reexamination of scarp development along niagara ... · the niagara escarpment is generally viewed...
TRANSCRIPT
Reexamination of Scarp Development along the Niagara Escarpment, Ontario, Canada
David W. Hintz (B.A., Wilfrid Laurier University, 1995)
THESIS Submitted to the Department of Geography
and Environmental Studies in partial fulfdment of the requuements for the Master of
Environmental Studies degree Wilfrid Laurier University
1997
ODavid W. Hintz 1997
National Library Bibliothèque nationale du Canada
Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographie Services services bibliographiques
395 Wellington Street 395, nie Wellington ûttawa ON KfA ON4 Ottawa ON K I A ON4 Canada Canada
The author has granted a non- exclusive licence allowing the National Library of Canada to reproduce, loan, distribute or sell copies of this thesis in microform, paper or electronic formats.
The author retains ownership of the copyright in this thesis. Neither the thesis nor substantial extracts ~ o m it may be printed or othenvise reproduced without the author's permission.
L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive permettant à la Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou vendre des copies de cette thèse sous la fome de microfiche/m de reproduction sur papier ou s u foxmat électronique.
L'auteur conserve la propriété du droit d'auteur qui protège cette thése. Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés ou autrement reproduits sans son autorisation.
The Niagara Escarpment is generally viewed as a relict landfonn which shows ancient structural feaîures and the effects of glaciation. Since it was realized that the Escarpment was not a huit, but instead a feature of erosional origin, little interest has been paid to development of the steep cWed section of the Niagara Escarpment.
This research project has several objectives. The fkst is an examination of the relationship between the morphology of the Escarpment and its geological units. This will include anaiysis of the structure and lithology of each and the geochemistry, especiaiiy, of the Queenston Formation.
Associated with the examination of the morphology and the IithoIogy is a detailed analysis of dope components that are invoIved in, or influence mass movements on, the Nagara Escarpment. This analysis centers around the progressively deepening fractures and the detached blocks of the cap rock Data- gathering methods included fiacture surveys, cross sections, and an exarnination of the bedding.
A Wild 'Total Station' was used to preciseiy map the cliffed zone of the escarpment, since available maps are insui3cient for any detailed d y s i s . In addition to the 'Total Station', the simpler method of tape and cornpass traverses was used to add detail to regions of hnited accessibility.
The process of mapping the cWed zone of the Escarpment provided a solid basis for constructing a repeatable, measurable data array that has been used to record large scaie mass movements.
The research questions the validity of using the so-called 'homoclinal shiftuig' model to interpret development dong the Niagara Escarpment. It was shown that undercutting by strearn and spring sapping are absent from or rernote at the study sites.
Finaily, this work lends support to a new scarp model for the Escarpment proposed by Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz (1995).
Acknowledgments
1 would like to begin by thanking Dr. Ken Hewitt for his guidance and insights in this research. 1 would also like to thank him for a bief interruption in this work for a trip to the Karakoram, Pakistan. Thank-you to cornmittee member Dr. Houston Saunderson, and readers Dr. Mary-Louise Byme and Dr. Gordon Young for theu assistance and suggestions.
Technical support for both field and Iaboratory work was generously provided by Alex MacLean. Field assistance fiom Cam Chadwick, Andrew Gould, Mark Carpenter and Kirsty Dickson was greatly appreciatd.
Sanity was maintained with help fiom Kirsty Dickson, Shawn Good (Quebec), Steve Ferguson (Fishing) and Mark Carpenter (Ice Climbing).
Findy, 1 would like to thank my parents for their interest and support. Without their encouragement 1 would not have gotten this f a . Thanks.
Table of Contents
Absitract ......................................................................................... i .. Acknowledgrnents .................................. .... ............................................ u ... Table of Contents ................................................................................. UI
................................................... List of Figures .. ...................... iv List of Tables ........................................................................................ vii
Chapter 1 .
Chapter 2 .
Chapter 3 .
Chapter 4 .
IN'IRODUCTION ........................................ 1.1 Staternent of the Problem 1
1.2 Objectives of the Study ..................... .... .............. 1 ................... 1.3 Location of Study Area .. ................... 3
1.4 Research on Mass Movements ................................ 5
INTRODUCTION TO THE NIAGARA ESCARPMENT 2.1 Introduction .......................................................... 8
...................... ....... 2.2 The Niagara Escarpment ..... 8 2.3 Bedrock ûeology ......................~........~.~.....~............ 13 2.4 Previous Work on the Niagara Escarpment ............. 19
RESEARCH METHODS 3.1 Introduction ......................................................... 24
..................................................... 3.2 Field Techniques 25 3.2.1 Total Station Surveying ......................... .... 25
................... .................. 3 .2.2 Fracture Map ... 32 3 .2.3 Cross Sections of Blocks ........................... 33
........................................ 3 .2.4 Bedding Planes 33 3 .2.5 Fracture Survey ..................... .... ........... 3 4 3.2.6 Aerial Photos ..................................... 35
............................................ 3.3 Laboratory Techniques 35 3.3.1 Thin Sections ...................................... . . 37
.... .............................. 3.3.2 X-ray DifEaction .. 37
ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 4.1 Introduction ......................................................... 3 9
............................. 4.2 Observed Features at Study Sites 39 4.3 BaseMaps ............................................................... 4 9 4.4 Data and Test Arrays ...................... ...... ........... 54 4.5 Fracture Map .................................................... 63
........................................ 4.6 Cross Sections of Blocks 63 ................ 4.7 Bedding Planes .................................... .... 69
..................................................... 4.8 Fracture Survey 77 4.9 Thin Sections ......................................................... 82 . ................*............................................ 4 IO Mineraiogy 84
4.11 Behaviour .............................................................. 88
Chapter 5 . SuMh.IARY AND DISCUSSION ................................................ 5.1 Sumrnaiy of Results 90
...................................... 5.2 Scarp Development Mode1 92 5 -3 Limitations of the Study .......................................... 95 5.4 Further Research .................................................... 95
.................................................. 5.5 Future in Question? 96
Appendix A Appendix B .
Appendix C .
Appendix E .
Appendix F .
.......... Data Set &om the Total Station Base Map Survey Data Set f?om the Data Arrays ........................................
Data Set for the Test Array .............................................
B edding Plane Study Sketches
Data Set from the Fracture Survey ..................................
X-ray Difkaction Results f?om Brockhouse Institute for Materiais Research ...................................................
References ...........................................................................................
List of Fimrres
Fig . 1.1 Fig . 2.1 Fig . 2.2 Fig . 2.3 Fig . 3.1
Fig . 3.2
Fig . 3.3
Fig . 3.4
Fig- 3.5 Fig . 4.1 Fig . 4.2
Fig . 4.3 Fig . 4.4 Fig . 4.5
Fig . 4.6 Fig . 4.7
Fig . 4.8
Fig . 4.9
Fig . 4.10
Fig . 4.1 1 Fig . 4.12 Fig . 4.13 Fig . 4.14 Fig . 4.15
Fig . 4.16
Fig . 4.17 Fig . 4.18 Fig . 4.19
Location of study sites ............................. .. .............................. Location of Niagara Escarpment within Southern Ontario ........... Model of 'homoclinal shifting' ................................................... SIope profde showing the geologic ~n i t s found at the study sites .. Contour map of the House site showing the distribution of survey points ............................................................................... Contour map of the Quarry site showhg the distribution of survey points .................... ....... ........................................... Contour map of the Badtop site showing the distribution of s w e y points .................... ... ................................................. Contour map of the Badlands site showing the distribution of survey points .................... ....... ............................................. Diagram showing shape of data and test arrays ........................... Slope prome showing the dope components ............................... Example of the "near-scarp7 zone with exposed carbonate bedrock of the Quarry site ........................... ........ ................... Surface flow of rain water during a summer thunder storm .......... Wmter view ofthe 'crevice caves' at the House site .................... 'Secondary scarp7 cliffface in thinly bedded carbonate bedrock at the Badtop site ........................................................... 'Perched footslope7 at Badtop/Badiands site ................................ Generai view of the Badlands looking up slope ........................ ....
Contour rnap of the surface topography of the near-scarp sub-zone at the House site ........................................................... Contour map of the surface topography of the near-scarp sub-zone at the Quarry site ......................................................... Contour rnap of the surface topography of the near-scarp sub-zone at the Badtop site ....................................................... Contour map of the surface topography of the Badlands site ....... Direction of movement, House site ............................................ Direction of movement, Quarry site ......................................... Direction of movement, Badtop site .......................................... Fracture map showing the intersection of major joints to create detached blocks at the House site ...................................... Fracture map showing the intersection of major joints to create detached blocks at the Badtop site .................................... Cross section of detached biocks at the House site ................... ... Cross section of detached bIocks at the Quany site ..................... Cross section of detached blocks at the Badtop site .....................
Fig . 4.20 Fig . 4.21 Fig . 4.22
Fig . 4.23 Fig . 4.24
Fig . 4.25 Fig . 4.26
Fig . 4.27
Fig . 4.28
Fig . 5.1
.................. Location Hî ffom the main fracture at the House site .......... Location H3 shows tilting and topphg of detached blocks
Location Q 1 showing typicaI bedding found in large ........................................................... fkactures at the Quarry site
........... Location 43 shows an overhanging fice at the Quarry site Location B2 illustrates secondary fractures cutting through the bedding ..................................................................................
......... Location B3 is an example of a detached bIock tilting back Rose diagram showing the fracture angles fond at the House site .................................................................................... Rose diagram showing the fracture angles found at the Quany site ....................... ..,. ................................................. Rose diagram showing the eacture angles found at the Badtop site ................................................................................. Mode1 of dope fdure of N~agara Escarpment ..............................
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Generaiized exposed stratigraphie sections of the Niagara .............................................................................. Escarpment 15
Table 3.1 Surnrnary of sarnples coiiected for thin section and X-ray diffkaction analysis .................................................................... 36
Table 4.1 DEerences in the test array .................... .. ............................ 55 Table 4.2 Results fiom the House site data array ................................. ..... . 56 Table 4.3 Results from the Quarry site data array ................................. 59 Table 4.4 Results Çom the Badtop site data array ...................................... 62 Table 4.5 Summary of minerals found in clay and shale smples
at the Badlands and Badtop sites ............................................. 85
Cha~ter 1 Introduction
1.1 Statement of the Problem - AU too often in the academic world we see what we are told to see and not
what is really there. We stop questioning things that we thuik we understand. We
must never stop questioning the so called truths and always be ready to accept new
interpretations of the world around us. This is attested to by Our acceptance of the
development of the Escarpment.
The Escarpment is generdy viewed as a relia feature that shows
ancient structural features and the effect of glaciation. Since it was realized that the
Escarpment was not a fault, but instead a feature of erosional ongin, little interest
has been paid to development of the steep cliffed section of N~agara Escarpment.
1.2 Objectives of the Studv - A search of the literature will show that the prevailing view is that scarp
development dong the Escarpment ended with the last glacial penod and
any activity during the Holocene capable of generating this landform is not
considered.
This research project has several objectives. The nrst is an examination of
the relationship between the morphology of the Escarpment and its geological
units. This will include analysis of the structure and lithology of each and the
geochemistry, especially, that of the Queenston Formation.
Associated with the examination of the morphology and the iithology is a
detailed anaiysis of slope components that are Uivolved in, or influence mass
movements on the IVmgara Escarpment. This analysis will center around the
progressively deepening fi-actures and the detached blocks of the cap rock Data
gathering methods included fiacture surveys, cross sections, and an examination of
the beddig.
Much of the field work was completed using the highiy accurate 'Total
Station'. It was used to precisely map the cWed zone of the escarpment, suice
available maps are insufficient for any detailed analysis. In addition to the 'Total
Station', the simpler method of tape and compass traverses was used to add detail
to regions of limited accessibility.
The process of mapping the cWed zone of the Escarpment provided a solid
basis for constructing a repeiitable measurable data array that can be used to record
large scaie mass movements. This was done for aii three sites and will idente any
jostiing of the detached blocks.
The research wili question the validity of using the 'homoclinai shifhg'
model, explained later, to interpret development dong the Niagara Escarpment. It
wiU be shown that undercutting by Stream and spring sapping are absent at the
study sites. The work lends support to a new scarp model for the Niagara
Escarpment proposed by Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz (1995).
While this study is not broad enough to conclusively deterrnine the
processes of scarp development, it is hoped that it will prompt others to begin a
new effort to reinterpret scarp development dong the Nagara Escarpment.
1.3 Location of Studv Area - Research was canied out during the sumrners of 1995, 1996 and 1997 at
three contrasting, but nearby, sites in the Pretty River-Blue Mountain area. The
sites were chosen partly due to ease of access, but also for the extensive cap rock
Eracturing and block glide development. It is believed that the three sites are key to
understanding development dong the Niagara Escarpment. They are east facing
slopes but aii have slightly different orientations. They ail have a complete dope
profile, not compiicated by drowning as dong Georgian Bay, or partiaiiy buried
sections and outliers to the south. It seems reasonable that, if a dope mode1 works
here, then it should work aithough possibly at different rates, elsewhere on the
Escarpment.
The fïrst site is located just south of Singhampton Caves near Nottawasaga
Lookout Nature Preserve. It can be found on NTS reference sheet 4 1 A/8. This
site is called the "House Site" due to its close proximity to several seasonal homes
(Figure 1.1).
The second site is found dong the Gilbraitar Sideroad where it passes over
Oder Bluff. It included a gullied area of Queenston shale that is known as the
'Sadlands". The site bas been narned the '%adtop" because of its location above
the Badands. It too c m be found on NTS reference sheet 4 1 N8 (Figure 1.1).
The third and hi site is aIso on Oder B l e but is located close to Petun
Conservation Area in the headwaters of BIack Ash Creek. Found on NTS
reference sheet 41 A&, it is caiied the "Quamy Site" because an area of the
escarpment to the west has been quarried some t h e in the past (Figure 1.1).
1.4 Research on Mass Movements - Work has been done in other locations around the world, where rigid,
massive rock including carbonates overlies softer mata, often shaies and other clay
rich rocks. Studies of direct relevance to this work have been conducted in
Europe, the United States and New Zealand.
Zaruba and Mencl (1 969) examined dope movements caused by the
squeezing out of softer rock. BIock sIides occur in areas where soft clay beds
underlie jointed solid rocks. The blocks sIowly sink, squeezing out soR substratum
and move downslope. This process occurs as plastic deformation of rock dong a
s\ srem of partial slide surfaces. The differential shiRs do not connect to form a
uniform slide surface, and this gives the movement the character of plastic
deformation. The resulting movernent is slow and oRen classed as creep. This
form of movement is only perceivable over very long periods of tirne. As a rule the
lower part of the block moves outward, while the upper sufice inclines into the
Pretty River Valley
Singhqton Caves \
Fiaure 1.1 Location of Study Sites: '?3ouseY' Site near, Singhampton Cave "BBadldsn- "Badtop" Site, Osler BlufF, "Quarry" Site, Black Ash Creek. (Source: Bruce Trail Guide, Map 23)
surfàce. Zaruba and Mencl suggested that this is a widely ocçuning natural
process but is so slow that it often escapes attention.
Long-term gravitational deformation of rocks by mass rock creep has been
examuiecl by Chigira (1992). Field investigations were carrieci out at eleven
Iocalities that cover the areas of sedimentary, metamorphic, plutonic and volcanic
rock on the Island of Honshu in Japan (Chigira, 1992). It was found that
subsurface rocks are deformed gravitationally by mass rock creep to form
deformational structures simiIar to those caussd by tectonism. Arnong the various
fauits and fractures associated with m a s rock creep, shear f i a a r e s are the main
deformational structures formed in massive rock. Field studies suggest that the
shear zone grades downward into a non-fiactured or weakly fiactured rock.
Gravitational rock creep proceeds in different ways depending on different
Lithologies. In some locations creep is continuous, others incremental, whiie others
need a triggering agent such as an earthquake. Radbruch-Hall(1979) has looked at
the various circumstances in which gravitational creep of rock masses can occur.
Of particular importance for this work is the "valIey-ward squeezing out of weak
ductile rocks overlain by or interbedded with more rigid rocks, causing tensional
kacturing and outward movernent of more rigid rocks" @adbruch-Hall, 1979).
Aiso important is the "distortion and buckling of dipping interbedded strong and
weak rocks or by creeping of rigid rock over soft rocks without buckling"
(R.adbr~~h-Hall, 1979).
Landscapes are found in England where gently dipping strata are associated
with cliffs with bare faces and scree (Sweeting, 1970). The morphology of the
clifEs depend upon the lithology of limestone and the fiequency of jointing. Where
massively bedded Iimestone occurs, rectanguiar blocks 1 -2 m in length have
column-like appearance. Sweeting (1970) tooked at massively bedded areas and
found that movements are generaüy infiequent, but during the winter of 1947 many
blocks feii due to intense fiost action. Again in 1958 many failures occurred due to
6ost action. Sweeting (1970) believed that, whiIe still present, this process is
slower now than at the end of the last glaciai period.
The Niagara Escarpment is thought to have migrated to its present location
through the removaI of vast arnounts of material. Schmidt (1989) examined the
denudational efficiency of scarp retreat in the Colorado Plateau to determine if it is
suflïcient to explain the wide erosional gaps in the sedimentary cover. By
calculating the amount of retreat ffom the width of beheaded valleys of known age,
he determined that the rates of retreat are controiied by the thickness and resistance
of the cap rock.
By looking at, similar environments, around the world ideas can be drawn
that suggest that the Niagara Escarpment is not just a remnant feature in the
Ontario landscape but a continuously evolving landform.
Chapter 2 Introduction to the Niagara Escamment
2.1 Introduction - This chapter introduces the reader to the Niagara Escarpment. The
geomorphology and geology of this one of southern Ontario's moa striking
features will be outhed. In addition, Chapter 2 will summarize scientific research
on the dopes of the Magara Escarpment.
2.2 The Niagara Escamment - Tovell(1992) describes the Niagara Escarpment as a massive topographie
feature consisting of Ordovician and Silurian rocks that formed fiom sedirnents
deposited in a shallow warm sea between 445 and 420 million years ago. The
Escarpment is what is left of the eastem rim deposits of this ancient sea. This
landform results fiom erosion of various gently warped Palaeozoic formations
found in concentric belts with the strata dipping southwest towards the center of
the Michigan basin (Bolton, 1957). The fonnation can be traced in a giant
horseshoe fiom near Rochester, New York, (not exposed in this region), through
the Niagara Penninsula south of Lake Ontario to Hamilton, and north to Tobermory
on the Bruce Peninsula. It then disappears beneath the water of Lake Huron to
reappear on Manitoulin Island, across northem Michigan and down the West side of
Lake Michigan in to the State of Wisconsin (Tovelî, 1992) (Figure 2.1).
Nigara Escarpment
Lake Erie
Figure 2.1 Location of Niagara Escarpment within Southeni Ontario. (Source: adapteci fiom Toveii, 199 1, Introduction)
The Niagara Escarpment is associated with three main geologic features:
the Algonquin &ch, the AUegheny Basin and the Michigan Basin. Aii three
features involve sedimentary rocks and the ancient, underIying Precambrian rocks
(Toveil, 1992). The Algonquin Arch is a broad southwest-plunging anticline that
forrns the spine of southern Ontano (Tovell, 1992). The rocks on the southeast
flank of the Algonquin Arch slope into the Megheny Basin, while the rocks on the
northwest flank of the arch slope into the Michigan Basin (TovelI, 1992). Where
the Niagara Escarpment intersects the Algonquin Arcti, it reaches its highest
elevation at Blue Mountain, south of Collingwood (Tovell, 1992).
Spatialiy, the Escarpment morphology varies fkom steep faced landforms
with talus accumulation below, to a gentle ramped feature, and in areas a
completely buried landform. These ciifferences lead to a geomorphicaily complex
landform and one that is dif£icult to interpret.
One factor involved in the development of the distinctive morphology of the
Niagara Escarpment is variation in rock hardness. Since sorne rock formations of
the Escarpment are much more resistant to erosion than others, dserential
weathering takes place. As erosion has acted on the rock of the Escarpment,
irregular feaîures and a steep cliff have resulted. One such feature are Outliers
which can be found in many locations. The Milton Outlier c m be seen UnmediateIy
south of highway 40 1. There is still debate as to whether the Outliers were formed
s m d y by erosional forces or if tectonic activity has pIayed a part.
Retreat of the Escarpment has been attributed to the process of 'homociinal
shifting' (Toveii, 2992; Bird, 1972). The Escarpment is thought to have migrated
to its present location by undercutting and down dip migration by "subsequent",
strike oriented streams Figure 2.2). In this model, streams exploit different
erosional resistance's of strata, thereby undermining the base of the Escarpment.
As the underlying layers are removed, the Escarpment face moves down-dip and
c m increase in height (Figure 2.2). However, since there are no streams actuaiiy
undercutting the base of the Escarpment at any of the research sites, little
movement should be occming. If'homochal shifling were the process causing
the Escarprnent to retreat, it wodd be expected to occur especiaiiy at the study
areas since they are excellent exampIes of east facing scarp slopes, not complicated
by partial burial or drowning as dong Georgian Bay. If 'homoclind shilling' is not
the process acting on the Blue Mountain area, then it seems unlikely to explain CH
development on the Niagara Escarpment as a whole.
Much of the Niagara Escarpment, including the area evaluated by this study,
1s afTected by isostatic rebound. Studies suggest that the area is still rebounding to
the nonheast at a rate of 15 cd100 years (Tovell, 1992). The isolines tend to run
roughl y at right angles to the steep cWed face of the Escarprnent. While this
affects the landform, it is unclear how it could affect the features studied and is
probably too slow and would be masked by faster processes identified by this
research.
"ScarpIands and drainage patterns in dipping sedimentary rocks" as applied to the Niagara Escarpment. Subsequent streams are key to undercutting of the scarp and initiating scarp retreat (Source: adapted fiom Bird, 1972, p. 15 1)
Escarpment 'liue dip dope
Fimre 2.2 Formation of the Niagara Escarpment as suggested by ToveU. Over tirne the scarp erodes d o m dip and inmeases in height. (Source: adapted fiorn Toveii, 1992, p.83)
Another type of land form feature that occurs dong the Niagara Escarpment
is Karst. Karstic features occur in the dolomite caprock and include sink holes,
pitting and sub-surface caves. When water collects in holIows in rock, solution can
take place, particularly along bedding planes, joints and other lines of weakness.
Acceleration of this process cm occur because of decomposition of organic
material. Increases in the acidity of sudace and shallow ground water cm be
caused by decaying vegetative matter. This would have the effect of increasing the
rate of solution. It is possible that solution pIays a role in widening regional joints,
but, karst processes were not thought to significantly shape the features and like
isostatic rebound are too slow to impact ciiffdeveloprnent.
2.3 Bedrock Geolow - The characteristics of the various lithologic units that comprise the Magara
Escarpment are integral to its evolution. The dEerent erosional resistance's affect
the strength of the landform as a whole. The description of the various units
provides a perspective usefûl to geomorphology, but need not include lengthy
geologic interpretations found in other sources. Table 2.1 displays the spatial
variability of the Escarpment iithologies fiom the Niagara Peninsula, through the
study site near Blue Mountain and north along the Bruce Peninsula. Figure 2.3 is a
dope profile showing the geoiogical units found at the study sites and their location
relative to various features. The sequence moves upward through the Escarpment
lithologies of the study area
The Lindsav Formation generally outcrops beyond or at the base of the Niagara
Escarprnent and is not part of the Escarpment proper. It is gray, with thin to
medium-thin bedding, fïnely crystailine to sublithographic, very fossiliferous,
argtliaceous limestone (Telford, 1973). Shale partings are cornmon and up to 30
cm beds of medium to coarse crystailine coquinoid lirnestone and calcarenite are
present (Telford, 1973).
The Coiiingwood Member is found above the Lindsay Formation. Formaiiy
part of the Whiîby Formation, it is made up of thin, extremely organic nch
carbonate sediments (Toveii, 1992). The Coüingwood Member has been caiied a
shale but in fact is an impure limestone.
The Blue Mountain Formation consists of poorly exposed non-organic clay
shaies that represent an environmental shift fiom clear seas to more turbid sediment
laden waters (Tovell, 1992).
The Geornian Bav Formation consists of bIue-gray and green-gray, blocky
and fissile shales with numerous 10 cm to 30 cm beds of green-gray argdiaceous
limestone and siltstones (Telford, 1973). The unit is very fossiiXerous and is
believed to have a minimum thickness of about 120 meters near The Caves
southwest of Cohgwood (Telford, 1973). This formation is thought to represent
a rapid change in depositional environments of mud and silt in a shaiiow sea.
Evidence of waves and currents are found by the fiequent ripple marks (Tovel,
1992).
The Oueenston Formation is the youngest of the Ordovician rocks forming
part of the Niagara Escarpment. It consists of red shales with thin layers of
Table 2.1 Generalized Exposed Stratigraphic Sections of the Nqpra Escarpment, Outlines Formation, and Members for three locations dong the Escarpment. (Source: adapted from Toveil, 1991, p.43)
Guelph Fm 1 i Guelph Fm !
; LockportFm j Amabel Fm AmabelFm
i Niagara Blue Peninsula f Mountain -
!
1
Reynales Fm Fossil Hill Fm ; Fossii Hill Fm , --. i-. - - - . - ! - - - - - ---I
Bruce Peninsula
! I
GrimsbyFm , Grimsby Fm i GrimsùyFm ; - . . -- - -- - - - - -- -
Cabot Head Fm ; Cabot Head Fm j Cabot Head Fm f
- !
: Whirlpool Fm Manitoulin Fm and r Manitoulin Fm Whirlpool Fm i
i J
QueenstonFm ; Queenston Fm r Queenston Fm
t Georgian Bay Fm Georgian Bay Fm I
I
Blue Mountain Fm . f
1 Collingwood Mb i j
I
Lindsay Fm i I
siltstones. The red shaies are blocky, rnicaceous and arenaceous (Telford, 1973).
Green patches represent reduction zones that occur paralle1 to bedding planes
(TeKord, 1973). The shaie breaks down rapidly when exposed to the atmosphere
and results in a red, siippery clay (Toveli, 1992). This formation is thought to
result fiom an ancient coastal deltaic plah, with litt1e vegetation crossed by muddy
streams. The Queenston Formation is believed to have a decisive role in basal dope
development and overd scarp developrnent (Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz, 1995).
The Whirl~ooi Formation outcrops in the lower subsidiary scarp of the
Escarpment. It is gray-brown, medium-bedded, fine to medium grained
laminated, quartz sandstone (Telford, 1973). It is an unfossiliferous, resistant unit
that creates rninor terraces and waterfâils in stream vdeys and profiles. Fluvially
sculpted forms in this unit have been documented by Tinkler and Stenson (1992).
Common are ripple marks, cross bedding and large scale wave marks. This
formation weathers to thin beds and a bluEcolour. The Whirlpool Formation thins
northward, its northernrnost exposure occurring in a srnali stream on the northern
side of Oder Bluff (Telford, 1973).
The Manitoulin Formation is the cap rock of the subsidiary scarp below the
main face of the Niagara Escarpment. The outcrop is very prominent at the study
sites dong Osler Bluff. It is t h to medium bedded, blocky hght brown to gray,
6ne to medium crystalline, argillaceous dolomitic hes tone (Bolton, 1957). The
formation is sparingiy fossiliferous and weathers to bluff colour in 5 cm to 15 cm
beds (Telford, 1973). Within the study area the Whirlpool Formation and the
Manitoulin Formation overlap. This can be seen in Figure 2.2.
The Cabot Head Formation is red, green and bluish-gray shde interbedded
with thin beds of limestone (Tovell, 1992). The material weathers relatively easily
and rarely outcrops.
The Grimsbv Formation is a red shale conglomerate with massive red
sandstone interbeds (Toveil, 1992). The soft sedient is susceptible to extensive
weathering and erosion. The sediment is of deltaic ongin and is believed to have
formed in nvers traversing a delta (Toveli, 1992).
The Fossil Hill Formation is unifonn, thin and unevedy bedded tan-brown
dolomite (ToveU, 2992). It is medium crystalline and very fossilized, but where no
fossils are present the dolomite is more dense and more finely crystaiiine (Tellord,
1973).
The Amabel Formation forms the cap rock of the main Escarpment and
evposures are extensive. It is massive bedded, light gray to bluish gray, fine to
medium crystalline porous dolostone (Tellord, 1973). Fossils are present but not
promnent because of intense dolomitization. Vertical faces Vary in height fiom 1
mcter to 22 meters. Bolton (1957) and Liberty and Bolton (1971) divided the
.-bel Formation into several members but the study area has a relatively uniform
consistency.
2.4 Previous Work on the Niaeara Escarprnent - Considering the prominence of the Niagara Escarpment within the southern
Ontario landscape, one rnight expect it to have received a great deal of attention. A
detailed review of the geology has been completed by Tovell(1992). Topics
sumrnarized in the guide include physiographic features, bedrock geology, origin,
glaciation and ancient Iakes. Included in ToveU's work are field trips that locate
areas of geographical interest and importance. ToveiIYs work is the only attempt to
summarize the various geological components into one unifjing presentation, and
therefore represents the state of knowledge on the Nagara Escarpment at the time
of publishing. Of particuiar interest for this thesis is ToveiI's explmation of
Escarpment genesis. He suggests that undercutting of lower formations by streams
and nvers have gradudy dlowed the escarpment face to migrate and increase in
height. This process, know as "homoclinal shifting," is the process that maintains
the scarp profïie due to down-dip migration and undercutting by "subsequent"
strike-orientated Stream (Bird, 1 972). Believed to create escarpments in other
areas of the world, it has been generdy accepted as tme for the
Escarpment. It will be shown, however, the sites for this study exhibit no streams
or rivers that could accomplish such a process.
Chapman and Putnam (1966) in ï7ze Physiogrqhy of S o u t h Ontario
provide a good description of the Escarpment fkom the Niagara River to the tip of
the Bruce Peninsula and across to Manitoulin Island. They discussed the detached
blocks creating the deep fissures known as the crevice caves, but made no mention
of their formation.
Bolton (1 957) has contributed an exhaustive study of the Silunan
stratigraphy and paiaeontology of the Niagara Escarpment. He outlined the
identification and characteristics of the geologicd formations and the accompanying
members. Bolton's work was started in order to correct some correlations formally
proposed for the various Silurian formations in Ontario.
Glaciation has received some attention. Straw (1968) looked at the three
main phases of ice advance and recession within the Late Wisconsinan and a
general advance within the Eariy Wisconsinan and its infiuence in enlarging
reentrant d e y s dong the Niagara Escarpment. In fact Straw suggested "that the
re-entrants of the present Escarpment can be regarded as largely if not
whoily produced by ice erosion during the Wisconsin Glaciation" (Straw, 1968).
Research conducted by G r a s and Engeider (1991) in Western New York
and Southem Ontario found that late-forming FNE joints resuIted from response to
the low tensile stresses developed in bedrock adjacent to the retreating Niagara
Escarpment. They suggested that the joints and reentrants are neotectonic features.
With respect to slope processes, Milne and Moss (1995) examined
biophysicai change on the escarpment face, and identified three slope types. These
are the ciiffface, buried faces, and rounded dopes. Each was briefly descnbed and
characteristics listed. Associated with this has been work on the interaction of
geomorphoIogical processes and vegetation, and their relationship to slope stability
(Moss and Ndchg, 1980; Moss and Rosenfeld, 1978).
Lee (1978) has also dealt with cWstability, in a study that looked at long-
term stress relief of a cliffbehind a power station at Niagara Falls. The gradua1
release of strah energy fiom the rock mass has resulted in a progressive rnovernent
of the cl* and at the same tirne the development of vertical jointing behind the face
of the cliff Lee (1978) also believed that the vertical jointing and the horizontal
bedding contributed to the disintegration of the rock mass in and above the
Rochester Formation.
Straw (1966) looked at mass movements on the Niagara Escarpment near
Meaford. This work exaimed the large blocks of Middle Silurian dolomite that
have been subjected to rnass rnovernents which caused a widening of the fkactures
and displacernent of the blocks. The joints do not seern to have opened
simultaneously and appear to have widened since formation. S taw believed that
d u ~ g "penglacial conditions aitemathg fieeze and thaw pulverked the upper
layers of the shde and assisteci in the displacement of dolomite blocks (Straw,
1966). Straw found evidence of abrasion by ice, but refùted suggestions that the
blocks were disturbed by glaciation, since the direction of ice would have pressed
against the scarp and kept the joints cbsed.
Extreme rates of erosion have been found to occur on exposed Queenston
Shale outcrops (Tato, 1974; Deloges and Smith, 1995). Work has been done on
the Chinguacousy badlands near Inglewood, Ontaxio and has found that erosion has
resulted in an average surface lowering over the entire site of 2.8 cm a-' and
represents a specific yield of 49,500 t km-* a-' (Desloges and Smith, 1995). Vertical
degradation is up to an order of magnitude Iarger than other badland sites in North
Amenca and the specific yield is three orders of magnitude greater than yields
caicuiated for agriculturally modified drainage basins in southern Ontario (Desloges
and Smith, 1995).
There have also been investigations into the material properties of bedrock
found dong the Escarpment. These indude deformation and strength properties of
hestone (Lo and Hori, 1979), controls on shaie durability (Russell, 1982), and
fracture fiequency in Mudrocks (RusselI and Harrnan, 1985).
Lo and Hori (1979) performed uniaxial compression tests on sedirnentary
rocks 6om severai areas across Ontario, including dolomite and shales found dong
the Niagara Escarpment. They found that strong iimestone rocks fiom the
Lockport Formations are essentialiy isotropie in deformation behaviour but that
shaly lirnestone of the Gasport Member of the Lockport Formation is distinctly
anisotropic, meaning that the material does not deform the same in al1 directions.
They found that the strength and behaviour of anisotropic shales is such that failure
in the rock surroundiigs of underground openings is possible.
Slake durability tests, which are a combination of breakdown fiom exposure
to moisture and abrasion, have been conducted on Queenston Shale by Russell
(1982). It was shown that shale durability is controlled by mineralogy and, in the
case of Queenston Shaie, alrnost entirely by calcite cementation. When compared
to shales of the Georgian Bay Formation, Queenston Shaie generally had a lower
durability. This was partly due to inefficient cementing by calcite, but prirnady
because the microcracks in the Queenston Shale are more curved than in the
Georgian Bay Formation, the other formation exarnined.
in ali of this work very little has been done on the geornorphic development
through the Holocene and in terms of present-day geomorphic processes (Hewitt,
Saunderson and Hintz, 1995). In fact the iiterature suggests that the prevailing
view is that the Escarpment is a relict feature that records the ancient structural
features on the bedrock and, eariy post-glacial and penglaciai action.
Even though the Niagara Escarpment is situated close to a large percentage
of Canada's popuiation, its evolution seems to have been taken for granted. Until
now no one questioned the traditionaiiy held view of the geomorphology of this
landform. Kt is the goal of this thesis to present evidence that highlights the need
for new interpretations of the cliff development of the Niagara Escarpment.
Cha~ter 3 Research Methods
3.1 Introduction - There are a large number of methods available for the study of slopes. They
range widely in cost and complexity. The difliculty stems fiom choosing a method
that meets one's needs while being within one's means. For this study, severai
factors needed to be considered in order to arrive at an appropriate method, or in
this case, combination of methods. Three field seasons (1 995, 1996 and 1997)
were possible to gather data, aithough a longer tenn study is clearly desirable too.
A fùrther consideration was that available maps are not at a suf£ïcient scde
to show fiactures or even detached blocks. This necessitated the creation of
original base maps. However, the landscape being studied is a complex three
dimensionai entity that could not be mapped or even represented in a single
graphical method. For this reason important components of the landforrn were
looked at and portrayed in dserent ways. For example, the fiachires were
displayed in rose diagrams, with the dominant fiactures also being shown in an
overhead view map and also in cross section.
The other main consideration of methods was that some of the work was
done alone. While this was not aiways the case the methods were chosen with this
in mind. Fiaüy, hancial limits played a role in choosing research methods.
Luckily, the total station could be used without rental fees, but the cost of having
samples sent to extemal laboratones for thin section and clay mùieralogy anaiysis
restncted the numbers exarnined.
The remainder of this chapter will detail the field and laboratory techniques
used to assess slope movement or its potential dong the Niagara Escarpment.
Various surveying and mapping methods d l be outlined as weii as the creation of
data arrays for recording m a s movement, and the laboratory tests made on soils
fiom the study sites.
3.2 Field Tecbniaues - The goal of this study was to investigate a complex slope environment
dong the Niagara Escarpment and to reevaluate the interpretations made of it in the
past. In order to accomplish this a single field rnethod was not sac ien t . A range
of field methods was used, each directed at a particular aspect of scarp
development. Included were several mapping methods, using various instruments, a
significant use of photographs, and resurveyed data arrays for recording slope
movernent. Together these methods help to provide new insights into the nature of
the s m p slopes of the Niagara Escarpment.
3.2.1 Total Station Surveving - A significant amount of field work was completed during the surnmers of
1995 and 1996 with the Wdd-Leitz Total Station. The Total Station is an
electronic theodolite and distomat with an on-board data terminai. It can be very
effective for surveys that need precise detaii and large three diensional data sets.
The data can be downloaded fkom the REC modules as horizontal distances and
angies, and converted with TOPOS software to X, Y, and Z data points (appendix
A).
The fist task was to create a digital base map for the three chosen study
sites, plus the Badlands. The areas to be surveyed were well vegetated and difficult
to work on. Even surveying durhg the short wuidow of opportunity in the sprîng
before the leaves anived, was logisticdy demanding and tirne consuming. The first
survey was completed during the summer of 1995, but was of lirnited value due to
unexplained errors. A search of the literature suggested a possible explanation. The
method of data collection resembled track data and may have created oscillation
errors in the computational procedure as experienced by Carlson and Foley (1992).
For this reason a second survey was undertaken during the summer of 1996 with a
different sarnpiing method and much better results. In order for there to be a high
degree of confidence in the base maps, s&cient coverage of survey points needs to
made. This was accomplished for al1 three sites, plus the badlands. The location
and distribution of each survey point can be seen in figures 3.1, 3 -2, 3.3, and 3.4 .
The data was then imported into Surfer for Windows version 5 .O 1, a
software package for digital terrain mapping with a rnicrocomputer. It interpolates
irregularly spaced Y, and Z data ont0 a regularly spaced grid. While a user
defined grid can be specified, aii the maps were made using default grid settings.
These settings Vary automaticaiiy depending on the nature of the data set. There is
a range of interpolation methods that aiiow the creation of a surface that best suits
House Site
Figure 3.1 Contour Map of the Surface Topography of the Near-Scarp Sub-Zone at the House Site
Dots indicate location of s m e y points. CIifYface shown with bold line at the top of m
0.5 m contour interval.
Quarry Site
Figure 3.2 Contour Map of the Surface Topography of the Near-Scarp Sub-Zone at the Quaq Sire Dots indicate location of survey points. Cliffface shown with bold line at top of map. 1 m contour inteniai.
Badtop Site
Figure 3.3 Contour Map of the Surface Topography of the Near-Scarp Sub-Zone at the Badtop Site. Dots indicate location of survey points. ClEface shown with bold lhe at top of Map.
1 m contour intervd.
Badlands Site
I l l I I
Figure 3.4 Contour Map of the Surface topography of the Badlands Site. Dots indicate distribution of survey points. 1 m contour intervai
individual data sets. A comparative exercise between Krïging, Triangulation with
Linear Interpolation and the Multiquadnc Method was undertaken to determine the
most appropriate rnethod. The Triangulation with Lhear Interpolation method
was chosen because it needs three nodes to work fiom and therefore does not
extrapolate beyond known data points.
Using the Total Station as a measuring tool a data array was constructed
for each of the three study sites. The goal was to create an array of locations that
could be repeatedly measured in the hope of recording movement of the detached
blocks. Since the 'Total Station' records X, Y, and Z coordinates, movement in
three dimensions could be identified (appendix B). The data points were selected
dong two intersecting transects that form a 'T' shape (figure 3 -5). The vemcal
portion of the 'T' began back from the fiachires in an area that is covered by glacial
deposits and not thought to be actively movhg. The transect runs in a straight h e
through the Occupied site of the base map survey and terrninates at the ciiffface.
The second transect runs dong the cliffface and on to the detached blocks. Ail of
the data array points are permanently marked on the ground to enable repeat
surveys.
Shce no literature could be found to quantify the accuracy of using the
'Total Station' in such a way, a test array was made (appendix C). This was done
in order to discover the human errors associated with occupying and reoccupying a
survey location. The test m a y was also constructed in a 'T' shape for comparative
purposes. The Figure 3 -5 illustrates the array;
1 anm Som OCC Som 1 oom
Fimire 3 -5 Shape of Data and Test Arrays
First OCC#1 is occupied, and the backsight is shot. This is foliowed by
shots dong a 200m line (horizontal portion of the 'T'). The next step is to fore
shoot to the backsight, enabling the back site to become the new occupied site. To
finish, the 200m iine of sites are shot again. The test involves measuring the
differcnce between the two X, Y, and Z coordinates at each location.
3.2.2 Fracture Man - Due to the depth and narrow widths O f the hctures close to the ciifYedge
and the wmpletely detached blocks, the Total Station could not be used to survey
them, and another rnethod was developed. Since the major hctures are large
enough to climb down into, it was decided that a survey with tape and compass
would be suitable. This was cornpleted for the House and Badtop sites. It
provided a means to show the inûuence of dominant fractures on the creation of
large blocks. The terrain made the Quarry Site too difficult to survey with this
method.
3.2.3 Cross Sections of Blocks - In order to austrate the three dimensionai geometry of the fkactured and
detached blocks cross sections were made. A transect was made at each study site.
This was done in order to show the tilting and jostling of the blocks away from and
towards the Escarpment face. Each transect begins at the top of the scarp where
the blocks fist break away and form ngid units that glide towards the face and end
downslope at the taius deposits.
3.2.4 Beddine Planes - In an attempt to anaiyze the structurai characteristics of the Amabel cap
rock, photos of bedding planes were taken for each site. From vantage points in
the fractures promes of the bedding could be viewed and measured. Each area was
photographed, sketched, and bedding spacing and micro fractures measured
(appendii D). This was done to show the ciifFerences between sites, yet noting the
sirnilar overaii morphology and lithological conditions that are common to ad areas.
This method is aiso usefiil in examining the relationship between bedding thickness
and the resulting size of detached blocks.
3.2.5 Fracture Survev - The patterns of fractures at each site are very compiex and often de@
complete interpretation. For this survey aii fiactures and joints are included. No
distinction was made between regionai joints that are present in the caprock and
fiactures that have opened due to subarid processes. In order to get a clearer sense
of the fiequency and orientation of the eacnires a sample survey, or inventory was
undertaken. This invohed rneasuring the length, width, depth and orientation of a
large number of fractures at the three study sites (appendix E). This information
was then summarized and displayed in rose diagrams in order to ease recognition of
dominant fiacture angles, their orientation and frequency. This method brings
insights into the fiactures that would not otherwise be seen in the other methods.
For instance, the most fiequent fiacture angle is not usuaiiy the dominant, cliff
forming angle.
3.2.6 Aerial Photos - Stereo paired air photos were examined with the hope of seeing the larger
detached blocks. Unfortunately the vegetative cover was too thick to aiiow any
anaiysis. This is disappointing since the scde of the photos and the size of some of
the blocks would have been very valuable in getting a larger perspective on c i 8
development beyond the study sites. The truth is, there is a very s m d window of
opportunity for an air photo to be taken without snow or leafcover.
3.3 Laboratorv Techniaues -
Much of the information needed to interpret the Niagara Escarpment has to
come fiom materiai analysis and not just fiom maps. It is very important to
understand the types and behaviour of rock types at each of the three sites in order
to determine their role in slope activity, Before any Iaboratory work could be
started, samples needed to be coIlected in the field. Fiist, sarnples were collened
for thin section and X-ray e a c t i o n analysis. This was undertaken at the Basal
Zone of the Badlands, up through the lithologic units to the dolomitic cap rock.
The sarnple number and a description of the location are summarized in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Summary of Samples Collected for Thin Sections and X-Ray Diffraction Analysis.
No. BA-08-96
#1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11 #12
Description
In major gully, base of slope In major gully, up slow In major gully, up dope In badlands area, near main site Top of Badlands Top of Badlands Top of Badlands In gully of lower Badlands Outcrop of shale carbonate on road Outcrop of shale carbonate on road Highesl Outcrop of Queenston Shale
-~ - - -p -
Elevation
320m 341m 355m 421m 427m 427111 427m 4 17m 457m 457m - 450m -
#13 Top of main scarp 509m - Top of sccondary scarp 470ni
3.3.1 Thin Sections - Four carbonate cap rock samples were sent to Brockhouse Institute for
Materiais Research at McMaster University to make thul sections. Thin section
andysis was chosen because it is a cost effective method for determining grain size
and shape characteristics of a rock sample. It could not be used with shale samples,
for the grain size is too smaü to be seen under available microscopes. However,
this test is suflticient for anaiysis of the dolomite cap rock. The preparation of a
sample for thin section involves rnechanicdy grinding a rock fragment to a
standard thickness of 0.03 mm (0.00 12 inches), polishing it, mounting it
between two pieces of glass as a microscope slide (Blatx, 1992). At this thickness
most ninerals are transparent or translucent. Microscopes fitted with polarized
Light are used to view the slides. As light passes through crystals it is deflected or
rotated, and identification can be made since different minerais produce diflFerent
ddections (Montgomery, 1990). Thin sections are used for texturai, mineralogic
and diagenetic studies (Blatt, 1992).
Thin sections were used because of its relatively low cost per sarnple and
short tirne involved in anaiysis. This procedure wiii show the grain structure of a
given sample.
3.3.2 X-rav Diffraction - Nme samples were sent to Brockhouse Institute for Materials Research, at
McMaster University for X-ray =action analysis. X-ray diffraction is based on
the way crystals of a given substance d i i h c t X-rays. This test was chosen in order
to determine which minerals were present dong the escarpment and to be able to
predict possible behaviour of the Lithologic units. The preparation of a sample
involves powdering, mounting on a glas slide and then bombarding with X-rays
(Blatt, 1992). "The X-rays are m a c t e d by planes of atoms in the crystal
structure, and a trachg is produced on a paper chart." (Blatt, 1992) The chart is an
x-y plot of the dEaction angle versus the intensity of dS?acted radiation (appendix
F). It reveals the interplanar spacing which in turn shows the type of mineral, sinez
dinerent rninerals posses a distinct X-ray difnaction pattern.
X-ray diffraction analysis has a relatively high cost of $100 Cdn per sample.
Price not withstanding this method was chosen because minerai content can play an
important role in material behaviour and was therefore necessary for this study.
Cha~ter 4 Results and Anahsis
4.1 Introduction - This Chapter presents the factors which suggest that the Niagara
Escarpment is not the relict feature the literature c l h it to be. It wili begin vith a
description of the geological features observed at the three study sites. There
foliows a series of investigations centered around the cMed section of the Niagara
Escarpment. These show that there are many features that indicate
geornorpholo~cal activity in the recent past, and apparentIy a? the present time as
weii. The information is presented in several types of maps suggesting a
progressive fiacturing of the cap rock, and giving interpretation of the fracture
angles. Required is an investigation into the properties of the underlying shales and
their susceptibility to erosional forces.
4.2 Observed Feahires at Studv Sites - Several features were present at the three study sites that are relevant to the
geornorphology of the Escarpment. They can be defmed by location in; Upper,
311ddlc and Basal Zones. Figure 4.1 illustrates the the siope components typicdy
found at each site.
The Upper Zone has several distinct parts with a '%ue" dip slope at the
head that begins roughly one hundred meters back fiorn the escarpment face. It is
UPPER ZONE MIDDLE ZONE LOWER OR BASAL ZONE
Figure 4.1 Schematic drawing of components of the dope profile. This profile is typical of dopes in the study area. Beginning with the upper zone at the upper left, down to the Basal zone at the bottom hght. Location of photos
-
indicated by figure reference. (Not to scale)
"generally blanketed in giacial deposits, notably the Gibraltar and Banks Moraine
complexes" (Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz, 19%) (Figure 4.1).
Beyond this area is a "near-scarp" zone that is partially or wholly bare
exposing the carbonate bedrock. Here the cap rock has a slight dip towards the
clifFface and is separated into smaller units by weli-defined fissures in the bedrock.
(Figure 4.1 and 4.2) "The exposed carbonate is ofien modeled by solution
weathering forms, including "karrenY7 forms" (Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz,
1995). Within this area, drainage seerns to be entirely underground through the
fissures and water was observed flowing ffom the cliff face fiirther down-slope
(Figure 4.1 and 4.3).
As the face is approached the fissures develop into "crevice caves", which
tend to get wider and deeper close to the clifFface. They can be as much as several
meters apart. Some narrow at the base, while others widen. "They d e h e detached
blocks of intact carbonate bedrock, and reflect the geometry of joints, fiacturing
and patterns of movement" (Hewitt, Saunderson and Huitz, 1995, p.9) (Figure 4.1
and 4.4).
The main face of the scarp is sometimes weli defined, with a talus dope
below, but more often it has a zone of detached blocks that become more broken
down-slope. In either case it is usually massive carbonate of the Amabel
Formation. (Figure 4.1)
At the base of the upper zone is a talus slope dominated by carbonate debris
fiom rockf'âils, toppIed blocks, sometimes with "megaclasts less than 1 meter
F i w e 4.2 Example of the "near-scarp" zone with exposed carbonate bedrock of the Quarry site during the summer of 1995. The cap rock is tilting towards the cliffface and this zone has well defined fractures, as seen in the foreground. Location of photo can be seen in Figure 4.1.
S d c e flow of rain water d u ~ g a summer thunder storm. Water seen flowing over secondary scarp, Badtop site. Location can be seen on Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.4 Wmter view of the 'Crevice Caves' at the House site. Note the d i f f e ~ g angles and relative tilt of the wds, some tendhg to open out towards the top, others to close in. Tt is suggested that this is due to dierential sagging and tilting of the separated bedrock blocks. Location of photo iïsted on Figure 4.1.
diameter and as large as 20 meters" meWitt, Saunderson and Hintz, 1995) (Figure
4.1).
The Middle Zone is an area of secondary scarps some of which behave like
or at least, have a sirnilar morphology to the Upper Zone. "This is a cornplex siope
unit that may include cwfaces as high and continuous as the upper cm with
equaiiy long or longer debns and talus slopes below" (Hewitt, Saunderson and
Hui% 1995) (Figure 4.1 and 4.5). This zone occurs in the Clinton and Cataract
Groups and tends to disintegrate into minor blocks and rubble. As seen in Figure
4.3, springs are found ernerging above and beiow this cWed section, oRen
developing into watwfds during storrn events.
The Lower or Basal Zone is a significant, ofien the larges, part of the
overaii height of the Escarpment. It is mostly made up of Queenston Shale and cm
usualiy be divided into three sub-zones.
The upper section is a "perched footslope" and has a shelf a few tens to
hundreds of rneters wide, with flats or depressions (Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz,
1995). The depression may be swampy or even have ponds or a s m d stream
(Figure 4.1 and 4.6). At this same height some of the small strearns may flow
paralel to the Escarpment. This is an area of both deposition and removal of
eroded material.
DownsIope is the %asal Wash SIope" that descends quite steeply in most
areas (20-30 degrees) with a fa11 of one hundred meters plus (Hewitt, Saunderson
and Elïntz, 1995). This area generally begins with a convex upper zone that is weii
Fime 4.5 'Secondary Scarp' cliffface in thinly bedded carbonate bedrock at Badtop site. Note the srnall detached block that has moved down and away fiom the face. Wmter 1996. Location of the photo can be seen on Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.6 'Perched footslope' at BadtopBadlands site. Summer 1995. This area is usually swampy, and in some cases, such as at the BadtopJBadlands, a smaU pond is found. Location c m be seen on Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.7 Generd view of the Badlands site looking up dope. Note the extensive gullying caused by spring runoff and periodic storm events, despite considerable efforts at erosion control. Sumrner 1995. Location c m be seen on Figure 4.1.
drained and dry most of the year but may be @ed and have considerable runoff
during the spring snow melt and periodic storm events. "The main part of this
sIope is usualiy a long, straight mid-section with deeply incised strearn guilies
pardel to the dope" (Hewitt, Saunderson and Kintz, 1995) (Figure 4.1 and 4.7).
The final part of the dope is the "True Footslope", a concave lower section
with coIluMai deposits that join with stream vdeys or flood plains beyond (Hewitt,
Saunderson and Hintz, 1995).
4.3 Base Mam -
Base maps for each of the study sites were surveyed with the Total Station.
The area surveyed is of the Upper Zone, in particular the "near-scarp" zone and a
srnaIl area of the crevice caves. The sites have a great variation in the depths of the
fractures, ranging fiom about 10 centimeters, to as deep as 10 meters in the crevice
caves. In order to represent the shallower fiactures of the near scarp zone a
contour interval of -5 to 1 meter was used. This however meant that the deeper
fractures of the crevice caves could not be shown.
The base map of the House Site found in Figure 4.8, clearly shows the main
cliEfkce at the upper left corner as weIl as the large fiacture mnning roughly
paraiiel to the cm Other fracture systems can be seen south of the cliffand have
not devetoped to the depth of those near the cliffface. The rnap also clearly shows
the dip of the site towards the c w opposite to the regionai down dip of the
Niagara Escarpment.
House Site
Fipure 4.8 Contour Map of the Surface Topography of the Near-Scarp Sub-Zone at the House Siti
Cliff face indicated by bold line at the top of the map. 0.5 m contour interval. Figure 3.1 shows location of survey points.
Quarry Site
Figure 4.9 Contour Map of the Surface Topography of the Nesr-Scarp Sub-Zone at the Quarry Siti ClifFface indicated by bold line at the top of the map. 1 m contour interval. Figue 3.2 shows the location of survey points.
Badtop Site
Figrue 4.10 Contour Map of the Surface Topography of the Near-Scarp Sub-Zone at the Badtop Site.
Cliff face indicated by bold line at the top of the Map. 1 m contour Uitervai.
Figure 3.3 shows the Iocation of s w e y points. 52
Badlands Site
Figure 4.1 1 Contour Map of the Surface topography of the Badlands Site. Perched Footslope to the right and Basal Wash Slope to the left. 1 m contour interval. Figure 3.4 shows the location of survey points
The Ouarry Site base map, (Figure 4.9), shows a much more cornplex system of
fractures than did the house site. This site has a gradua1 dip towards the clifFface
found at the top of the map, and fairIy wefl developed hctures 10 meters back
fiom the c m but still have a progressive deepening doser to the cliffface.
The Badtop Site has an increasingly cornplex and deepening system of
fractures as one mars the cliffface at the top of the map (Figure 4.10). Like the
other sites the fractures get deeper closer to the c i 8 &ce.
In addition, a survey was made of a fourth Iocation beiow the badtop site
caiied the Badlands. Figure 4.11, shows the two main gullies running down dope.
This is an area of extreme erosion and sparse vegetation. Some of the smaiier
erosionai features unfortunately did not show up due to the contour intervai of 1
meter, but a smalier interval became to cIuttered with contour iines.
4.4 Data and Test Arravs - The a h was to use the accuracy of the Totai Station to record movement
of the detached blocks. Before we could assess the reliability of readings fiom the
data arrays, a test plot needed to be made and the accuracy of the equipment
measured. Not only was the accuracy of the equipment important, but as it turns
out, more importantly the errors in equipment set up and human induced errors are
the significant issues. In order to assess these errors the Total Station was set up
and seven points were measured. Then the Total Station was moved to the back
site and the same seven points were rneasured again. Table 4.1 shows the
difference between these two measurements.
Table 4.1 DSerences In The Test Array
It c m be seen from the figure, many of the measurements were exactly the
same and therefore had a dserence of O. This shows that the equipment and those
operating it cm be very accurate at repeating a survey. On the other hand #101
had a 0.235 m error in for the Z coordinate. Whiie the reason for this is not known,
it was probabIy movement of the pnsm by the person positioning the prism pole. If
nothing else, this shows that sizable errors cm occur with this method, and that
caution should be taken when interpreting the data array results. Generally there
are two errors that can occur. The fist involves the position of the total station
over the Occupied site. If this is not exactly the same position for each survey, a
standard error would occur equaily through the entire data set. Theoreticaiiy, this
could be identifieci and accounted for.
The second type of error involves the positioning of the prism. Slight errors
occur when the sunrey prism poIe is not is a perpendicular position. Since this wiii
vary with each measurement, this is random error and therefore can not be
completely accounted for.
The base measurements for the data arrays of a i l three sites were made
d u ~ g the summer of 1995. Each data point of the array was pennanently marked
on the ground in order to ensure accurate repeat surveys. During the summer of
1996 a repeat survey of the data arrays was made for ail three sites. A third survey
of the House site and the Quarry site was made during the spring of 1997. The
same procedure was used to repeat the survey as w u used for the original survey.
Once again the matching data points were compared to detennine any change in
location. The foiiowing table shows the results of this analysis for the House Site:
Table 4.2 Results From The House Site Data Array Summer 1995 and 1996.
First impressions would suggest that there has been a great deal of
movement of the detached blocks. The difFerence in values between the two
Number #IO2
X -0.026m
Y -0.053m
Z -0.177m
surveys ranges fbm -428m to -.517m While there is some error in the data arrays,
the values are too high to be errors alone. By using the test arrays as a guide to
reasonable uperator errors, it is apparent that during the t h e between surveys,
movement has occurred at the House Site. It is reasonable to expect some
movement at this site, since the data m y points were positioned on semi-detached
blocks and show s i p of being in an active environment. Tt is not possible to
detemine the exact amount of error and therefore the amount of movement.
In order to better assess the movement of the data arrays, the locations of
each data point for each survey was plotted. A different symbol was used for each
of the three surveys and ovedaid in order to indicate the direction of movement.
When the amount of movement was too smaü to show up, i t was rneasured
manudy and the direction shom with an arrow. The results for the house site can
be seen in Figure 4.12. They show that generaiiy the movement has been Iaterai,
with some inward tilthg and some outward toppling. Data point 2.00 seems to
have moved outwards fiorn the parent ciiffbetween 1995 and 1996, but moved
back towards the ciiffin the 1997 survey. The author is unsure ifthis is an error or
just jostling of a block.
The foilowing figure summarizes the results h m the Q u w Site. The
differences between readings is much smder with a range of .25 l m to -.206m.
While this is still a large amount, it is l e s than the results fkom the House Site.
Once again this is believed to be a combination of operator e ro r and genuine block
movement. Due to more difl6cult tenain and the isolation ofsorne blocks the data
array needed to be set up on siightIy more stable terrain. This rnay account for the
somewhat smaller movement readuigs.
The results of the directional plot for the House site can be seen in Figure
4.12. They show that the general movement has been outward fiom the clS. Data
point 10.00, with its huge ciifference between summers 1996 and 1997 can not be
Table 4.3 Results From The Quarry Site Data Array Surnrner 1995 and 1996.
Table 4.3 showing the results fiom the Badtop Site have less deviation
ktu een the two surveys than did the other sites. The range for the vahes are
OCMm to -. 1 18m. The data array for this site was located in an area of extensive
fiaauring. but not completely detached blocks. This tends to explain the lower
readings, yet is still high enough to indicate movement.
Figure 4.14 shows the results of the directionai plot for the Badtop site. A
third survey during the spring of 1997 was not able to be completed, therefore only
two surveys are plotted. Many of the data points showed lateral movement to the
cliE The other main direction the points moved was back towards the ciif At
fkst it would seem this is surely an error, but by examining the cross section of
Figure 4.19, it can be seen that some of the blocks tilt back towards the cm
Movement of these blocks is downslope at the base but towards the cliffat the top.
It is therefore reasonable to get movement back towards the clifffor some data
points on the directional plot.
Table 4.4 ResuIts Frorn The Badtop Site Data Array Summer 1995 and 1996.
The results of the data arrays are strong evidence of dope movernent on the
steep cWed section of east facing dopes of the Niagara Escarprnent. While the test
array shows that a portion of the results must be due to error associated with
setting up the total station, the readings are suf3ïcient to c l ah slope movement.
When reasodIe directions of movement are added, it seems d e to say that there
is movement at the three study sites dong the Niagara Escarpment.
4.5 Fracture Mari - Since it was not possible to use the totd station for surveying the deep
fractures of the cWed zone, the sirnpler method of tape and compass was used.
This method was used for the House Site and the Badtop Site. It was not possible
to do the same for the Quarry Site owing to accessibility problems. Fracture maps
offers a clear view of the interconnectedness of the fractures. Tt shows the way
fractures intersect to create the detached blocks. Figures 4.15 and 4.16 provide a
good understanding of the length and width of the fiactures and give an idea of the
size of the detached blocks. The maps (Figures 4.15 and 4.16) show that the
fractures range in width fiom less than 2 meters to greater than 10 meters.
The view that the detached blocks are caused by progressively widening and
deepening fiacturing is supported by the comparison of fiachire orientation in the
blocks with those back fiom the clifFface (Figure 4.8 and 4.10). By comparing the
fracture maps with the base maps, the fractures line up to show a deepening and
widening of the fiactures as one moves toward the c i E face.
4.6 Cross Sections of Blocks - Cross sections of the detached blocks were made for each of the sites.
Distance, depth and Eracture wall angle were measured dong each transect. The
Figure 4-15 Fracture map showing the intersection of major joints to create detacheci blocks at the house site. hset map shows relative Iocation of the fiaczure map at the house site.
lcm = 2.6m
F i w e 4.16 Fracture map showing the intersection of major joints to create detacheci blocks at the badtop site. Inset map shows relative location of the hcture map at the badtop site.
goal was to determine the way in which detached blocks toppled. It seemed
reasonable that the blocks would fd out and away f?om the parent c& leadiig to
scarp recession. However, if this was the only method of failure, then the crevice
caves, noted in this area, would not occur. W~th this in min& the cross sections
were used to explain the contradictory views.
The House Site (Figure 4.17) has two major fractures roughly 10 meters
deep and about 2.5 meters wide. Two detached blocks are found dong the
transe&. They are very large and relativeiy deep. The fiacrure walIs are nearly
vertical, with littie indication of a tendency to topple in any one direction. Below
the detached blocks is a large talus slope suggesting historical toppling of blocks.
The Quarry Site has two major fractures roughly 10 meters deep and alrnost
2 meters wide. They create two detached blocks foliowed by a talus slope below
the last block. Figure 4.18 shows that the blocks at the Quarry Site tilt away fiom
the parent cliffin a downslope fashion. The fî-acture waiis range in steepness fiom
8-3 degees to 90 degrees.
The Badtop Site (Figure 4.19) is more cornpfex than the other sites with
respm to the nurnber of detached blocks. Along the transect there are four
fractures which result in four detached blocks. They are not as deep as the other
sites. averaging about 5 meters in depth. The width of the fractures are roughiy the
same as the other sites with a range of 1.2 meters to 3.2 meters. While the other
sites had consistent positioning, the Badtop Site has blocks toppling toward as well
UPPER ZONE
Crevice caves and detached blocks Tali
Firmre 4.17 Cross Section of Detached Blocks at the House Site, Moving D o d o p e from Left to Right.
UPPER ZONE
Near-scarp zone Crevice caves and detached blocks
Talus :
Fimire 4.18 Cross Section of Detached Blocks at the Quany Site, Moving Downslope iiom Left to Right.
UPPER ZONE
Near-scarp zone 6
I
Crevice caves and detached blocks Tal
Fimire 4.19 Cross Section of Detached BIocks at the Badtop Site, Moving Downslope fiom Left to Right.
as away fiom the parent cl*. Below the blocks is a talus covered slope similar to
the other sites.
4.7 Bedding Planes - Photographs of bedding planes were taken in order to interpret the complex
vertical and horizontal hctures found at the study sites. It was hoped that this
method would aiso give insights into a possible relationship between bedding
thickness and the size of detached blocks. This examination was conducted on two
locations for each of the three study sites.
Three separate locations were examined, with two being used for the
anaiysis at the House site. The hs t location was named HZ and is found inside the
main fiacture and is part of the climbing waü (Figure 4.20). Baseci on terminology
for bedding thickness by Ingram (1954), H2 has very thick bedding with aU three
pictured block tilting away fiom the parent clx The bedding for al1 three blocks
is even and pardel (terrninology for sedirnentary layering fiom Campbell, 1967).
The center block is leaning against the block pictured at the left-hand side of the
photo, and creates a crevice cave. The right hand block (which is a sport climbing
route) is prevented &om toppling by faen boulders and i f l unseen in the photo.
(Photo was taken fiom this location)
The second site was named H3 (Figure 4.21) and is located beIow the
eastern most point of the survey. It is a detached block that is tiIting away fiom the
parent C E . The bedding of the block is thick to very thick, parallel and even
Fieure 4.20 Location H2 fiom the main fiacture at the House site shows tilting of massive bIocks of the Amabei formation. The location of c m be seen in Figure 4.15. White survey pole in picture is 3 -90 rn in length.
Location Hi3 shows tilting and toppling of detached blocks. The location of H3 can be seen on Figure 4.15. White survey pole in picture is 3.90 rn in length.
Fieure 4.22 Location QI showing typicd medium to thick bedding found in large fractures at the Quarry site. Q 1 is Iocated outside the base map in a Iarge fiacture and therefore can not be seen in any figure. White survey pole in picture is 3.90 rn in length.
bedding that ranges fiom 43 cm to 185 cm thick Visible downslope and at the left
side of the photo is a second block that has toppied, thus suggesting that block H3
wiIl also topple.
Two locations were examuied at the Quarry site. The first location was Q1
(Figure 4.22) which is near, but not within the Quany site survey. The upper
sections are wavy non-pardel, thick bedding, while the lower sections are even
nomparailei, thick bedding. Vertical fiactures do not cut through successive layers
of bedding. Most of the fiactures are closed but some of the upper fiachires have
roots growing in them, helping to pry them open. When the upper sections fracture
into bIocks, they do so in fairly large clasts of about -25 to -5 m3.
The second location at the Quarry site (43, Figure 4.23) has an overhang
of about Z 12". The upper section is thickly bedded, foilowed by a medium to
thickly bedded section in the middle and f i n d y thick bedding at the base. Al1
sections are generally even and pardel bedding. There is a large vertical fiacture
that runs down through aii visible layers.
Badtop was the h a 1 site to be examined using two of three locations
photographed. The first location (B2) is located at the north edge of the surveyed
area. The bedding is medium to thick with wavy non-paralle1 layering. The thicker
beds seem to have less fiachiring than do the thinner beds. There is a Iarge vertical
fracture that runs down through al1 visible bedding. A sigdcant undercut cm be
seen in the photo (Figure 4.24).
Fimire 4.23 Location 43 shows an overhanging face and severai broken blocks that have fden fiom the face. 4 3 is located outside the base map in a large fiacture and therefore can not be seen in any other fi,oure. Hei& of cliffin the photo is 2.70 m.
Fimire 4.24 Location B2 iiiustrates secondary fkactures cutting through the bedding. The location of B2 can be seen in Figure 4.16. White pole in picture is 3.90 m in length.
Fiare 4.25 Location B3 is an example of a detached block tilthg back towards the parent cliffat the Badtop site. The location ofB3 can be seen in Figure 4.16. White survey pole in the picture is 3.90 rn in lengîh.
The second location is found near B2 but M e r down slope. The bedding
of B3 ranges fiom thick to very thicic, with even non-pardel, discontinuous
layering. There is very littie space between bedding; usually about I cm to 2 cm.
Unlike the other locations examineci, this site has blocks tilting back towards the
parent clifE and creates a crevice cave. Pictured in the foreground (Figure 4.25)
are large clasts of about a 1 m3 within the main f iame.
The results of this investigation showed that wMe most block movements
were of substantial size, the largest bIocks were found in areas with the thickest
bedding. This cm be seen at the House Site at location EI2, which has the thickest
bedding of the three study sites and also has the largest detached blocks. It has
been observed that areas with thinner bedding tend to have more vertical Eacturing
and therefore may disintegrate before moving downdope in a single detached
block.
4.8 Fracture Survev - The survey of hc ture angles and their fiequency Ied to some interesthg
insights that could not be recognited by the other methods. Sumrnary of the
Uiformation in rose diagrams b ~ g s clarity to a generally complex environment. As
mentioned earlier, no distiction was made between regionaI joint and fiactwed
opened by subariai processes.
The House Site has two dominant fracture @es that mn roughiy at right
angles to one another (Figure 4.26). The most ii-equent angIe is 140/320°, which
&UR 4.26 Rose Diagram Showing the Fracture Angies Found a? the House Site. lnset map (Figure 4.8) shows area surveyed. CWindicated on inset map.
represents 21 of 58 measured fractures, or 36.2% of ail the fractures. While this is
the most fiequent fiacture angle, it is not the most dominant or cliffforming series
of fractures. The 140/320° fhctures mn parallel to the cliffand in fact, maintain the
cWs developrnent. The 14O/3 20" fiactures cut across the cliff f o h g fiactures
and help to create detached blocks that, once separated, move toward the cliffface,
jostle each other and eventually toppie. The second major set of joints mn at
5O/23 0°, which represents 12 of 58 measured fractures, or 20.6% of aii the
fiactures. It is this senes of fractures that enlarge to create the major fiactures and
becorne detached blocks. This series ofjoints are the ones moa easily seen on the
base maps. The remahhg fkactures are less signincant with not a single orientation
accounting for a very large percentage. With only two major joint systems, the
House Site is the least complex of the three sites.
The Quarry Site is more cornplex than the House Site in that it has three
main joint systems (Figure 4.27). The most fiequent series is 80/260° and
represents 30 of the 103 measured fractures, or 29.1%. The second most cornmon
ansle of fiactures is 100/280° and accounts for 20 of the 103 fractures or 19.5% of
the rotal Both of these systems of fkactures cross the main cliffforming fractures
ai rou~hly a 45 degree angle. The third system of fiactures are the cliffforming
fraaures that are most noticeable when visiting the site. It is at 40/220° and
represents 15 of the 103, or 14.6% of fkactures surveyed. Two other fractures of
60/240° and 70/250° are of some significance.
Y-'
Figure 4.27 Rose Diagram Showing the Joint and Fracture AngIes Found at the Quarry Site. Inset map (Figure 4.9) shows area surveyed. Cliffindicated on inset map.
Fime 4.28 Rose Diagram Showing the Fracture Angles Found ai the Badtop Site. Inset map (Figure 4.10) shows area surveyed. CWTindicated on inset map.
The Badtop Site is the most complex of the three sites examinai (Figure
4.28). It has three major joint systems but, as the rose diagram iliustrates, there are
severai other systems that are aiso significant. The rnost fiequent fracture
orientation is 401230" and accounts for 21 of 1 16, or 18% of the fractures
measured. This system runs at about 90 degrees to the c w and create the blocks
found at this site. The next most fiequent series of hctures are at 60/250° and
represent 17 of 116 or 14.6% of the fractures at this site. The third major hcture
system is the cl= forming system and is orientated at 2012 20". There are 12 of
these fractures representing 10.3% of the total. As can be seen ffom the rose
diagram, there are several other joint systems that have a large percentage of the
total number of fractures. Of these 30/220°, 901280" and 140/330° are the next
most numerous fractures.
4.9 Thin Sections - Four carbonate cap rock samples were sent to Brockhouse hstiture for
Materiais Reasearch at McMaster University to make thin sections. The anaiysis of
the four thin sections was preformed by Mark Carpenter, a feüow graduate student
at W f i d Laurier University. While aU four samples were taken from
Badtop/Badlands area each sarnple had significant diierences.
Sample BA-8-96-5 was collected dong the upper portion of the Badlands,
dong the perched footslope (Figure 4.1). This rock is composed mostIy of
carbonate minerals and is medium fine grained, with grain sue of individual crystais
around 0.1 mm in diameter. In plane polarized light the rock appears colourless
with a brown hue. Organic debris have undergone dolomitization to alter their
aragonitic and calcitic mineral assemblages. The cement matnx consists of clear
equant calcite sparite mostly <O. 1 mm in diameter and is located between grains as
weli as within bioclasts. The absolute porosity is very low; estimated at 5% and has
been reduced by diagenetic cementation and neomorphic dolomitization.
Sample BA-8-96-9 came h m an outcrop of shaly carbonate (secondary
scarp talus dope) Iocated dong the road between the Badlands and Badtop sites
(Figure 4.1). This sample is composed almost entireiy of carbonate minerais with
abundant shell debris, and traces of organic burrowing. This rock can be classified
as a h e grained, biociastic lhestone, with an average grain size of 0.05 mm in
diarneter. It has two distinct zones, the fist of which is composed of roughly 80%
shell material. The cernent is extremely fhe grained carbonate minerais including
calcite and micrite, each x0.025 mm in diameter. The porosity is <IO% and occurs
as large voids up to 2 mm x 1 mm, though usuaily <OS mm x 0.5 mm. The second
portion of the slide has much less bioclastic material and is a paie brown-crearn
colour. Cementation has reduced inter-granulâr porosity to ~ 5 % .
Sample BA-8-96-12 is an interlocking crystalline carbonate rock cornposed
of dolomite and calcite. 1t was coUected at the top of the secondary scarp of the
Badtop site (Figure 4.1). There is very little evidence of bioclastic materia1 within
the sarnple. While very simiIar to sarnple 13 there are regular euhedral mosaics of
equant calcite that may indicate dedolomitization. This may account for the
reduced porosity, estimated at <2%.
Sarnple BA-8-96-13, coUected fiom the top of the main scarp of the Badtop
site, (na-scarp zone) is a fhe to medium-he dolomitic iixnestone made up of sub-
altered carbonate minerais and fine grained (<O. 15 mm diameter) rhomb shaped
crystals (Figure 4.1). There is only &or evidence of relia organic matter within
the sarnple as bivalve sheils that have been altered and replaced as a result of
doiornitization. The absolute porosity is estimated at 15-20% and occurs as either
isolated or connected voids, the Iargest being 1 mm x 1 mm.
4.10 Mineralow - As mentioned eariier, nine samples were sent to Brockhouse Institute for
Materials Research at McMaster University for X-ray Difûaction analysis. It was
anticipated that clay minerais would be important in weathering and therefore
influentid in block movement. The prMnary minerals found in the samples were;
quartz, calcite, kaolinite, hdoysite and montmorüionïte. Also identified in small
concentrations were plagioclase, dolomite, ankerite and halite. Table 4.5 outlines
the relative concentrations of each mineral for each of the nine samples.
Ouam concentrations range fiom 25% to 35% of the sample material,
which makes it the most abundant rock forming material. The structure of quartz is
usuaiiy hexagonal and prismatic, terminated by two (positive and negative)
rhombohedra resembling hexagonal dipyramids (Mottana, 1978). Quartz has a
Table 4.5 Summary of Minerals Found in Clay and Shale Samples at the'eadlands and Badtop Sites.
hardness of 7 on Moh's hardness scaie and dispIays no planes of weakness when
fiactured. These attributes, plus its low solubility rnake quartz one of the rnost
resistant minerais to chemicai and mechanicd weathering. It has been suggested
that the arnount of quartz in shale may be indicative of shoreiine p r o e t y (Potter,
Maynard and Pryor, 1 980).
Calcite, the most common of the carbonate minerals ranges greatly f?om 3%
to 27% within the samples. It forms when carbonate molecuies bond ionicaily to a
calcium ion. Calcite q s t a l structure is rhombohedral and varies f?om tabular
(rare) to prismatic or needle-like (Pough, 1988). Calcite has a hardness of 2.5 to 3
an the Moh's Hardness scale. Being fairly soft it has cleavage ptanes in three
directions that make up the rhombus-type structure. This makes it more minerable
to mechanical weathering than quartz. Contact with slight acidic water breaks
calcite down to bicarbonate molecules that are easily carried away in solution. This
means that it is highiy susceptible to chemicd weathering since most water is
slightly acidic due to interaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Kaohte is a hydrated aiuminum silicate and ranges in concentrations of 9%
io 28" O of the sarnples. "The structure is composed of a single silica tetrahedral
~ h ~ r r and a singIe alumina octahrai sheet combined in a unit so that the tips of the
sihca tetrahedrons and one of the layers of the octahedral sheet f o m a comrnon
laver " (Grim, 1968) Kaolinite is relatively soft with a Moh hardness of 2 - 2.5 and
has perfect basal cleavages. It forms by aiteration of feldspars and other duminum
bearing rninerals in humid tropical to very humid tropical environments (Mottana,
1978). When rnixed with water Kaolinite becomes plastic and easy to mold.
Haiioyite, which ranges in concentrations of 10% to 17% in the samples is
a clay mineral that is structuraiiy similar to Kaolinite (Grim, 1968). In some cases it
has a layer of water between successive layers and is caiied hydrated haiioysite.
MontmoriUonite represents 5% to 10% of the samples analyzed.
Montmoriiionite is the magnesium variety of smectite with both aiuminum and
magnesium in an octahedrai sheet (Birkeland, 1984) It is very soft with a Moh
hardness of 1, disintegrates easily and has a greasy feel. A very important
characteristic for work on the Niagara Escarpment is Montmoriilonites high
capacity to expand by absorbing water and other liquids (Mottana, 1978). This is
of particular importance to the overaii behaviour of the underlying sofier shales.
Plagioclase, are feldspars between aibite and anorthite in composition and
are found in equai concentrations of 5% in aü samples coilected. It has a hardness
of 6, and 2 cleavages at about 94 degrees (Pough, 1988). Plagioclase weathers
more readily than other feldspars (Leavens, 1995)
Dolomite, is found at a concentration of 2% in 3 samples and at very high
30% in sarnpie #14. Sample #14 was the closest sample taken to the dolomite that
caps the Niagara Escarpment. It has a hexagonal-rhombohedral crystal structure
(Pough, 1988). Dolomite forms by the chemicai replacement of calcium with
magnesium ions present in solution on the carbonate molecule. This is a simple ion
exchange, but with a significant change in properties. Dolomite retains the same
pIanes as calcite but its hardness increases fiom 3 to 3.5 to 4 and sohbility is much
decreased (Pough, 1988). This makes it more resistant to weathering than calcite.
Ankente and Halite, are both found in s m d quantities in only a few
samples. Halite is of course rock saIt with a hardness of 2.5 and is eady dissolved
in water. Ankente is formed when iron replaces magnesium in doIomite forming an
isostructural series.
4.11 Mineral Bebaviour - Montmorillonite has the ability to absorb water and other liquids which
causes it to sweli. The samples coiiected had a 10% concentration of
montmorilionite, with sample #10 having a 5% concentration. When this is
compared to other studies of swelling clays, it seems that a 10% concentration is
sigdicant. QuigIey, Matich, Horvath and Hawson (1971) exarnined two large
dope failures on the Don Vaiiey Parkway, north of the Bloor Viaduct, Toronto.
The soils at these sites consisted of abundant iUite, chiorite, and carbonate, with
moderate amounts of quartz, feldspar and swelling clays. The sweiiing clays were
pseudo-montmorillonite at concentrations of 10% to 15%. It was the belief of this
study that swehg clays accelerate soi1 softenïng and subsequent fdure. With a
similar amount of s w e h g clays in the samples form the Nmgara Escarpment, it
would suggest that this environment is also susceptible to soi1 sofiening and
eventual Mure. This could also have an impact on the movement of detached
blocks. Softening of the underlying shales is a necessary rnechanism for @ide of
large detached blocks observed at the three study sites dong the Niagara
Escarpment.
Cha~ter 5 Summarv and Discussion
5.1 Summarv of Results - This study cails into question the previously held view of scarp development
dong the Niagara Escarpment. The results of this study support a revised model of
Escarpment development and therefore conter the accepted "homochal" shifting
model. Evidence to suggest this inchdes:
Sites that show the most developed hcturing, display no characteristics
(direct undercutting or spring sapping) of homochal shifting, as suggested
by the literature.
Data arrays indicate movement of fiactured and detached blocks in the
cWed zone.
Movement of the data amays indicate that the blocks are jostling, with
movement away from, and towards the parent cM It also showed lateral
movement of many of the blocks.
Cross sections of the 'near-scarp' zone showed the detached blocks tilted
both away fiom as weil as towards the parent clin.
Detached blocks may lean away fkom or towards the parent clifS thus
creating 'crevice caves'.
Undistwbed Queenston shde is bloclq and dense when dry, but rapidly
weathers and is easiiy rernoved when wet.
Clay minerdogy analysis of clay shales suggests the potential for swelling.
The remaining results fiom this study center around features and the
relationship between process and resulting landforms.
Cambering of the outermost portion of the cap rock towards the clifFface,
differs fi-om the regional dip of the Escarprnent.
Fractures become progressively deeper and wider towards the cliff face.
Locations with the thickest bedding tend to have the largest detached
blocks, and conversely areas with thin bedding tend to have smder
detached blocks (presumably because the blocks disintegrate before they
can travel very far as a singie unit).
Drainage of the 'near-scarp'zone seems to be entirely underground.
Large quantities of water was observed flowing fiom the base of the scarp
during a storm event.
FiaUy the over-ridùig conciusion is that this study identifies many
explanations for scarp development lacking foundation that a major effort is
necessary to re-investigate and reinterpret the development of the Niagara
Escarpment by the geologicd community.
The following section suggests a possible theoretical mode1 of scarp
development that has been formulated fkom observations of features dong the
Escarpment and fiom this study. It seems safe to Say that Our present
interpretation of slope processes dong the Niagara Escarpment is insufficient.
5.2 Scam Develonment Mode1 - Evidence presented by this thesis suggests that current explmation of scarp
development by homoclinal shifling controiied by river migration, is inadequate if
not wrong. In the sites studied, there are dramatic examples of detached blocks
and crevice caves without any sign of river undercutting or spring sapping. If
homochai shifüng is not the process taking place on the Escarpment, then what is?
The next step is to determine the processes at work on the Niagara Escarpment and
the speed at which they take place. In consulting the literature of other
environments that have strong carbonate cap rock overlying softer ciays and shales
one padcular model seerns possible. The model centers around weathering of the
shale, which deforms under the weight of the overlying dolornitic cap rock.
Fractures develop in the cap rock and get progressively wider and deeper near the
cliffface, due to greater exposure to weathering. Fracturing of the cap rock results
in slow tilting, jostling and evenfuai toppling of large blocks. During this
progression crevice caves develop between the detached blocks and the parent rock
mass. Toveil(1992) suggested that this is caused by the weakening of the
underlying Queenston Formation. While this formation plays a part, its
stratagraphic position suggests other formations need to be involved as weii. In
particula. the Cabot Head formation and the Grimsby formation likely influence
mass movements since both are susceptible to extensive weathering and erosion.
As the Cabot Head and Grimsby shaies weather, they are unable to support the
overlying cap rock and failure occurs in the cap rock dong a plane of weakness,
usuaiiy a joint. The shale is then extruded lateraiiy as the block begins to tilt and
eventually M. This process is aided by the Whirlpool Sandstone directiy above the
shale; where its high porosity enables Iarge quantities of ground water to reach the
shale, promoting rapid weathering. This is a reasonable explanauon since the
bedding planes of the overlying rock strata dip back into the escarpment and are
therefore inherently resistant to rnass wasting. Figure 5.1 shows in sirnpiiûed
fashion, the steps involved in this proposed dope Mure model.
Weathering within Cabot Heab Grimsby a d Queenston Formations reduces support of overlyhg cap rock Weathaing shaie is d e to support cap rack d g widening and depening of regionai joints and nactureç.
Shaie thins and is exrmded due to compfession by overlying cap rock. Blocks begin to slide downslope, tilting away or towards the parent di& This often produces crevice caves. As this progreses, blocks become fulS derached.
Once fully detached the blocks usuaüy topple. conmbirting ta the Nbbie found on the talus dopes. Collapsing of blocks allows wcathering of newly txposed shde resulting in a r e n d of the entire Pr'='==
Figure - 5.1 Steps for a proposed mode1 of scarp development for the Niagara Escarpmerrt. (Source: adapteci fiom Hewitt, Saunderson and Hintz, 1995) (Not drawn to scale)
53 Limitations of the Studv - The most notabie limitations of this study are the smaii nurnber and
reIativeIy s m d geographicd distribution of the study sites.
Even though efforts were made to select representative and appropriate
sites for this study, the fact remains that only three sites within a relatively s m d
geographic area were examined in detd. This was sirnply a factor of the time
needed to analyze additional sites and to complete the necessary measurements.
However, no site that we have examined on the main Escarpment Iacks the same
basic features. For this work to be appiied to the Escarpment as a whole,
additional sites located throughout the entire Escarpment wilI need to be exarnined
in order to broaden the scope of this study.
Cornpared with other studies of this nature, three field seasons was very
good. With this in rnind, additionai time would be usefûl in adding to the number
of measurements with the data arrays. With additionai readings it may be possible
to distinguish between movement and errors.
5.4 Further Research - This is redy just the beginning of what could be an ongoing project to
determine rates of slope processes dong the Niagara Escarpment. Research could
be expanded to include similar studies to this in a greater number of areas as well as
long tenn measurements of slopes with data arrays sirnilar to the ones used in this
study.
While this study had minerd work done on the Queenston formation,
hancial as weli as accessibility restrictions prevented similar tests being performed
on shaies of the Cabot Head and Grimsby formations. It is believed that these
formations play as great a role in dope movements dong the Niagara Escarpment
as does the Queenston formation. The tmth is that the shortcornings of this sfudy
could be reversed by continued, long term research into slope processes dong the
Niagara Escarpment .
5.5 Future in Question? -
On February 8, 1990, Ontario's Niagara Escarpment was inaugurated as a
World Biosphere Reserve, by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO). This recognizes the Niagara Escarpment as an
internationaily signiticant ecosystem.
The Niagara Escarpment is protected by Canada's first large scaie
environmental land-use plan controlled by the Niagara Escarpment Commission.
The Commission is a provincial agency that has control over 5,200 square-
kiiometers of land, hcluding some of the continent's richest aggregate deposits.
In Marcfi 1997, during the write-up of this thesis the Conservative
goveriunent under Premier Mike Hanis has moved the political and administrative
responsibility for the Niagara Escarpment Plan fiom the Ministry of the
Environment to the Ministry of Naturd Resources. This places the control of the
Niagara Escarpment Plan in the hands of a Mïnistry that has long favored the
exploitation of aggregate resources in the escarpment planning area. In addition the
govenunent has laid off one-thkd of the commission's staff and has gotten rid of its
chairperson and four of its commissioners.
This action seriously cals into question the fùture of the Niagara
Escarpment landscape, The possbiiity of relaxed controls on environmental
protection and in particular an increase in aggregate extraction could severely alter
the physical and cultural landscape of the escarpment.
Appendix A.
Data Set from the Totai Station Base Map Survey. House Site, Quany Site, Badtop Site and the Badlands.
rZOS t'IOIL16P IWIWSSS 9bI
CMS 'CEOILI6P 12618b85~ SPI
LOZOS 1 6 ~ 8 0 ~ 1 6 ~ 1 W ~ S V ~ S S (PZ1
8 . ~ 0 5 jf ~ 6 0 ~ 1 6 ~ Immss jn1 IYWS (t'960~16+ W88P8SS 1 n1 IL'EOS 12'660~16V I6S8W8SS 1 121
ZSZOS (t'860~16P 1 6 ~ ~ 8 ~ 8 ~ s
t'VOS ( ~ ' 9 6 0 ~ 1 6 ~ I L I P ~ P ~ S S SI-SOS / I'S60L16P j f O'9SP85S
ES'SOS 1 SE60L16P EP'S80855
EEI
ZEl
IEI
DEI
SOS NOUVATEi
9'90s
WLOS
98205
V880LI6P / ~ P ' P ~ P ~ S Z 1621
D'E80LI6V 1 SV ESP8SS 1821
8.LLOLIdt 1 ZYZSPSSS ~ L Z I
OOILI6P
(A)HLXON
1
OSP%SS 1001
wLSV?i #LNd
f
99'L8i7 ! PZSIMP 1 9.LPZ55S 1 6L1
9-t7SP u'm 9 S 6 f P
68î9 i Z1SIZ6P 1 8'6tZ55S i <LI 1'68P ! OISiZ6P 1 SZSZSSS ! PLI
OSSIt6* ISSTM* Z55IMP
T'SSZSSS ] 561 ~snssr 1 961
8'5SZSSS / E61 9E'VSP 1 tSSIZ6P ZL'PSP 1 PSSIUCoP
P'9SZS55 1 1 6 1 P'WZSSC j 161
IZ'P8b OSSIZ6t 8'ISZSSS 1 061
PNT# 1210
3 100
3110
3 1 11
NOR- 49217989
EASTQQ 557410.84
W A T I O N 427993
49218 103
49218103
492 18 103
425389
425.879
425.879
557449.03
557449.03
557449.03
WOOD STAKE TRAN#l
TRAN#l
l DESCRETION
1
I
3324
3325 3330
3331
3360 1 49218261 557469.85 j 420.379
3361 1 492182231 557464.221 421.001
33621 4921820.61 ~57461.21
3365i 4921813.6) 557455.081 422.881
4921783.8
4921781
49217896 4921791.1
GULLEYS 1 G U U M S
~ ~ I . ~ ~ ~ G U L L E Y S j GULLEYS 1
3332 1 4921731.6
3333 ) 4921793.6
G U Y S
G U Y S
GUUEYS
GULLEYS GULLEYS
GULLEYS
3371 / 4921810.61 557444.48 1 425.246 - 337d 492I818.5
3375 1 49218183
3376 1 49218t7.1 33'171 4921816.7
421.522GULLEYS
GULLEYS
GULLEYS
GULLEYS
557462291
GULLEYS
557465.09
557450.84 557447.53
33401 492179951 557435.53
3341 i 49218025 1 55743729
557442.89
k
3379 i 4921 820.4 1 5~7452.01 3385 4921828.81 557425.69
557430.9 1 426.946 557431.19 1 426.927
420.791
423.865
424.575
426.6(GlJLLEYS 1 426.125 /GUUMS 1
1
425.263
8
424.06 (GULLEYS
427.551 ~GULLEYS
55743736
557441.9
3378 1 4921818.9 1 557447.93
55743721
426.257 425.139
424.437
4 2 5 9 8 9 ] G u u ~ y s 1
OULLEYmE GUUEYSIDE GUUEYSIDE GULLEYSIDE
3402
3403 3404
3 4 5 34061 4921775
3 W
3441
3442
4921773
4921ï74.4
49213163
4921777.6
55745248
557453.7
55745226
557451.62
557455.47
557457.23
3407
3408
3409
3410
3443 ] 4921798.7 1 557442871 426.41 1 (GULLEYS~E
4921776.6
49217793
4921779.7
49217827
4921790.5 j 557440.561 425.989
4921793.4 1 557441.09/ 426.097
4921794.91 557441.581 426.1 15
557447.03
5574473
557447.39
557448.W
423.923
423.419
423182
423.757
423.431
422.49 3411 I 4921781.9
GULLEYSIDE G U Y S I D E G U Y S I D E
GULLEYSIDE GüLLEYSiDE GüLLEYSiDE GULLEYSIDE G U Y S I D E
34441 4921801.61 557435.69 1 426.675
425.113 424.616
424.576
424.583
GUtLEYSIDE GUUEYSIDE GUUEYSIDE GUUEYSIDE GüLLEYSDE GüLL,EYSIIIE
3445
3446
3447
3448
49218023 [ 557439.29 1 426343
4921805.8
4921808
4921803.7
55743 l.74! 426.926
557434.73 1 426.54
557434.97 1 426.455
3497' 492181 13 1 557453 ( ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ / G U L L E Y S I D E
3498 492181 1.3 ( 557451381 424.686 *
3499 4921806.7) 557451.27 1 424.1%
3500 4921804.71 557449.5 1 425.179
.- 350 1 1 4921805.5 ( 557444.76
3502 ' 4921807.2 557445.63
3503 1 4921808.9 55744626
GUUEYSIDE
GUUEYSIDE
GULLEYSIDE
425.761 IGULLEYSIDE
3504 / 4921809.9
350s j 4921810.1
424.962
424.721
G U Y S I D E
GüLLEYSIDE
L
557447.22 1 424.92
557447.94 1 42531
GUUEYSmE
GUUEYS~E
3536 1 4921804.61 557461.53 1 422.996 GULLEYSIDE
3537 / 49218033 1 557459261 423.441 GUUEYSIDE
3538 1 4921807.4 ( 557464.88 / 422.681 GULtEYSiDE
3521
3522
3523
3524
3525
3540
3550
3555
3570
3571
492180631 55746338 422692
422138
421.754
420.323
420.759
4921813.6
4921818.8
4921824.7
492181 6.5
1 4921807.5 1 557467.271 422225 IGUUEYSIDE
GUUEYS 1 GUUEYS 1 GUUEYS
G U Y S
GUUEYS
GUUEYS
3577i 4921824.l1 557474.05 f 419.764
35781 4921833.71 557476.121 417242
GUUEYSIDE
GUUEYSIDE GULLEYSIDE
GUUEYSIDE
GUUEYSIDE
557464-48
557467-76
557472.14
557475.81
4921827
4921792.5
4921827.6
3579 1 4921837.7
3580 1 4921 834.2
3581 1 4921830.2
3582 1 4921837.4
557479.9 1 420.077 1 WOOD STAKE 557485.29 1 420.723 (WOOD STAKE 557457.981 421.861GULLEYS
4921827.91 557460.241 4 2 1 . 0 4 2 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1
557484.48 1 416.244
557483.39
557480.58
557487.85
416.872
418.832
416.154
3651
3652
3653
3654
3655
3656
36691 49218471 557497.171 415.253 ~GUL~EYSIDE
4921828
4921831.7
4921831
4921830.9
4921831
4921832.5
3670 i 4m1m.7
3671 1 4921836.5
3672 1 492183 1.8
36901 4921780.6
557476.05
557468.64
5574653
557460.1
557455.13
557450.1 1
GUUEYSIDE GULLEYSIDE
GLJLLEYSIDE
3691 / 49217828 1 55747633
557492.95! 416.263
557489.45 1 416953
420.181
420289
421.483
422816
423.733
424.859
4 1 8 . 5 5 5 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f
557485.48
G U L L E ~ S ~ E
GüLLEYSIDE
GüLLEYSiDE
GULLEYSDE
GUUEYSDE
GüLLEYSïDE I
418.299
557484.54 4 1 6 - 7 7 l G U ~ ~ )
36921 4921783.2
3693 492 1786.4
3694) 4921790
55747.891 4 1 8 . 0 1 8 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 557479.02 1 41 8.622 IGULLEYS
557478 1 419.628 (GUYS
- 3742
3743
3744
3753 i 4921790.7
3754 1 4921790.1
3755 1 4921787.2
3756 ( 4921787.1
G U Y S I D E GULLEYSIDE GULLEYSIDE
492178591 557490.03
4921783.1 1 557491.57
4921781.81 557493.41
557479.n/ 420.668
557476.88 i 420.254
557475.86 1 420348
557477.21 1 419.885
GUUEYSiDE
418.212
417219
416349
3745 ( 4921783 / 557488.1 I
GULLEYSIDE G U U M S i D E CXiKEYSiDE G W Y S I D E
-L 417.193
Appendix B.
Data Set from the Data Arrays. House Site, Quarry Site and Badtop Site.
House site Data Array Data Set t
S u m e r 1997 Data Anay 1
1 i I Summer 1997 Data Anav 1 1
2 1 555202.937 1 4921515.M ( 486.616
PNT(t ! E A S T 0 1 NORTH(Y) 1 ELEVATION IO i 555207.47 1 4921516 ! 48738
I i Summer 1996 Data Amy 1
PNTg 1 EASÏW 2 1 55520296 10 / 555206.91
NORTfiCr) ELEVATION
4921515.6 / 486.6 4921519.29 1 487.25
3 1 55521334 i 4921518.7 i 4m.75
Badtop Site Data Amy Daia Set 1 t t I
1 I Summer 1996 Data Array 1
PNT# I mgr) 1 NORTHCY) / EVEVATION'
I I I Summer 1995 Dafa A m y 1
EASTm 1 ELEVATION 556984.111 ] 499398
556983.747 1 499.553
556988.862 1 499305
556990JSt / 498.929
PNT# 1 NORïHCY) 8 1 4921439219
7 6
5
4921431.741
4921428.55
4921424292
AppendY Ce
Data Set from the Test Arrays.
Test Amy Data Set I
Bedding Piane Study Sketcbes. House Site, Quany Site and Badtop Site.
Appendix E.
Data Set from the Fracture Survey. House Site, Quarry Site and Badtop Site.
Appendix F.
X-ray Diffraction Results fmm Brockhouse Iastitute for Materiah Research.
Bir& B. J. (1972) Ilie N e a Z Landsqe cflmtclrtr, a a d y in regional earth science. Toronto: Wdey.
Blatt, EL (1992) secimenfary Petrology, New York: WH Freeman & Co.
Bolton, TE. (1957) Silunmt Stmti@qhy cznd PalaeontoIogy of the Niagma Escapnent in Ontano. Geological Survey of Canada, Memoir 289.
Bruce Trail Association. (1995). TrailReference - TrailGuide andMaps. Toronto: Money's Worth P ~ t i n g .
Campbell, C.V. (1 967) Lamina, laminaset, bed and bedset. SedimentoIogy, vol. 8, p.7-26.
Carlson, RE. and Foley, T.A. (1992) Interpolation of track data with Radial Basis Methods. ComputersMarh. Applzc. vo1.24, no.12, p.27-34.
Chapman, L.T., and Putnam, D.F. (1966) ne Physogrupphy o f S o u t h Ontario. Toronto : University of Toronto Press.
Chigira, M. (1992) Long-term gravetationd defonnation of rock by mass rock creep. Engineering Geology. 32. p. 157-1 84.
Desloges, I.R and Smith J. (1995). Erosion Rate and Development of the Chinguacousy Badlands: Peel Region Ontario. In Le&g Edge '94 Conference Proceeriings. Toronto: Ministry of Environment and Energy.
Grun, R.E. (1968) Clay Mineralogy. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Gross, M.R. and Engelder, T. (1991) A case for Neotectonic joints dong the Niagara Escarprnent. Tectonics, 1 O: 3, p.63 1-64 1.
Hewitt, K., Saunderson, 8, and a t z , D.H- (1995) Lanalslides, CZzr Development and Cuesta Morphology of Niagara Esccapmen?: Report of activities and Findings 1995. Cold Regions Research Centre and Department of Geography, W ï d Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario.
Ingram, RL. (1954) Terminology for thickness of stratification and parting units in sedimentary rocks. G e d Soc. Am. Bull. 65, p.937-938.
Leavens, P.B. (1995) FekGpar. in Groiier Elwonic Publishg Enc.
Lee, C.F. (1978) Stress relief and c W stability at a power station near Niagara Faiis. Engineering Geology, 12. p. 193-204.
Liberty, B.A, and Bolton, T.E. (1971) Paieozoic Geology of the Central Bruce Peninsula Area, Ontario. Geol. Sun. Can. Mernoir 360. Dept. Energy Mines and Resources, Ottawa.
Lo, KY. and Hori, M. (1979) Defornation and strength properties of some rocks in Southern Ontario. C d a n Geotechnicd JO~TIIQZ~ v. 1 6.
Milne, RJ. and Moss, M.R. (1995) Process and biophysical change on the face of the Niagara Escarpment. In Leading Edge '94 Conference Proceedings. Toronto : Ministry of Environment and Energy.
Montgomery, C. W. (1 990) Physical Geology. Dubuque: Brown Pubtishers.
Moss, M-R, and Nicklingy W.G. (1980) Geomorphological and vegetation interaction and its relationship to dope stabiüty on the Niagara Escarpment, Bruce Peninsula, Ontario. Geogrqhze Physique et Quarientaire. v.34, no. 1, p. 95- 1 06.
Moss, M.R, and Rosenfeld, C.L. (1978) Morphology, m a s wasting and forest ecology of a post glacial re-entrant vaiiey in the Niagara Escarpment. GeograFska Annaler. 60q p. 16 1 - 174.
Mottana, A et al. (1978) Guide to Rocks mdMinerals. New York: Simon & Schuster Inc.
Potter, P.E., J.B. Maynard and W.A. Pryor. (1980) Sedmenfology of SMe, New York: Springer-Verlag.
Pough, F.H. (1988) Rocks andMinerals. Petersons Field Guides. Boston: Houghton Mifnui Company.
Quigley, RM., M.A.J. Matich, RG. Horvath and H,H. Hawson. (1971) Swelhg in Two Slopes at Toronto, Canada C d m Georechnical J-1. v.8, p. 417- 424.
Radbruch-Hali, D.H. (1978) Gravitational creep of rock masses on dopes, in Voight, B. (ed.) Rockslides and Avalanches, v. l p.607-657.
Russell, D.J. (1982) Controls On Shale Durability: The Responses Of Two Ordovician Shaies In The Slake Durability Test. Canadian Geotechnical Jmmal- v.19.
RusseU, D.J. and Harman, J. (1985) Fracture Frequency In Mudrocks: An Example From The Queenston Formation of Southem Ontario. Canadian Geotechnical Journul. v.22
Schmidt, K-H. (1 989) The sipificance of scarp retreat for Cenozoic landform evolution on the Colorado Plateau, U.S.A. Emfh SHace Processes and Mfont ts , 145, p.93-105.
Straw, A (1968) Late Pleistocene glaciation erosion dong the Niagara Escarpment, Southern Ontario. GeoL Soc. Amer. Bull., 79, p.889-9 10.
Straw, A. (1966) Periglacial mass rnovement on the Magara Escarpment near Meaford, Grey County, Ontario. Geog. Bull., V.8, no.4, p.369-376.
Sweeting, M.M. (1 970) The weathering of limestones, with particular reference to the Carboniferous Limestones of Northern England. in Dury, GH. (ed.) Essqs in Geomorphology: London, Heinemann. p. 177-2 10.
Tato, K. (1974) Water erosion and mas wasting in the "Red Mountains" of the Chinguacousy badlands, Ontario. Msc. Research Paper, Department of Geography, Universtiy of Toronto.
Telford (1 973) Paleozoic Geology. Collingwood-Nottawasaga. Map 234 1.
Tinkler, K.J. (1993) Fluviaiiy sculpted rock bedforms in Twenty Mile Creek, Niagara Peninsula, Ontario. Can. J. Earth Sci. v.30, p.945-953.
Tinkler. K.J., and Stenson, R.E. (1992) Sculpted bedrock fonns dong the Niagara Escarpment, Niagara Peninsula, Ontario. Geographie Physique et Quaternaire, \- 46. n.2. p. 195-207.
Tovell. W. M. (1992) Guide to the Geology of the Niagara Escqment. Niagara Escarpment Commission, Ashton Potter Ltd., Ontario.
Zaruba Q. and Mencl, V. (1969) Landslides and their Control. Amsterdam: Elsmier
TEST TARGET (QA-3)
APPLIED IMAGE. lnc 1653 East Main Street - -. , Rochester. NY 14609 USA -- -- -, Phone: 716/4826300 -- -- - - F a : 71W88-5989
O 1993. AppW Image. lm. Ail Righîs Resarved