. Next

We drove the wagon close to a corner post. We twisted the end of thewire around it. We twisted the wire one foot above the ground. Westapled it fast. We drove along the line of posts. We drove for about200 yards. We unreeled the wire on the ground behind us.

7. IndeedWe know very little about pain. What we don't know makes it hurt allthe more. There is ignorance about pain. No form of illiteracy in theUnited States is so widespread. No form of illiteracy in the UnitedStates is so costly.

8. MoreoverMany of our street girls can be as vicious as any corporation

president. Many of our street girls can be as money mad as anycorporation president. They can be less emotional than men. Theycan be less emotional in conducting acts of personal violence.

9. For this reasonThe historical sciences have made us very conscious of our past.They have made us conscious of the world as a machine.The machine generates successive events out of foregoing ones.Some scholars tend to look totally backward.They look backward in their interpretation of the human future.


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10. However

Rewriting is something that most writers find they have to do. Theyrewrite to discover what they have to say. They rewrite to discoverhow to say it. There are a few writers who do little formal rewriting.They have capacity and experience. They create and review a large

number of invisible drafts. They create and review in their minds.They do this before they approach the page.


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ASSORTED TEXTS POR READING PURPOSES

READING 1:

Diamond Jubilee: Queencelebrating 60-year reign

The Queen was met by well-wishers after she visited Dersingham Infant and

Nursery School, in Norfolk

The Queen has visited a school in Norfolk as she marks the 60th

anniversary of her accession to the throne.

Earlier she said she was dedicating herself "anew to your service" and that

she was "deeply moved" by support for the Diamond Jubilee.

The Queen was met by crowds at King's Lynn Town Hall before going to

Dersingham Infant and Nursery School.

Gun salutes were held around the UK, including in London and Edinburgh.


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The main celebrations for her anniversary will be in June.

The Queen, 85, usually spends Accession Day - the day her father, George

VI, died in 1952 - privately but this year has the two engagements in Norfolk.

Two official photographs were released and a 41-gun salute was held in

Hyde Park, London, followed by a 62-gun salute at the Tower of London.

AnalysisPeter Hunt BBC diplomatic and royal correspondent

For the Queen, this is a day of celebration - her great-great grandmother

Victoria was the only other British monarch to achieve this milestone - and

commemoration, marking as it does the anniversary of the death of her

beloved father, George VI.

So, a significant moment will pass in a deliberately low-key manner with a

visit to a town hall and a primary school in Norfolk.

As the weather improves and the months go by, there will be nothing

subdued about the events which will be staged for a reign which is the

second longest in British history.

Her close friend, Lady Penn, told the BBC the Queen had been the "still

small voice of calm" in a social revolution in this country over the past 60

years.

In her Diamond Jubilee message, with the words "I dedicate myself anew toyour service", the Queen is repeating a pledge she first made at the age of

21.

This is a royal octogenarian who intends to remain as Sovereign for as long

as she lives.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/correspondents/peterhunt/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/correspondents/peterhunt/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/correspondents/peterhunt/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/correspondents/peterhunt/


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BBC coverage of the proclamation announcement of Queen Elizabeth II, February 19

Meanwhile, Sir John Major has formally launched the Queen Elizabeth

Diamond Jubilee Trust to help those in need across the Commonwealth.

He will chair the grant-making body, which will focus on areas such as

fighting curable diseases and the promotion of education and culture.

A set of six 1st class definitive stamps, all of which feature official portraits of

the Queen, are also being issued to mark the monarch's milestone.

Moya Greene, Royal Mail's chief executive, said: "The Queen's image is one

of the most recognisable in the world and we are delighted to bring these

iconic images together to mark the 60th anniversary of the Queen'saccession."

The Diamond Jubilee Miniature Sheet marks the first occasion on which

official images of the monarch, sourced from stamps, coins and banknotes,

have been brought together for a stamp issue.

The Queen's 60 years as monarch are set to be marked by a series of

regional, national and international events during 2012, culminating in a four-

day long UK Bank Holiday weekend in June.

Events planned to take place during the summerinclude the Queen

leading a flotilla of a thousand boats along the Thames and a chain of

beacons being lit across the country.
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Two new photos were released to mark the anniversary

There will be a service of thanksgiving at St Paul's Cathedral in June and a

formal carriage procession by the Queen.

The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh also intend to travel as widely as

possible across the UK.

Other members of the Royal Family will visit the 15 other countries where

the Queen is head of state, as well as some other Commonwealth countries.

In her message to mark the anniversary, the Queen said: "I am writing to

thank you for the wonderful support and encouragement that you have given

to me and Prince Philip over these years and to tell you how deeply moved

we have been to receive so many kind messages about the Diamond

Jubilee.

"In this special year, as I dedicate myself anew to your service, I hope wewill all be reminded of the power of togetherness and the convening strength

of family, friendship and good neighbourliness, examples of which I have

been fortunate to see throughout my reign and which my family and I look

forward to seeing in many forms as we travel throughout the United Kingdom

and the wider Commonwealth."


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READING 2:

Europe's governments are running

out of optionsFrom the Baltic to the Balkans, politicians are struggling tostay in office while implementing savage savings programmes

Ian Traynor, Europe editor

o guardian.co.uk, Monday 6 February 2012 13.57 GMT Article history

A single protester waves a huge national flag on University Plaza in Bucharest, Romania.

Photograph: Robert Ghement/EPA

For the governments ofEurope in the midst of the EU's worst evercrisis, it is getting increasingly difficult to reconcile internationally

ordained austerity packages with popular acquiescence in spendingcuts, job losses, and slashed budgets.Whether using the euro or not, governments from the Baltic to theBalkans are struggling to stay in office while implementing the savagesavings programmes dictated by technocrats from Brussels,Washington, and Frankfurt.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/profile/iantraynorhttp://www.guardian.co.uk/profile/iantraynorhttp://www.guardian.co.uk/world/europe-newshttp://www.guardian.co.uk/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/feb/06/romania-europe-news#history-link-boxhttp://www.guardian.co.uk/world/europe-newshttp://www.guardian.co.uk/world/eurohttp://www.guardian.co.uk/world/eurohttp://www.guardian.co.uk/world/europe-newshttp://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/feb/06/romania-europe-news#history-link-boxhttp://www.guardian.co.uk/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/europe-newshttp://www.guardian.co.uk/profile/iantraynorhttp://www.guardian.co.uk/profile/iantraynor


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The fall on Monday of the Romanian government following weeks ofunrest on the streets of Bucharest is but the latest example. In Greeceanother uneasy coalition may be falling apart as it balks at meeting thesevere terms of the troika of the European Commission, the EuropeanCentral Bank, and the International Monetary Fund if it is to secure asecond 130bn bailout in time to redeem a large tranche of its debtnext month.

Athens will again be seething with rage on Tuesday when two of thebiggest unions have called a 24-hour general strike. Trapped betweenthe demands of their constituency and the dictates of internationalcreditors, governments and political leaders all across Europe arerunning out of options.

The problem is made worse by the popular perception in several of the

affected countries that the political class is akin to a mafia politiciansin cahoots with bankers and property developers or businessmenfleecing the country to the point of bankruptcy then leaving the public topick up the pieces wage cuts, job losses, higher taxes, health,education, and retirement services decimated, all of it policed byfaceless technocrats flying in from Brussels and Washington.

Such has been the perception of the Boc government in Romania, dittoin Greece and Ireland.Since the euro crisis erupted two years ago, governments in all three

so-called "programme" countries, those being bailed out by the EU andthe IMF, have fallen as a direct consequence in Ireland, Portugaland Greece.

The crisis also brought down the seemingly insuperable SilvioBerlusconi in Italy as well as Jos Luis Zapatero in Spain. But thepolitical pain has been felt not only on the debtors' side of the bailoutequation.

Among the euro creditors, resort to taxpayers' money to rescue the

profligate has been highly unpopular, contributing to a change ofgovernment in Finland, a series of regional election losses forChancellor Angela Merkel's Christian democrats in Germany, and aharsher, more eurosceptic mood in the Netherlands. The crisis is nowplaying strongly in Europe's key election campaign this year in Francewhere Nicolas Sarkozy has overseen a loss of the country's creditrating parity with Germany and where the leftist frontrunner, Franois
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Hollande, is pledging to ease up on the austerity deemed to be neededto shake up the country.

In the EU, but outside the eurozone, the debt crisis is also taking itstoll, as shown by the fate of the Romanian government. Next door in

Hungary, the divisive prime minister, Viktor Orbn, is having to eathumble pie, reverse a previous spurning of outside help, and perform aU-turn on economic policy in order to try to secure a 20bn lifeline fromthe EU and the IMF.

READING 3

Michael Jackson

Rusty Kennedy/Associated Press

Updated: Nov. 29, 2011

Michael Joseph Jacksons story was a quintessentially American tale of celebrityand excess that took him from musical boy wonder to global pop superstar to sadfigure haunted by lawsuits, paparazzi and failed plastic surgery.

At the height of his career, Mr. Jackson was indisputably the biggest star in theworld; he sold more than 750 million albums. He spent a lifetime surprising

people, in his last years mainly because of a surreal personal life, lurid legalscandals, serial plastic surgeries and erratic public behavior that turned him onhis very best days into the butt of late-night talk-show jokes and tabloidheadlines.

Mr. Jackson died at age 50 in Los Angeles on June 25, 2009. His death itselfbecame an enormous spectacle. On television and on the Internet, tens of millions


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Berry Gordy, the founder of Motown Records. They were the singers twin mentorsduring his early career.

The Jackson 5 was an instant phenomenon. The groups first four singles IWant You Back, ABC, The Love You Save and Ill Be There all reached No.

1 on the pop charts in 1970, a feat no group had accomplished before. And youngMichael was unquestionably the center of attention: he handled virtually all thelead vocals, danced with energy and finesse, and displayed a degree ofshowmanship rare in a performer of any age. The Jackson brothers were soon afixture on television variety shows and even briefly had their own Saturdaymorning cartoon series.

Mr. Jackson had his own recollections of those years. When youre a show-business child, you really dont have the maturity to understand a great deal ofwhat is going on around you. People make a lot of decisions concerning your lifewhen youre out of the room, he wrote in Moon Walk, his 1988 autobiography.Berry insisted on perfection and attention to detail. Ill never forget hispersistence. This was his genius. Then and later, I observed every moment of thesessions where Berry was present and never forgot what I learned. To this day, Iuse the same principles.

Solo Career

In 1971 Mr. Jackson began recording under his own name, while also continuing toperform and record with his brothers. His recording of Ben, the title song from amovie about a boy and his homicidal pet rat, was a No. 1 hit in 1972.

The brothers (minus Michaels older brother Jermaine, who was married to the

daughter of Berry Gordy, Motowns founder and chief executive) left Motown in1975 and, rechristened the Jacksons, signed to Epic, a unit of CBS Records. Thefollowing year Michael made his movie debut as the Scarecrow in the screenversion of the hit Broadway musical The Wiz. But movie stardom proved not tobe his destiny.

Music stardom on an unprecedented level, however, was. Mr. Jacksons first soloalbum for Epic, Off the Wall, yielded four No.1 singles and sold seven millioncopies, but it was a mere prologue to what came next. His follow-up, Thriller,released in 1982, became the best-selling album of all time and helped usher in themusic video age. The video for the albums title track, directed by John Landis, was

an elaborate horror-movie pastiche that was more of a mini-movie than apromotional clip and played a crucial role in making MTV a household name.

Seven of the nine tracks on Thriller were released as singles and reached the Top10. The album spent two years on the Billboard album chart and sold more than 50million copies worldwide. It also won eight Grammy Awards.


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Such accomplishments would have been difficult for anyone to equal, much lesssurpass. Mr. Jacksons next album, Bad, released in 1987, sold eight millioncopies and produced five No..1 singles and another state-of-the-art video, this onedirected by Martin Scorsese. It was a huge hit by almost anyone elses standards,but an inevitable letdown after Thriller.

Offstage, A Strange Life

It was at this point that Mr. Jacksons bizarre private life began to overshadow hismusic. He would go on to release several more albums and, from time to time, tostage elaborate concert tours. And he would never be too far from the public eye.But it would never again be his music that kept him there.

Sales of his recordings through Sonys music unit generated more than $300million in royalties for Mr. Jackson since the early 1980s, according to threeindividuals with direct knowledge of the singers business affairs. Revenues fromconcerts and music publishing including the creation of a venture with Sony thatcontrols the Beatles catalog as well as from endorsements, merchandising andmusic videos added, perhaps, $400 million more to that amount, these peoplebelieve. Subtracted were hefty costs like recording and production expenses, taxesand the like.

Those close to Mr. Jackson say that his finances had not deteriorated simplybecause he was a big spender. Until the early 1990s, they said, he paid relativelyclose attention to his accounting and kept an eye on the cash that flowed throughhis business and creative ventures. After that, they say, Mr. Jackson became overlyenamored of something that ensnares wealthy people of all stripes: bad advice.

Mr. Jacksons pre-expense share of the Thriller bounty including the album,singles and a popular video surpassed $125 million, according to a formeradviser who requested anonymity because of the confidential nature of Mr.Jacksons finances. Those who counseled him in the Thriller era credit the popstar with financial acumen and astute business judgment, evidenced by his $47.5million purchase of the Beatles catalog in 1985 (a move that served to alienate himfrom Paul McCartney, the Beatles legend who imparted the financial wisdom ofbuying catalogs to Mr. Jackson during a casual chat, only to see Mr. Jackson thenturn around and buy rights to many of Mr. McCartneys own songs). Acquaintancesfrom that period say that he would occasionally borrow gas money, and he stilllived in the Jackson family home in the suburban Encino section of Los Angeles.

It wasnt until the end of the 1980s that Mr. Jackson began to exhibit more baronialtendencies. In 1988, he made his $17 million purchase of property near Santa Ynez,Calif., that became Neverland.

At the same time, Mr. Jackson was redefining the concept of spectacle in popmusic. He hired Martin Scorsese, the film director, to direct a video for Bad, a clipthat one adviser with direct knowledge of the production budget said cost more


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On June 25, Mr. Jackson was found unconscious in his home. Mr. Jackson arrivedat the U.C.L.A. Medical Center in cardiac arrest and was declared dead a short timelater.

According to the court documents unsealed on Aug. 24, 2009, Dr. Murray told

investigators that he had administered an intravenous drip of 50 milligrams ofpropofol, a powerful anesthetic, to Mr. Jackson nightly for six weeks before thesingers death to help him sleep. Dr. Murray also administered lorazepam, an anti-anxiety drug that can be addictive, and midazolam, a muscle relaxant, to treat Mr.Jacksons insomnia.

A mixture of propofol and lorazepam killed Michael Jackson, according to astatement made bythe Los Angeles County Coroners Office on Aug. 28. It said themanner of death was a homicide.

Dr. Murray said he tried to resuscitate Mr. Jackson and administered flumazenil, adrug to reverse the effects of the sedatives in his system. Dr. Murray did notimmediately call paramedics to the home.

Media outlets treated the weeks following Mr. Jacksons death as an expansivepublic funeral for the pop star, culminating in a service at the Staples Center in LosAngeles. Nielsen Media Research said that the 18 channels that simulcast theservice had a combined average of 31 million at-home viewers during the nearlythree-hour event. The service drew a bigger TV crowd than the funerals for twoformer presidents, Ronald Reagan in 2004 and Gerald Ford in early 2007.

Mr. Jacksons memorial also attracted millions of online viewers. Citing internaldata, CNN.com said it served 4.4 million live video streams during the service;

MSNBC.com said it counted 3.1 million.Yahoo reported 5 million total streams.

On Sept. 3, Mr. Jackson was entombed in the heavily guarded Forest Lawncemetery, several miles north of downtown Los Angeles. About 200 people,including Elizabeth Taylor, Lisa Marie Presley, Macaulay Culkin, and QuincyJones, attended the private funeral.
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READING 5

THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILYTHE LINGUISTIC EVIDENCE

A stunning result of linguistic research in the 19th century was the

recognition that some languages show correspondences of form that

cannot be due to chance convergences, to borrowing among thelanguages involved, or to universal characteristics of human

language, and that such correspondences therefore can only be the

result of the languages in question having sprung from a common

source language in the past. Such languages are said to be related

(more specifically, genetically related, though genetic here does

not have any connection to the term referring to a biological genetic

relationship) and to belong to a language family. It can

therefore be convenient to model such linguistic genetic

relationships via a family tree, showing the genealogy of the

languages claimed to be related. For example, in the model below,

all the languages B through I in the tree are related as members of

the same family; if they were not related, they would not all descend

from the same original language A. In such a schema, A is the

proto-language, the starting point for the family, and B, C, and
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D are offspring (often referred to as daughter languages); B,

C, and D are thus siblings (often referred to as sister languages),

and each represents a separate branch of the family tree. B and C,

in turn, are starting points for other offspring languages, E, F, and G,

and H and I, respectively. Thus B stands in the same relationship toE, F, and G as A does to B, C, and D. B and C, therefore, are

protolanguages too, but are they are intermediate proto-

languages. It is thus possible to determine not only overall

family relationship, but also degrees of relatedness the

languages in a single branch, e.g. E, F, and G, are more closely

related to one another than each of them is to a language in a

different branch, e.g. H, I, or D.

Many such language families can be recognized, and the languages

within each exhibit

striking formal correspondencesin their phonology, morphology,

overall structure, and

vocabularythat link them together.

One of the earliest language families to be recognized, and thus the

most thoroughly

investigated of all to date, is the one that Greek belongs to, the one

known as the IndoEuropean language family. The source language,generally called Proto-Indo-European,

was spoken some 6,500 years ago (see the article by J. P. Mallory)

and has given rise to

several hundred languages, in ten major branches. In the sectionsthat follow, these ten

branches are enumerated, with brief mention of some minorlanguages are given, the


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interrelationships among these languages are discussed, and the

evidence linking the IndoEuropean languages together is presented.

1. The Major Branches of Indo-European

The ten major branches of the Indo-European family are listed here

roughly in the order of their location east-to-west at the point of their

first attestation, with an indication of the oldest representative

languages in each and their earliest attestation (gen

reading ii - guide (nuevo

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