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María Luisa Avargues Navarro, Mercedes Borda Mas, Ana María López Jiménez

Working Conditions, Burnout and Stress Symptoms in University Professors: Validating

a Structural Model of the Mediating Effect of Perceived Personal Competence The

Spanish Journal of Psychology, vol. 13, núm. 1, mayo, 2010, pp. 284-296,

Universidad Complutense de Madrid

España

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ISSN (Printed Version): 1138-7416

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The purpose of this study has been to test, with a sample of 193 Professors of the University of Seville, a structural model on the mediating role of personal perceived competence in the appearance of burnout syndrome and stress symptoms under potentially stressful work conditions. The instruments used to evaluate were a socio-demographic and work-related data questionnaire, The Maslach Burnout Inventory (M.B.I.), The Labour Scale of Stress and the Magallanes Stress Scale. The model of strategy implementation and LISREL 8.71 were used. The estimated model was adjusted satisfactorily, ascertaining the mediating effect of perceived competence in the effect exerted by the work conditions studied on the depersonalization and personal fulfillment, as well as in the appearance of stress symptoms. The effect on the emotional exhaustion dimension was not confirmed. The latter also acted on the estimated model as a mediating variable, facilitating the negative impact of stressors on emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and personal accomplishment.Keywords: occupational stress, burnout, perceived personal competence, university professors.

El objetivo de este trabajo ha sido poner a prueba, en una muestra de 193 profesores de la Universidad de

Sevilla, un modelo estructural sobre el papel mediador de la competencia personal percibida en la aparición

del síndrome de burnout y la sintomatología de estrés ante condiciones de trabajo potencialmente estresantes.

Los instrumentos de evaluación fueron: un cuestionario de datos sociodemográficos y laborales elaborado

al efecto, la Escala Laboral de Estrés (ELE), el Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) y la Escala Magallanes de

Estrés (EMEST). Se utilizó la estrategia de “desarrollo del modelo” y el programa LISREL 8.71. El modelo

estimado se ajustó satisfactoriamente, constatándose el papel mediador de la competencia percibida en el

efecto ejercido por las condiciones de trabajo estresantes sobre la despersonalización y realización personal,

así como sobre la sintomatología de estrés. No se confirmó su efecto mediador sobre la dimensión cansancio

emocional. Esta última actuó también en el modelo estimado como variable mediadora, facilitando el impacto

negativo de los factores estresantes sobre despersonalización, realización personal y sintomatología de estrés.

Palabras clave: estrés laboral, burnout, competencia personal percibida, profesores de universidad.

Working Conditions, Burnout and Stress Symptoms in University Professors:

Validating a Structural Model of the Mediating Effect of Perceived Personal Competence

María Luisa Avargues Navarro, Mercedes Borda Mas, and Ana María López Jiménez

Universidad de Sevilla (Spain)

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to María Luisa Avargues Navarro. Departamento de Personalidad, Evaluación y Tratamiento Psicológicos. Universidad de Sevilla. Camilo José Cela s/n. 41018 Sevilla. (Spain). Phone: +34-954557806. Fax: +34-954557807. E-mail: avargues@us.es.

Copyright 2010 by The Spanish Journal of PsychologyISSN 1138-7416

The Spanish Journal of Psychology 2010, Vol. 13 No. 1, 284-296

OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AMONG UNIVERSITY PROFESSORS 285

Nowadays it can be said that empirical evidence leads us to believe that work-related stress and burnout syndrome are frequent health problems for university faculty, and that the consequences of this have been dire (Dua, 1994; León & Avargues, 2007; Winefield & Jarrett, 2001; Winefield, Gillespie, Stough, Dua & Hapuararchi, 2003). In Spain, however, changes to the system of higher education have piqued researchers’ interest in this subject: the creation of the European Space for Higher Education and changes to the normative framework that regulates the professor/researcher profession.

With this in mind, it is no surprise that the majority of studies have been descriptive, and have focused on analyzing the prevalence of these syndromes, their triggers and the influence of moderating variables that are demographic and professional in nature (Caramés, 2001; Durán, Extremera & Rey, 2001; Gillespie, Walsh, Winefield, Dua & Stough, 2001; Guerrero, 2003; Hogan, Carlson & Dua, 2002; León & Avargues, 2007; Viloria & Paredes, 2002; Winefield et al., 2003). However, there has been scarcely any study of the influence of personal moderating variables (coping strategies, locus of control, perceived efficacy, optimism, feelings of competence, etc.), which could either facilitate or inhibit the experience of stress and burnout syndrome in this population (Leung, Siu & Spector, 2000; Hetty van Hemmerk, 2002; Otero, Santiago & Castro, 2008; Paulik, 2001; Salanova, Cifre, Grau & Martinez, 2005; Taris, Schreurs & Van Iersel-Van Silfhourt, 2001). For a more thorough review of the main findings of research in this area, please consult Avargues (2006).

Due to the fact that changing the university system is no easy task, it is necessary to deepen our study of the personal variables that may mediate the appearance of stress and burnout syndrome. Specifically, the academic model that is being installed is based on the development of new competencies. The authors of this study have come to understand that the study of perceived personal competence among university faculty, and its mediating effect on the experience of stress and burnout syndrome, is amply justified. With this in mind, the results obtained could be useful in forming programs for the prevention and treatment of stress syndromes in this population.

In the present study, Wallston’s (1992) concept of personal competence has been utilized in lieu of the Internal Locus of Control concept. Perceived personal competence is understood as a general belief about the extent to which one is capable of achieving his or her desired goals or objectives (this differs from the Locus of Control, which is limited to causal beliefs about the relationship between actions and results, and does not incorporate the concept of personal efficacy). This belief implicitly includes the notion of Internal Locus of Control, the belief that with a given action, we may

achieve a given objective (expectation of the result), but with one further component: the belief that one is capable of this (expectation of self-efficacy) (Rueda, Pérez & Bermúdez, 2005).

In this way, Wallston supports Albert Bandura’s (1977) Theory of Self-efficacy, but while the two concepts overlap, they refer to two markedly different phenomena. Within the concept of perceived control, we may distinguish empirically between general beliefs about our world and ourselves (perceived personal competence), and specific expectations within specific contexts (self-efficacy) (Fernández-Castro & Edo, 1994). While self-efficacy is a contextual expectation based on the extent to which one believes they are capable of carrying out a particular behavior in a particular moment, perceived competence is a more general belief.

The thesis proposed in the present study is that perceived personal competence has a mediating effect on the experience of occupational stress and burnout syndrome. This is not to be confused with the assumption that people with a high level of perceived personal competence will experience less stress and, consequently, less burnout syndrome, than those with less perceived personal competence, when faced with a potentially stressful situation (e.g., Fernández-Castro, Álvarez, Blasco, Doval & Sanz, 1998; Martínez, Fernández-Castro & Aparicio, 2004), or certain stress-generating situations (e.g., Fernández-Castro, Martínez-Sánchez & Ortiz, 1999). On another note, a positive correlation has been observed between perceived personal competence and the personal fulfillment dimension of burnout syndrome. Meanwhile, a negative correlation has been found between perceived personal competence and the dimensions that comprise the “core of burnout” (emotional exhaustion and depersonalization) (Gil-Monte & Peiró, 1999; Lee & Ashforth, 1996). Following Fernández-Castro’s (1999) line of thought for a moment, consider that elevated feelings of personal competence could facilitate the formation of high expectations of self-efficacy and the development of active coping strategies, which are negatively correlated with experiencing stress. This may be particularly true when people are in new situations with which they lack direct, personal experience. Take, for example, the situation at hand in our university system, a consequence of the process of joining the European Space for Higher Education.

It is also worth noting the contributions of Gil-Monte, Peiró and Valcárcel (1998) about the etiology, process and consequences of burnout syndrome, and an emphasis on reciprocity, or transaction. The relationship between experiencing stress (because of mental overload, under-load, conflict of role or role ambiguity) and its consequences (stress symptoms, health problems) may be mediated by the onset of burnout syndrome (stress response). Still, whether

AVARGUES NAVARRO, BORDA MAS, AND LÓPEZ JIMÉNEZ286

or not the syndrome appears is determined by one’s way of coping with stressful situations. The effectiveness of one’s coping depends on certain personal, cognitive variables related to professional performance, such as feelings of perceived personal competence. Therefore, perceived personal competence may mediate stress by inhibiting the onset of burnout syndrome and other consequences of stress.

Also note that feelings of competence may vary as a function of the working conditions to which people are exposed. Ergo, there are professional situations that facilitate the development of competence and others that debilitate it, producing a crisis in one’s feelings of efficacy and making way for the appearance of burnout syndrome (Salanova, Martínez & Lorente, 2005). It is to be expected, then, that perceived personal competence modulates the negative effects that stressful situations may have on working people (since it directly, negatively affects the emotional exhaustion and depersonalization dimensions, and also directly, positively impacts feelings of personal fulfillment). However, perceived personal competence may also be directly, negatively affected by situations that generate stress, such that it adopts a mediating role between stressful situations and the onset of burnout syndrome.

The object of this study is to test the structural, theoretical model proposed by the authors, of the mediating effect of perceived personal competence on the manifestation of burnout syndrome and stress reactions or symptoms in university faculty (see Figure 1). This model has been constructed according to the contributions of authors such as Dorman (2003), Fernández-Castro (1999), Gil-Monte & Peiró (1999), Gil-Monte et al. (1998), Grau, LLorens, Burriel, Salanova & Agut (2004), Lee & Ashforth (1996), Rueda et al. (2003), Salanova, Cifre et al. (2005), and Salanova, Martínez et al. (2005), among others. The majority of their contributions, however, have either referred to samples of non-faculty or of non-university teachers.

As Figure 1 conveys, in the model proposed, perceived personal competence would exercise a mediating role on the relationship between stressful working conditions and the appearance of burnout syndrome and stress symptoms. In other words, stress resulting from working conditions would influence all three dimensions of the syndrome, while indirectly influencing the professors’ stress through perceived personal competence. Perceived personal competence would directly and negatively affect the emotional exhaustion and depersonalization dimensions,

Figure 1. Proposed Theoretical Model of the Mediating Effect of Perceived Personal Competence on the Onset of Burnout Syndrome in the Context of Occupational Stress.

OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AMONG UNIVERSITY PROFESSORS 287

and would directly and positively affect the personal fulfillment dimension of work.

Regarding stressful working conditions, they would have a direct and positive effect on the emotional exhaustion dimension of burnout syndrome. The model predicts that professional overload would be the most significant antecedent to the emotional exhaustion dimension, while role ambiguity would directly and negatively affect the personal fulfillment dimension of burnout syndrome. Furthermore, these factors would influence the levels of perceived personal competence directly and negatively.

On another note, as for the onset of burnout syndrome, according to the model, the emotional exhaustion dimension should directly, positively affect the depersonalization dimension. Equally so, the personal fulfillment dimension should directly, negatively affect the depersonalization dimension.

Last, we suggest that the emotional exhaustion dimension will directly, positively affect the presence of indicators and symptoms of stress.

Methods

Participants

The present study forms part of a wider work of research by Avargues (2006), conducted at the University of Seville (the US from here on) that includes a sample of professors and research faculty (PDI from here on) and another sample of administration and service staff (PAS from here on). The sampling procedure employed was a multistage, random cluster sampling, with random selection of the sampling elements (Departments, Schools and Buildings). Random route sampling was also used, as were personnel quotas (proportionally fixed as a function of the group one belonged to, PDI or PAS, and sex) to determine the final elements included, or people interviewed.

In this study, 720 surveys were distributed and 315 were collected, all of which were valid. The response rate was 43.7%, higher than that of other, similar research studies conducted in Spain (Guerrero, 2003) and similar to the rate reported in international studies (Dua, 1994; Winefield & Jarret, 2001). The sampling error was 4.9%, with a confidence level of 95.5%, and the probability of someone being surveyed presenting with burnout syndrome was .28. That probability was established by the 3rd European Working Conditions Survey, conducted in 2000 by the European Working Conditions Observatory Foundation.

The 315 surveys recovered and processed were stratified in the following way: 193 belonged to the PDI group and 122 belonged to the PAS group, 61.2% and 38.7%, respectively. Those percentages do not entail significant variance compared to the relative sizes of the

clusters within the population, 63% PDI and 37% PAS, according to data reported by the Annual Statistical Guide to the US (2003/4).

In the study presented here, the sample was comprised of the 193 participants in the PDI group, of which 127 were men (65.8%) and 66 were women (34.2%). Those percentages do not vary significantly from the population either, considering that 68.6% are men and 31.4% are women. Participants ranged in age from 24 to 69 years old, with a mean of 40.9 years old (SD = 10.5).

Instruments

The instruments used to evaluate were:• Sociodemographic and Occupational Data

Questionnaire. It consists of 10 questions, five that are sociodemographic in nature, four about occupational characteristics and one that asks for an eight-digit code that would ensure participants’ anonymity (See Table 1).

• Occupational Stress Scale (ELE) (Fernández Ríos, 1995). We used a version of this scale that was revised and adapted by León & Avargues (2004). The scale evaluates potentially stressful aspects of occupational activities and the items consist of 49 affirmative statements (see Table 2) with seven response options ranging from “Totally false” to “Totally true.” In the initial scale, the items are grouped into five subscales: occupational overload (understood as having too much to do in little time), conflict of role (this refers to demands contrary to the wishes and responsibilities of the employee), overqualification (refers to one’s belief that he or she is more qualified or capable than what is required to perform one’s work) and last, incompetence (or feeling incapable of successfully carrying out one’s job). The subscale was revised to determine whether or not it could be used as a good measure of perceived personal competence. It was concluded that it could indeed be used as a general measure of that variable, so we used the scores obtained on this subscale to measure perceived personal competence (e.g. Avargues, 2006).To test its construct validity (León & Avargues, 2004), an exploratory factor analysis, a Principal Components Analysis, and a Varimax rotation were performed. Of the factors obtained, eleven when the Kaiser criterion was applied, the first five were from Fernández-Ríos’s scale (1995). Nevertheless, we retained a seventh factor we call lack of or scarcity of resources because it could be important in the context of our study in which not only PDI are evaluated, but also PAS. The rest of the factors

AVARGUES NAVARRO, BORDA MAS, AND LÓPEZ JIMÉNEZ288

were not included in the study because their content overlapped with one of the other factors and/or they were measured by only one item. The explained variance for the final six factors was 50.86% and the KMO value (Kaiser-Meyer-Oldkin) was .84. Those factors required six subscales from which we obtained scores on the variables included in the model. Each item in the subscale was assigned a factorial weight/value greater in absolute value than .3. Table 2 displays the items comprising each subscale and their corresponding Cronbach’s alpha coefficients. The score on each subscale was computed by taking the arithmetic mean of the scores obtained on each item in the subscale.

• The Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) (Maslach & Jackson, 1986). An adaptation of this by Seisdedos in 1997 for TEA Editions was used. The measure consists of 22 closed response elements to estimate the frequency, ranging from “Never” to “Everyday,” with which one experiences certain feelings and attitudes at work. These feelings coincide with the three dimensions of occupational stress syndrome for professionals who work directly with people: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and decreased personal accomplishment. Their reliability indices, according to their Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, were: .90, .79 and .71,

respectively. Also, this instrument has highly acceptable measures of convergent and discriminant construct validity.

• Magallanes Stress Scale (EMEST). (García, Magaz & García, 1998). It consists of 15 elements, each of which refers to a “minor” functional alteration. The person being evaluated reports how frequently this has occurred over the last two months, from 0 = “Never” to 3 = “Often”. Separately, none of these alterations would indicate stress, but their accumulation combined with a high frequency of occurrence could be interpreted as a sign that the individual is under stress. This test evaluates physiological alterations commonly accepted as “stress reactions,” or symptoms of stress. The test-retest correlation coefficient and Cronbach’s alpha coefficient were .75 and .82 for this scale. Furthermore, tests of validity have obtained acceptable measurements (see García, Magaz & García, 1998).

Procedure

Six people were selected to administer the surveys: four research scholarship students at the US, and two research scholarship students at the National Center for

Table 1 Description of the sample in terms of Sociodemographic and Occupational Variables (n = 193)

Sociodemographic and Occupational Variables Personnel Frequency %

Civil status Single 50 25.9Married or living with a mate 128 66.3Divorced or separated 11 5.7Widowed 4 2.1

Do you have children? Yes 118 61.1No 75 38.9

Number of children One 28 14.5Two 49 25.4Three or more 41 21.2

Occupational association State-employed faculty 115 59.6University-employed faculty 78 40.4

University campus Health sciences 33.16Social Sciences and Law 32.12Hard sciences 33.68

Occupational Experience Years worked at the US Mean and SD Range12.81 (9.39) (1-45)

OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AMONG UNIVERSITY PROFESSORS 289

Table 2 Matrix of rotated components

(1) Olα=.902

(2)RAα=.836

(3) CRα=.859

(4) Cα=.787

(5) Oqα=.654

(6) LRα=.817

49. I would need more time in order to complete my assigned tasks .809

3. I have an excess of work .796

13. I should stay late at the office to finish all of my assigned work .789

8. I do not have enough time to do all the tasks demanded of me .767

42. I am sometimes assigned a lot of work to do in a limited time. .750

23. I am sometimes assigned a lot of tasks to do at once .720

33. The excess of work does not allow me any time to rest .713

18. I have enough time to finish all my work .69246. Sometimes I have to bring work home to be able to finish all the tasks assigned me .598

34. I would need help from specialized personnel to efficiently complete some of my work .460

12. I have to do things one way that should be done differently and under different conditions .413

4. I have difficulty with the work I am assigned .380

19. I sometimes have to make a great effort to complete my work .3606. I do not know the criteria by which I will be evaluated for a promotion or a raise .737

41. No one explains how my work will be evaluated .692

21. The objectives and goals of my work are unclear .6681. I do not know what possibilities or opportunities there are for me to move ahead or ascend in the hierarchy .646

45. I do not have the necessary information about the objectives and results of my work .632

29. I do not know how to improve my achievement at work .54511. I do not have information about how to develop my abilities in order to be successful at my job .502

16. I do not know what is expected of me in my work .481

26. I know exactly what is expected of me at work .389

35. I am sometimes asked to do things against my better judgment .80232. I am sometimes asked to behave in a way at work that is against my moral judgment .723

37. I sometimes have to modify my behavior so that it is compatible with the demands of an individual or group .629

7. It sometimes happens that two or more people expect things of me that are contradictory .607

27. The things I do are smiled upon by some, but not by others .60517. I sometimes find myself in situations in which contradictory behaviors are demanded of me .603

36. I sometimes receive orders from my supervisors that are not clear .598

31. I am not provided with the information I need to correctly do my job .470

2. I work with two or more groups that act very differently14. In some circumstances, I do not think I am fully capable of doing my job

.712

AVARGUES NAVARRO, BORDA MAS, AND LÓPEZ JIMÉNEZ290

Protections, which is both funded by and a branch of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. The selection criteria were: having expressed a desire to participate voluntarily and being prepared to administer psycho technical tests and to conduct interviews. They were informed of the following: the survey’s objective, the population of interest to the study, the size and composition of the sample, the sampling technique utilized, the conditions under which the evaluation instruments would be applied, and how to treat any difficulties or incidences that could arise during data collection. Each proctor was assigned a center where they would administer the survey, the random-route to be followed, and the number of surveys they should administer according to a pre-established personnel quota.

When each participant was asked to join the study, they were informed, on an individual basis, of the research objectives and the condition of anonymity. If the person in question accepted, he or she was then provided with the evaluation instruments to be filled out and returned to the address indicated on the envelope.

Data Analysis

The proposed model was estimated using LISREL 8.71. Maximum likelihood estimation was used. Although this method requires multivariate normality, it is also very robust when the condition of normality is not met (Schemelleh, Moosbrugger & Müller, 2003).

The analysis strategy employed was the “Model Development Strategy” (Jöreskg & Sörbom, 1993). This calls for an initial, hypothetical model to be proposed, based on different theoretical contributions gleaned from other research on the subject. Next, that model was successively tweaked according to modification indices and the significance of estimated coefficients. Direct effects that were not found to be significant were eliminated. However, while modifying the model, we remembered the theoretical assumptions at its core and only made changes that could be reconciled with those assumptions. This ensured not only the model’s empirical validity, but its theoretical validity, too. The use of this strategy was justifiable given that we believe the theoretical contributions made to this point are lacking in the population studied.

(1) Olα=.902

(2)RAα=.836

(3) CRα=.859

(4) Cα=.787

(5) Oqα=.654

(6) LRα=.817

40. When important problems arise at work, I know how to resolve them efficiently

.639

48. I complete the tasks I am assigned with great ease .60447. I sometimes think I should have a lower-level job than the one I have .5899. I sometimes do not know how to complete the tasks I must do .577

20. I think I am sufficiently qualified and capable to have a higher-level job -.576

39. I make mistakes easily while doing my work .50024. I sometimes find myself worried about the specialization my job requires of me

.448

43. In some circumstances, I need help to be able to complete my work .3795. My abilities and knowledge base are much greater than what is required to perform my job

.658

15. The work I do does not achieve any of my objectives or aspirations .63544. The tasks I do are below my level of ability .530

10. I am sufficiently capable to be assigned a job with greater responsibility .51025. I consider my job to be rather easy and monotonous .47830. My job is in accordance with my personal values .461

28. I do not have the technical materials necessary to perform my job .71822. The resources I have access to do not correspond to the level of responsibility that my job requires

.698

38. I am not given the personnel resources necessary to perform my job .625

(1) Overload=Ol; (2) Role ambiguity=RA; (3) Conflict of role=CR; (4) Competence=C; (5) Overqualification=Oq; (6) Lack of resources=LR.

Table 2 (Cont.)Matrix of rotated components

OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AMONG UNIVERSITY PROFESSORS 291

Results

Table 3 displays the descriptive statistics and correlations between the study’s variables. As we predicted, perceived personal competence was positively correlated with feelings of personal fulfillment and negatively with the dimensions emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, as well as with stress symptoms. The correlations between stress produced by working conditions and the perceived personal competence variable were also found to be negative.

In accordance with the strategy used, the adjusted model is presented in Figure 2. The measures of error were not included in the Figure although they, too, were

estimated. On a related note, the measurement model was not included in the analysis because the ratio of number of subjects to number of variables required would have been very small.

The data’s fit to the estimated model was highly satisfactory, as the measurements of goodness of fit show; these are included in Table 4.

Also, the proportion of explained variance for each endogenous variable studied reaches, or nearly so, 25% in the majority of cases (see Table 5) such that at the individual level, the effect size is considered acceptable.

Generall speaking, the majority of the proposed correlations in the theoretical model seem to be confirmed in the estimated model, such that the mediating effect

Table 3Descriptive Statistics and Correlations between Variables (N = 193)

Mean SD (1) LR (2) Ol (3) CR (4) Oq (5) RA (6) C (7) CE (8) D (9) PF(1) LR 7.69 3.64(2) Ol 39.88 13.30 .32**(3) CR 44.5 14.83 .45** .47**(4) Oq 13.96 5.45 .26** -.02 .36**(5) RA 17.94 6.61 .28** .25** .55** .44**(6) C 34.52 6.09 -.17* -.53** -.47** -.24** -.42**(7) EE 18.38 10.03 .24** .58** .47** .22** .32** -.47**(8) D 5.06 4.62 .08 .23** .27** .19** .16* -.37** .41**(9) PF 36.83 7.23 -.02 -.20** -.16* -.21** -.21** .35** -.32** -.34**(10) SS 12.77 6.91 .17* .31** .32** .15* .18** -.26** .59** .15* -.28**** p < .01 * p < .05 (1) Lack of resources=LR; (2) Overload=Ol; (3) Conflict of role=CR; (4) Overqualification=Oq; (5) Role ambiguity=RA; (6) Competence=C; (7) Emotional exhaustion=EE; (8) Depersonalization=D; (9) Personal fulfillment=PF; (10) Stress symptoms=SS.

Table 4Goodness of Fit Measures for the Structural Model

Absolute Fit Measures Incremental Fit Measures

Goodness of fit measures MFF Ji-squared Ji-squared RMSEA NFI NNFI CFI IFI

PDIValues Collected

35.26 (p = .41; df = 34)

34.48 (p = .45; df = 34)

.0086 (p = .92; df = 34)

.96 1 1 1

Recommended values < .08 >.90 > .90 Approx. 1 Approx. 1

Table 5. Proportion of Explained Variance for the Dependent Variables in the Structural Measurement Model

Variables CompetenceEmotional Exhaustion

DepersonalizationPersonal

FulfillmentStress

Symptoms

Explained Variance 38% 42% 23% 16% 35%

AVARGUES NAVARRO, BORDA MAS, AND LÓPEZ JIMÉNEZ292

of perceived personal competence on the appearance of burnout syndrome can be confirmed (see Figure 2). Nevertheless, as we commented earlier, some direct correlations were eliminated that were not found to be of significance (p ≥ .05; -2 ≤ t ≤ + 2). As such, the direct effect of perceived personal competence on emotional exhaustion has not been confirmed, nor have the effets of conflict of role or overqualification on competence. Lack of resources and the direct effect of role ambiguity on personal fulfillment and emotional exhaustion were also eliminated. In addition, the estimated model includes a new correlation not hypothesized on in the theoretical model between the variable stress symptoms and personal fulfillment (see Figure 2).

Furthermore, perceived personal competence is significantly, negatively correlated with depersonalization and is positively correlated with personal fulfillment. It is also true that while emotional exhaustion positively influences depersonalization, personal fulfillment has a negative impact on depersonalization. Last, we would like to highlight the positive influence of emotional exhaustion on the onset of stress symptoms. The most significant direct

effects are those of overload on emotional exhaustion (t = 7.82) and on perceived personal competence (t = -7.77), and the direct effect of role ambiguity on competence (t = -5.06). Also note the effect of emotional exhaustion on stress symptoms (t = 9.99) and the effect of perceived personal competence on personal fulfillment (t = 4.28).

In light of the description of the direct effects presented in the estimated model (see Figure 2), and the indirect effects presented in Table 6, it may be said that in this study, the mediating effect of perceived personal competence has been confirmed. Specifically, the estimated model confirms this mediating effect on the experience of feelings of fulfillment and of depersonalization. Along those lines, feelings of perceived personal competence mediate the influence of the overload factor and the effect of the role ambiguity factor on the dimensions of burnout syndrome. As for the levels of depersonalization taking place, the mediating effect of the competence variable is two-fold. First, it seems to be the only variable to mediate the effect of the factors mentioned above and second, it mediates those factors together with the personal fulfillment variable (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. Structural model of perceived personal competence’s mediating effect on the appearance of burnout syndrome within the context of occupational stress

**p <.01; *p <.05

OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AMONG UNIVERSITY PROFESSORS 293

As for the statistical significance of the indirect effects, note that except for the indirect effect of conflict of role on personal fulfillment (t = -1.91), the values obtained are all significant (see Table 6). It is also worth noting that like the direct effects, the indirect effect of occupational overload on stress symptoms presents with the highest t values (t = 6.16). Also observe the t value obtained for the effect of role ambiguity on personal fulfillment (t = -3.27) (see Table 6).

In view of this model (see Figure 2), we may deduce that the correlation between stress produced by occupational factors and the emotional exhaustion dimension is not mediated by feelings of competence, as was hypothesized in the base, theoretical model (see Figure 1). On the other hand, the mediating effect of perceived personal competence and emotional exhaustion on personal fulfillment and depersonalization were, in fact, confirmed. As one might have expected, the emotional exhaustion dimension mediates the effects of the factors overload, conflict of role and over qualification on depersonalization, personal fulfillment and stress symptoms (see Figure 2).

Discussion

In the adjusted model, perceived personal competence acts as a mediator of the effects of overload and role ambiguity, which agrees with the results of previous research studies (Cifre, Llorens & Salanova, 2003; Dorman, 2003; Gil-Monte & Peiró, 1999; Gil-Monte et al., 1998; Grau et al., 2004; Llorens, García-Renedo & Salanova, 2005; Salanova, Cifre et al., 2005; Salanova, Martínez et al., 2005). Salanova, Cifre et al. (2005), for example, found that among university professors and students, stressful organizational factors not only directly influence the development of the dimensions of burnout syndrome, but they do so by means of perceived personal competence, which exercised a negative, or inhibitory effect, on the appearance of the syndrome.

Also, factors such as working conditions (assessed in the present study) may weaken one’s feelings of personal competence. This fact, which Harrison (1983) elucidated previously in his model of social competence, has been supported by the findings of more recent research (Grau

et al., 2004; Llorens et al., 2005; Salanova, Cifre et al., 2005; Salanova, Martínez et al., 2005), and by the results of this study as well. For both occupational overload and ambiguity, in addition to being an obstacle to adequately performing one’s job, these conditions are hard to change in the context of a university. The transformations that are occurring as a consequence of the European Space for Higher Education, and legislative changes, have broadly affected the role of the instructor. For example, the creation of new job responsibilities and titles, changing salaries and a different system for employees to be promoted are not always clearly defined. Other studies have demonstrated that people’s beliefs about personal competence are useful when it comes to coping with a stressful situation that is potentially within one’s control. Otherwise, the positive impact of those beliefs on one’s wellbeing could be debilitated or could even become harmful (Helgeson, 1992; Fernández-Castro et al., 1999). On another note, it is not surprising that the only factors found to negatively affect the competence variable were conditions of overload and role ambiguity. Conflict of role and over qualification, on the other hand, are associated, in this study and in others, primarily with the development of emotional responses (Boada, Diego & Argulló, 2004; Byrne, 1994; Gil-Monte & Peiró, 1999; González-Camino, Sáinz, Osca & Martínez, 2003; Lee & Ashforth, 1996; Gil-Monte et al., 1998; Salanova, Martínez et al. 2005).

Similar to the findings of the present study, many other studies have reported no significant effect of perceived personal competence on the emotional exhaustion dimension (e.g. Dorman, 2003; Gil-Monte, 2005; Gil-Monte et al., 1998). Nevertheless, other studies have reported that effect as significant, but at a very low level (Gil-Monte & Peiró, 1999; Grau et al., 2004; Lee & Ashfoth, 1996; Llorens et al., 2005; Salanova, Cifre et al., 2005; Salanova, Martínez et al., 2005). Similarly, speaking to the depersonalization dimension, the data reported follows the same pattern. In other words, in some studies, though not in the present one, no significant, direct effects were found (Gil-Monte et al., 1998), while in others they were (Cherniss, 1993; Cifre et al., 2003; Grau et al., 2004; Lee & Ashfoth, 1996; Llorens et al., 2005; Salanova, Martínez et al., 2005; Thompson, Page & Cooper, 1993). It is certain that the data provided for those two

Table 6Matrix of Indirect, Total, Standardized Effects of the Exogenous Variables on the Endogenous Variables

Overload Conflict of role Overqualification Role Ambiguity

Depersonalization .26 ** .05* .05* .07**Personal fulfillment .20** .02 .02* .09**Stress symptoms .30 ** .11** .10* -.-

** p <.01,* p <.05

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dimensions are inconclusive. However, if in the present study, perceived personal competence influences one’s level of depersonalization, but not emotional exhaustion, this would make sense from the point of view that depersonalization is an emotionally-based, maladaptive coping strategy (emotional withdrawal). The data found in other studies has demonstrated the correlation between perceived personal competence and coping styles. In this way, it may be concluded that perceived personal competence is positively associated with the use of the task-resolution-based style of coping, and is negatively associated with the style of coping that involves an inadequate handling of one’s emotions (Rueda et al., 2003). To put it another way, one who feels competent may not avoid experiencing stress and even emotional exhaustion, but it will nevertheless facilitate the ability to cope adaptively with that stress, as opposed to burning out.

The majority of authors seem to agree that, as the present study’s estimated model describes, perceived personal competence positively influences the development of feelings of personal fulfillment at work, highlighting this dimension’s cognitive-aptitudinal nature (Dorman, 2003; Gil-Monte, 2005; Gil-Monte & Peiró, 1999; Lee & Ashfoth, 1996). In other words, perceiving oneself as having a high level of personal competence will positively impact his or her wellbeing and emotional adjustment, which has been demonstrated through scientific research (e.g., Rueda et al., 2003; Sanz & Villamarín, 1996; Smith & Wallston, 1992). Thus, it is important to develop preventative measures, ways of promoting the development of this type of belief. As we mentioned earlier, in this population, feelings of competence stifle the negative impact of stress from overload and role ambiguity on feelings of personal fulfillment and inhibit depersonalization.

Let us now shift the focus of this discussion to the role played by the emotional exhaustion dimension in the estimated model. It can be said that this variable acts as a protagonist, it being the only dimension of burnout syndrome affected directly by stress-generating working conditions. Furthermore, in the estimated model, it seems to be the only mediating variable of the effects of overload, conflict of role and over qualification on the onset of stress symptoms. As we previously touched on, it also participates in the mediating effects that those factors exercise over the other two dimensions of the syndrome, personal fulfillment and depersonalization. When it comes to conflict of role and over qualification, it is the only mediating factor.

These findings fall in line with the results of many other research studies on burnout, confirming the direct influence of occupational overload on one’s level of emotional exhaustion (e.g. Cifre et al., 2003; Cooper & Kelly, 1993; Dorman, 2003; Gil-Monte & Peiró, 1999; Salanova, Cifre et al., 2005), as well as conflict of role

on emotional exhaustion (Byrne, 1994; Lee & Ashforth, 1996; Gil-Monte et al., 1998; Gil-Monte & Peiró, 1999; Salanova, Martínez et al. 2005). That is to say, occupational overload and conflict of role preferentially trigger an emotional response (which, remember, indicated the belief that one has greater abilities than the job requires and therefore that the job’s tasks are boring and monotonous, not being able to put into practice one’s other abilities). The data collected also coincides with the findings of research that has considered as a stressor the very content of one’s work, such as the variety of abilities used, what the tasks are, and the perceived significance of the work, among others (e.g., Boada et al, 2004; González-Camino et al., 2003; González, Ripoll, Caballer, Ferreres, Peiró & Gil, 1998; Zurriaga, González, Ripoll & Caballer, 1998). On the other hand, not having found direct effects of role ambiguity on emotional exhaustion could be explained by the data reported by other authors, which allows one to conclude that role ambiguity generates, above all, cognitive-aptitudinal responses (Gil-Monte et al. 1998; Schwab & Iwanicki, 1982).

Last, the fact that emotional exhaustion appears to be the only variable that directly affects one’s level of stress symptoms, in effect increasing them, supports the results of other studies on this subject that this dimension is the only one directly responsible for the appearance of stress symptoms (e.g. Boada et al., 2004; Gil-Monte et al., 1998; Gil-Monte & Peiró, 1999). Furthermore, the finding that occupational overload is the factor with the most significant effect was also reported in several other studies in this are.

To conclude, this study has confirmed the important mediating role of perceived personal competence on the onset of feelings of personal fulfillment and depersonalization. Also, said feelings mediate the effects of occupational overload and role ambiguity which, if you recall, presented as the most significant. It has also been confirmed that while perceived personal competence appears to diminish or inhibit the negative effect of stressful occupational factors, the emotional exhaustion dimension facilitates those stress effects.

Keeping in mind all that has been revealed, and with an eye to intervention, any program of intervention should address both organizational and personal spheres. First and foremost, prioritize any actions that could favor working conditions that reduce the production of stress, primarily stress brought on by occupational overload and role ambiguity. Second, techniques should be applied to control not only cognitive, but also physiological responses to stress.

In closing, let us highlight possible limitations to the scope of the present study: a) the random sampling procedure employed. The number of participants was only controlled in terms of working sector, campus and

OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AMONG UNIVERSITY PROFESSORS 295

sex (proportional fixing) b) the exclusive use of self-report measures and c) the omission of other personality variables such as coping style and feeling efficient that could have created a greater number of correlations.

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Received February 17, 2009Revision received June 16, 2009

Accepted September 21, 2009