Reconstructing the Igbo ClusterAuthor: Chinyere Ohiri - Aniche(Retired Professor of Language Education, University of Lagos, Nigeria).1.0 General Information on the family1.1 Geography, Population, NeighbourThe Igbo language is spoken homogenously in five south-eastern states of Nigeria, namely: Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo. Igbo speakers are also found in parts of Rivers and Delta States in the south-south zone of Nigeria. Neighbours of the Igbo include the Igala, Tiv and Idoma to the north; the Anaang, Ibibio, Efik, to the south-east; the Urhobo, Isoko, Edo to the south-west and the Ijaw and Ogoni to the south-south delta areas. Wikipedia (2012) gives 27 million as the number of Igbo speakers.1.2 (Pre) historic migrations and language contactsMany Igbos believe that they are of Hebrew origin, being one of the lost tribes of Israel. Afigbo (2000:12) however says that the Igbo are a negro people, originating in Africa, somewhere south of the latitude of Arselam and Khartoum. They later spread along the Niger-Benue confluence area with other groups. 1.3 History of scholarshipFollowing her discovery that speech varieties hitherto referred to as Igbo were more diverse than had formally been realized, Williamson (1973) embarked upon a first reconstruction of these speech varieties into what she termed Proto-Lower Niger. In 1984 Prof. Kay Williamson invited her Ph.D student, Chinyere Ohiri-Aniche to join in the reconstruction of what came to be known as Comparative Igboid. Unfortunately, the Comparative Igboid work could not quite be finished and published before the demise of Prof. Kay Williamson in 2005. One of the main reasons is the great diversity in the numerous speech varieties, whereby new data often necessitated a return to the drawing board. 1.4 External classificationWilliamson (1989:261-2) classified Igboid (Lower Niger) as one of the coordinate branches of (New) Benue-Congo while Williamson and Blench (2000:31) classified Igboid under West Benue-Congo.1.5 Internal classification, lexicostatistics and glottochronologyWilliamson proposed the first internal classification of what she now termed ‘Lower-Niger’ languages based on lexicostatistics. The 1973 work saw a split of Igbo into the following languages. Ẹkpẹyẹ, Ikwere, Ọgba, Igbo, Ụkwụanị, Ịka and Izii. Lower-Niger was criticized by some scholars such as Ọnwụejeogwu (1977) as historically and phonologically superficial. Manfredi (1982:175-195) suggested the term ‘Igboid’ for ‘those speech forms proximate to an Igbo centre’. Manfredi (1989) used phonological innovations to arrive at sub-grouping of Igboid. The term ‘Igboid’, in turn, has been criticised in many quarters, such as Emenanjo (2001:37) who sees it as continued attempt to bulkanize the Igbo language. Egbokhare et al. (2000:40) described the Igbo speech forms as belonging to an Igbo cluster. Ohiri-Aniche (2011:439) used the

modified Swadesh (1955) 100 word list to compare Ọnịcha and Owere, two undisputedly Igbo dialects with Ẹkpẹyẹ, Ikwere, Ụkwụanị and Izii, which are speech forms in controversy. Cognation scores recorded were Ọnịcha/Ẹkpẹyẹ 76.34 percent; Ọnịcha/Ikwere 81.63 percent; Ọnịcha/Owere 97 percent; Ọnịcha/Izii 94 percent and Ọnịcha/Ụkwụanị 91.91 percent. She then observed that these results were clearly within the 70% to 80% range of cognacy suggested both in Hansford et al. (1976:115-124) for recognition of language and dialect clusters respectively. This informed the title of this work as ‘Reconstructing the Igbo Cluster’No internal glottochronology analysis has been carried out on the Igbo speech varieties. Armstrong (1967:12), however, used glottochronological findings to suggest that the Igbo language has separated from its sister languages such as Yoruba and Ẹdo for between 4000-6000 years.

2.0 Proto-language phonology reconstructionDiscussion of the phonology of the Igbo cluster will be based mainly on the following lects, each of which has distinct phonological properties: Ekpeye, Ogbàkırı(Ìkwéré), Òwèrè, Onıchà, Ukwuànı, and Ìzhíí. Other lects will be brought into the discussion as necessary.2.1 Phonetic inventorySynchronically, up to seventy-five consonants and twenty-four vowels are heard across the Igbo cluster lects. The consonants include plosives, implosives, affricates, fricatives, nasals, laterals and approximants. In some lects such as Owere and Ọhnụhnụ, some of the consonants occur aspirated or breathy-voiced having developed from nasal syllables. A strong influence on Igbo consonants is double vowels; the environment – IV often results in palatalization and spirantisation, while – UV results in labialisation. The distinction between lenis and non-lenis consonants reported in Elugbe (1989) for some Edoid languages is not attested in any lect of the Igbo cluster. After careful comparisons of reflexes of the array of sounds across Igbo cluster lects, twenty-two proto consonant phonemes and ten vowel phonemes are reconstructed for the cluster.2.1.1 Proto consonants of the Igbo clusterTable 1Six classes of consonants at five places of articulation have been reconstructed. The consonants and their reflexes are discussed below (correspondence sets (CS) 1-22); the lexical items exemplifying the reconstructions are indicated in parenthesis and fully laid out in the Appendix.2.1.1.1 Plosives * p *b *t *d *c *Ɉ *k *g *kp *gbCS 1 * p>p, f (horn)CS 2 * b>b, v,f(two, blood)CS 3 * t>tʃ, ts, tf, s, (head, five)CS 4 * d>d, dz, dӡ, z, dv, v (tail, tooth, steal)CS 5 * c>c, t<y, ty, tʃ, s (white, look for/desire)CS 6 * Ɉ>Ɉ, ɗy, dӡ, z, y (walk/go, sand, full)CS 7 * k>k, tʃ, kw, hw, kf, pf, (gather, hand, leg)CS 8 * g>g, dӡ, gw>gv, bv, v, y (housefly, tall, thorn)CS 9 * kp>kp, p<, kwh, ph, KB, kf, p (bone, close/cover, seed)

CS 10 * gb>gb, ƃ, gwh, bh, GB, gv (jaw, kill)2.1.1.2 Implosives * ƃ, *t< *ɗCS 11 * ƃ > ƃ, b, v, w, ŋw (lay egg, be angry, they)CS 12 * t< > t<, t, tʃ, ts, th (three, ear, ashes)C.S 13 * ɗ > ɗ, r, l, n (eat, tongue, bite)2.1.1.3 Sonorants:*m,*ŋm,*n,*lCS 14 * m > m (I/me, water)CS 15 * ŋm > ŋm > m (know, give birth)CS 16 * n > n > ɲ y > l (give, four, bird)CS 17 *l> l > n > ɲ, y, (bury, ground/earth)2.1.1.4 Fricatives: *f, *s, * ϪCS 18 * f > f, ɸ, β, v, h, hy, hw, y, w, kw (twist, fly, belly)CS 19 * s > s, rh, r, l, ʃ, ӡ, z, ɸ, hw, h, kw (theft, face, year, roast)CS 20 * Ϫ > g, Ϫ, w, y, ŋ, ŋ, w (yawn, grey hair, goat, drink, bathe, sun)2.1.1.5 Approximant *y, *wCS 21 * y > y > ɲ (cold, he/she, we/us)CS 22 * w > w > ŋw (break/split, jump)2.1.2 Proto vowels of the Igbo clusterTable 2All lects of the Igbo cluster have the following eightvowelphonemes/i,ı, e, a, o, ɔ, ʊ, u/which fall into two harmony sets of the type+ATR. Each of these vowels can appear both in prefix position and in noun and verb roots i.e. V-, and -CV. Some lects such as Izii, Ẹkpẹyẹ, Nenwe and Ọhaọzara have a ninth vowel /Ɛ/, which is used mainly in prefix position, corresponding to /a/ in other lects. However, in a few lects, /Ɛ/ also brings about distinction in roots. Examples in Ọhaọzaraareyé‘fry’andyε‘he/she’,méē‘blood’, mέέ ‘wineandmáá‘spirit’. In some northern lects such as Nsụka and Udi, some unrounded central vowels [ɤ] and [ʉ] as well as a sound similar to the central vowel or schwa [ә] in English are also heard. This schwa sound’ a tenth vowel, is accepted as a phoneme in Udi and Nsụka since it distinguishes minimal pairs. Examples in Nsụka are nә ‘give’ and nʊ ‘hear! Nasality, which is a feature of the syllable is also distinctive in some Igbo lects. In such lects, nasality usually spreads from the vowel to the consonant of the syllable. Examples in Owere are sʊ ‘pound’ and sʊ‘clear bush!

The existence of contrasting oral and nasalised roots with the nasality located on the vowel in some lects leads to the postulation that the proto-language had oral and nasalised vowels. Altogether, therefore, ten oral and ten nasalised vowels have been reconstructed for the Igbo cluster.

ReferencesAfigbo, A.E. 2000. Igbo genesis. Uturu, Nigeria. Abia State University Press. (pp. 12-15).Armstrong, R.G. 1967. The study of West African languages. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press (p. 12).Egbokhare, F. et al. 2001. Language clusters of Nigeria. Cape Town: The Centre for Advanced Studies of African Society (CASAS). Elugbe, B.O. 1989. Comparative Edoid: phonology and lexicon. Delta Services, 6. Port Harcourt. University of Port Harcourt Press.Emenanjo, E.N. 2001. Igbo or Igboid: Asụsụ N’Agbụrụ Ndị Igbo. Language in Igbocivilization. Owerri: Ahiajọkụ Lecture p. 37.Hansford, K., Bendor-Samuel J. And Standford, R. 1976. A provisional language map of Nigeria Savanna 5, no. 2 pp. 115-124.Manfredi, V. 1982. Centre and periphery in Ika Literacy. Journal of the LinguisticAssociation of Nigeria, Volume 1. pp. 175-195.Manfredi, V. 1989. Igboid in Bendor-Samuel, J. (ed.). The Niger-Congo languages. Lanham, Md: The University Press of America.Ohiri-Aniche, C. 2011. A lexicostatistical study of Igbo. In: Nwauwa, A. and Korieh, C. (eds.). Against all odds: The Igbo experience in postcolonial Nigeria. New Jersey: Goldline and Jacobs Publishing. pp. 435-448.Onwuejeogwu, M.A. 1977. Some fundamental problems in the application of lexicostatistics in the study of African languages. Ọdụma 3, no. 2. pp. 29-36.

Swadesh, M. 1955. Towards greater accuracy in lexicostatistics dating. InternationalJournal of American Linguistics. 21. pp. 121-137.Wikipedia, 2012. Igbo people: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igbo_people#Demographics.

Williamson, K. 1973. The Lower Niger languages. Ọdụma 1, no. 1.Williamson, K. 1989. Niger-Congo overview. In Bendor-Samuel, J. (ed.). The Niger-Congolanguages. p. 18.Williamson, K. And Blench, R. 2000. Niger-Congo. In Heine, B. And Nurse, D. (eds.). African languages: an introduction. Cambridge University Press. pp. 11-42.

Table 1:Phonemic Consonant Chart of the Igbo Cluster

Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar Labial-Velar

STOP

PLOSIVE p b t d c Ɉ k g kp gb

IMPLOSIVE ᵷ t< ɗ

NASAL m n ŋm

FRICATIVE f s Ϫ

LATERAL ɭ

APPROXIMANT y w

Table 2:Phonemic Vowel Chart of the Igbo Cluster

Front Back

Expanded

High i î ı ı ʊ ʊ u ũ

Mid e ẽ ε ε ә ə ɔ ɔ o õ

Low a ã

APPENDIXHorn Two Blood HeadProto Igbo *upə *ƃııbʊá *ɔbaɗa *ɗítíẸkpẹyẹ ùpè Ƃıbɔ ʊbàlà/(étéké) íʃîỌgbakịrị mfù ε bɔ ɔbara risîOwere mpì àbʊ!ɔ ɔbhara íʃíỌnịcha mpì Ibʊá (mmeē)/ɔbàlà ísíỤkwụanị mpì εbʊɔ (édékéè) íʃíIzhii mpù ε bɔ (méé) íʃíOther Igbo Lects Ndelemfù/mfuOgbampè/mfè Ndele εvɔ Ndele ɔfaraỌha iaḿgbé!í Ogidi itsiỌba ítʃí/ísíOutside Cognates B–pémbéB – poka PLC*ìbàPE * i-vəPBbàdiPWS–gì,-bà

Urh. ɔ-balaEgene a-bʊráIfeTogoàm-baraAnaangìʄììb/obàràB*-túì‘head’PE -* U-chiəmhi, A-P.Ij.tıƃıPWS – gi-, -gui--li-,lu,-tíIkakumoìtʃṹ

Five Tail Tooth StealProto Igbo *ƃíìtıe *ɔdʊ *ídúé *dũıẸkpẹyẹ ƃísé\ƃísê (ewòlo\ìwulu) í!zé zúỌgbakịrị ìse ɔdʊ i!zé vṹOwere ìse ɔdhʊ(dhʊ) é!zé zũỌnịcha ìsé ɔdʊ é!zé zúỤkwụanị ìsé ɔdʊdʊ/ńdʊdʊ ézéè zúIzhii ìsé ɔdzʊ ézé zıtá

Other Igbo Lects OgidiìtséOkweleìtʃé Ọhaọzaraɔdӡʊ/ɔdzʊAkụ ɔdvʊ

Ogidi é!dzéObolo Afo ízé Ogidi – dzú (+ órhí)Ndele – sṹ (+ vṹsṹ)Outside Cognates PE * ii-‘chiNənhiPLC*ìtíònPP twonPJ ton (i-)PB–táánò,-táánu-cáánọ,-cáánuAkunnu iʃoũP.Ij. sɔŋɔrɔ

PE * U-thiəmhi, A-Ayere un – duPP dumPlj.ò-tùmaIkakumoòrum/ì-

PLC*é-dƐt/a-EfaiƐdjèObolo(LC)édӡédPYIG*jíPE * doArigidi – deEpie–dõPWS–gI,gia,giu‘stetlen’PLC * ʄìpB*-jíb– ‘steal’

White Look for/Desire Walk/Go SandProto Igbo *ɗıca *cɔ *Ɉe *ɗıɈaẸkpẹyẹ ʊsâ (wuddịgá) zé ízè ʊ!záỌgbakịrị rıtʃa tʃɔ ze rı!zaOwere ʊtʃa tʃɔ dӡe á!dӡaỌnịcha ɔtʃá tʃɔ dӡé á!dӡáỤkwụanị ɔtʃá tʃɔ dӡé ε dӡáàNenwe ɔcá/ɔt<yá cɔ/t<yɔ Ɉé εɈáIzhii ɔtʃá/ɔtyá tyɔ dӡé εdӡáOther Igbo Lects Ọhaọzara - ɔcáIsnu - ʊϛáNdele – rʊsaObolo tʃó Agbanị - ɈéẸbịrịba – geIgbo Etiti – ve

Ọhaọzara - εɈáNdele – rʊsaIsnu – á!ʝáOutside Cognates B*-càk-‘desire, search for’PE–khıNaArigidi–dӡƐPWS – kiaPS – gịaụB*gènd-, jendPLC - saŋa

B*-càngàEmh (NWE)Ɛ-ӡàӡanìArigidi ɲèɲè/ítʃaIkakumo - ɔtʃƐObolo(LC)átʃjáŋ/ntítaak

Full Gather, Carry in hand Hand LegProto Igbo *Ɉṹĩ *kı *ε ká *ɔkʊıẸkpẹyẹ yúlú (mʊdӡí) ε kâ (úkó)Ọgbakịrị dӡî tʃı ákâ ɔtʃıOwere dӡú tʃı áká ʊkwʊỌnịcha dӡú tʃı áká ʊkwʊỊka dӡú tʃı/kı ε ká ʊkwʊNenwe Ɉú tʃı ε ká (ɔkpà)Izhii dӡí tʃıtá ε ká ʊpfʊOther Igbo Lects Ọhaọzara – ɈúIgbo Etiti – dzu Ọkọchampfʊtʊ/ɔkpàOutside Cognates PLC * ɈɔkAhan–à-ŋkɔAyere – ŋgɔCB–yúj-= become full

B*-kí-Gather (fruit) Ehuẹun a-ka – armP.Ijoid*káaSybì-ka = FingerB*-kàcà‘hand’Ahanŋgùká

PYIG*-kũ‘knee’Ehuẹunū-kōIkakumoúkàı/à-BamounkútPLC*ú-kód/a-

Housefly Long/Tall Thorn BoneProto Igbo *ógĩ *ógó *ógũṹ *ɔkpʊẸkpẹyẹ ódӡí!dӡí (ʊkâ) ú!gwú ú!kpóỌgbakịrị rʊ!vɔ ógólógó í!gṹ ɔkpʊkpʊOwere îdӡı/íӡı ógólógó/(ákhá) ó!gwhṹ ɔp<ʊp<ʊỌnịcha ídӡí!dӡí ógónógó ó!gwú ɔp<ʊp<ʊỤkwụanị εgiӡíì ógónógó ógúù ɔkpʊkpʊIzhii ídӡídӡí ógólógó óbvú ɔkpʊOther Igbo Lects Ndele rʊ!zɔ Nsụka ʊgɔlɔdʊ Agbanị ó!vúẸbịrịba ó!gvṹ Ọhaọzara ɔɔkpʊ

Outside Cognates PE*A-khıNa,ı-PLC*usòŋ/n-PYIG * V-cĩcĩArìgìdiitʃtʃiPP tiuŋPJ – kyiŋ (ki-/i-)PB–gì, gıŋgı

Urh o-grogroOndo goẸdoógòlógó= a very tall manDeg. Ogodo/Ogodogodo = tall, long

PLCúkúkúm/ŋ-B*-gùŋgà PE * KuaPJ kup (ku-/a-)PB–kúpàPWS–kú,-kúp,-kúáPLC*Ɔ-kpɔArigidié!kpı

Close/Cover Seed Jaw KillProto Igbo *kpu *ʊkpʊɗʊ *àgba *gbúẸkpẹyẹ kpùté ʊkpʊ!lʊ àgbà gbúỌgbakịrị kpùsnı ḿkpʊ!rʊ àba gbúOwere p<ùtʃhı/kwhuʃı ḿp<ʊ!rʊ àbha/àgwha ƃúỌnịcha p<ù ḿkpʊ!lʊ àƃà ƃúỤkwụanị kpùtʃí ḿkpʊlʊʊ àgbà gbúIzhii kpùtʃí ákpʊ!rʊ àgbà gbúOther Igbo Lects Ọkọcha pùtʃíẸbịrịba kfutʃı Ọhaọzaraḿ!KBʊEchie àgwhà Ọhaọzara – GBú

Outside Cognates B*-kúnik-‘cover’ Ẹdo ì-kpƐẸgẹnẹƐkpʊrʊAuchi ukpa’miB-pek-ePYIG*à-gbaPE*A-gbhamhıP.Ij.ãgbãAhanàmgbàPLCm-báŋB*-báŋgá

PE * gbeGiPWS–gue‘töten’PS – ku ‘sterben’PLC*gwòdB*-búd– 'kill’

Lay Egg Be Angry They ThreeProto Igbo *ƃí *ƃé *ƃә *ƃııt<ıɔẸkpẹyẹ ƃí Ƃéni(+ε gbà) ƃε!ε ƂıtɔỌgbakịrị bí wé+í!wé bε εtɔOwere yí(+àkwha) wé+íwé ŋŋwṍ/(ha) àt<ɔỌnịcha yí wé+íwé (fá) ıtɔỤkwụanị yí wé+íwé wá/wé εtɔIzhii íwé = wickedness (epfhẹ) (εϕε) εtɔOther Igbo Lects Ẹhụgbo woỌhaọzara (hε) Ọkwelle àtíóOboloàtíóOutside Cognates Sybyé/yiIsoko yεDeg ƃáʊSybà– wɔ PYIG * ε-taPJ tat (i-)

Deg ƃie ‘give birth’PB – bıád-‘give birth’Ịsẹkirià–ŋãPB–bóPWS – ba-

Ikakụmọ taarhPLCìtáTIVtálPUC ttanPE*ıı-chaGıPB–tátùPlj–tá(á)rʊ

Ear Ashes Eat TongueProto Igbo *ε tı *ɗıt<ə *ɗí ɗíɗéẸkpẹyẹ ε tε (ε wε /tʃı) ɗi (+ ƃídí) íɗôỌgbakịrị ńsı rε tʊ rí(+wírí) lúlôOwere ńthı ńthʊ ri(+ńrí) íréỌnịcha ńtı ńtʊ lí íléỤkwụanị ńtıı ńtʊ lí íléIzhii ńtʃı ńtʊ rí íréOther Igbo Lects Achị ńtsıNdele ńʃı Isiala Mbanọ ńthɔAgbanị-ńtɵɨ/n-tɨ/nɵɨAgbanịghlí/ríIgwurutaǹdí= foodỌsụmenyińdí = food

NdelerírôỌbioǹrúróOutside Cognates PYIG*e-tıAhan endiPLC * u-tɔŋ/a-PE * ghU-chɔGı, A-PBC–túŋi(ku-/a-)

Ahan–endũdũOyin - ɔn-dóPUC – tɔŋ(kò)PLC*ń-tɔŋPJ–tón(u-li)PB–tó,túéB*-túé

PLC*líáPE*‘dhıPYIG * JεCama:lí/ḍi/PJ dyi iPB diArìgìdidӡe

PE.*U-dhamhı, A-AkunnuindâPJ dema (ri-/a-)PBC – lem (li-/a-)PB–dímè,-dímìPLC * ε – lεmε , a-Bite I/Me Water KnowProto Igbo *t<á+ɗεɗʊ *mə *mıɗ ı *ŋmaẸkpẹyẹ tǎ+εnʊ ḿ/mε mí!ní mádӡıỌgbakịrị tǎ+rεnʊ mε mí!ní márʊOwere t<à+árʊ mı/mmʊ/mmı ḿmí!rı máỌnịcha tá+álʊ mʊ ḿmí!lí máỤkwụanị tá+εlʊ mʊ/mmε ḿmílíì máIzhii tá+εrʊ mʊ mí!ní máOther Igbo Lects Ndele ta + rεnʊ Agbanị -mʊ!rı/mʊ!Ϫlı Amaigbo ŋmá

Outside Cognates PLC*lómB*-dúm-‘bite’Auchi – taSyb – taIsoko ɻʊIgala lɔArìgìdi– rɔ/tá

PE * mε mhεPYIG*ò-mĩ,ıArigidi amePLC*àmìPPmíPBmíPWSmì‘ich’

PE*A-mıN,ı-PYIG*o-mĩPJ – mbyed Plj. * ɓẽdĩPLC * - mɔɔŋAhan – o-mi

PYIG*mãAhanmàPB-màn--màni-

Give Birth Give Four BirdProto Igbo *ŋmə *nıə *ƃ ı ı l ɔ *εnəẸkpẹyẹ mʊ (ʊ !ŋwɔ) ně/ɲè Ƃınɔ ʊnʊ

Belly Theft Face YearProto Igbo *ɗıfʊɔ *ƃúsı * ɗísṹı *ásuaẸkpẹyẹ ʊwɔ (ʊgbʊ) (ùpî) álàỌgbakịrị rʊhwɔ ósı rúhwṹ/rúhú áhwàOwere áfɔ ó!ʃı/ó!hyı íhwṹ/íhṹ áfoỌnịcha áfɔ/ávɔ ó!rí írú ároỤkwụanị ε fɔ óʃíí ísú ásʊàNenwe εvɔ ó!ӡí íhṹ áhɔIzhii ε ϕɔ íϕú áϕàOther Igbo Lects Nsụka εhɔỌkọcha εkwɔỌka áβɔOgidi ó!rhíNdele vú!sṹ ỌkọchaíkwúOgidi írhúNroboífú

ỌkọchaàákwàOutside Cognates PE*dhı-phaNı, A-PYIG*ì-fũ B*-cÙmá= thief PLC*í-sóéɲεmB * -cıó

Ọgbakịrị mʊ ɲě ε nộ ɔnʊnʊOwere mʊ ɲé ànɔ/ǹnɔ ńnʊnʊỌnịcha mʊ ɲé ınɔ ńnʊnʊỤkwụanị mʊ yé ε nɔ ńnʊnʊNenwe mʊ ɲé εlɔ ńnʊnʊIzhii ŋwʊ yétá ε ká/(hε) ε nɔ ε nʊOther Igbo Lects Ọkọcha – ŋwʊAmaigbo – ŋmʊỌgbah – nıNsụka - nә

Egbema ılɔ Egbema ńnʊnʊỌhaọzara ʊnʊnʊOutside Cognates PLC*màn–Tiv–màlC. Kambarimà(tsã) = bearchild, fruitPE * mɔ ‘bear fruit

PLC * nɔ/ ɲìPE * naẸdo – nεSyb–nıArìgìdi-gbàɲɔErusu - ɲãPB–nínk-

PE * niәPYIG * ε-rĩ/ε’lı/PJ ndin (i-,a-)Pljì-nóŋíPLC*ìnìàŋPB–ne,-mèGt-nìGtPWS – na,-nan-ni

PLC*i-nùŋε nB * -nʊnı‘bird’ GtUda(LC)únùŋù/n-Bury Ground/Earth Twist FlyProto Igbo *lı *εlıə *fı *féẸkpẹyẹ lǐ ε lε (pımá) wéỌgbakịrị lǐ εlı hyı hwéOwere lì àlà hyı féỌnịcha nì ànı fı féỤkwụanị ɲì ànı fı féNenwe ɲì àlı vyɔ véIzhii lì àlı swı ϕéOther Igbo Lects Egbema – àlıNrobo–àɲı Ọhaọzara ϕyı Ọka βéAgbanị

ϛwé/ϕé/féOutside Cognates PLC*ù-lì= gravePYIG*d’ì= bury an objectArigidi –lyū/lüPJ–ndìpPS–nḷiPlj - ɗiɓi

PYIG * V-lεPWS–là‘erde, unten’Ahan-alèẸdoxıε Auchi ‘kiBpıatmakerope by twisting

Ẹgẹnẹ-fıànīPYIS*fò‘ ly, jump’PS pi ‘fliegen’

Intestine, ‘guts’PCJ pu (ri-/a-)*B – pu ‘stomach’PS pụunị ‘Bauch’ -cıú

Roast Yawn Grey Hair GoatProto Igbo *sʊ * Ϫé *ɗʊϪɔ *éϪəẸkpẹyẹ nɔ/(ɗʊʃı) wǎʊwâ ʊ!wɔ (ágεlε ӡı)Ọgbakịrị hwʊ/(rʊ) Ϫǎ+ ɔϪàrà rʊwɔ ówûOwere hwʊ/hʊ Ϫé/yé áwɔ éwú/eϪúỌnịcha rʊ Ϫé úϪélé áwɔ éwúỤkwụanị sʊmε Ϫé úϪélé εwɔɔ éwúUdi hә/ϕʊ Ϫé εwɔ éϪú/éϪәIzhii hʊbé Ϫé εwɔ éϪúOther Igbo Lects Nsụka hәOgidi rhʊNrobo fʊyıẸhụgbogéùgéréỌhaọzarayéúyé!ré

Ẹhụgbọ εgɔỌgba εϪɔ ẸhụgboéwúOutside Cognates PYIG * sʊPJtón-à‘burn’B * tụmb-roastPWStùà, (tọ)rösten

PYIG * ɲa/yaẸdo ɲaɲaEpie ye (bele)Ẹgẹnẹ wʊra (awo)IbibioŋwàŋádePJ yamP.Ij.awũã

Bantu–búì= white hairP.Ij.iƃũluPE *E-bhʊı,ı-PLC*é-bód/i-PYIG*e-‘bó‘she goat’PBC – bwon (i-/i-)PB–búḍıKana(Ogoni)pééP-Ij.óḅórí

Drink Bathe Sun ColdProto Igbo *Ϫɔ * Ϫə *áϪ ʊı *óyíẸkpẹyẹ ŋwʊ/ŋʊ hwʊyá ε lá!ŋwʊ ʊka!yıỌgbakịrị ŋwɔ hyá (ε ha!m) íyíOwere ŋʊ (sa)/Ϫʊ á!ŋwʊ ó!yíỌnịcha (lá)/ŋʊ/ŋwʊ wʊ áɲá!ŋwʊ ó!yíỤkwụanị (lá) wʊ áŋwʊʊ/(áŋʊʊ ) óyíìUdi Ϫə Ϫə εhә ε yá!wʊ ó!yíIzhii ŋʊ wʊ áŋwʊ óyíOther Igbo Lects Nsụka ŋı/ŋwʊtá Ebịrịba – hʊ/wʊẸhụgbo – wʊỌgba – á!ɲıAgwa – á!ŋʊOutside Cognates PE * yɔNɔPYIG * ŋmʊUro (Akokoid) ŋgɔPJ ŋgwamPLC * ŋwɔŋIkakumo - w ʊ

PE * khʊεPYIG * gwε/gʊεSyb – wεPB–kóo‘wash’PWS – gua, gual-‘waschen’

PS – Ϫụi ‘sonne’GestirnIbilo - ɔ-hɔAkunnu – εwûArigidi–ūhɔ

Iyede (Isoko)o-ɈeɈeUrh–ò-ɈíɈìrò

He/She We/Us Break/Split JumpProto Igbo *yέ *ε yı *wá *wʊẸkpẹyẹ yá/á yεε wálı (má/pé)/wʊỌgbakịrị àyı tʊwá (gbʊ) ε hwʊrʊOwere yá àɲı wá wʊ/mʊỌnịcha yá àɲı wá wʊỤkwụanị ε yá àɲı wá wʊ/ŋwʊʃı/(kpɔntʊ)Izhii yá àɲı wá (pfʊ)

Other Igbo Lects Ọhaọzara yε Nrobo àá!nı Ọgba – wʊNsụka – wʊḷı Outside Cognates IbibioàɲεBantu*yé= he/him/she/herIbibioǹɲìnPLC*àɈitIṣẹkiri ε-nε/εlεDegema eniUrh (aʋ)aṇi

Bantu–bàa-split Igala–wìIbilo – ‘bɔAuchi – u-ʋɔAviele–ú-wɔObolo(LC)wùlû