refereed articles · (formal learning). their paper argues for a holistic focus on the dynamic...

AustrAliAN JourNAl ofADult lEArNiNGVolume 52 n number 2 n July 2012

AU

ST

RA

LIA

N J

OU

RN

AL

OF

AD

ULT

LE

AR

NIN

G Ju

ly 2

012

AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF ADULT LEARNINGVolume 52, number 2, July 2012

207 Editor’sdeskRoger Harris

Refereed articles214 Exploringrelationshipsineducation:Aphenomenologicalinquiry

David Giles, Elizabeth A. Smythe & Deborah G. Spence

237 Populareducationintimesofsocietaltransformation—ASwedishperspectivePetros Gougoulakis & Michael Christie

257 Mid-careerextensiongraduates’perceptionsoftheimpactofademand-drivenextensioncurriculuminGhanaJoseph A. Kwarteng & Samuel Akuamoah Boateng

277 Theinterrelatednessofformal,non-formalandinformallearning:EvidencefromlabourmarketprogramparticipantsRoslyn Cameron & Jennifer L. Harrison

310 AdultsengagedinlifelonglearninginTaiwan:AnalysisbygenderandsocioeconomicstatusDian-Fu Chang, Ming-Lieh Wu & Sung-Po Lin

Practice articles336 LifelonglearninginGermanlearningcities/regions

Denise Reghenzani-Kearns & Peter Kearns

368 Learningcitiesashealthygreencities:BuildingsustainableopportunitycitiesPeter Kearns

392 LivingandlearninginEcCoWellcities:DiscussionpaperPeter Kearns

Research report397 FlexiblemodelsforlearningEnglishareneededforrefugeemothers

Elisha Riggs, Karen Block, Lisa Gibbs, Elisa Davis, Josef Szwarc, Sue Casey, Philippa Duell-Piening & Elizabeth Waters

Book reviewsPeter Willis

406 Improving working as learning (Felstead,Fuller,Jewson&Unwin)Lisa Davies

411 Makers, breakers and fixers (Thomson)Peter Willis

415 Learning life from illness stories (Willis&Leeson,eds.)Margaret Byrne

AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF ADULT LEARNINGThe Australian Journal of Adult Learning (formerly the Australian Journal of Adult and Community Education) is an official publication of Adult Learning Australia (ALA). It is concerned with the theory, research and practice of adult and community education, and to promote critical thinking and research in this field. Its prime focus is on Australia, though papers relating to other contexts are also sometimes published. Papers in the refereed section of the Journal have been blind peer reviewed by at least two members from a pool of specialist referees from Australia and overseas.

Editor: Professor Roger Harris, Adult and Vocational Education, School of Education, University of South Australia Mawson Lakes Boulevard, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095. Email: [email protected]

Editorial team: Dr Lisa Davies, Ann Lawless, Dr Tom Short,Associate Professor Michele Simons, Dr Tom Stehlik, Dr Peter Willis

Editorial Board: Dr Allan Arnott, Northern Territory University; Professor Mary Barrett, University of Wollongong, NSW; Dr Helen Bound, Institute for Adult Learning, Singapore; Dr Sarojni Choy, Griffith University; Dr Michael Christie, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden; Dr Jane Connell, Cape Breton University, Canada; Professor Patricia Cranton, Penn State Harrisburg, USA; Dr Leona English, St Francis Xavier University, Canada; Professor Ian Falk, Northern Territory University; Professor Brian Findsen, The University of Waikato, NZ; Mr Vaughn John, University of Natal, South Africa; Dr Helen Kimberley, Brotherhood of St. Laurence, Victoria; Professor Thomas Deissinger, Konstanz University, Germany; Ms Dorothy Lucardie, Pharmaceutical Society of Australia; Ms Veronica McGivney, National Institute of Adult Continuing Education, UK; Dr John McIntyre, University of Technology, Sydney; Associate Professor Sue Shore, Charles Darwin University; Dr Joyce Stalker, University of Waikato, NZ; Dr Benjamin Chan Tak Yuen, University of Hong Kong.

Membership Services: Adult Learning Australia, PO Box 298, Flinders Lane, Melbourne Vic 8009 Phone: 03 9314 4632 Fax: 02 6282 0042

Email: [email protected]

Printer: LG2 design

The Journal is published three times a year in April, July and November. Subscriptions are A$110 which includes GST for Australian subscribers and postage for all. Overseas subscriptions are A$130 which also includes postage.

Subscriptions, orders for back issues, advertisements and business correspondence are handled by the Membership Services. Papers for publication, material for review (books, reports, journals, audio-visuals) and editorial correspondence should be sent to the Editor. ‘Notes for intending contributors’ are at the back of each issue.

Opinions expressed in the Journal are those of the authors and not necessarily those of ALA.

The Journal is available on microfilm from University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106, USA. It is abstracted by the Australian Education Index, Educational Administration Abstracts, Australian Public Affairs Information Service and Current Index to Journals in Education. ALA members can download Journal papers from http://www.ala.asn.au/members. Non-members can order them for A$8 each via http://www.ala.asn.au/pubs/AJAL/ajal.htm. (Within Australia, the purchase of papers attracts 80¢ GST.)

ISSN: 1443-1394

AJAL is listed in the SCOPUS database.

AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF ADULT LEARNING

Volume 52, Number 2, July 2012207 Editor’sdesk

Roger Harris

Refereed articles214 Exploringrelationshipsineducation:Aphenomenological

inquiryDavid Giles, Elizabeth A. Smythe & Deborah G. Spence





Contents





Research report397 FlexiblemodelsforlearningEnglishareneededforrefugee

mothersElisha Riggs, Karen Block, Lisa Gibbs, Elisa Davis, Josef Szwarc, Sue Casey, Philippa Duell-Piening & Elizabeth Waters


406 Improving working as learning(Felstead,Fuller,Jewson&Unwin)Lisa Davies

411 Makers, breakers and fixers(Thomson)Peter Willis

415 Learning life from illness stories(Willis&Leeson,eds.)Margaret Byrne

Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 52, Number 2, July 2012

From the Editor’s desk

ThiseditorialwillbemyfinalonefortheAustralian Journal of Adult Learning.Afteralmost23yearsintheroleofeditor,itistimetohangupthekeyboardandpassthebatonontothenexteditortotakethejournalforwardintoitssecondhalfcentury.Ithasflourishedforalmost53yearsofcontinuouspublication,andisgoingfromstrengthtostrength.Ithascomealongwayfromitsearlydays,inits:

(a) local coverage(asevidencedbythewidespreadoftopicsfromallStatesandTerritories),

(b) national status(asevidencedinthe‘A’ratingachievedintheformerERAregime),and

(c) international reputation(asevidencedintherangeofsubmissionsarrivingfromallcornersoftheglobe).

Itisagreatjournal,withdeeproots,alonghistoryandastrongmission.

Ihavethoroughlyenjoyededitingtheissuesandithasbeenagreatprivilegetoservetheadultlearningprofessionoverthistime.Theflowofsubmissionshasbeensatisfactory.Thewritersofarticles,bookreviewsandresearchreportshavebeenterrificpeoplewithwhomtowork.Butmostofall,becausetheydonot(bydefinitionas‘blind’peers)receivepublicattentionandtherecognitiontheydeserve,I

208 Roger Harris

mostsincerelythankthearmyofreviewersforalltheirhardworkovertheyears,aswithoutthem,thejournalwouldnothavealifeasarefereedpublication.Andthat,asyouwouldallwellappreciate,isincreasinglyimportantinthisagewheninstitutionsareclamouringonlyforrefereedoutput.Thedecisiontakenin1999—ratherahardoneatthetime—tomovetoarefereedjournalhasturnedouttobewise.Asanticipated,bothflowandqualityhavesteadilyrisen.However,thetensioninmymindhasalwaysbeenthatthisisalsoapractitioners’journal,wherearticlesshouldalsobepublishedthatrelatemoretopractice,andsowehavemaintainedasectionofthejournalfornon-refereedwork.ImustsaythatmymostmemorablemomentsasaneditorhavebeenwhenIhavereceivedemails,orpersonalcommentsatconferences,fromthosewhohaveproudlyproclaimedthattheirpaperinthisjournalwastheverystartoftheirpublishingcareer!Toread,orwitnessfirsthand,theirexcitementofthatfirstpublicationhasmaintainedmyinspirationforsolong.

Thisissuecontinuestoembracearangeofadultlearningsituations,andthefivemainpapersderivefromfivenationsandrefertodifferentresearchmethodologies.Weslideintotheissuewithapaperonthelivedexperienceoftheteacher-studentrelationshipinNewZealandteachereducationbyDavid Giles,Elizabeth SmytheandDebra Spence.Astheystate,‘relationshipsareattheheartofeducationalencounters’,andtheyexplorevariousconceptualisationsofthisteacher-studentrelationshipfromaphenomenologicalstandpoint.Theirresearch,inthefaceofdominanteducationaldiscoursesthathavetendedtotakethisrelationshipforgranted,callsforthere-educatingofeducatorstowardsessentialunderstandingsofrelationshipandwhattheycalltherelationalsensibilitiesthatareintegraltobeinginrelationship.

Fromteacher-studentrelationships,webroadenouttoanationalcanvaswherethecontributionofpopulareducationtonationalsocialtransformationandthegrowthofdemocraticsocietiesisexplored.

From the Editor’s desk 209

Petros GougoulakisandMichael ChristieintheirphilosophicalandhistoricalpaperanalysehowindividualtransformativelearninghascontributedtoacollectivetransformationofSwedishsocietyandlaidthefoundationforamodernandcoherentsocietywithahighleveloftrustamongthecitizenry.TheydrawseveralparallelswithAustraliaandNewZealandintheirhistoricalanalysis,andalsodiscusstheroleplayedbystudycirclesasanadultlearningmeansofaddressinganumberofimportantsocialissues.Populareducationandstudycircleshavecreatedpublicspacesfordialogueandcriticalreflection,andhaveenabledadultcitizenstopractisetheircivillibertiesandcontributetoaspecific,Swedishpoliticalculture.

ThentoGhana,whereJoseph KwartengandSamuel Boatengintheirmorequantitativepaperexaminetheeffectivenessofanagriculturalextensionprogramformeetingtheneedsofmid-careerextensionagents.InGhanaandotherdevelopingcountries,agriculturalextensionisthekeyorganisationdealingwithhumanresourcedevelopmentwithrespecttotechnologytransfertofarmers,farmfamiliesandworkers.Basedonself-reportsfrom30participants,theirstudyshowedthattheprogramhadbeeneffectiveinmeetingtheeducationalneedsofthegraduates.Theirresearchsuggeststhatuniversitiesandcollegesinvolvedinthetrainingofhumanresourcesfortheagriculturalsectorcanimprovetheirprogramsthroughcurriculumrevitalisation.

Ros CameronandJennifer Harrisontacklethelong-standingissueofformal,non-formalandinformallearning.Despitealltheargumentsoverdefinitionsanddifferences,theyarguethatthereisneverthelessrenewedinterestintherecognitionofnon-formalandinformallearninginternationallyandinAustralia.TheyfocusparticularlyontheNewOECDActivityonRecognitionofNon-FormalandInformalLearningandrecentpolicydevelopmentsinAustralia.Involving172labourmarketprogramparticipantsfromNewSouthWalesandQueensland,theyconcludethat,forthispopulation,life

210 Roger Harris

(informallearning)andworkexperience(non-formallearning)arerelativelymoreimportantforgainingself-reportedskillsthanstudy(formallearning).Theirpaperarguesforaholisticfocusonthedynamic interrelatednessoftheseformsoflearningratherthanbeingconstrainedbyadeterministicdichotomybetweenformalityandinformality.

Thefinalrefereedpaper,byDian-Fu Chang,Ming-Lieh WuandSung-Po Lin,isaquantitativestudyofadultengagementinlifelonglearninginTaiwan.Theirresearch,usingdatafromanationalsurveyofadultsadministeredbytheMinistryofEducationin2009,revealsastrongrelationshipbetweengender,socio-economicstatus(SES)andthelearningexperiencesofadults.WomeninlowandmiddleSESgroupsweremorelikelytoengageinlifelonglearning,andsuchengagementdependedontheirfamilyconcerns.Incontrast,men’sengagementinlifelonglearningwasmoreforcareerorwork-relatedreasons,thoughmanydonotengage.Theauthors’highlighttheimportanceofrethinkinghowtoeliminate,oratleastminimise,barriersthataffectadults’engagementinlifelonglearning.

ThethreePracticePapersexaminethethemeoflearningandsustainablecities.ThesecontributionstuneintimelyfashionwiththeRio+20UnitedNationsConferenceonSustainableDevelopmentheldrecentlyinJuneinRiodeJaneiro,Brazil.Thesummitexaminedhowtoreducepoverty,advancesocialequityandensureenvironmentalprotectiononourevermorecrowedplanet.Ithighlightedsevenareasinparticularthatneedpriorityattention:decentjobs,energy,sustainablecities,foodsecurityandsustainableagriculture,water,oceans,anddisasterreadiness.Morethan150,000peopleattendedthisconference,biggerthanitstwopredecessorsofStockholmin1972andtheRioEarthSummitof1992.

Itwillbeforhistorytodecidewhetheritturnsouttobeasuccess.Asmightperhapshavebeenanticipated,therehavebeenbothnegativeandpositivereactions.Theconferencewascriticisedbythehead


ofOxfamintheUKas‘thehoaxsummit…Theycame,theytalked,buttheyfailedtoact…Paralysedbyinertiaandinhocktovestedinterests,toomany[governments]areunabletojoinupthedotsandsolvetheconnectedcrisesofenvironment,equityandeconomy’.TheUKDeputyPrimeMinisteracknowledgedthathewas‘disappointed’withtheoutcome,layingblameonthe‘neocolonialworld’wheredevelopingcountrieswantingtocontinueusingfossilfuelstodevelop,likeChinaandBrazil,havemorepowerthantheWestandEurope.Othercriticsclaimedthatthefinaldocument,The future we want,thoughitcallsontheworldtoshifttoa‘greeneconomy’,containsnotimetableforactionandnodetailsonhowtoachievethesustainabledevelopmentgoals.Ontheotherhand,theUSSecretaryofStateviewedtheconferenceasasuccess,astheinclusionof‘greeneconomy’inthetexthasgiventheconceptmuchmorepowerandwillencouragegovernmentandbusinesstostartcuttingcarbonandinvestinginrenewables.TheUNSecretaryGeneralacknowledgedthattheimportantthingwas‘tobeginanewthreadofdiscussion’.TheGuardian Weekly(12June,2012)concludedthat,ifitdoesresultinbeingjustanotheremptydocument,theSummit’s

…mainhistoricalsignificancemaybeasalandmarkintheshiftinglobalpowertoemergingeconomieslikeChina,IndiaandBrazilandtheshrinkingroleofstateinstitutionscomparedwithcorporationsandcivilsociety.

PerhapstheTelegraphMediaGroup’sheadline,‘BiggesteverUNsummitendswithfaintglimmerofhope’,isafittingsummary(22June,2012).

ItisinthislightthatthenextthreearticlesbyDenise ReghenzaniandPeter Kearnsassumenosmallsignificance.Theywrotetome:‘…weexpect[themtobe]veryusefultodecision/policymakers,thoseinpracticeandstudents/researchersalike.What’ssoimportantistheblendofphilosophical/policyfoundationsthatledtoanddrivetheinitiatives,embeddedapproachestocommunity

212 Roger Harris

sustainability(andtheresourcesgovernmenthasdevoted),andtheexemplartheyaretoupholdwhenattemptingamoresignificantcommitmenttolifelonglearningincomparisonhereinAustralia.’(17April,2012).ThefirstpaperisacomprehensiveaccountoftwoGermanprograms,‘Learningregionspromotionofnetworks’(fundedfrom2001to2008)and‘Learningonplace’(fundedfrom2009).TheirpaperillustratesforushowtheGermanGovernmentrespondedtotheEuropeanCommission’s2001calltoimplement‘coherentandcomprehensivestrategiesforlifelonglearning’.Theauthorsclaimthatthisexperienceinbuildinglearningcommunities‘holdsconsiderableinterestasalaboratoryfortestingapproachestolifelonglearningincitiesandregions’.TherearepoliciesandcommitmentsthatcanbelessonsforAustralia.ThesecondpaperhighlightsthecommonalitiesinLearningcities,HealthycitiesandGreencitiesandhowmuchcouldbeachievedbyaddressingthebigissuesconfrontingtownsandcitiesthroughaconvergenceoftheseconceptstosupportmoreholisticandintegrateddevelopment.Itdrawsonexchangesofinformationandexperiencefrominternationaldevelopmentsin12citiesinfivecontinents,theworkofthePASCALInternationalObservatory.TheauthordrawsouttheimplicationsforadulteducationinAustralia,particularlywithinaframeworkoflifelonglearningandcommunitybuilding,asakeyplayerandpartnerinapproachestosustainabilityintownsandcities.Thethirdpaperisadiscussionpaper,askingus10keyquestions.Itwaswrittensothatwemightdiscusspotentialresponsesinmixedgroupsthatbringtogetherpeoplewithexperienceacrosseducation/learning,health,environment,communitybuildingandculturalsectors.

TheissueconcludeswitharesearchreportbyagroupofVictorianresearchersledbyElisha RiggsexaminingtheneedforflexiblemodelsforlearningEnglishforrefugeemothers,andtworeviewsbyPeter WillisandLisa Daviescommentingonbooksrelating,respectively,toworkingaslearning,men’sshedsandlearningfromillness.


Thepapersinthisissuesegueneatlyintomyreminderaboutthe53rdAnnualALAConferenceinByronBayon11–12October2012.ItsthemeisLifelong learning = resilient communities.Thepublicitystatesthatresilientcommunitieswithstandandrespondcreativelytoadversity.BuildingcommunityresiliencemeansvaluingrespectandcooperationbetweenallgroupsincludingIndigenousAustralians,aneconomythatworksforall,andlivinginharmonywiththenaturalenvironment.Theconferencewillexplorewaysthatlifelonglearningnurturesthisresilienceinthefaceofchallengingtimes.Wearealllookingforwardtoit–andhopetoseeyouthere.

Thenextissue(volume52,number3)willbeguesteditedfromtheUniversityofTechnology,Sydney,andpromisestobeanexcitingedition.ElaineSwanandRickFlowershaveenticedaninterestingarrayofinternationalwriterstofilltheirissue.Welookforwardtoitlaterintheyear—aroundNovember.

Faretheewell,andkeepuptheexcellentworkinthefieldandinyourresearch.

Roger Harris Editor


Exploring relationships in education: A phenomenological inquiry

David GilesFlinders University

Elizabeth Smythe & Debra SpenceAuckland University of Technology

Research that seeks to understand the lived experience of the teacher-student relationship is not prevalent. This article reports on a phenomenological inquiry which explored the nature of this relationship in the context of teacher education. Participant’s lived experiences were hermeneutically interpreted against the philosophical writings of Heidegger and Gadamer. In this way, the research focused on the teacher-student relationship as it is ‘experienced’ by lecturers and student teachers in pre-service teacher education programs, rather than how it might be ‘theorised’. The research found that relationships are essential and matter to the educational experience whether this is recognised or not. Similarly, a teacher’s comportment was found to have a communicative aspect that is felt and sensed. Further, relationships are experienced as

Exploring relationships in education 215

a play that is lived beyond the rules of engagement. Consistent with critical approaches to education, this research calls for the re-educating of educators towards essential understandings of relationship and the relational sensibilities that are integral to being in relationship.

Introduction

Relationshipsareattheheartofeducationalencounters.Whenateacherstandsinfrontofstudents,theyrelate.Whenastudentmeetswithateacher,theyrelate.Rememberingteacher-studentexperiencesbringsbackmemoriesoffeelinginspired,boredorperhapsover-looked.Curricula,lessonplansandlearningoutcomesarelongforgotten,buttheimpactofrelationshipsliveson.

Howtheteacher-studentrelationshipisconceptualisedvariesconsiderably.Forsome,theessentialaspectofthisrelationshipiswhathappensbetweentheteacherandstudent,asiftherelationshipcomprisesaninterpersonalspaceacrosswhichtheteacherandstudenttraverse(HartrickDoane2002;Metcalfe&Game2006).Whatliesbetweenthoserelatingisvariouslydescribedasaspace,agap,oranopening,whichallowsroomforrelationalhappenings.Inter-actionsoccurastrans-actionsexchangedfromonepersontotheother.Buber(1996,2002)describesrelationshipsthataccentuatedifferencesbetweenthoserelatingas“I-it”relationships.Theserelationshipstendtoobjectifytheparticipants,therelationship,andthetransactionalnatureoftherelationship.Palmer’s(1999)concernisthatrelationshipsthatarereducedtosuchanobjectifiedformofrelatingprivilegetechniqueandefficiencyoverrelationship.

Forothers,relationshipspeaksaboutaconnectednessthatexists,aconnectivitythatisbasictoourhumanity(Bennett1997).Relationalconnectednessemphasisesholisticrelationshipratherthanthespace

216 David Giles, Elizabeth Smythe and Debra Spence

betweenthoserelating.Thisviewofrelationshipshiftstheattentionfromthefunctionalityofthespacebetweenpeopletoaninherentconnectednessthatisintegraltorelationship(Hooks2003;Gibbs2006).Educationalprocessesthatvaluerelationalconnectednessseektonurturethewholenessofstudentsthroughagenuineconcernfortheteacher-studentrelationship(Miller&Nakagawa2002).

Re-framingrelationshipswithinthecontextofacommunitydrawsattentiontotheinter-connectednessofthemanysharedrelationshipsthatco-existineverydayexperiences(Palmer1997).Themanyrelationshipswithinaparticularcontextresemblea‘webofcommunalrelationships’(Palmer1998:95).

Whilethereisvalueintheorisingfromempiricaldataaboutrelationship,itisequallyimportantthateducationalresearchconsiderthe‘livedexperiences’ofrelationshipsineducationasthisdrawsustowardsessentialunderstandingsoftherelationship.

Research foundations

ThisresearchinquirywasunderpinnedbythephilosophicalwritingsofHeideggerandGadamer(Giles2008).Theirworkswerevitaltoanongoingunderstandingoftheontologicalnatureofphenomenologyanditsquestforexploringtheapriorinatureofeverydayexperiencesinthelifeworld(Caelli2001;Koch1996).Theaimofphenomenologicalresearchistoestablisharenewedcontactwithoriginalexperience,priortotheorisingaboutit,andtobringto‘lightthemeaningswovenintothefabric’(Raingruber2003:1155)oftheexperience.‘Thelifeworld,theworldoflivedexperience,isboththesourceandobjectofphenomenologicalresearch…[indeed]thestartingpointandendpoint’(vanManen1990:36,53).

Thereweretwocentralunderstandingsofthisresearch.Firstly,itisphenomenological,inthesensethattheinquiryexploresaparticularphenomenon,theteacher-studentrelationship;secondly,


theinquiryishermeneutic,inthesensethattheinquiryseekstolayopenpriorandvariableunderstandingsofthings,disclosingessentialmeaningsofthephenomenaintheprocess(Annells1996).Hermeneuticphenomenologicalresearchisathinkingandwritingactivity.‘Researchandwritingareaspectsofoneprocess’(vanManen1990:7).Uponhearingtherecountoflivedexperiences,theresearcherwritesandre-writesfromthestoriesuntiltheyconsidertheirinterpretationcapturesthenatureoftheexperience.Theimportanceofphenomenologicalwritingcannotbeunderstatedasphenomenologicalresearchisthe‘bringingtospeechofsomething’(vanManen1990:32).Inmostresearchapproaches,researcherswriteuphis/herunderstandings.Inphenomenologicalresearch,theresearcherwritestounderstand.Intheexperienceofwriting,theresearchercontemplativelyarticulatesessentialunderstandingsandmeanings,lettingmeaningscomethattheyhavenotseenbefore.

Theprocessofbeing-inhermeneuticphenomenologyislikeajourneyofthinkingthatweavesthroughthereading-writing-contemplationoftheinquiry(Smythe,Ironside,Sims,Swenson,&Spence2008).Theresearchisexperiencedasa‘felt’anduncertainjourneywherenewpossibilitiesarise,akindofbeing-in-the-playofresearching.Theprocessofhermeneuticalreflectioninvolvesatoandfrocirclingmovementtowards‘ontologicallypositivesignificance’(Gadamer1994:226),thatis,theessentialmeaningsofthephenomenonbeingresearched.

Research method

Phenomenologicalresearchbringstogetherphilosophicalfoundationsandmethodologicalconsiderationsinanongoingdialogue.Thepathsormethods,suggestsvanManen(1990:29),‘cannotbedeterminedbyfixedsignposts.Theyneedtobediscoveredorinventedasaresponsetothequestionathand’.Inthisway,thephenomenologicalmethodisnotunderstoodasasetofinvestigativeproceduresbutratheras


methodsthatarecontingentuponthephenomenoninquestion;informedbyphilosophicalliterature,theinsightsofpreviousphenomenologicalresearchers,andlivedthroughexperiencesasresearcher(Ironside2005).Insummary,thephenomenologicalmethodologyisaturningtowardsaphenomenonratherthanapreoccupationwithresearchtechniques(Gadamer1994).

Participants

Theparticipantsinthisstudywerestudentteachersandlecturersfromfivedifferentpre-serviceteachereducationproviderswithinNewZealandwhowereengagedinpre-serviceteachereducationasastudentteacherorasalecturer.Seventeenparticipantsagreedtotakepartinthisstudy.TheyrepresentasampleoflecturersandstudentteachersinteachereducationprogramsinNewZealand.Nineoftheparticipantswerelecturersandeightwerestudentteachers.ThreeparticipantsidentifiedthemselvesasMaori,oneidentifiedasPasifika,oneasMalaysian;alltheremainingparticipantsidentifiedthemselvesasPakeha.PākehāisaMāoritermforNewZealandersofpredominantlyEuropeanheritage.Fourteenoftheseventeenparticipantswerefemale.Theparticipantswereagedbetween20and60years.

Data collection

ThefirststoriesthatweregatheredinthisresearchinquirywereDavid’s.Thestoriesbecameatextforanexplorationofhisprejudicesandpre-assumptionsinrelationtothephenomenon.Wewereawarethattheproblemofphenomenologicalinquiry‘isnotalwaysthatweknowtoolittleaboutthephenomenonwewishtoinvestigate,butthatweknowtoomuch’(vanManen1990:46).Aninterviewwasrecorded,transcribedandinterpretedasawayofmakingmoreexplicithow David wastowardsthephenomenonattheinitialstagesofthisresearch.vanManensuggeststhatraisingawarenessofone’sownexperienceofaphenomenoncanprovide‘cluesfororienting


oneselftothephenomenonandthustoalltheotherstagesofphenomenologicalresearch’(1990:57).

Aphenomenologicalinterviewprocessgatheredthickdescriptionsoftheparticipant’severydayexperiencesoftheteacher-studentrelationship.OnceeachtranscriptwascompletedDavidfollowedaprocesssimilartothatdescribedbyCaelli(2001).Hebeganbyreadingthetypedtranscriptalongsidehandwrittennotesandhighlightedwords.Usingtheparticipant’swords,hethenreconstructedorcraftedstoriesinachronologicaland/orlogicalorder.Thewordsandmeaningsthatdescribedtheexperiencewerekept,whileadditionalandsuperfluouswordsweredeleted.Eachparticipantwassenttheirsetofstoriesfortheirverification,clarification,additionor,ifpreferred,deletion.

Havingcraftedonehundredandnineteenstoriesandcompletedadescriptionandseveralinterpretationsforeverystory,webelievedwehadsufficientdata.Weweresatisfiedthatnewstorieswerelargelyre-tellinganessentialmeaningthathadbeenpreviouslyexpressedinaninterpretation.Atthispoint,thegatheringofstorieswassuspendedsothatDavidcouldmovetoadeeperinterpretativeappreciationofthestoriesinrelationtothephenomenonunderinquiry.

Thestoriesandtheirinterpretationsbecamethebasisofdialoguewithothers.Duringthistime,thequalityoftheinterpretivewritingwasdiscussed,interpretationswerechallenged,andprejudicesbecameamatterofdebate.Havingreachedthisstage,Davidbeganengagingextensivelywiththephilosophicliterature,focusingparticularlyonthewritingsofHeideggerandGadamer.Davidcarriedintohisreadingofthisliterature,theinterpretivewritingthathadbeencompletedonthestories.Inthisway,conductingasearchforontologicalunderstandingsthatcouldfurtherilluminatetheanalysiswasinitiated.Thepurposewastofindphenomenologicalthemesinawholesenseratherthanthemesrelatingtoeachparticipant;themes


thatvanManendescribesashaving‘phenomenologicalpower’.vanManen(1990:107)notesthatthe‘essentialqualityofatheme…[isthatwe]…discoveraspectsorqualitiesthatmakeaphenomenonwhatitisandwithoutwhichthephenomenoncouldnotbewhatitis’.

Trustworthiness

Researchendeavoursneedtobetrustworthyandhaverigour;standardsthathavebeensetbythephilosophersofthisresearchapproach.Smytheetal.(2008)suggestthatthetrustworthinessofastudyisknownfirstbyresearchersthemselves,whotestouttheirthinkingbyengagingineverydayconversationswiththosewhoarelivingthephenomenon.Thetrustworthinessofthisresearchprojectcanbeseeninthetransparentmannerinwhichtheinterpretivewritingwaslaidopenforconsiderationonaregularbasiswithscholars,researchers,researchseminarsandconferencepresentations.Onnumerousoccasions,theresonanceofothersduringadialogueprovidedahallmarkoftrustworthiness.

Findings

Thefindingsofthisresearcharepresentedunderthreethemes.Thefirstdescribeshowteachersandstudentsarealwaysinrelationship,thesecondexploresthenatureofcomportmentandthethirdrevealstheplayofrelating.Whiletheyarepresentedasseparatethemes,theyareneverthelessallpartofthedynamic,inter-relatedwhole.

Always in relationship

Whentherelationshipmatters,teachersandstudentsrelationalexperiencesareengaged,connectedandrespectfuloftheother.Thisaspectofthephenomenonrevealsthat,whilevariouslyexperienced,therelationshipmatters.Ateacherwhoserelationshipswithstudentsmatterrecallsthefollowingstory.Thestorydescribestwoverydifferentexperiencesbetweentheteacherandstudentsacrossconsecutiveclasses:


Aboutthreeweeksagoonthesecondlastdaybeforethesemesterbreak,outoftheblueonestudentsaid,‘Wereallyenjoyyourclasses’.ItwasfunnythatonthatdayIwasteachingbeyondthefinishtimeof4pmbutitdidn’tfeellikeit.

ThenextdayIhadthesameclassonthelastdayofterm.Ihadalottoteach.Iwasfeelingpressurised.Theydidnotseeminterested.Isaid,‘Nowlookhere,I’vegotthingsI’vegottofinish’.Theywereabituptight.Afterawhile,Idrewthemintoadiscussion.Icarriedonandtaughtto4pm.Inspiteofthis,theystillsaid,haveagoodbreak.WhenIlefttheclass,Ilookedaroundthecampusandtherewasnoonearound.IshouldhavejustsaidIknowtherearetimeswhenIcantrustyoutogohomeandlookthroughthesereadings.Ishouldhavejustacceptedthatthiswasthelastday,accommodatethat,andsay,Itrustyou.Iwasverytroubledandwentandsharedthiswithacolleague.Iwenthomeandwentoutfordinner.ThroughoutthewholedinnerIwasthinkingaboutthisclass.Itspoiledmyholiday.

Inthisstorytherelationshipmatterstoeveryone.Thestudentsshowtheircarethroughtheirinformalcommentstotheteacheraboutthecourseandintheirfarewellspriortovacation(Rayle2006).Thisteachermatteredtothestudentsbefore,duringandbeyondtheclassroomexperiences.

Theteacherrevealsadifferentkindofmattering.Theteacherrecallsfeelingpressuredbytimeandthetaskstocompleteinthelesson.Concernedbythemovementandpaceofthelesson,theteacherworkstokeepthestudentson-task.Theteacherissofocusedonensuringthestudentsreceivethecontenttheyneed,thatsheoverlookstheirmorehumanneeds,togetawayforaholiday.Whatmatteredinitiallythenforthisteacherwasdifferenttowhatmatteredforthestudents.Astheteacherreflectsonthelesson,sheisconcernedthatsheprioritisedthecompletionofthetaskswhensheshouldhaverecognisedtheimplicationsofthevacation.Onthisoccasion,theteachersensesaconflictaboutwhatmattersmost.


Asthestudentsdeparted,theyremindtheteacheroftheirrelationshipandhowtheteachermatteredintherelationship(Frymier&Houser2000).Similarly,astheteachernoticestheabsenceofotherpeopleoncampus,theteacherisremindedagainof‘hermattering’oftherelationship.Theteacher’sconcernforthestudentscontinuestomatterastheeventsofthelessonaresharedwithacolleagueandthencarriedintoaneveningmeal,aholiday,andbeyond.Thustherelationalexperienceofbeing-withthesestudentsisnotoverfortheteacher.Itaffectstheteacher’sprofessionalandpersonallife.Lessonsdonotendwiththeclocktimes.Theyliveonintheteacher’sandstudent’shistoricityasendlessandopentofurtherunderstanding.

Therearealsooccasionswhentheteacher-studentrelationshipdoesnotappeartomatter.Inthesesituations,thereseemstobealackofcareandanattempttosubordinatetheother.Theteacherinthenextstoryappearstobesuchateacher:

Mymathsteacherwasveryabruptandthoughtthathiswaywasright—theonlyway.Hecameinandsaid,thisiswhatyouhavegottobeabletodo.Ifyoucan’tdothis,thenyouaregoingtofail.Thisishowyoudoit.Arrrrggghhhh!

Hegotworse.HeactuallyyelledatsomepeopleandIwasthinking,amIbackinschool?Hewouldtotallyhumiliatepeople.Acoupleofpeoplechallengedhimbecausehewassorude.Hewouldneverbackdownorapologise.Hewouldjustgetreallyblownupaboutit.Itwasdisgusting.Itwaslikeschool.Hewasyellingatus.AndIthought,hello,we’readults.Istilldon’tknowwhyhewasyellingatus.

Itwashorrible.Iwasthinking,howcanthisguybeinthisinstitution?Who’slethimin?Hewasn’tthereforusinanyway.Hedidn’tcareaboutusatall.Someclasseswehadwereinthemorning,whatabadwaytostarttheday.Actuallyacoupleoftimes,weshowedupandhedidn’t.


Thestudentinthisstoryexperiencesateacherwhoappearstocarelittleabouttheirrelationship.Thestudentquestionstheteacher’swayofrelating.Whymustthisteacherbethisway?Whymusttheexperienceofrelatingwiththisteacherbesodifficult?Theabsenceofcareisnoticeable.

Thisteacheriswiththestudentbutnotforthestudent;present intheteacher-studentspacebutnottowardsthestudent.Theteacher’swayofrelatingwaslessofabeing-to-beingrelatingandmoreofanobjectifiedI-itrelating(Buber1996).Thistypeofrelationshipcanbeseeninthewaytheteacherdoesnotwelcomeanyappearanceofthestudentasaperson,asanindividual.

Hultgrensuggests‘theresponse-abilitythatwehaveas…educatorsistocreatesuchaspace…sothat…studentsrealizethepoweroftheirowninsightsandthebeautyoftheirownvoices’(1992:237).Thesestudentsseemedtohavelittleornoabilitytodefendthemselvesand,intheabsenceofameaningfulandreciprocalrelationship,thisstudentloseshopeintherelationship.Thestudentisalsoconcernedwiththeteacher’srighttobe-withthestudentsatall.Afterall,thiswasaprogramthatshouldbestaffedbyexperiencedteacherswhosewayofbeingshouldbeexemplary.Thisstudentfeltdistantfromtheteacherandsomewhat‘lost’inanexperiencewherethemeaningand‘way’wasdifficulttofathom.

Thestudentandteacherarealwaysinrelationship.Whilethestudentorteachermightappearto‘break’thisrelationship,thisisinfactnotpossible.Theontologicalnatureoftherelationshipmeansthattherelationshipisalways-alreadyanintegralpartofboththeteacher’sandthestudent’severydayworlds.Whentherelationshipdoesnotmattertotheteacher,thecharacterofthisexperienceisofconcerntothestudent.Relationalexperiencescanalsocarry‘dis-ease’abouttheclosenessoftherelationship.Inthestorythatfollows,ateacherexperiencesthiswithastudent:


Karenwasastudentwhousedtobesouptight.Shefeltthe‘system’hadwrongedherbecauseshealreadyhadexperiencesandskillsandknewhowtomanagechildren.Shewasgoodatherpracticeandyetshehadtogothroughthisretrainingcourse.Intheprocess,wehadtoencouragehertogothroughsomepersonalcounselling.

Thefollowingyear,Karenrequestedtobeinmyclassagain.Sheactuallywrotethisinaletter.ShesaidIunderstandher,Iamthereforher;Iunderstoodherproblemsandherissues.Duringthisperiodoftime,Karenwouldtakealotofmytime.Shewaslikethat.IneededtostepbackbecauseIwasgettingtooinvolvedwithher.

Inthisstoryateacherrecallsastudentwhowascompletingheracademicstudyunderduress.Theneedtoretrainisinterpretedasaninjusticebythestudent,giventheextentofthestudent’spriorknowledgeandexperience.Amutualdeepeningoftheteacher-studentrelationshipreachesapointwheretheteacherbecomesuncomfortable.Notonlyhasthestudenttakenalotoftime,butthestudentwantstocontinueinasimilarmannerinthenextsemester.Therequesttotakethisstudentagainenablestheteachertorealisethatshehasbeentoogiving,andherinvolvementhasbecometooclose.Therelationshipappearstohaveacompulsionandexclusivitythathastheteacherfeelingisolatedandtrappedbythestudent.Howcloseshouldtheteacher-studentrelationshipbeand/orbecome?Thisrelationshipmattersdifferentlytotheteacherandthestudent.Thestudentiskeentocontinuetheirrelating,theteacherlessso.

Teacherscanfeelasifcertainstudentsareabusingthetrustwithintheirrelationship.Concernedbythelackofhonesty,teacherswonderabouthowtheyrelatewiththestudents.Somehowtheboundariesofcomfortandsafetyarechallenge,raisinganalertinsituationswherestudents’way-of-beingcanfeeltoofamiliarorevenintrusive.

Thestoriesinthisthemesuggestthatwearealwaysinrelationshipandthatrelationshipsmatter.Theprimordialnatureofbeing


humanisoneofbeing-with-othersinarelationalco-existencethatisessentialtotheworldwesharewithothers.Onceastudenthasenrolledinaparticularcourse,theteacherandstudentare‘always’inrelationship;ontologically,theycannotexistinanyotherway.Whilehumanbeingshavesomeinfluenceastothe‘nature’oftherelating,weisintegraltobeinghuman.

Comportment

Teachers’andstudents’comportmentissensedbyothersandshowhowtheyare.Whilethiscomportmenthasatemporality,thecomportmentalsohasthefamiliarityofaparticularstandthatshowswhatismostintegraltotheperson.Thisfamiliarityisexperiencedrelationallyinhowtheteacherandstudentcomport.

Inthefollowingstory,astudentdescribesaveryknowledgeableteacherwhodoesnotappeartohaveabreadthofexperienceinthesubjectsheisteaching.Thestudentsensesalackofexperienceinthewaytheteachercomportstowardstheirteaching.

Therewasonelecturer…Idon’tknowthattheyhadworkedinaschool.IthinktheyhadtheiracademicqualificationbutIdon’tknowhowmuchexperiencetheyactuallyhad.ThingscanbeOKintheorybutinpractice,that’snotalwayshowithappens.Shereallyknewheracademicinformation,thetheories,therightanswers,theacademicsideofthingsbutIfeltthatsomewheretherewassomethingmissinginherpracticalknowledge.Idon’tknowhowIknewthatbutitwasjustsomething.She’sthesortofpersonthatyouwishedyouhadherheadonyourshoulderwhenyouweretryingtowriteyourassignmentsbecausesheknewtherightthingstosay.

ShedidcomeandvisitmewhenIwasonapracticuminaschool.Shewasverypositiveandshewasveryspecificwithherpraise,butsomeofthecommentsshemade,Ifelt,weremadefromaperspectiveofsomeonenothavingbeenonthefloorteachingherself,notquiteknowinghowitistobethere.Lecturersneedto


havetheexperienceonthefloorteaching,howcanyouteachwhenyouhaven’tdoneityourself?

Theteacherinthisstoryrespondsappropriatelyinanacademicsensebutappearstolackpersonalexperienceofthetopicsheisteaching.Theteacher’scomportmentmakesanimpressionuponthestudent’sbeing.Thestudentfeelsthat‘somewheretherewassomethingmissinginherpracticalknowledge’asiftheteacherdidnothaveanexperientialknowledgefromhavingworkedwithchildren.Thisstudentisunsurehowsheknowsthis‘butitwasjustsomething’.Somethinginthewaytheteachercomports,speakstothestudentofsomeone‘notquiteknowinghowitistobethere’withchildren.Hadtheteacherbeenexperienced,hercommentsandinteractionswouldhavebeendifferent,andshowninthewayshecomportsherself.

Theteacher’scomportmentinfluencesthewaythisstudentstandsinherrelationshipwiththeteachermomentbymoment(Heidegger2001).Itisinthewaythattheteacheriswiththestudentthatthestudentfeelsa‘knowing’aboutwhothisteacheris.Whothisteacheriscomesacrosstothestudentondifferentoccasions,suchisthenatureandinfluenceoftheteacher’scomportment(Dreyfus1991).Who this teacher is andhow she iswiththestudentisintegraltotheteaching-learningexperiences.Unlessthestudentcantrustthatateacher’sknowingcomesfromandisrootedinexperience,thenconfidenceintheteacher’spracticalwisdomisundermined.

Forsometeachershow they areinspiresthestudentstheyteach.Theteacher,inthestorythatfollows,comportsinawaythatshowsadeeprespectforthestudent.

Oneteacheraskedusforideasandlistenedtous.Shewasinterestedinus.Shewasn’tinterestedinjusttellingus;shewantedtogetourthoughts.Shewasn’tteachinganythingsignificantlydifferent,butshejustputitintoawaythatwasuseful.Itmadesuchabigdifference.Wehadourclassinthemusicroom.Wehadnodesksoranytables.Therewereheapsofus;toomanyforthe


seatsintheclass.Foralotofthelecturers,weweretreatedlikewewerekidsinaclass.Theysaidwe’reallcolleaguesbutalotofthemdidn’ttreatuslikethat.Whereasthisteachermanagedtoteachuswithoutactuallymakingusfeellikewewerechildren.Itmadeabigdifference.

Thisstudentdescribesateacherwhoexpectsreciprocityinrelatingwiththestudents.Theteachercomportsanopennessthatcallsforengagementas‘shewantedtoget[thestudent’s]thoughts’.Theteachercommunicatesanattunementtowardsthestudentsregardlessofthelimitationsofthephysicalenvironment.Itisthepeoplewithinthespacethattheteacherisattunedto,ratherthantheproblemsofthespace.

Theteacher’sstandtowardsthestudentisregularlyexperiencedasthisishow this teacher was.Learning,forthisteacher,requiresengagementwithanotherandsharingideasindialogue.Therolesofteacherandlearneraresharedthroughactivelylisteningtohow the students arerelationally.Theexpressionofeachperson’svoiceinthereciprocityofdialoguereleasesthepotentialityoflearning.Thesestudentsfeelasiftheyareanintegralpartoftheirteacher’slearning.Intheprocesstheteacher’sway-of-beingreleasesthisstudenttolearningaboutthewhatandhowofteachingandlearning.

Otherstoriesshowhowateacher’scomportmentcanhavestudentsdreadthethoughtoffurtherencounters.

Ihadalecturerinmyfirstyearwhotreatedmelikeakid.Thewayshespoketome,thewaysheaskedanotherstudenttostoptalking;ImeanitwasprobablyevenmorederogatorythanthewayIaskedmykidstostoptalking.Iwouldn’teventalktothekidsinmyclasslikethat,becausethey’retoooldforthat.Shespokerightdowntome.Shewasscary.Iwasn’ttheonlyonethatwasscaredofher.Shewasscary.IneverhadascaryteacherwhenIwasatschoolbutIlearntwhatonewaslike.Shenoticedabsolutelyeverything.IgotaletterfromthedepartmentsayinghowwellI


haddoneanassignmentinhercourse.Idon’trememberhereversaying,oh,thatwaswelldone.

Thisstudentfeelsbelittledbyateacherwhosebehaviouris‘scary’.Thisteachercommunicatesmessagesaboutthenatureofrelatingandthe‘place’thatthisstudenthas.Byspeakingtothestudentasanobject,thisteacherletsthestudentsknowthattheyarenotequals.Infact,thestudentfeelslessthanachild,spokendowntoandwithoutanyaffirmation.Thisstudentenduresapassion-lessandfrustratingposition.

Absentfromtheteacher’scomportmentisanacceptanceofthisstudentasa‘particular’personwithparticularinterests.Theteacherdoesnotwanttolistentothestudent,indicativeofcomportmentthatisnotopentobeing-withthestudent.Ratherthanfindingvoice,thestudentissilenced.

Comportmentisour‘modeofbeing’andrelatestohowweareintheworld.Everycomportmentisalwaysalreadyinacertainattunement.Theaccessibilityofanother’scomportingoccurswithintheontologicalexperienceofrelating.

In the play

Therelationshipbetweenateacherandastudentisalwaysinplay.Theplay’smovementhastheteacherandstudentcontinuouslyengagedintheimmediateandconcretesituation(MacintyreLatta&Hostetler2003).Immersedindynamicandunpredictablerelating,theteacherandstudentmoveandbecomeineachsituation.Previouslylearnedtheoreticalknowledgeaboutrelatinggiveswaytoadirectionthatisfoundinthephronesisofthesituation(Dunne1997).Whilethetechne(theknowledgethatinformsthe‘know-how’ofrelating)mightbeusefultothesituation,itisthelivedexperienceofrelatingthathastheunpredictability.Thisthemeshowshowteachersandstudentsexperiencebeing-in-the-playofrelatingandthephronesis(practicewisdom)ofbeing-intherelationalplay.Inthe


followingstory,ateacherdescribesastudentwhosecontributiontoaclassroomdiscussionisverydifferentfromthewaytheconversationhadbeenunfolding.

Iwasteachingonemorningaroundunderachievementinschools.Howcanteachersmeettheneedsofsomestudentswithregardtoassessment?Inthecourseofthediscussion,weweretalkingaboutgoingthatlittlebitextratoformarelationshipwithstudentsandgivealittlebitofextratimetothosewhoweren’tdoingOK.Wastheresomethingoutsideoftheclassroomorthestructuredlessonthatyoucoulddothatwouldhelpthemachievemore?

Oneparticularstudentsaid,well,thatsoundsreallyniceandveryidealisticbutwhyamIgoingtogiveanextrahourorthreehoursaweektothatstudentifI’mnotgettingpaidforit?Heinstantlyblewmeaway.Whereareyoucomingfromonthis?

BeforeIhadtimetoreact,oneoftheotherstudentsopenlychallengedhimandsaid,ifyou’vegotthatattitude,ifyou’rejustinittofillinhoursandtakehomewages,whydoyouwanttobeateacher?Isn’tteachingabouthelpingpeople,ofgoingthatextradistance,ofmakingadifference?Andhesaid,yeah,aslongasI’mgettingpaidforit.Hewasabsolutelyserious.Hewasstraightup.Where’sthisguycomingfromonthat?He’snolongerafaceamongthestudents.

Amidaconversationexploringthesupportthatmightbeofferedtostudentswhoarestrugglingwiththeirlearning,thisparticularstudentexpressesaconcernforhissalaryinprovidingsuchsupport.Otherstudentshadbeenofferingtheirthoughtsbutwhatcaughtthisteacher’sattentionwasthestudent’sapparentself-interestatatimewhenthesupportforunder-achievingstudentswasbeingexplored.Thisparticularmomentinfluencesthemovementofhowthisteacherandstudentrelate.Thisteacherisconcerned,attuningherselftotherelationalplaythatisunfoldingbetweentheteacher,thestudent,andtheotherstudentsintheclass.


Theteacherfindsherselffeeling‘blownaway’,thrownbythestudent’scommentsandstrugglestounderstandwherethisstudentiscomingfrom;whoisthisonewhospeaks?Thethrownnessisareminderthat,asHeidegger(1996)states,weareliterallysituatedinthemidstofaworldofinterplaysbeyondourcontrol.ForHeidegger,ourthrownnessisnota‘finishedfact’(1996:179);rather,beingthrownintoanalreadyexistingworld,weprojectontoanalways-alreadypresentworldfromwithinourthrownness.Hostetler,MacintyreLattaandSarroubsuggestthatperhaps‘afirststepforteachersinpursuitofmeaningistoacknowledgetheirthrownness’(2007:234).

Theteacherisnotreadyandabletorelatedifferently;sheissearchingformeaningintheplay.Thisteachermightchoosetoremoveherselffromtheexperiencebutinsteadshefindsherselfcaught,ifnot‘trapped’,intherelationalplay.Theteacher’sexperienceofrelatingwiththestudentisoneofwrestlingfora‘way-to-be’amidtheuncertaintyofaverypresentandfluidreality.

Thisstoryrevealstheseriousnessandthefrailtyoftherelationshipbetweenateacherandastudent.Theseriousnessisseeninthedelicateopeningandclosingofrelationshipwithinaclassroomdialogue.Broughttogetherforaneducationalendeavour,therelationshipmovesand‘becomes’intheplay.Thisbecomingisexperiencedinmomentsthatchangethenatureandmovementoftherelatingbetweenateacherandstudent.Beinginsuchexperiencesisanembodiedmoment,filledwithanxietyandcarryingtheparticipantsintheplay,thatistherelationship.

Thefollowingstoryshowsvariousaspectsofphronesisthatareprimordialtobeingintheplayofrelating.Withinthestory,thephronesisisshownintermsofitsresoluteness,techne,tact,pedagogicalthoughtfulness,moralknowingandattunement.ThisstoryfocusesonaninteractionbetweenTania,astudentteacherwithexperienceinearlychildhoodcontexts,andherlecturer.


Taniahadbeenoutthereworkinginthefieldforsixyearsandkneweverythingtherewastoknow.Iwentouttoassessherteachingpracticeandwasconcerned.Icouldhearalotofhervoiceandnotalotofthechildren’s.Istartedtalkingtoheraboutthisandshesaidtome,well,whatamIsupposedtotalktothemabout?Well,whatcanyoutalkaboutwithchildren?Whatdidyoudothismorning?Whatdidtheydowhentheygotupthismorning?Wouldn’tthatbeastartingpoint?Shesaid,Idon’tknowwhetherIcandothat.

SoIjustsatwiththechildrenandstartedtalkingtothemaboutdrivinguptotheirtownonthatdayandwhatI’dseenontheroaddrivinguptherethatday.Isawthisreallyreallycutesheep.ItwassolittleandsofluffyandIjustwantedtogetoutandholdit.Thensomeonesaid,I’vegotabearathomeandhe’ssoft.ShecouldseewhatIwasdoing.ThenIsaidtoher,nowyougoandsitwiththem,yousharesomethingwiththem.Theywerealloverher.Shecouldn’tgetawordinedgeways.Shewasalmostintearsbecauseshewasstaggeredathowmuchtheyweretellingher.Shehadn’trealised.She’satotallydifferentperson.Ithadsuchaneffectonher.

Inthisstory,alecturerfindsthattalkingwithastudentaboutherconcernsismetwithquestionsanduncertainty.Respondingtothemoment,thelecturersitswiththechildrenandengagestheminsuchawaythatareciprocityofrelatingbegins.Shedidnotcometothisexperienceexpectingtobeengagingwiththechildrenfirst-hand.

Thisisnotashowbytheteacher.Thesincerityoftheteacher’srelatingwiththechildrenopensaverydifferentdialogue.Thesechildrenwere‘playing’freelyindialoguewiththeteacher.Thisteacherleaptin,uncertainofwhatmighttranspirebutwithanimprovisationthatisinthestudent’sbestinterests.Anexclusivefocusonthetechneofthismoment(e.g.thelessonplan)might‘squeezeouttheselfinteachingasthe“who”issidelinedandsilencedbythe“what”’.Thewisdomintheteacher’sactionschangehowthisteacherandstudentexperiencetheplayoftheirrelating.


Thissituationisnothopelessforthestudentasshecannowseehowtheteacherwasinteractingdifferently.Acceptingtheopportunitytobewiththechildreninadifferentway,thisstudentisoverwhelmedandmoved.FieldandLatta(2001)suggestthatsomeexperiencesre-memberus,causingustobeadifferentpersoninadifferentplace.

Inthisstory,theteacher’sphronesisopensthepossibilityofthestudent’slearning.Themomentcallsforthestudenttobeintheuncertaintyoftherelationalplaywithchildren.Bothteacherandstudentteacherexperiencetheunrehearsedto-and-fromovementofbeingin-the-playofrelating.

Thisthemehasfocusedontheplaythatisrelating.Theplayerstakeforgrantedthemomentsandmovementoftheplay.Theunpredictabilityanduncertaintyoftheplayisopenedinthemomentinresponsetotheplay.Suchpracticalwisdom,orindeedtheabsenceofsuch,isnotengenderedasacognitiveactbutratheraperson’ssensitisedattunementtothemovementoftheplay.Thecreativeprocessofbeingintheplaydrawsupontheperson’spracticalknowledgefortheimmediateandparticularsituation.

Conclusion

Relationshipsareessentialtotheeducationalexperiencewhethertheyarerecognisedornot.Whentherelationshipbetweenateacherandastudentisgoodweseldomattendtotherelationship.Whiletherelationshipmatterstotheexperience,therelationshipliesoutofsightandislargelytakenforgranted.Indeed,theredoesnotappeartobeanythinkingorwonderingabouttherelationshiportheabilityoftheteacherandstudenttorelate.Onotheroccasions,theassumptionthatrelationshipsmatteriscalledintoquestion.Inthesetimes,theteacher-studentrelationshipconcernsthestudentandisstressfulfortheteacher.Inthesemoments,theconcernovertherelationshipforegroundstheteaching-learningexperienceforthoseinvolved.


Whilerelationshipscanbeincorrectlyassumedtomatter,itiscriticallyimportantthateducatorsbecomemoreattentivetohowtheirrelationshipiswiththeirstudentsindividuallyandcollectively.Educatorsneedtohavetheabilitytorelatetotheirstudents,aswellasremainattunedtorecognisehowtheserelationshipsaremattering.Student—teacherrelationshipsarefeltandinterpretedbythoseinvolved,whethertheyareconsciouslyawareofthisornot.Thisresearchinquiryfoundthatwhentheteacher-studentrelationshipmatters,thiscanbeseenandfeltineachperson’sway-of-being.

Aneducator’sdispositionsandsensibilitiestowardsrelationshipsareessentialtotheeducationalendeavour.Inspiringteachers,havingsuchdispositionsandsensibilities,leapintorelationalexperiencesandavailthemselvesoftherelationalmomentanditsmovement.Theybecomeincreasinglyadeptatreadingtherelationshipandlivingphronesisinthemoment.Foregroundingrelationshipsineducationhasthepotentialforhumanisingeducationalpraxisinthefaceofpowerfulanddominanteducationaldiscoursesthathavetakentheteacher-studentrelationshipforgrantedforthesakeofthesystemthatoughttoserveit.

References

Annells,M(1996).‘Hermeneuticphenomenology:Philosophicalperspectivesandcurrentthemesinnursingresearch’,Journal of Advanced Nursing, 23(4):705–713.

Bennett,JB(1997).‘Theacademy,individualism,andthecommongood’,Liberal Education, 83(4):16–24.

Buber,M(1996). I and thou (Trans.W.Kaufmann,Trans.),NewYork:Touchstone.

Buber,M(2002).Between man and man (R.Gregor-Smith,Trans.),London:Routledge.

Caelli,K(2001).‘Engaginginphenomenology:Isitmoreofachallengethanitneedbe?’Qualitative Health Research, 11(2):273–281.

Dreyfus,HL(1991).Being-in-the-world: A commentary on Heidegger’s being and time, Division I, Cambridge,MA:MITPress.


Dunne,J(1997).Back to the rough ground: Practical judgment and the lure of technique, NotreDame,IN:UniversityofNotreDamePress.

Field,JC&Latta,MM(2001).‘Whatconstitutesbecomingexperiencedinteachingandlearning?’,Teaching and Teacher Education, 17:885–895.

Frymier,AB&Houser,ML(2000).‘Theteacher-studentrelationshipasaninterpersonalrelationship’,Communication Education, 49(3):207–219.

Gadamer,HG(1994).Truth and method (2ndreviseded.) (J.Weinsheimer&D.G.Marshall,Trans.),NewYork:Continuum.

Gibbs,CJ(2006).To be a teacher: Journeys towards authenticity, Auckland,NewZealand:PearsonEducation.

Giles,DL(2008).‘Exploringtheteacher-studentrelationshipinteachereducation:Ahermeneuticphenomenologicalinquiry’,unpublisheddoctoralthesis,AucklandUniversityofTechnology,Auckland,NewZealand.

HartrickDoane,GA(2002).‘Beyondbehavioralskillstohumaninvolvedprocesses:Relationalnursingpracticeandinterpretivepedagogy’,Journal of Nursing Education, 41(9):400–404.

Heidegger,M(2001).Zollikon seminars: Protocols, conversations, letters(F.Mayr&R.Askay,Trans.), Illinois:NorthwesternUniversityPress.

Hooks,B(2003).Teaching community: A pedagogy of hope,London:Routledge.

Hultgren,FH(1992).‘Thetransformativepowerof“beingwith”studentsinteaching’,inPeterat,L.&Vaines,E.(eds.),Lives and plans: Signs for transforming practice(Vol.HomeEconomicsTeacherEducationYearbook12),MissionHills,CA:Glencoe:221–242.

Ironside,PM(2005).‘Introduction:Thinkingbeyondmethod’,inIronside,PM(ed.),Beyond method: Philosophical conversations in healthcare research and scholarship,Madison:UniversityofWisconsinPress:ix–xx.

Koch,T(1996).‘Implementationofahermeneuticinquiryinnursing:Philosophy,rigourandrepresentation’,Journal of Advanced Nursing, 2:174–184.

MacintyreLatta,MA&Hostetler,KD(2003).‘Thecalltoplay’,International Journal of Education of Education and the Arts, 4(3),http://ijea.asu.edu/v4n3/.

Metcalfe,A&Game,A(2006).‘Theteacher’senthusiasm’,The Australian Educational Researcher, 33(3):91–106.

Miller,JP&Nakagawa,Y(2002).Nurturing our wholeness: Perspectives on spirituality in education, Brandon,VT:FoundationofEducationalRenewal.


Palmer,PJ(1997).‘Theheartofateacher:Identityandintegrityinteaching’,Change, 29(6):14–21.

Palmer,PJ(1998).The courage to teach: Exploring the inner landscape of a teacher’s life,SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass.

Palmer,PJ(1999).‘Thegraceofgreatthings:Reclaimingthesacredinknowing,teachingandlearning’,inGlazer,S.(ed.),The heart of learning. Spirituality in education,NewYork:Tarcher/Putnam:15–31.

Raingruber,B(2003).‘Video-cuednarrativereflection:Aresearchapproachforarticulatingtacit,relational,andembodiedunderstandings’,Qualitative Health Research, 13(8):1155–1169.

Rayle,AD(2006).‘Matteringtoothers:Implicationsforthecounselingrelationship’,Journal of Counseling & Development, 84:483–487.

Smythe,EA,Ironside,PM,Sims,SL,Swenson,MM&Spence,DG(2008).‘Heideggerianhermeneuticresearch:Aslived’,International Journal of Nursing Studies, 45(9):1389–1397.

vanManen,M(1990).Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy,Albany,NY:SUNYPress.

About the authors

David Giles is Dean of the School of Education at Flinders University. His research interests focus on the relational nature of pedagogy, educational leadership, and organizational cultures. Hermeneutic Phenomenology and Appreciative Inquiry are his preferred research methodologies. For David, the relational and moral imperative of education is essential to our praxis.

Elizabeth Smythe is an Associate Professor in the Health Faculty at Auckland University of Technology. Her research expertise is mainly related to Heideggerian hermeneutic methodology. She supervises doctoral students across a wide range of disciplines as they seek to reveal more of the experience of ‘being human’. Her own discipline background is nursing and midwifery.

Deb Spence is joint Head of Nursing in the Faculty of Health at Auckland University of Technology. She supervises and researches using hermeneutics and phenomenology. Her background is in nursing and education.


Contact details

Dr. David L. Giles, Associate Professor, School of Education, Flinders University, GPO 2100, Adelaide, South Australia 5001 Tel: +61 8 8201 5187 Fax: +61 8 8201 3184 Email: [email protected]

Elizabeth A. Smythe, Auckland University of Technology, Private Bag 92006, Auckland 1142, New Zealand Email: [email protected]

Deborah G. Spence, Auckland University of Technology, Private Bag 92006, Auckland 1142, New Zealand Email: [email protected]


Popular education in times of societal transformation—A Swedish perspective

Petros Gougoulakis and Michael ChristieStockholm University, Sweden

The aim of this philosophical and historical position paper is to discuss the ways in which Popular Education—folkbildning—has contributed to the social transformation of Sweden through self-directed and collaborative educational practices. One of our premises is that individual transformative learning, fostered by folkbildning, has contributed to a collective transformation of Swedish society since the late 1890s and laid the ground for a modern and coherent society with a high level of trust among its citizens.

Introduction

Scandinaviahasbeenaninspirationformanycountrieswhenitcomestoorganised,well-fundedandeffectiveadulteducation.InAustraliaforexample,AdultLearningAustralia(ALA)lookedto

238 Petros Gougoulakis and Michael Christie

Swedeninthemid-1990s,whenitappliedforgovernmentfundingtocreatestudycirclestoaddressanumberofimportantsocialissues.ThisinitiativehasevolvedintotheAustralianStudyCirclesNetworkPtyLtd(ASCN)which,toquoteitsownwebsite,‘isacentralresourceforthosewhowanttolearnaboutstudycirclesororganiseaDialoguetoChange(D2C)programinAustralia’.InSweden,therehasalongtraditionofstudycirclesandotherformsofpopulareducation(folkbildning)andalthoughthistraditionhasalsochangedandevolvedovertime,populareducationhasplayedanimportantroleinSweden,especiallyintimesofsocietaltransformation.Thisarticleplacespopulareducationincontextandmakesthedistinction,firstlybetweenmassmovementsandpopularmovements,andsecondlybetweenmasseducationandpopulareducation.Itisimportanttopointoutthatweusethesetermsinaparticularwayandinaparticularcontext—namely,aswaysofdifferentiatingbetweentwodifferenttypesofsocietalchangeintheintellectualandspirituallifeofSweden.WeuseHabermas(1984–1986)tohelpmakethesedistinctionsandrefertomajorpolitical,religiousandsocialchangesthatweclaimhavebeeneitherinitiatedwithinthe‘system-world’orfromwithinthe‘life-world’.Thehistoricalcontextisthegradualemergence,sincethetimeoftheSwedishreformation,ofasociallycohesive,wellfunctioningdemocracy.Theexampleofamassmovementthatincludedmasseducation,whichweuseinthisarticle,istheoverthrowofCatholicismbytheSwedishKing,GustavVasa(1496–1560)andtheestablishmentoftheSwedishLutheranChurch.Thischangebeginswithastrugglewithinthethe‘system-world’andovertwocenturiesresultsinashiftofpowerandprivilegefromtheCatholictotheSwedishChurch.Bythe1800stheSwedishstateChurchencompassedandimpactedonthelivesofmostSwedesandwasresponsibleforasystemofmassliteracy.It,initsturn,wasresisted,butthistimefromwithinthe‘life-world’.Religiousreformers,backedbyordinarypeople,createdtheFreeChurch

Popular education in times of societal transformation 239

movement,whichwecharacteriseasapopularmovementthatusedpopulareducationtospreaditsideas.

Habermas’theoryofCommunicativeAction(1984–1986)helpsusunderstand,analyseanddrawconclusionsabouttheroleofpopulareducation,historicallyandtoday.ForHabermas,therearedifferenttypesofactionthataremotivatedbydifferenttypesofreason.Helabelshisfirstcategorystrategic/instrumental action. Thistypeofactioncancountenanceunilateral,non-inclusivemeanswhentheendisconsideredimportantenough.Quiteoftenpowerandmoneytendstosteertheprocess.Communicative actionseekscommonunderstandingandagreementviaaprocessofrationaldiscourseinordertoachieveamutuallyacceptableend.Incommunicativeactionallpartiesaregivenafairhearing.AccordingtoHabermas‘thesystem-world’thatincludesthemarket,governmentandnon-governmentorganisations,hasbeenincreasinglycharacterisedbystrategic/instrumental action. Habermasdoesnotexcludetheuseofcommunicativeactioninthesystemworldbutisconcernedthatinstrumentalreasonandaction,whichismostoftenfoundthere,isseepingintoandcontaminatingbothpublicandprivatespheresof‘thelife-world’(Eriksen&Weigård2003:101).Itisultimatelythe‘life-world’,indemocraticsocieties,thathastoberesponsibleforkeepingthe‘system-world’honest.

Theshiftinpowerfromgovernmentbyprivilegedfewtoparliamentelectedbyuniversalsuffrage,andthetimeittooktoachievethis,isananotherexampleofsocietalchangebroughtaboutbyastrugglebetween‘system’and‘life’worlds.BothSwedenandAustralasiahaveexperiencedthisstruggle.NewZealandledthewaybyintroducingvotingrightsformenin1879andbyextendingtherighttowomenin1891,whileinAustraliapropertiedmencouldvoteinmanycoloniesinthe1850sandin1901federalAustraliaextendedthatrighttoalladults.IttookSwedenuntil1911formentowintherighttovoteandanotherdecadebeforewomenweregiventhatrightin1922.


Thestruggleforpoliticalandlabourrightswasbegunbyindividualswhoformedunionsandwasresistedbyrightwinggovernmentsvotedinbypropertyowners.Examplesofresistanceonthepartofthe‘system-world’werethecrushingoftheforestworkers’strikeinSundsvall,Sweden,in1879andthebreakingoftheAustralianshearers’strikeof1891incentralQueensland,Australia.Inbothcasesthearmywascalledin.ThesetraumaticeventswereacatalystforthecreationofsocialdemocraticpartiesinbothAustraliaandSweden.TheemergenceofstrongparliamentarydemocraciesinAustraliaandSwedenare,weargue,examplesofpopularmovementssupportedbypopulareducation.Todaythereareotherthreatstodemocracy,includingactsofindividualandgroupterrorism.ThetragiceventthatoccurredinandnearOslointhesummerof2011,whenarightwingterroristexplodedabomboutsidetheofficebuildingthathousedthesocialdemocraticPrimeMinister,JensStoltenberg,andthendrovetotheparty’syouthcampandshot69youngsocialdemocrats,exemplifiesthefearandhatredthatagenuinelydemocraticinstitutioncaninspireinextremists.Italsounderscoreshowimportantitisforademocracytobegroundedinacommonsetofbeliefsandvaluesthatarefosteredandrenewedbyindividualtransformativelearningmaintainedviapopulareducation.

Building ideologies and mentalities

Aperson’sworld-viewconsistsofconcepts,ideas,assumptionsandtheoriesthatareexpressedinmeaningfulactsofconsciousnessintheindividual’ssocialandculturalmilieu.Anindividual’sworld-viewmaybeginasamoreorlessarticulatedresponsetoone’senvironment,forexample,astheadoptionofparentalvaluesortheacceptanceofviewpointsexpressedbyschoolorotherauthorities.Intimethisrudimentaryworld-viewisbuiltintoamoreorlessfunctionalandsustainablenoeticsystem.Weemployourworld-viewtoconstruemeaningofourexperiencesandothermeaningschemes


weencounter.Butthatsameworld-viewcanobstructandnarrowmeaning(Cranton1994,Mezirow1997,Taylor1998).

Theabilitytoreflectandcommunicatewithothersforms,framesandconditionsthewaywelearnandsuchlearning,inturn,leavesimpressionsonandshapesmeaningstructures.Suchindividualstructuresarisewithinsocialstructures,whichinturn‘survive’inthehumanmindandbodyasmemorytraces(Giddens1984,Haugaard1997).Meaningstructuresaresociallydeterminedknowledgethatincludebothindividualaswellascollectiveresourcesandwhichhelpcontributetothefulluseofthehumanpotential.Thenatureofsocialknowledge,accordingtoGiddens(1984),isrepresentedinthreedifferentforms:practicalconsciousness,discursiveconsciousnessandtheunconscious.Inthispaperweconcentrateonthefirsttwoforms.Practicalconsciousnessisaknowledgeofeverydaypracticesthatactorscarryintheirmindsastacitknowledge.Itdiffers,however,fromtheformofknowledgecalleddiscursiveconsciousness,whichisreflectedandpossibletoexpressverbally,as,forexample,whenhumanagentsdiscussandreflectontheiractivities.Itis,primarily,throughdiscursiveconsciousnessthatactorsbecomeabletochangetheirbehaviourpatterns,especiallywhentheyareinspiredbyrolemodels,whentheneedforchangearisesorwhentheyfaceuncomfortableordisorientingdilemmas(Giddens1984,Haugaard1997,Söderström2006).

Ideas,analyticallyspeaking,constitutethefirstlevelofamorecomprehensiveprocessof‘ideabuilding’.Onthisfoundationofideasreststhenextlevelthatischaracterisedbythewayinwhichanumberofideas,aswellasothersignsandutterances,relatetoeachother.Thesespecificpatternsofrelationshipsbetweenkeyideasconstitutethegrowinggroundforideologies.Ideologyisrelatedtoothersystems,suchasreligion,industry,scienceandart,andtogetherundercertainconditionscanformsub-culturesandcultures.Theconceptofcultureisverybroadbut,intheanthropologicalsense,


denotesourentirewayoflifeandincludesnotonlyourspiritualandintellectuallifebutalsoitsmaterialbase(Kroeber&Kluckhohn1952, Andersonetal.1999).Cultureisinseparablefromoureverydaylivessinceitisa‘given’andpermeateseverythingweareanddo(Jensen1988).Broadlyspeaking,culturereferstothecollectiveheritageofideas,knowledge,beliefsandvalues,andthepatternsweusetocommunicatethesetoeachother(seeforexample,Hammer1910,Dewey1966,Ödman,1995).Culturecannotbemadeintelligibleunlessweapproachitfromadevelopmentalandaneducationalperspective,whichincludesunderstandingthespecificviewsofindividualsandgroupswhomakeuptheculture.Communicativepractices,thatincludeformalandinformaleducation,areprerequisitesformeaning-makinginsociety.Thisprocessofcommunicationandmeaning-makinginvolvespeopleindifferentcontextswhointeractforspecifiedpurposes.Inotherwords,culturesareasocialconstruction.

Thethirdlevelofthe‘idea-building’canbedescribedbythetermmentality/mentalities.Mentalities,or‘habitsofthemind’(Mezirow1997,Taylor1998),arereferentialframes,patternsofattitudes,values,beliefsandfeelingsthatarefoundedduringalong-termsocialisationandacculturationprocessinspecificsocio-culturalcontexts.Mentalitiesgivecultureitsoriginalaestheticsandconstituteits‘mentaluniverse’.Theyaresocial/collectivemanifestationsofthinking,action,dispositionsandframesofreferencemarkedbyspecificexistentialconditionsthattogetherconstitutemeaning-making.Carriersofmentalitiesarerarelyawareoftheunderlyingprocessesthatcreateconditionsfortheemergenceofspecificideologicalandtheoreticalsystems.Inthecourseoftimementalitiesappeartobecanonical,thatis,contradiction-freeand‘given’,whichobscuresthefactthattheyonce,longago,emergedfromconflictarenaswhereviolentpowerstruggleswerefought.Mentalitiesarethereforecognitiveandemotionalstructures,whosetextureconsistsofthedepositsthatvictorious(political)regimesgiveriseto,


reshapedcontinuallyintoeffectivementalandmaterialexpressions.Adissectionofmentalitiesislikelytorevealsegmentsofideas,habitsandpracticesofpreviousgenerations(rituals),latentcollectivesentiments(feelingsandintuitions)andcognitiveschemesthatfabricateintentionsandorchestrateacts.

Theefficiencyofmentalitiesonbothindividualandcollectivelevelsis‘crystallized’inwhatBourdieudescribesashabitus: asystemofstructured,structuring(unconscious)dispositions,constitutedinpraxisandbasedonpastexperiences,which,whileitintegratestheindividual’spreviousexperiences,atanygiventimecanalsoserveasamatrixforanindividualwaytoperceive,evaluateandact.Membersofagrouporclass,beingproductsofthesameobjectiveconditions,shareahabitus.Thepracticesofthesemembersarebetterharmonisedthantheagentsthemselvesknow.AccordingtoBourdieu,habitusisapreconditionforcoordinationofpractices,andmobilisation(Bourdieu1992,Berneretal.1977,s.53).ThegradualestablishmentofaStaterunSwedishChurchisagoodexampleofhabitus.ThevariousstudyassociationsthatmakeupmuchofpopulareducationinSwedentodayarearguablyotherexamples.

Mentalitiesarethereforeculturallyshaped,whileatthesametimeculture-forming.Ödman(1995)hascoinedthetermimmanent pedagogy todescribeallformsofsubtleinfluencethatpermeateourlives.Suchapedagogyisinherentinalmostalllifesituationsanditssubtleimpactcanbementality-forming:

Pedagogyandmentalityareinmyviewcloselyrelatedtoeachother.Itisthroughpedagogicalactivitiesthatmentalitiesareshaped,andpedagogyis,inturn,shapedbythementalitiesofthe‘educators’,inadialecticalinterface.(Ödman,1995,ourtranslation)

Sincementalitiesareshapedandspreadthroughlong-term,socio-culturalprocesses,itisdifficulttodelimitmentalitiessuchasmassandpopularmovementsorthemassandpopularformsofeducation


thathavebeenlinkedwiththem.Intherestofthispaper,wewillanalysethedevelopmentofthreepopularmovementsinSwedenandacommonformofpopulareducation(thestudycircle)thatwasdevelopedbythem.Wearguethatthesemovements,andthestudycirclesthatsupportedthem,formedaneffectivereactiontowhatwe,inthecontextofthisinquiry,refertoasmassmovementsandthetypesofmasseducationthatwereconnectedtothem.

Three popular movements and their use of study circles

ThethreepopularmovementswerefertointhissectionaretheFreeChurchMovement,theTemperanceMovementandtheLabourorTradeUnionsMovement.Inallthreewecandetectareactiontoadominantideologyormentalityandadeterminationonthepartofindividualsandgroupsofindividualstoreactagainstasystemorhabitus,builtonandprotectiveofpowerandprivilege.Activistsinthe‘life-world’whoinitiatedchangewerethemselvessubjectedtotheexistingmentalitythatprivilegedthechurchmen,capitalistsandpoliticians.Thismentalityembodiedtheideologiesofastate-runchurch,acapitalisteconomyandaproperty-basedconstitutionalmonarchy.Despitetheirearlyconditioning,activistsfromthe‘life-world’,throughaprocessofdiscursiveandreflectiveconsciousness,wereabletobuildanewideologyormentalitythatwasembracedbyordinarypeopleratherthanbeingimposeduponthem.

Thesethreepopularmovements,andthepopulareducation(folkbildning)systemtheyinaugurated,beganinthewakeoftheindustrialrevolutioninSweden.AlthoughtherearemanyhistoricalparallelsbetweenSwedenanditsEnglishneighbour(forexample,thedevelopmentofastatechurch),boththeagrarianandindustrialrevolutionsoccurredlaterinSweden.IndustrialmachinerywasbeingusedintheloggingindustryintheearlynineteenthcenturyandbythemiddleofthecenturySweden’sgrowingtextileindustryhadshiftedtosteamdrivencarding,knittingandweavingmachines,but


thesedevelopmentshadalreadyoccurredinEnglandalmostacenturybefore.

Thesystemofmassliteracythatwementionedintheintroductionbenefitedactivistsfromallthreepopularmovementsmentionedabove.Theyunderstoodthatknowledgewasasourceofpowerandwasanessentialtoolinanyattemptatreform.ThesystemofannualliteracycheckswasinitiatedbytheSwedishChurchin1686followingthetranslationofthebibleintothevernacular.Onceayearparishpriestsvisitedfarmsandvillagesandtestedtheirparishionersintheirabilitytoreadapassagefromthebibleandanswercatechismquestions.Thissystemwascontinuedfortwocenturiesand,althoughitwasameanstomaintainChurchcontrol,italsoinadvertentlyledtoagenerallevelofliteracythatisunparalleledinotherwesterncountries.Whenthethreemovementsmentionedabovesetupstudycirclestoeducatetheirmembers,manywhoparticipatedinthemwerealreadyabletoread.

LeaderswithintheFreeChurchMovementobjectedtothewaytheSwedishChurchcontrolledordinarypeople’splaceandformofworshipandoutlawedprivateprayermeetings.ThelawbanningsuchmeetingsandthepracticeofanyfaithotherthanSwedishLutheranism(enacted1726)wasabolishedin1858.Pietists,Evangelicals,BaptistsandMethodistswereabletocreatelegalorganisationsthatusedpopulareducationalmethodstoeducatetheirmembers.Someofthesemembers,inturn,helpedstarttheTemperanceMovementandtheUnionMovement.Bothofthesemovementsreactedtothelarge-scalepoverty,oppression,marginalisationandignoranceassociatedwithsocietalchangethatfollowedenclosurelaws,ruralunemploymentandashifttothecities,wherehousingwascrampedandunhealthy.Conditionsweresopoor,thehourssolongandthetemperaturesinwintersoseverethattheworkdayoftenbeganandendedwithanissueofvodka(brännvin).Boththesemovementsgrewinstrengthandnumbers


duringthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturyandtherewasanoverlapofmembership,especiallyamongstudycircleleaders(Gougoulakis2001,Christie1996).Anumberoflabourleaders,forexample,gainedknowledge,organisationalskillsandthemotivationtoreformsocietyviamembershipinthetemperancemovement.Attheendofthe1800s,theseandlikemindedactivistsbegantoorganisethemselvesintotradeunionsandpoliticalparties,andmadeuseofthesamemeansofspreadingtheirmessageastheteetotallers.Theyusedlibraries,studycirclesandlecturesasameanstoachievetheirpolitical,socialandculturalobjectives.In1912thevariousworkergroupsorganisedtheireducationalactivitiesunderacentralorganisation,theWorkers’EducationalAssociation.Later,otheradulteducationassociationswereestablishedbydifferentgroupswithparticularideologicalandpoliticalprofiles.

UnlikemanyotherEuropeancountries,whichoverthrewtheirmonarchiesordrasticallyreducedtheirpowerintherevolutionaryyearof1848,Swedenfollowedareformistpath,usingtherighttomasseducationasonemeansofavertingrevolution.WhenSwedenlostitswaragainstRussiain1809,theKingwasdeposedandhisuncleinstalled,onconditionthatanewconstitutiongaveincreasedpowertotheRiksdag,Sweden’srepresentativebodyforthefourestates—nobles,clergy,merchantsandfarmers.InthesameyearGustafAbrahamSilverstolpecalledforbasiceducationforallclassesofsociety,arguingthatitwouldhelpinculcatemorality,loveofcountryandanacceptanceofone’splaceinsociety.Educationwasseenasameansofavertingrevolutionandinstitutingreform.Others,liketheteacherCarlBroocmansandthebotanistCarlAgardh(latertheBishopofKarlstad)rejectedthenotion,arguingthateducationshouldbetheexclusiveprivilegeoftheclergyandtheupperclassesandinstead,supportedlibrariesandotherformsofpopulareducation.By1833thispushforeducationalreformhadanothermotif.ErikGustafGeijerinsistedthatpovertywasfoundedinignoranceandthateducationcouldbeusednotonlytoinformpeople


oftheirdutiesandmoralobligationsbutalsotoimprovetheirsocialandeconomicsituation.On18June1842,thegovernmentbowedtodemandsforeducationalreformandintroducedbasicschooling(masseducation)forallandprovidedsomesupportforparishlibraries(Steele2007,Gougoulakis2001,2006&Christie2002).

Ultimately,thedrivingforcebehindanypopularmovement,andanindispensableconditionforittoattractsupporters,istheexistenceofastrongidea,adesirableandnecessarygoal.Thetemperancemovementandtheworkers’movementweretwogreatpopularmovementsthat,attheturntothetwentiethcenturyinSweden,contributeddecisivelytotheachievementof‘socialsolidarityandsocialresponsibility’.Thiswasaperiodofsocialawakeningthathighlightedthedemandforanewtypeofcitizen,oneabletoembraceandrealiseagreatsocialidea.Forthetemperancemovement,itwaspublicsobrietyandabstinencefromdrink;fortheworkers’movement,itwasavisionofeconomicliberalisationinwhichafairday’sworkreceivedafairday’spay.Theidealofthefreechurcheswasthefreedomtopractisetheirbeliefsanytimeandanywhere,whichmeanthavingtounderminethehegemonyofthestate-runSwedishChurch.Intheirstruggleforreligious,socialandpoliticalrights,thepopularmovementutilisededucationasanimportanttool.Gradually,thiskindofeducationalpracticetookorganisationalmanifestationintheformofeducationalassociations.Studyassociationsacquiredandcoordinatedresourcesthatcouldbeusedtorealisetheparticularsocialmovement’sorganisationalobjectives(Svensson1996,Amnå1999).AsOlssonpointsout:

Participationinorganizationalactivitiesandtheinternalizationandrealizationofanassociation’sideathroughpracticalwork,strengtheneditsmembers.Byparticipatinginsocialworkandbydeliberatinganddiscussinggeneralissues,alargestrataofworkersgainedarealeducation,whichinduecoursehelpedcounterbalancetheformaleducationthatleadingsocialclasseswereinpossessionof.Inthisway,agoodfoundationwasalso


laid,quiteunconsciously,foramorethorough,theoreticalandpersonalself-educationwhentheassociation’smemberstookpartinthetrainingsessionsandstudycircles.(Olsson1922:48,ourtranslation)

TheSwedishwordforpopulareducationisfolkbildning.Ifweconsideritsmasscharacter,theactivationandparticipationofdiverse—mostlyindigent—groupsofadultsinlearningactivities,aswellasitsperceptionoflearningasaninstrumentforempowerment,socialadvancementandassertionoffundamentalpoliticalrights,itispossibletoseeaconnectionwiththeGermanconceptofbildung.Fortheindividual,theideaofeducationasalifelongandlife-changingprocessratherthansimplytheacquisitionofknowledgeandskills,fitsquitesnugglyintoWilhelmvonHumbolt’snotionofeducationorbildung.Inthissensetoo,populareducationisseparatedfromcompulsoryschool(formal)educationinregardstoeducational,organisationalandcurriculargoals,becauseithasanautonomythatisbasedonprinciplesofself-educationandtheculturalneedsoftheparticipants.(Gougoulakis&Bogotaj2007,Christie1998,2002).

Study circles

Sincethelatenineteenthcentury,thestudycircle(aself-directed,democraticandcollaborativelearningmethod)actedasabalancetoamassschoolsystemthatbecamemoreexclusionarytheolderitsstudentsbecame.Thestudycirclesbecameplacesforcollectivelearningandcommunicationandthelociofsocialnetworking.Theywerealsousedasameansofachievingpoliticalobjectiveswhenorganisedbyassociationswithsuchaims.Thestudycircleinitsbroadestsensewasalreadybeingusedinthemid-nineteenthcenturybypopularmovements,butasamorestricteducationalformandstrategyitdatesfrom1902andOscarOlssonisregardedasits‘instigator’(Törnqvist1996,Arvidson1991;Anderssonetal1996,Vestlund1996,Gougoulakis2001,2006).


Thestudycircle,asasystematicandself-governingmeetingplaceoflearning,hasbecomeanationaleducationalstandardforpopulareducation.Ithasalsobeenatoolforbothindividualandcollectiveemancipationandameansforsocialandcommunitydevelopment(seeforexample,Coleman1990,Gougoulakis&Bogataj2007,Larsson2001,Oliver1987, andcompareCandy1991,Brockett&Hiemstra1991).Thepedagogyofstudycircleswas,andstillis,premisedonafreeandopendialoguebetweenequals.Participantsexchangeideasandexperiencesunderself-directedanddeliberativelearningprocesses,beyondthesortofhierarchiesassociatedwithconventionalschooling.Studycirclesprovideapublicplacethatseemstoappealto‘creativepeople’(compareFlorida2006).

Afteracenturyandhalfofstruggle,thestatetodaynotonlyrecognisesSwedishpopularadulteducationasafreeandvoluntaryformoflearningbutactuallyensuresitsindependentexistencevialegislation.Thestateviewonthecharacterofnon-formal,populareducationisexpressedasfollows:

Populareducationisandshouldbefreeandvoluntary.Thisfreeandvoluntarypopulareducationalworkenablesalltoseekknowledgeonthebasisoftheirownexperience,preferencesandlearningstyle,withoutlimitationfromdemandsforresults,andwithoutmechanismsofexclusion.Theapproachpermitsdialogue,involvementandquestioning,withoutapreconceivedframework.Byreasonofthis,populareducationfulfilsarolenotcoveredbyanyothereducationalinstitution,arolewhichalsocontributestomaintainingthevitalityofdemocracy(GovernmentBill1997/98:115:5).

Popular movements’ educational agenda for societal transformation

AfteralongstruggleinthenineteenthcenturythehistoryofSweden’spopularmovements,andthepopulareducationalformstheyembrace,isnowanintegralpartofSweden’smodernhistory.Fromthelatterpartofthenineteenthcenturyonwards,themovements’


historicaldevelopmentcanbedividedintofourphasesusingdistinctsignsthatmarkshiftsandtransformationsinthevaluesofcivilsociety.Followingaradicalphaseofformation,thenewsocialmovementsbecameestablishedaslegitimateactorsinthecountry’spoliticallife.Thiswasmadepossiblethroughstaterecognitionandpubliceconomicsupport.Civilsocietywasgraduallyincorporatedwithinthedominantpoliticalculturemarkedbyasocial-democratic,reformistorientationtowardsco-operation,pragmatism,compromiseandequality.Thenewmovementstoneddowntheirprotestprofilesandsupportedthenewfolkhem(people’shome)project,whichisametaphorfortheSocialDemocraticParty’spoliticalvisionofapublicwelfaresystem(Gougoulakis&Bogotaj2007).

Thepost-warspiritofconsensuswasfollowedinthe1960sand1970sbyanewphaseofcivil-socialdevelopment.Duringthistimeofreappraisal,radicalnewsocialforcesenteredthepoliticalarena,impelledbytheagendaofpost-materialvalues.Theindividual’sneedforpersonalintegrityandself-realisationinfusedculturaldebateandchallengedthepredominantcollectivisticthinkingoftheperiod.Thisphaseofawakeningandcriticismtargetedthesocialmodelofproduction.Thepopulareducationorganisationsbecamemoreindependentvis-à-vistheir‘original’foundersandwererejuvenatedwithnewmembersandneworevolvedsocialmovements.

AnumberoftendenciesduringthelastthreedecadesofthetwentiethcenturyforebodegreatchangesinSweden’ssociety,economyandculturallife.Anew‘socialmorphology’ofnetworksthatuseinformationasabasisforproductivityandpowerwereestablished(seeDemertzis1996).Intheswellofglobalisation,theroleofthestateinpubliclifeisdecreasingandatthesametimeindividualisationisspreading.Theredrawingofthepowermapinvolvedinglobalisationisgeneratingbothnewwinnersandlosersandnewareasofresistance.Newmovementsareemerging,organisedonanetworkbasisandnotdependentonnationalborders.Insomeways,these


movementsexpressciviccommitmentwithglobalawarenessandresponsibility.Theyarecomposedofnewidentitiesconstructedchieflyoutofmeaningandspirituality.Therolesofestablishedmovementsarebeingquestionedasmoreandmorepeopleabandonthem.Yetthiscannotbeseenasawaninginterestinpolitics,butratheranexpressionofanindividual-centredsearchoutsideofgivencollectivestructures.Thepurposeislargelythesameasitalwaysis,toreducesusceptibilitytovariousrisks;butthemeansseemtoconsisttoagreaterextentofindividualisedstrategiesforeliminatingtheeffectsoftheserisks(Demertzis1996).

Populareducationanditspedagogicaltheoryarecompelledtotakeastanceregardingthesesocialchanges.Theindividualisclearlybecomingtheactorinthenewera,butthefocusontheindividualneednot,perhapsshouldnot,beallowedtodenythesignificancethatafunctioningcollectivehasfortheindividual’sopportunitiestodevelopandbewell.Asafield,civilsocietyisnothomogenousbutratheranarenafullofconflictwherethevariousagentscompeteforpreferentialrightsofinterpretation,thecreationofworldimages,andideologicalhegemony.Inaddition,everyagentischaracterisedbydefinedrelationstowardotheragentswithincivilsocietyandtowardthestateandtheeconomy(seeGranovetter1985).

Asmentionedattheoutsetavital‘life-world’isaprerequisiteforahealthy,functioning‘system-world’inwhichstructuresandstrategicactionsupports,ratherthanundermines,atrulydemocraticsociety.Participationincivilassociationsempowerspeoplewithresourcestohelpshapeandformtheircollectivedestiny.Today,theindividualisexposedtonewthreatsandrisks(Beck1998,Castells1996,Giddens1994).Thismakestheabilitytolearnanddevelop,collaborateanddeliberate,actandreflect,anecessityoflife.Studycirclesandpopulareducationcanhelpbuildthisability.Populareducationcontributestotransformativelearningwithinsocietyby


fosteringandstrengtheningdemocraticvirtuesthatenablecitizenstoparticipatepoliticallyinamodernsociety(compareLarssson2001).

Popular educationandstudy circlescreatedpublicspacesfordialogueandanalytical,criticalreflectioninthepast.Today,tenStudyAssociationsarrangeapproximately280,000studycircleseachyear,wherenearly1.8millionindividualsacrossthecountryparticipateinthemostvariedoftopics.ThesestudycirclesenableadultcitizenstopractisetheircivillibertiesandcontributetoaspecificSwedishpoliticalculture,which,inturn,hasshapedthementalityofSwedishpeople.ItisamentalitythathasservedSwedenwellandwillcontinuetodosoif,viapopularmovementsandtheeducationalassociationstheybuild,itcontinuestoembraceanalytical,critical,transformativelearningprinciples.

References

Amnå,E(ed.)(1999).’Detidealiseradeföreningslivet’,inCivilsamhället.SOU1999:84,ForskarvolymVIII,Demokratiutredningen,Stockholm:Faktainfodirekt.

Andersson,B(1980).Folkbildning i perspektiv.—Studieförbunden 1870–2000. Organisering, etablering och profilering, Stockholm:LTsförlag.

Andersson,E,Laginder,A-M,Larsson,S&Sundgren,G(1996).Cirkelsamhället. Studiecirklars betydelser för individ och lokalsamhälle, SOU 1996:47,Stockholm:Utbildningsdepartementet.

Andersson,LG,Persson,M&Thavenius,J(1999).Skolan och de kulturella förändringarna,Lund:Studentlitteratur.

Arvidson,L(1985).Folkbildning i rörelse.Pedagogisk syn i folkbildning inom svenskarbetarrörelse och frikyrkorörelse under 1900-talet—en jämförelse,HögskolanförLärarutbildningiStockholm.Institutionenförpedagogik:CWKGreerup.

Arvidson,L(1991). Folkbildning och självuppfostran. En analys av Oscar Olssons idéer och bildningssyn,Eskilstuna:TidensFörlag.

Beck,U(1998).Vad innebär globaliseringen?Missuppfattningarochmöjligapolitiskasvar,(WasistGlobalisierung?IrrtümerdesGlobalismus—AntwortenaufGlobalisierung),Göteborg:Daidalos.


Berner,B,Callewaert,S&Silberbrandt,H(1977).Skola, ideologi och samhälle. Ett kommenterat urval franska utbildningssociologiska texter av Bourdieu/Passeron, Baudelot/Establet, Poulantzas,Stockholm:Wahlström&Widstrand.

Bourdieu,P(1992).The logic of practice,PaloAlto,CA:StanfordUniversityPress.

Castells,M(1999).The information age: Economy, society and culture,Malden:Mass.:BlackwellPublishing.

Christie,M(1998).‘Encouragingcriticalawarenessofone’sassumptionsandvaluesinadultandvocationaleducation’,inChristie,MF(ed.),Diversity and innovation in adult and vocational education,Darwin:NTUPress.

Christie,M(2002).‘SocialandhistoricalfactorsinthedevelopmentofSwedishadulteducation’,Australian Journal of Adult Learning,42(1):57–74.

Coleman,J(1990).The foundations of social theory,Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress.

Cranton,P(1994).Understanding and promoting transformative learning: A guide for educators of adults,SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass.

Demertzis,N(1996).Ο Λόγος του Εθνικισμού. Αμφίσημο σημασιολογικό πεδίο και σύγχρονες τάσεις, (ThenationalistDiscourse.Ambivalentsemanticfieldandcontemporarytendencies(inGreek),Aten:Ant.N.SakkoulasPublishers.

Dewey,J(1966).Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education,NewYork:TheFreePress.

Eriksen,EO&Weigård,J(2003).Understanding Habermas: Communicative action and deliberative democracy, London:Continuum.

Florida,R(2006).The rise of the creative class. And how it’s transforming work, leisure, community and everyday life,NewYork:SaneAgency&SusanSchulman.

Giddens,A(1989).‘Areplytomycritics’,inHeld,D&Thompson,JB(eds.),Social theory of modern societies: Anthony Giddens and his critics,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Giddens,A(1994).Beyond left and right : The future of radical politics,Cambridge:PolityPress.

Giddens,A(1984).The constitution of society: Outline of the theory of structuration,Berkeley,CA:TheUniversityofCaliforniaPress.


Gougoulakis,P&Bogataj,N(2007).‘StudycirclesinSwedenandSlovenia—Learningforcivicparticipation’,inFrane,A(ed.),Social capital and governance, old and new members of the EU in comparison,203–236,Berlin:LitVerlag.

Gougoulakis,P(2001).Studiecirkeln. Livslångt lärande…på svenska!(StudyCircle.LifelongLearning...inSwedish),Stockholm:HSLFörlag,PhDthesis.

Gougoulakis,P(2006).Bildning och lärande. Om folkbildningens pedagogik.(BildungandLearning.OnthePedagogyofPopularEducation),Stockholm:ABF&Bilda.

Granovetter,M(1985).‘Economicactionandsocialstructures.Theproblemofembeddedness’,American Journal of Sociology,91(3):481–510.

Habermas,J(1984).The theory of communicative action. Reason and the rationalization of society, Volume 1, Boston:BeaconPress.

Habermas,J(1987).The theory of communicative action. Lifeworld and system: A critique of functionalist reason, Volume 2, Boston:BeaconPress.

Hammer,B(1988/1910).’Ompedagogiskaproblemochforskningsmetoder’,inLindberg,L&Berge,B-M(eds.),Pedagogik som vetenskap—vetenskap som pedagogik.Lund:Studentlitteratur:32–39.

Haugaard,M(1997).Constitution of power: A theoretical analysis of power, knowledge and structure,Manchester:ManchesterUniversityPress.

Jensen,JF(1988).’Detdobbeltekulturbegreb—dendobbeltebevidsthed’,inHansHauge,H&Fink,H(eds.),Kulturbegrebets kulturhistorie,Århus:AarhusUniversitetsforlag.

Kroeber,AL&Kluckhohn,C(1952). Culture. A critical review of concepts and definitions,Cambridge,MA.:HarvardUniversityPress.

Larssson,S(2001).‘Sevenaspectsofdemocracyasrelatedtostudycircles’,International Journal of Lifelong Education,20(3):199–217.

LeGoff,J&Nora,P(eds.)(1985).Constructing the past: Essays in historical methodology,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Leffler,M(1999).Böcker, Bildning, Makt. Arbetare, borgare och bildningens roll i klassformeringen i Lund och Helsingborg 1860–190,LundUniversityPress,BibliothecaHistoricaLundencis91.

Mezirow,J(1997).‘Transformativelearning:Theorytopractice’,inCranton, P(ed.), Transformative learning in action: Insights from practice,New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, no.74,SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass:5–12.


Ödman,P-J(1995).Kontrasternas spel. En svensk mentalitets- och pedagogikhistoria, Stockholm:NorstedtsFörlagAB.

Olsson,O(1922). Det svenska folkbildningsarbetet. En sammanfattning.Folkets studiehandbok,Stockholm:AktiebolagetSvenskaNykterhetsförlaget.

Söderström,Å(2006).”Att göra sina uppgifter, vara tyst och lämna in i tid”. Om elevansvar i det högmoderna samhället,KarlstadUniversityStudies.

Svensson,A(1996).Folkbildningens institutioner,SOU1996:127.DelbetänkandeavKommitténomettnationelltkunskapslyftförvuxna.Stockholm:Utbildningsdepartementet.

Taylor,EW(1998).The theory and practice of transformative learning: A critical review,InformationSeriesNo.374.Columbus:ERICClearinghouseonAdult,Career,andVocationalEducation,CenteronEducationandTrainingforEmployment,CollegeofEducation,theOhioStateUniversity.

Törnqvist,I(1996). Oscar Olsson folkbildaren.I synnerhet hans tankar om universitetens roll i folkbildningsarbetet,Stockholm:SoberFörlag.

Vestlund,G(1996).Folkuppfostran, folkupplysning, folkbildning. Det svenska folkets bildningshistoria—en översikt,Stockholm:Brevskolan.

About the authors

Dr Petros Gougoulakis, born in Greece, awarded a PhD 2001 at Stockholm University, Sweden, for a thesis entitled ‘The study circle: Lifelong learning ... in Swedish! A non-formal meeting place for discussion and learning for all’ (Studiecirkeln: Livslångt lärande…på svenska! En icke-formell mötesplats för samtal och bildning för alla). Gougoulakis is working as Senior Lecturer in the Department of Education, Stockholm University. His main research interests deal with learning processes in various contexts, and, in particular, the subject area of adult educators’ qualifications as well as the phenomenon of ‘folkbildning’ (adult popular education). Gougoulakis is member of The European Society for Research in Education of Adults (ESREA) and Hellenic Adult Education Association (HAEA).


Professor Michael Christie was awarded a PhD in 1978 at Monash University, Australia, for a thesis entitled ‘Aborigines and colonists in early Victoria, 1836–1886’. Christie has maintained an interest in cross-cultural research during his career but, in his recent research, has focused on university pedagogy, the supervision of doctoral students and the pedagogical use of information communication technology in university teaching and research. Michael Christie is Sweden’s first Professor of Higher Education and has been active in building a national network of researchers in this area. He has strong connections with adult and higher education researchers outside of Sweden, including Australia.

Contact details

Petros Gougoulakis, IPD, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden Tel: + 46(0)8 1207 6364 Email: [email protected]

Michael Christie, IPD, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden Tel: +46 (0)8 163143 Mobile: +46 (0)734605748 Email: [email protected]


Mid-career extension graduates’ perceptions of the impact of a demand-driven,

extension curriculum in Ghana

Joseph A. Kwarteng and Samuel Akuamoah BoatengUniversity of Cape Coast, Ghana

One of the major challenges facing Africa today is ensuring that extension practitioners are well trained to enable them function effectively as facilitators of change at the farmers’ level. The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a mid-career B. Sc. Agricultural Extension Curriculum in meeting the educational needs of mid-career extension agents. The study was descriptive and used a validated questionnaire to collect data from 30 purposively selected graduates of the program. The study revealed that 66.7% were aged between 40–49 years, and 93.3% had at least 10 years of working experience before entering the program. The graduates considered their competencies at the start of the program to be below average in all but 6 of the 25 courses offered under the program. After going through the program, all the graduates had attained competencies that were rated from high to very high. Improvement in academic status, knowledge and skills in the human relations as well as technical areas in agriculture, and attitude to

258 Joseph A. Kwarteng and Samuel Akuamoah Boateng

work, were perceived as the major benefits of the program. The effectiveness of the program in meeting the needs of the graduates was attributed to the availability of appropriate facilities and the conducive environment for the teaching-learning process, availability of adequate and competent lecturers, committed and supportive administrative staff, balanced curriculum and a well-planned and supervised field component of the program known as the supervised enterprise projects (SEPs).

Introduction

Theimprovementofacountry’shumanresourcecapacityforproductivityisapre-requisiteforsocialandeconomicdevelopment.Intheagriculturalsector,bothformalandnon-formaleducationeffortsareessentialfordevelopingthecompetentworkforcenecessaryforimprovingfoodsecurityandruralemploymentandbringingaboutareductioninpoverty,especiallyruralpoverty.InGhanaandotherdevelopingcountries,agriculturalextensionhasemergedasthemainorganisationdealingwithhumanresourcedevelopmentwithrespecttotechnologytransfertofarmers,farmfamiliesandworkers.Thereisalsogeneralagreementthatagriculturalextensionmustbesupportedtocontinueplayingthiscriticalroleinagriculturalandruraldevelopmentinsub-SaharanAfrica(Carson2000).

Numerousstudies,however,havepointedoutthatthedevelopmentofhumanresources,particularlythetrainingofextensionworkers,remainsamajorproblem(Crowder,Lindley,Bruening&Doron1998;Kwarteng,Zinnah&Ntifo-Siaw1998;Opio-Odongo2000;Maguire2000;Zinnah&Akeredolu2005).Mostoftheextensionstaffengagedinministriesofagricultureandotherpublicrelatedagenciesorextensionstaffsofnon-governmentalorganisations(NGOs)neitherhavetherequisiteuniversityleveleducationnorthepracticalexposureneededtoimproveagriculturalproductivity.Thereissubstantialliteraturetoindicatethatmostoftheagricultural

Mid-career extension graduates’ 259

extensionstaffinsub-SaharanAfricalackappropriatetrainingbeyondsecondaryschool(FAO1990;1993;1996;Swanson1990;Zinnah,Steele&Mattocks1998).Thisdeficiency,accordingtoCarson(2000),hamperstheeffortsofgovernments,NGOsandotheragenciestoassistresource-poorfarmersandtoimprovelinksbetweenfarmers,researchersandextensionstaff.Theseextensionagentsreceivedsubstantialtrainingintechnicalagriculture,withverylittleexposuretoimportantareassuchasruralsociology,communication,problem-solvingandcriticalthinkingskills,andthecapabilitytoworkasateam.Thesearecriticalareasinwhichknowledgeandskillsmustbedevelopedtoproducecompetentandeffectiveagriculturalextensionists.

Theproblemofinadequatelytrainedagriculturalextensionagentsinsub-SaharanAfricaisexacerbatedbyothercriticalfactorsincluding:

• lackofup-to-datehumanresourcedevelopmentneedsassessmentinmanyAfricancountrieswhichresultsinpoorpoliciesneededtodirectrelevanthumanresourcedevelopmentprograms(Lindley2000);

• disseminationofknowledgepredominantlybylecturemethodwhichdoesnotaugurwellforexperientiallearning(Burkey1993);

• tendencytoorganisetrainingprogramsawayfromreal-lifesituationsfacingfarmersmakingitdifficultfortraineestorelatewhatisbeingdonetoactualfarmconditions(Burkey1993);and

• absenceofsystemicrevitalisationofthecurriculumofmostagriculturalcollegesanduniversitiestomakethemresponsivetoemergingrequirementsanddemandoftherapidlychangingworkingenvironmentofextensionstaff(ZinnahandAkeredolu2005).

Toaddresstheproblemoflackofresponsivetrainingprogramsforextensionstaff,theUniversityofCapeCoast(UCC)inGhanadeveloped,withtheassistanceoftheSasakawaAfricaAssociation(SAA),theMinistryofFoodandAgriculture(MOFA),andthe


WinrockInternationalInstituteforAgriculturalDevelopment,atwo-year,post-diploma,mid-careerBSc.AgriculturalExtensionprograminOctober1993.TheprogramwasfinanciallysupportedundertheSasakawaAfricanFundforExtensionEducation(SAFE).

ThephilosophyoftheUCCB.Sc.AgriculturalExtensionprogramisbasedontheexperientiallearningmodelwhichemphasisesacombinationoftheory,experience,criticalreflectionandpractice(Kolb1984).Thisphilosophyisgearedtowardsbuildingtheconfidenceandthecommitmentofextensionstaffsothattheycanworkwithfarmersinaparticipatoryway,learningfromthem,helpingthemtotakecontroloftheiractivitiesandenablingthemtolearnontheirown.Innurturingthephilosophyofexperientiallearning,theB.Sc.AgriculturalExtensionprogramplacestremendousemphasisontheoff-campus,farmer-focused,actionresearchcomponentofthetrainingprogramcalledtheSupervisedEnterprise/ExperienceProjects(SEPs).Underthiscomponent,studentswhohavehadaprescribedone-yearperiodoftrainingontheUniversitycampusundertakea6–8months,off-campus,field-based,experientialprogram.

Asanactionresearchmethodology,theSEPsaredesignedtoimmersestudentsinvaluablefarmer-focused,experience-basedlearningactivitiesthatmirrorthetotalmilieusurroundingsubsistenceandsemi-commercialfarmingsystems(Ntifo-Siaw&Bosompem2009;Selener1997;Chambers,1989).Theyaremeanttoreducethediscrepancybetweenthetrainingprovidedandthevarioustaskstheextensionstaffaretoperformintheirworkenvironmentaftertraining.Developmentofcriticalthinkingskills,systemsthinkingcapabilities,problem-solvingstrategiesandthedevelopmentoflife-longlearningattitudesareemphasised.


Objectives of the study

Thegeneralobjectiveofthisstudywastoinvestigatemid-careerextensiongraduates’perceptionsoftheimpactofthedemand-drivenextensioncurriculumontheircompetencies.Thespecificobjectiveswereto:

• describegraduates’perceptionsoftheoveralleffectivenessoftheprogram;

• examinegraduates’perceivedlevelsofcompetenciesinselectedcoursesbeforeandaftertheprogram;

• describegraduates’perceivedstrengthsoftheprogram;

• describegraduates’perceivedweaknessesoftheprogram;

• describetheextenttowhichgraduates’perceivedcareeraspirationshadbeenmet;and

• solicitsuggestionsfromgraduatesforprogramimprovement.

Methodology

Thestudyutilisedadescriptivesurveydesigntoaccomplishitsobjectives.Thedatausedinthisstudywerecollectedthroughavalidatedquestionnaire.Toestablishcontent-validity,theauthors’face-validatedquestionnairewassubmittedforreviewtothreeuniversitylecturerswhohadexperientiallearningexpertise.Theseexpertsassessedandjudgedthequestionnairetobecontent-valid.Atotalof30questionnaireswereadministeredtopurposivelyselectedrespondentscomprisingthe2006B.Sc.AgriculturalExtensiongraduatingclass.Thesurveyinstrumentcomprisedafive-point,Likert-typescaletomeasureperceptionsofrespondentsofthevariablesofthestudy.Open-endedquestionswereincludedtocollectdemographicandotherdataconcerningthegraduates’careeraspirations,thestrengthsandweaknessesoftheprogram,benefitsfromtheprogramandsuggestionsforimprovement.UsingthestatisticalsoftwareSPSSversion10toanalysethedata,descriptivestatistics,includingpercentages,meansandstandarddeviations,


werecomputedtodescribethedata.Thepercentagesdescribedthedistributionofrespondentsonthecharacteristicsofrespondentswhilethemeansandstandarddeviationsdescribedthemeanresponsesonrespondents’perceptionsandtheextenttowhichtheyvariedontheirperceptionsrespectively.Theopen-endedpartofthequestionnairewasanalysedqualitativelybyexaminingandrecordingresponsestoestablishthefrequencyofoccurrenceoftheresponses.Thisenabledthemostimportant(mostoccurring)responsestobeidentifiedanddiscussed.

Results and discussion

Characteristics of respondents

Ofthe30respondents,66.7percentwereintheagegroupof40–49yearswithonly20percentand13.3percentbeingwithintheagegroupsof30–39yearsand50–59yearsrespectively;93.3percenthadbeenworkingforatleast10yearsandonly6.7percenthadbetween5–9years’workingexperience.Theresultsindicatethattherespondentsweremostlymiddle-agedandhadhadsubstantialamountofworkingexperienceasagriculturalextensionagents.

Overall perception of the effectiveness of the program

ThemeansandstandarddeviationsfortheoverallperceptionoftheeffectivenessofthecoursesarepresentedinTable1.


Table 1: Overall perception of the effectiveness of the course

Component of course Mean Standard deviation

Opportunitiesforparticipatingindiscussionsinclass 4.50 0.57

Overallpresentationoftheory 4.48 0.57

SEPssupervision 4.40 0.62

Natureofinteractionwithinstructors 4.38 0.68

Opportunitiesprovidedforsocialisation,e.g.TV,commonroom,etc.

4.17 0.76

Pre-SEPspreparation 3.97 0.85

Classroomorganisation 3.90 0.61

Curriculumbalance:theory/practice/classroom/SEPs 3.87 0.78

Supervisionforreportwriting 3.87 0.78

Facilities 3.37 0.86

Fieldtrips 3.33 0.80

Overallpresentationofpracticals 3.28 0.99

Libraryfacilities 3.23 0.90

Equipment 3.07 0.77

Accesstocomputersforacademicuse 2.97 0.93

Scale:1=Verypoor2=Poor3=Fair4=Good5=Verygood

AsshowninTable1,60%ofthefifteenparametersexaminedundercourseeffectivenesshadmeanratingsbetween3.87and4.50,indicatingthattherespondentsperceivedthemtobegoodaspectsoftheprogram.Facilities,fieldtrips,overallpresentationofpracticallearningactivities,libraryfacilities,equipmentandaccesstocomputershadmeanratingsbetween2.97and3.38indicatingthatrespondentsperceivedtheseaspectsoftheprogramonlytobefair.


Perceived competency before and after the program

Variouscoursestakenaspartoftheextensionprogramareaimedatprovidinginstructionthatwouldimprovethecompetenciesofstudentsinspecifictechnicalareasofagricultureandfarmmanagementaswellaswaysoflivingandworkingaschangeagentsamongpeopleinthecommunity.Pre-programandpost-programassessmentsofcompetenciesofgraduateswithrespecttotheindividualcoursesarepresentedinTable2.

Table 2: Perceived competency before and after program

Course

Before After

Mean Std. Dev Mean Std.

Dev

Agn205:IntroductiontoComputers 1.70 0.84 3.59 0.78

Agn302:Non-TraditionalFarming 2.17 0.91 3.70 0.92

Aex301:RuralSociologyandAgriculturalExtension

2.64 0.62 4.10 0.63

Aex303:SocialChangeandRuralDevelopment

2.33 0.80 4.03 0.67

Aec301:FarmManagementEconomics 2.60 0.67 4.33 0.61

Aex304:AdultandNon-FormalEducation

2.34 0.72 3.97 0.85

Irc301:InformationRetrieval 1.76 0.73 3.73 0.78

Acr301:PrinciplesofHorticulture 2.67 0.88 4.17 0.59

Aex322:PlanningofAdvancedSEPs 1.46 0.64 4.34 0.61

Aex302:CommunicationandExtensionMethods

2.60 0.86 4.27 0.64

Aex305:ExtensionResearchMethods 1.89 0.79 4.03 0.68

Aex306:SystemsThinkingforChangingAgriculture

1.33 0.55 4.03 0.83


Course

Before After

Mean Std. Dev Mean Std.

Dev

Aex307:ParticipatoryResearchMethodsinExtension

2.27 0.74 4.20 0.89

Aex403:ReportandProposalWriting 1.93 0.71 3.38 0.75

Aec401:AgriculturalMarketing 2.43 0.73 4.37 0.61

Aex402:ProgramPlanningandEvaluationinExtension

2.13 0.86 4.27 0.74

Aex405:GroupDynamicsandPublicRelation

2.47 0.83 4.10 0.67

Aex406:Gender,LeadershipandYouthIssuesinExtension

2.13 0.78 4.23 0.63

Aex410:CurrentIssuesinExtensionandTechnology

2.30 0.70 4.07 0.58

Acr404:PestManagement 2.67 0.76 4.33 0.76

Aen401:IrrigationandDrainage 1.97 0.89 3.67 0.76

Aex409:DevelopmentofExtensionTrainingMaterials

2.07 0.83 4.40 0.62

Aex421:ConservationTillage 2.60 0.89 4.45 0.63

Aex422:EvaluationofAdvancedSEPs 1.80 0.85 4.43 0.63

UndertakingSupervisedEnterpriseProjects

1.43 0.77 4.43 0.57

Scale:1=None2=Little3=Some4=Much5=Verymuch

TheresultsfromTable2andFigure1indicatethat,atthestartoftheprogram,graduatesconsideredtheircompetenciesinallbutsixofthe25coursestobebelowaverage(meanvaluelessthan2.5).However,aftertheprogram,allthegraduateshadattainedcompetenciesthatwereratedfromhightoveryhigh.Itisinterestingtonotethatstandarddeviationvaluesforrespondents’perceivedcompetenciesbothbeforeandaftertheprogramwereallbelow1.0indicating


thatrespondentscouldbeconsideredstatisticallyuniformintheirperceptionofthecomponentsoftheprogrambothbeforegoingthroughtheprogramandaftertheyhavebeenthroughit.

Figure 1: Competency levels before and after the program


ResultspresentedinTable3showthatgraduatesperceivedtheircompetencies(overallknowledgeandskills)tohavebeensignificantlyimprovedbytheirparticipationintheprogram.Theoverallmeanvalueofrespondents’perceivedcompetencybeforeparticipatingintheprogramwas2.15whichcorrespondedto‘little’onthefive-point,Likert-typescale.However,afterparticipatingintheprogramrespondents’perceivedcompetencywas4.13whichcorrespondedto‘much’onthescale.Adependentt-testshowedthattheperceivedcompetencygainattributabletotheprogramwasstatisticallysignificantatthe.01levelofsignificance.Thisisanindicationoftheoverallprogrameffectivenessinbringingimprovementinthecompetenciesofgraduates.Itisinterestingtonotethatinboththeinstancesofrespondents’perceivedcompetencybeforeandaftertheprogram,thestandarddeviationvaluesarelow(lessthan1.0)givinganindicationthatrespondentsdidnotvarymuchfromthestatedmeancompetencyvaluesbothbeforeandaftertheprograms.Thusrespondentsweregenerallyagreedontheweakcompetenciesbeforetheprogramandalsogenerallyagreedthattheircompetencieshadbeensignificantlyimprovedaftergoingthroughtheprogram.


Table 3: Comparison of overall perceived competency before and after participation in the program

Item Mean S.D Difference in Mean

t Prob.*

Overallperceivedcompetencybeforeprogram

Overallperceivedcompetencyafterprogram

2.15

4.13

0.48

0.45

1.98 -22.53 0.01

*sig.at.01 N=30

Perceived benefits of the program

Anopen-endedquestionsoughttofindouttheperceivedbenefitsoftheprogram(definedtobetheextenttowhichgraduatesbelievedtheprogramwouldcontributetotheoverallimprovementintheiracademicperformance,status,knowledge,skillsandabilitytosolveproblemsonthejobandachievepositiveresults).Beforetheprogram,thegraduatesclaimedthattheywereatthedead-endintheircareersintermsofadvancementonthepromotionladder.However,aftergoingthroughtheprograms,thegraduatesreportedthattheprogramhadofferedthemtheopportunitytoupgradetheiracademicstatus/credentialsandthereforepresentedthemwithfurtheropportunitytoadvanceonthepromotionalladderinmanagerialpositionspotentiallyuptothepositionofDirector.Theyindicatedthattheprogramhadcontributedtooverallimprovementintheiracademicstatus,knowledge,skillsandabilitytosolveproblemsonthejobandachievepositiveresults.Theyalsoindicatedthattheprogramhadpreparedthemandopenedopportunitiesforthemtopursuefurtherstudiesathigherlevels(i.e.MastersandPhDlevels)iftheysodesired.

Afewexamplesoftheperceivedbenefitsasexpressedbygraduatesarequotedbelow:


Theprogramhashelpedinraisingmyacademicstandards.

Theprogramhasexposedmetoalotofissues.Icannowthinksystemically,lookatissuesfromabroaderperspectivebeforetakingaction.

IhavegainedalotofknowledgeandIaminabetterpositiontoseekinformationandtakeupleadershiproles.

ExperientiallearningthroughtheSEPshasenhancedmyknowledgeandskillsinparticipatoryprojectconceptualisation,planning,implementation,monitoringandevaluation.

Theprogramhasenhancedmyknowledgeindiverseareasincludingcommunication,computing,systemsthinking,critiquing,facilitation,proposalandreportwriting.

Theprogramhasimprovedmyconfidenceleveltoassumeamanagerialposition.

Perceived strengths of the program

Inresponsetoanopen-endedquestionabouthowtheyperceivedthestrengthsoftheprogram,thegraduatesperceivedthestrengthoftheprogramtoinclude:appropriatefacilitiesandconduciveatmospherefortheteaching-learningprocess;availabilityofadequateandcompetentlecturerstohandlethevariouscoursesoftheprogram;committedandsupportiveadministrativestaff;balancedcurriculumintermsoftheoryandpractical;theinclusionofemergingissuesinextensionandtechnologydevelopment;andtheoff-campus,participatoryactionresearchcomponentwhichofferedthemsubstantialpracticalexperienceintheareasofconceptualisation,planning,implementation,monitoringandevaluationofsustainableagriculturaland/orcommunitydevelopmentprojects.Afewexamplesoftheperceivedstrengthsasgivenbygraduatesarehighlightedbelow:

Theprogramisausefuloneandthecombinationofpracticalworkwiththetheorymakesitveryunique.Exposingstudentstoissuesconcerningthelatestpoliciesofgovernmentasfaras


agricultureisconcernedmakesstudentsbecomeabreastwithwhatisgoingonintheministry.

Thecurriculumisrichincontentandrelevanttothedemandsoftheworkenvironment.

Bothacademicandadministrativestaffsareverycommittedtoprogram.

Lecturersareavailable,easilyapproachableandaccessibletostudents.

Availabilityoflibrary,computerroom,accommodation,andlecturetheatresmakelearninglessburdensome.

Perceived weaknesses of the program

Pertainingtoperceivedweaknessesoftheprogram,therespondentsperceivedthefollowingassomeoftheweaknessesintheprogramthatneededtobeaddressed:inadequatecomputersforpracticalhand-oncomputertraining;inadequateseatsforallstudentsinthelibraryatpeakperiodsofdemand;andinadequatefinancialsupportfromtheMinistryofFoodandAgriculturetosupporttheirSEPs.Thegraduatesalsoindicatedtheywouldliketoseecoursesonanimalhealthandfisheriesincludedinthesyllabusandanincreaseinthenumberoffieldtripsandexcursions.

Perceptions of the effectiveness of the program

Respondentswereaskedquestionspertainingtotheperceivedeffectivenessofprogramincontributingtotheirlevelsofcareeraspirationandoverallknowledgeandskillsintendedforuseatwork.TheresultsarepresentedinTable4.Itcanbeinferredfromtheseresultsthattheprogramhadenhancedgraduates’attitudetowardwork,andmetalargepercentageofthecareeraspirationstheyhadbeforeenteringtheprogram.Thegraduatesstatedthattheyintendedtouseasubstantialpercentageoftheoverallknowledgeandskillsacquiredintheirworkplaces.


Table 4: Graduates’ perceptions of the effectiveness of the program on levels of aspirations, overall knowledge and skills intended for use in the workplace

Aspiration

% of aspiration met Frequency Percent of respondents

45–59 2 6.6

60–79 14 46.7

80andabove 14 46.7

Total 30 100.0

Overall knowledge intended for use in the workplace

% of knowledge intended for use

Frequency Percent of respondents

40–59 1 3.3

60–79 8 26.7

80andabove 21 70.0

Total 30 100.0

Overall skills intended for use in the workplace

% overall skill Frequency Percent of respondents

Lessthan20 1 3.3

20–39 1 3.3

60–79 6 20.0

80andabove 22 73.3

Total 30 100.0

AsshowninTable4,93.4%reportedthatatleast60%percentoftheaspirationstheyhadbeforeenteringtheprogramhadbeenmet;96.7%indicatedthattheyintendedtouseatleast60%oftheoverallknowledgeacquiredintheirworkplace;whileanother93.3%


mentionedthatatleast60%oftheoverallskillsacquiredduringtrainingwouldbeputtouseintheworkplace.Theintentionofahighpercentageofthegraduatestoapplyatleast60%percentoftheoverallknowledgeandskillsintheirworkplaceindicatesthattheprogramhadprovidedthemwiththerequisiteskillsandknowledgerelevantfortheactualworkenvironment.Thisfurtherindicatedthattheprogramwasresponsivetotheactualworkenvironmentwithinwhichthegraduateswouldbeoperating.

Askedabouttheeffectoftheprogramonthegraduates’attitudestowork,alltherespondentsassertedthattheprogramhadhadapositiveeffectontheirattitudetowork.Onthebasisoftheirexperienceintheprogram,96.7%ofthegraduatesreportedthatgiventheopportunitytheywouldrecommendtheprogramtoothers.

Suggestions for improvement of the program

Thefollowingsuggestionswereofferedbygraduatesforimprovingtheprogram:

• UCCandotherstakeholders(MoFAandSAA)shouldstrategisetoprocureadequatenumbersofcomputersandreferencematerials/textbooksforthecomputerroomandlibraryrespectively;

• Effortsshouldbemadetoincreasetheseatingcapacityinthelibrary

• Frequencyoffieldtripsandexcursionsshouldbeincreasedtoenhancegraduates’exposuretofieldactivitiesandtheirpracticalknowledge;

• Thecurriculumshouldbereviewedtoincorporatecoursesinanimalproductionandhealth,fisheriesandaquacultureandeducationalpsychology—thesecoursesmaybeofferedaselectivecourseswithintheprogram;

• MoFAshouldbeencouragedtoincreaseitsfinancialsupporttothestudentsfortheimplementationofSEPs;and


• Accesstothecomputerroomandlibraryshouldbeimprovedandenablestudentstospendmoretimethere.

Conclusions and recommendations

TheresultsofthisstudyhaveclearlyshownthatexperientiallearningworksandthatthecurriculumoftheB.Sc.AgriculturalExtensionprogramhasbeenveryeffectiveinmeetingtheeducationalneedsofthegraduates.Forexample,respondentsgenerallyagreedthattheircompetenciesinvariousareashadbeensignificantlyimprovedaftergoingthroughtheprogram.Thestudyhasalsoshownthattheimplementationofaresponsivecurriculumimprovedattitudetoworkandcontributedtobuildingtheconfidenceoftherespondents.Therelevanceofsuchdemand-drivencurriculumcanbeinferredfromtheexpressedintentionofrespondentstoapplyasubstantialamountoftheacquiredknowledgeandskillstoworkenvironmentsituations.

ThefindingsalsosuggestthatuniversitiesandcollegesinvolvedinthetrainingofhumanresourcesfortheagriculturalsectorcanimprovetheirprogramsthroughcurriculumrevitalisationasinthecaseoftheUniversityofCapeCoasttomakethemmoreresponsivetotheworkingenvironmentoftheirgraduatesandsocietyatlarge.Itisrecommendedthatinbalancingtheoryandpractice,innovativewaysshouldbesoughtsuchashappenedwiththeoff-campus,supervisedenterpriseprojects.Suchanexerciseshouldinvolveallstakeholdersespeciallyintheneedsassessment,design,planning,implementation,monitoringandevaluationoftheprogram.ItisalsoimportanttoaddressproblemsrelatedtotheeducationalsupportsystemsuchasthelibraryandICTfacilitieswhenrevitalisingandimplementingsuchcurricula.


References

Burkey,S(1993).People first: A guide to self-reliant, participatory rural development,London:ZedBooks.

Carson,AG(2000).‘HumanresourcesurveyofagriculturalextensionworkersinSub-SaharanAfrica’.InKwartengJA(ed.),Extension education: Developing sustainable agricultural extension systems in Africa through partnership and farmer empowerment.ProceedingsoftheThirdInformalConsultationonInternationalSupporttoAgriculturalExtensionSystemsinAfricaandJointWorkshoponExtensionPersonnelTraininginAfrica,CapeCoast,19–24October1997:23–28.

Carson,AG(2000).‘Casestudyofinnovativeagriculturalextensiontraining:UniversityofCapeCoast,Ghana’.InBreth,SA(ed.),Innovative extension education in Africa,MexicoCity:SasakawaAfricaAssociation.

Chambers,R(1989).‘Reversal,institutionsandchange’.InChambers,R,Pacey,AandThrupp,LA(eds.),Farmer first: Innovations and agricultural research,London:IntermediateTechnologyPublications:181–195.

Crowder,LV,Lindley,WI,Bruening,TH&Doron,N(1998).‘Agriculturaleducationforsustainableruraldevelopment:Challengesfordevelopingcountriesinthe21stcentury’,Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension,5(2):71–84.

FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO)(1990).Strategy options for intermediate and higher level education and training in agriculture in French-speaking Africa.Summaryreportofaregionalroundtable,heldinOuagadougou,BurkinaFaso,3–7December.

FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO)(1993).‘Humanresourcedevelopmentinagriculture:Developingcountryissues’.InAgriculture: Toward 2010,Rome:Chapter10.

FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO)(1996).Training for agriculture and rural development 1995–96,No.54,Rome.

Kolb,D(1984).Experiential learning: Experience as a source of learning and development,EnglewoodCliffs,NewJersey:Prentice-Hall.


Kwarteng,JA,Zinnah,MM&Ntifo-Siaw,E(1998).‘ThestatusandconstraintsoftrainingextensionstaffinAfrica:AnAfricanview’.InKwarteng,JA(ed.)Extension education: Developing sustainable agricultural extension systems in Africa through partnership and farmer empowerment.ProceedingsoftheThirdInformalConsultationonInternationalSupporttoAgriculturalExtensionSystemsinAfricaandJointWorkshoponExtensionPersonnelTraininginAfrica,CapeCoast,19–24October1997:7–9.

Lindley,WI(2000).‘Constraintsandpotentialsoftrainingmid-careerextensionprofessionalsinAfrica’.InBreth,SA(ed.),Innovative extension education in Africa,MexicoCity:SasakawaAfricaAssociation.

Maguire,CJ(2000).‘AgriculturaleducationinAfrica:Managingchange’.InKwarteng,JA(ed.),Extension education: Reshaping Africa universities and colleges for the 21st Century,Geneva:CentreforAppliedStudiesinInternationalNegotiations:29–43.

Ntifo-Siaw,E&Bosompem,M(2009).‘Makingacaseforactionresearchmethodology:AstudyoftheUCCSAFEProgramformid-levelextensionpersonnel’.InMensah,JV,Kendie,SB&Enu-Ewusi,F(eds.),Re-thinking development studies in Africa,ConferenceProceedingsIDS/UCCISBN9988–7989–0-4:Chapter12.

Opio-Odongo,J(2000).‘RolesandchallengesofagriculturalextensioninAfrica’.InBreth,SA(ed.),Innovative extension education in Africa.MexicoCity:SasakawaAfricaAssociation:5–15.

Selener,D(1997). Participatory action research and social change,Ithaca,NewYork:CornellUniversityPress.

Swanson,BE(1990).Report of the global consultation on agricultural extension,Rome:FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations.

Zinnah,MM,Steele,R&Mattocks,D(1998).‘Frommargintomainstream:Revitalizationofagriculturalextensioncurriculainuniversitiesandcollegesinsub-SaharanAfrica’.InTraining for agriculture and rural development 1997–98,No.55,Rome:FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations.

Zinnah,MM&Akeredolu,M(2005).‘TheSAFEinitiativeinAfrica:Ageneraloverview’,proceedingsofaregionaltechnicalworkshopfortraininginstitutionsinvolvedintheSAFEPrograminWestAfrica,3–5May,Ouagadougou,BurkinaFaso.


About the authors

Joseph A. Kwarteng is an associate professor of agricultural extension in the School of Agriculture, University of Cape Coast, Ghana.

Samuel Akuamoah Boateng is a lecturer in the Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, University of Cape Coast, Ghana.

Contact details

E-mail: [email protected] Tel: 233–20–8134762


The interrelatedness of formal, non-formal and informal learning: Evidence from labour market

program participants

Roslyn CameronCentral Queensland University

Jennifer L. HarrisonSouthern Cross University

Definitions, differences and relationships between formal, non-formal and informal learning have long been contentious. There has been a significant change in language and reference from adult education to what amounts to forms of learning categorised by their modes of facilitation. Nonetheless, there is currently a renewed interest in the recognition of non-formal and informal learning internationally and in Australia. This has been evidenced through the New OECD Activity on Recognition of Non-Formal and Informal Learning and recent policy developments in Australia. These developments have implications for the recognition of skills derived from informal and non-formal learning, especially for those disadvantaged in the labour market. This paper reports on

278 Roslyn Cameron and Jennifer L. Harrison

data from a learning grid in a Learning Survey of labour market program participants (n = 172) from northern New South Wales and southern Queensland. We find that life (informal learning) and work experience (non-formal learning) are relatively more important for gaining self-reported skills than formal training/study. We conclude by arguing for a holistic focus on the dynamic interrelatedness of these forms of learning rather than being constrained by a deterministic dichotomy between formality and informality.

Introduction

Thisstudylooksattherelativityandinterconnectednessbetweenthethreeformsoflearning—formal,non-formalandinformal—forself-reportedskillsetsfromlabourmarketprogram(LMP)participants.LMPparticipantsareconsideredtobedisadvantagedinthelabourmarketbuttheyareapotentialsourceoflabourforamarketunderimmenseskillanddemographicpressures.DespitetherecentglobalfinancialcrisisAustraliaisexperiencingsignificantskillshortagesandwillsoonfeeltheeffectsofthedemographictsunamiofthe‘babyboomer’generationleavingtheworkforceenmasse.Governmentpolicyandfundedinitiativestoincreaseworkforceparticipationandaddresshumancapitalconcernshasbroughttherecognitionofnon-formalandinformallearning(RNFIL)totheforefrontofseveralpolicydriversaimedatgroupsexcludedandtraditionallydisadvantagedinthelabourmarket.Nowmorethanever,therecognitionofinformalandnon-formallearningwillneedtobeconsideredtoassistthesegroupsandhelpalleviatesomeofthelabourmarketpressuresbeingexperienced.

TherehavebeenthreesetsofpolicydriversbehindbringingRNFILbacktotheforefrontofpolicy.TheseincludetheSocialInclusionagenda,theCouncilofAustralianGovernments’(COAG)NationalSkillsandWorkforceDevelopmentAgreement,andthe2008

The interrelatedness of formal, non-formal and informal learning 279

MinisterialDeclarationonAdultCommunityEducation(ACE).In2009COAGestablishedtheVocational Education and Training—National Skills and Workforce Development Agreement. ThisagreementaimstoimprovethefoundationalskillsofAustralia’sworkingagepopulationtoenableeffectiveeducational,labourmarketandsocialparticipationandtoensuretheAustralianworkingagepopulationhastheskillsandcapabilitiesforthe21stcenturylabourmarketandtoincreasehumancapitalinnovation,productivityandutilisation(COAG2008).TheestablishmentoftheMinistryforSocialInclusionandrelatedpolicydirectionsfromtheAustralianGovernmentaddsanotherpolicydimensiontothepotentialrolethatRNFILcouldplayinaddressingmajorissuesthatemergefromthesocialinclusionagenda.Forexample,manyoftheprimaryandsecondaryindicatorsofsocialinclusionhavedirectrelevancetothepracticeofRNFILandthefivekeyforces(Pierson2001)thatdrivetheprocessofsocialinclusion(povertyandlowincome;lackofaccesstothejobmarket;limitedsocialsupportsandnetworks;theeffectofthelocalneighbourhood;andexclusionfromservices).

TheMinisterialCouncilforVocationalandTechnicalEducationannouncedanewMinisterialDeclarationonACEin2008(MCVTCE2008)whichacknowledgestheoriginal2002DeclarationandtheroleplayedbytheACEsectorindevelopingsocialcapital,communitycapacityandsocialparticipation.The2008DeclarationofACEextendsbeyondtheseareastotheACEsector’s‘potentialtorespondtochangedindustrial,demographicandtechnologicalcircumstances,andencouragesacollaborativeapproachtoACEtoallowthesectortomakeagreatercontributionto…skillsandworkforcedevelopment’(MCVTCE2008).Bowman(2009:1)reportsthatthe2008MinisterialDeclarationonACE‘focusesonoptimisingthenationalcapacityofACEproviderstodelivervocationallyfocusedprogramswhichleadtofurthertrainingand/orworkforceparticipationwithaparticularfocusinengagingthedisadvantagedinsuchprogramsandeconomiclife’.Ultimately,theDeclarationprovidesACEwitha


significantrole‘attheinterfacebetweenthetwonationalagendasofHumanCapitalReformandSocialInclusion’(Bowman2009:2).

Thispaperwilloverviewthekeyliteratureoninformal,non-formalandformallearning,beforereportingtwostudiesthathaveattemptedtomeasureadultlearningatanationallevel(CanadaandAustralia).ThepaperwillthendescribeinternationalbasedinitiativesandpolicyrelatedtoRNFILbeforepresentingthefindingsfromtheLearningSurveyoflabourmarketparticipantsandtherelateddiscussionsandconclusions.

Key literature on formal, non-formal and informal learning

Amuchquotedsetofdefinitionsforformal,non-formalandinformallearninghasbeendevelopedbytheOECD(2005):

Formallearning:Referstolearningthroughaprogrammeofinstructioninaneducationalinstitution,adulttrainingcentreorintheworkplace,whichisgenerallyrecognisedinaqualificationoracertificate.

Non-formallearning:Referstolearningthroughaprogrammebutitisnotusuallyevaluatedanddoesnotleadtocertification.

Informallearning:Referstolearningresultingfromdailywork-related,familyorleisureactivities.In1996,theOECDeducationministersagreedtodevelopstrategiesfor‘lifelonglearningforall’.Theapproachhasbeenendorsedbyministersoflabour,ministersofsocialaffairsandtheOECDCouncilatministeriallevel.

Attemptstodefineformal,informalandnon-formallearningareoftenreferredtoasproblematic,blurred,competing,contestedandcontradictory(Colley,Hodkinson&Malcolm2003;Golding,Brown&Foley2009;Hager&Halliday2006;Werquin2007).AresearchreportcommissionedbytheLearningandSkillsDevelopmentAgency(LSDA)ofEnglandtomaptheconceptualterrainaroundnon-formallearning(Colley,Hodkinson&Malcom2003)isoneofthemostrecentandcomprehensiveconceptualanalysesofinformalityand


formalityinlearningtodate.Thereportnotonlysynthesisesthebroad-basedliteratureinthisareabutalsocontributessignificantlytofuturedevelopmentofandresearchintotheseaspectsofadultlearning.Thereportacknowledgesthehighlycontestedandevencontradictorynatureoftheseconcepts.However,theauthorscategorisedefinitionalcriteriaaroundtwodimensions:atheoreticaldimensionandapoliticaldimension,asfollows:

• Differingtheoreticalapproachestolearning(theoreticaldimension);

• Contrastingclaimsabouttheeffectivenessoflearning(theoreticaldimension);

• Differingclaimsabouttherelationshipbetweenlearningandknowledge(theoreticaldimension);

• Attemptstoempowerunderprivilegedlearners(politicaldimension);and

• Attemptstoharnesslearningforinstrumentalpurposes,includingsocialinclusionandeconomiccompetitiveness(politicaldimension)(Colleyetal.,2003:64).

ThesetheoreticalandpoliticaldimensionshaveinfluencedtheoperationalisationoftheseconceptsinverydifferentdirectionsfromtheearlierwritingsofadultlearningtheoristsDeweyandKnowles,andrepresentasignificantandtheoreticallyinterestingtransition.

ThestancetakenbyGolding,BrownandFoley(2009)providesanexampleofhowinformallearningisviewedintermsofbothatheoreticalandapoliticaldimension.Theauthorsrefertothepowerdifferentialthatcreatesasystematicdevaluingofinformallearning.Theygoontostatethatthe‘verynatureofinformallearning,particularlyitsunstructuredandorganicquality,workstodis-empowerarangeofadultstakeholdersanddiminishitsvalueasameaningfuleducationalpursuitinasystemthatvalueshighlystructured,systematised,outcome-drivenapproachestoyoung


people’slearning’(Goldingetal.2009:53).Coffield(2000:8)alsotakesatheoreticalstanceintermsoftherelationshipbetweenlearningandknowledgebyarguingfortherelativere-valuingofinformallearning:

Informallearningshouldnolongerberegardedasaninferiorformoflearningwhosemainpurposeistoactastheprecursorofformallearning;itneedstobeseenasfundamental,necessaryandvaluableinitsownright,attimesdirectlyrelevanttoemploymentandatothertimesnotrelevantatall.

Intermsofinformallearning,McGivney(2002)statesthereisnounanimouslyaccepteddefinition.Sheclaimsthattryingtoexplaininformallearningislike‘tryingtograspjelly’,andthatitiseasiertodescribewhatinformallearningisnotthantotrytodescribewhatitis(McGivney2002:102).Nonetheless,theauthorfallsbackonthedefinitionwhichstatesinformallearningisaprocessbywhichindividualsacquirevalues,skillsandknowledgefromdailyexperience.Livingstone(2000a:2)definesinformallearningas‘undertakenonone’sown,eitherindividuallyorcollectively,withouteitherexternallyimposedcriteriaorthepresenceofaninstitutionallyauthorizedinstructor’.

Someauthorsandcommentatorshavenotedproblemswiththeemphasisondifferencesbetweenformsoflearning.Davies(2001:113)hasexpressedconcernsaboutthedivisionbetweendifferenttypesoflearning:

Idohavesomeconcernsthatthenotionofformal,non-formalandinformalmaybecomefixedasifthesearethreeroomswithhighwallsaroundthemsothattheintegratedholisticwayinwhichrealpeoplelearnandmakesenseoftheirworldislost.Itmaybethatwhilebreakingdownboundariesbetweensectors,newboundariesarebeingconstructedarounddifferentformsoflearning.


Colley,HodkinsonandMalcolm(2004:3)makeastrongconnectionbetweeninformalandformallearningthroughthenotionofattributes:

Itismoresensibletoseeattributes of informality and formality aspresentinalllearningsituations.Attributesofin/formalityareinterrelateddifferentlyindifferentsituations.Thoseattributesandtheirinterrelationshipsinfluencethenatureandeffectivenessoflearning.Changingthebalancebetweenformalandinformalattributeschangesthenatureofthelearning.

Marsick(2009),inaguesteditorialfocuseduponaunifyingframeworktosupportinformallearningtheory,researchandpractice,concludesthat,althoughinformallearningisalwaysdefinedincontrasttoformallearning,theyinteractinimportantways.

Adiscussiononformal,informalandnon-formallearningcannotbeadequatelycoveredwithoutmentioningtheworkofEraut(2000)inrelationtonon-formallearning,implicitknowledgeandtacitknowledgewithintheworkplace.Eraut’sresearchfoundthatadegreeofexplicitnessisneededforimprovingwork-basedperformance:

…thicktacitversionsofpersonalknowledgecoexistwiththinexplicitversions:thethickversionisusedinpractice,thethinversionfordescribingandjustifyingthatpractice…Ifpeople’stacitpersonalknowledgeandimplicitlearningaredevalued,theirconfidencewilldiminishandtheiruseof,andinterestin,moreformalknowledgewillalsosuffer(Eraut2000:29).

Eraut(2000)developedatypologytoexplorethefullrangeoflearningprocessesormodesthatfallwithinthisdomainof‘non-formallearning’.

Similarly,Schugurensky(2000)developedataxonomyofinformallearningbyusingtwomaincriteriafordistinguishinglearning:intentionalityandconsciousness(awareness).Thesetwocriteriaarethenmappedagainstthreeforms(types)ofinformallearning:self-directedlearning,incidentallearningandsocialisation.This


resultsinself-directedlearningatoneendofaspectrumofinformallearning,theotherendoccupiedbysocialisationandincidentallearningoccurringsomewhereinbetween(Schugurensky2000:5).Werquin(2007:5)proffersasimilarmappingexercisewithtwocomponentsusedtodefinethemodeoflearning:intentionallearning,andwhethertheactivityhaslearningobjectives.Thismappingexerciseproducesasetoffourtypesoflearning:

• FormalLearning (TypeILearning);

• Non-FormalLearning (TypeIILearning);

• Semi-Formallearning (TypeIIILearning);

• InformalLearning (TypeIVLearning).

Semi-FormalLearning(TypeIIILearning)isdefinedaslearninginwhichindividuals,‘maylearnduringactivitieswithlearningobjectivesbuttheylearnbeyondthelearningobjectives;thisissemi-formal learning…Individualshavetheintentionoflearningaboutsomethingand,withoutknowingit,learnalsoaboutsomethingelse’(Werquin2007:5).

Recently,Illeris(2009)exploredthebarriersbetweendifferentlearningspacessoastobridgethegapbetweenlearningthatoccursinsideschoolsandoutsideschools.Heidentifiedfivemainlearningspacesincontemporarysociety:

1. Everydaylearning

2. Schoolandeducationallearning

3. Workplacelearning

4. Interest-basedlearning

5. Net-basedlearning(Illeris2009:139–140).

TheinclusionofthelastlearningspacehasalsobeennotedbyHalliday-WynesandBeddie(2009:7–8),althoughtheydonotdefineitassuch.Theyrefertotheuseoftechnologyorinformationcommunicationtechnologies(e.g.websites,blogs,socialnetworking


sites)andhowthemassconsumptionofthesenewtechnologiesisexpandingthehiddenicebergofinformallearning.Thesetechnologiesarefacilitatinginformallearningandconnectingthephysicalspacesoflearningtovirtuallearningspacesthroughmobilephonesandwirelesswebaccess.

Thedefinitionoflearningspacesisnotwithoutitscontroversiesandisalsoaproblematicarea.Billett(2002:56)arguesthat‘describingworkplacelearningenvironmentsandexperiencesas“informal”…constrainsunderstandingabouthowlearningoccursthroughwork’.Hearguesthatthisdescriptionoflearningenvironmentsaseitherformalorinformalleadsto‘situationaldeterminism’insteadofviewinglearningas‘inter-dependentbetweentheindividualandthesocialpractice’(Billett2002:56).Ascanbeseenfromthediscussionoftheliterature,thedefiningofformsoflearningandlearningspacesremainsanareaofconceptualandtheoreticaldialogueanddebate.Weargueforafocusontherelativityandinterconnectednessoftheseformsoflearningandlearningspaces.

International interest in the recognition of non-formal and informal learning

Internationally,theOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)hasbeenresearchingandpromotingtheimportanceoflifelonglearning,careerdevelopmentandtherecognitionofnon-formalandinformallearning.SeveralstudieshavebeencommissionedbytheOECDandotherinternationalandEuropeanbodiesintheseareas(CommissionofEuropeanCommunities2000;EuropeanCommission2001;OECD2003;TheWorldBank2003).TheDirectorateofEducationwithintheOECDviewstherecognitionofnon-formalandinformallearningasacrucialpartofthelifelonglearningagenda:

Therecognitionofnon-formalandinformallearningisanimportantmeansformakingthe‘lifelonglearningforall’agenda


arealityand,subsequently,forreshapinglearningtobettermatchtheneedsofthe21stcenturyknowledgeeconomiesandopensocieties(OECD2007:1).

Therehavebeenseveralprojectsofacross-countryandinternationalnatureconductedbyinternationalbodieswhichacknowledgethevalueofrecognisingnon-formalandinformallearning.Theseinclude:Identification, assessment and recognition of non-formal learning in Europe (Bjornavold2000); Transfine TRANSsfer between formal, informal and non-formal education (Davies2003);Making learning visible (OECD2007);andtheNew OECD activity on recognition of non-formal and informal learning (Werquin2010).

Measuring the extent of non-formal and informal learning

TheworkofLivingstone(2000a,2000b,2001),throughthefirstcountry-widesurveyofinformallearningpracticesofadultsinCanada,hasexpandedthenotionsoflearningandwork.TheNationalResearchNetworkonNewApproachestoLifelongLearning(NALL)surveywasfirstconductedin1998,andhasfoundthatadults’explicitinformallearningisveryextensive.LivingstoneacknowledgestheearlierworkofTough(1978)andtheuseofthemetaphoroftheiceberg,wherethesubmergedpartoftheicebergrepresentsadults’informallearningactivities.TheNALLsurveyfoundthatrespondents’formal/informallearningrepresenteda20/80percentsplit.Twentypercentofallmajorlearningeffortswereformal,orinotherwordsinstitutionallyorganised(e.g.drivinglessons,pianolessons).Thiswasusuallyone-on-one,butinvolvedaprofessional,formalsituation.Theother80percentwereinformal.Seventythreepercentwereplannedbythelearnersthemselves,wherethelearnersdecidedthewhatandthehowofthelearning.Threepercentwereundertakenwithafriend,neighbourorco-workerteachingthelearnersomething,andfourpercentwerewithinapeergroupwithoutanykindofprofessionalhelp.AnotherfindingfromtheNALLsurveywasthatinformallearningisaverysocialphenomenonandthat‘…theremay


actuallybemoresocialinteractionininformallearningthanthereisinclassroomlearning’(Tough2002:3).

AsignificantfindingfromtheresearchwasthelevelofsurpriseNALLsurveyrespondentsexpressedatthevolumeoflearningtheyhadcompletedandthevarietyofmethodstheyhadutilisedinthislearning.

…thisispartoftheicebergphenomenon—notonlyareweasasociety(oraseducators)oblivioustoinformallearning,wedon’tevennoticeourown.That’sright,peopledon’tevennoticetheirowninformallearning.Sowhatdowedoaboutthis?Ithinkit’sreallyempoweringandhelpfulandsupportivetoencouragepeopletolookattheirownlearning(Tough2002:7).

In2007theAustralianBureauofStatistics(ABS)conductedasurveyofAdult Learning in Australia(ABS2007)andfoundthat:

Oneineight(12%or1.3million)Australiansaged25to64yearsparticipatedinsomeformofformallearninginthe12monthspriortointerviewin2006–07.Almostone-third(30%or3.3millionpersons)participatedinnon-formallearningandapproximatelythree-quarters(74%or8.1millionpersons)participatedinsomeformofinformallearning…Thoseemployedfull-timeweremorelikelytohaveparticipatedinsomeformoflearningthanpersonsnotinthelabourforce(84%comparedto62%).Unemployedpersonshadlowerparticipationinnon-formal(25%comparedto38%)andinformallearningcomparedtopersonsemployedfull-time(71%comparedto79%)(ABS2007:3).

TheABSsurveyalsofoundthatthemostcommonformofnon-formallearningwaswork-relatedcourses(78%or2.6millionpersons)followedbyarts,craftsorrecreationallearning(12%).Themainfieldsofnon-formallearningwereinmanagementandcommerce(25%)andhealth(22%)(ABS2007:4–5).Forinformallearning,thesurveyfound8.1millionAustraliansparticipatedintheprevious12monthswithrelativelyevennumbersacrossgender(76%ofmalesand73%offemales).Themostcommonformofinformallearningwasreading


manuals,referencebooks,journalsorotherwrittenmaterials(75%),followedbyusingcomputersortheInternet(71%).Thosewhoindicatedtheydidnotparticipateinanyformoflearningrepresentedone-fifthofAustraliansandweremorelikelytonotbeinthelabourforcethanthoseemployedfull-timeorunemployed(38%comparedto16%and24%).Labouringwasthemostcommonoccupationalgroupfornon-participators(18%)andthemostcommonindustryforthosewhodidnotparticipatewasthemanufacturingindustry(14%)followedbytheretailtradeindustry(11%)(ABS2007:5).

Inconsiderationoftheseissues,thepresentstudysoughttoinvestigatethecombiningandrelativeimportanceofformal,non-formalandinformallearning.Inparticular,tworesearchquestionsrelatedtocombiningformsoflearningwereaddressed:

RQ1:Areskillsgainedbyasingleformoflearningorbycombinationsofforms?

RQ2:Aretheredifferencesincombiningofformsoflearningbasedondemographicfactors?

Afurtherthreeresearchquestionsrelatedtotherelativityofformsoflearningwereaddressed:

RQ3:Aretheredifferencesbetweenthepercentagesofskillsgainedfromdifferentformsoflearning?

RQ4:Arethereinteractionsbetweenthepercentageofskillsgainedfromdifferentformsoflearninganddemographicfactors?

RQ5:Isthereaninteractionbetweenthepercentageofskillsgainedfromdifferentformsoflearningandcategoryofskill?

Method and sample description

TheapproachtakeninthisstudywasexploratoryandutiliseddatadrawnfromabroaderLearningSurveyadministeredto247labourmarketprogramparticipantsinvariousprogramsruninsoutheastQueenslandandnorthernNewSouthWalesinAustralia.Thesurvey


addressedissuesacrossseveralthemes:currenttraining/study;computeraccessanddigitalliteracy;previouseducationandtraining;awarenessofrecognitionofpriorlearning(RPL);experiencewithRPL;futureintentionsforlearning;andmotivationsandinfluencesonlearning.Thesurveywasadministeredbytheresearcherorbytrainers/facilitatorsoflabourmarketprogramstogroupsoflabourmarketprogramparticipants.Anaimoftheresearchwastoaccessasampleofpeopleconsideredtobedisadvantagedinthelabourmarket.AmajorcriticismoftwolargeAustralianresearchreportsonRPL(Bowmanetal.2003;Wheelahanetal.2003)wasthattheresearchutilisedlargesecondarydatasetsofexistingpopulationsofstudentswithinformallearningsettings;thatis,peoplealreadyengagedinsomeformofformallearningwithaneducationalinstitution.Amajoraimofthisresearchwastoaccessasamplenotengagedinsomeformofformallearningwithintheexistingeducationalsectors,alongwithbeingdisadvantagedwithinthelabourmarket.Itwasdecidedthataccessingparticipantsonlabourmarketprogramswouldbeanefficientmeansbywhichtocapturesuchademographic.ParticipantsonlabourmarketprogramsareusuallyregisteredasunemployedorseekingemploymentwithCentrelinkand/orreceivingsomeformofgovernmentbenefitorallowance.Labourmarketprogramsareusuallytargetedtocertaingroupsofdisadvantagedjobseekersinreceiptofbenefits/allowances.Limitationscommontosurveyswereaddressedinthebroaderstudy.

Thesamplingframeforthebroaderstudywasthoseindividualswhowerecurrentlyunemployedandparticipatinginalabourmarketprogram.Thesamplingtechniquesusedwerepurposefulandsnowballsamplingwherelabourmarketprogramswereidentifiedthroughgovernmentfundingbodywebsitesandthenbyrequestingreferralstoothersimilarprogramsbythoseorganisationsfundedtoconductthelabourmarketprograms.Samplebiasoccurredwhenagroupattendingacoursenotconsideredtobealabourmarket


programwasincluded.Thisgroupwasengagedinatrainingcoursethatwasfulltime,fee-payingandataCertificateIIIAQFlevelandwasincludedastheyrepresentedthoseindividualsconsideredhiddenunemployed—registeredwithCentrelinkbutnotreceivingunemploymentbenefitsduetotheemploymentstatusoftheirspouse.Duetothenatureofthesample,thefindingsarelimitedtounemployedadults.Validskillsdataforthepurposeofthepresentstudywereprovidedby172oftheparticipants.SampledemographicsareprovidedinTable1.ThesamplelargelyconsistsofunemployedadultsandthehighesteducationalachievementofthesamplebroadlymatchesthedistributionforunemployedintheSurvey of Education and Training(ABS2005).

Table 1: Sample demographics

Gender(n=169):

Male 75

Female 94

Age(n=170):

15–19 11

20–24 15

25–29 6

30–34 4

35–39 11

40–44 26

45–49 35

50–54 29

55–59 23

60+ 10

Employment status(n=170)

Employed 18


Unemployed 152

Length of unemployment(n=138):

<6months 30

6monthsto1year 29

>1year 79

Highest education level(n=166):

UptoSchoolCertificate/Year10/equivalent 71

HigherSchoolCertificate/Year12/equivalent 37

TAFE/CollegeCertificate 33

Diploma 9

Bachelordegree 9

Postgraduate 7

TheLearningSurveyincludedalearninggridforlistingandproportioningself-reportedskillsacrossformsoflearning.Morespecifically,surveyrespondentswhereaskedtolistuptothreeoftheirskillsand,foreachskill,allocatetheirlearningofthatskillacrossthreeformsoflearning:lifeexperience,workexperienceandformaltraining/study.Asmentionedearlierinthispaper,definitionsofformal,non-formalandinformallearningareproblematicandcontested.Wedonotassumealllifeexperienceisinformallearning,allworkexperienceisinformalorallformaltrainingisformallearning.However,forthepurposesofthisdatacollectionexercisethesethreecategorieswereutilised.

Allocationsforeachofthethreecategories(lifeexperience,workexperienceandformaltraining/study)werepercentages,sothatforeachskillthetotalacrossthethreeformsoflearningequals100%.Atotalof460skillswerereportedbyrespondentsalongwithproportionsacrossthethreeformsoflearning.Atotalof129respondentsprovideddataforthreeself-reportedskills,


30respondentsprovideddatafortwoskillsand13respondentsprovideddataforonlyoneskill.

Theself-reportedskillswerecodedusingtheAustralian Standard Classification of Education (ASCED)(ABS2001).The6-digitcodesfromtheASCEDwereusedininitialcoding.Aggregationto4-and2-digitcodeswaslaterperformedusingSPSS’srecodefeature.Codingwasundertakenusingthefollowingprocess.First,theauthorsandaresearchassistantdiscussedthecodingschemeandasagroupcodedtensurveys.Theresearchassistantthencodedtheremainingsurveys.However,oninstruction,anyskillsthattheresearchassistanthadanydoubtsoverwereasteriskedandlistedonaseparatesheet,indexedbacktotheoriginalsurvey.Whentheresearchassistantcompletedworkingthroughthesurveys,the‘asteriskedlist’wasforwardedtotheauthors,whoeachconsideredtheskillsonthelistandcodedthem.Discrepanciesincodeswerediscussedandagreementreached.Itisnoted,however,thatagreementwasevidentintheinitialcodingforthemajorityoftheseasteriskedskillssuggestingahighlevelofinter-coderreliability.

Table2presentsthefrequencyandpercentageofself-reportedskillsfallingintoeachofthe2-digitlevelclassificationsindescendingfrequencyorder.Thetablealsoincludesexamplesoftheskillsrepresentedineachcategory.Managementandcommerceskillsrepresentthehighestpercentage(41%)ofself-reportedskillsandallother2-digitclassificationsrepresented10%orlessofallreportedskills.Veryfewrespondentsreportedskillsrelatedtonaturalandphysicalsciences(2mentions),informationtechnology1(6mentions),health(8mentions)andeducation(11mentions).ExaminationoftheexamplesinTable2indicatesthatmostarelowlevelskills,aswould

1 ‘Computerskills’wascommonlymentioned,howeverthiswasclassifiedundermanagementandcommerce,whichincludesacode(080905)for‘PracticalComputingSkills’.ThiswasconsideredmorerelevantforgeneralcomputerskillsthanthecomputerscienceorientationcapturedbytheInformationTechnology2-digitclassification.


begenerallyexpectedfromthissample.Forexample,33%oftheskillsreportedintheengineeringandrelatedtechnologiescategory,whichmadeup10%ofallskillsreported,relatedtocleaning.

Table 2: Self-reported skills

2-digit classification n % Examples

Management&Commerce 188 40.9 Sales;secretarialandclerical;practicalcomputing

Engineering&RelatedTechnologies

46 10.0 Cleaning;automotive;mechanical

MixedFields 42 9.1 Socialandinterpersonal;workpractices

CreativeArts 38 8.3 Artsandcrafts;music;writing

Food,Hospitality&PersonalServices

37 8.0 Cooking;barservice;waiting;driving;massage

Society&Culture 33 7.2 Sportandrecreation;childandagedcare

Architecture&Building 28 6.1 Building;painting;laboring

Agriculture,Environmental&Related

21 4.6 Gardening;mowing;animalhusbandry

Education 11 2.4 Teaching;training

Health 8 1.7 Nursing;firstaid

InformationTechnology 6 1.3 IT;programming;technician

Natural&PhysicalSciences 2 0.4 Maths;chemistry

Total 460 100

Giventheprevalenceofmanagementandcommerceskillsreportedbythesample,thesearebrokendownfurtherinTable3.Practicalcomputingskillsmadeupthelargestnumberofskillsinthiscategoryat37%.Thenextmostcommontypeofmanagementandcommerce


skillreportedwassales.Allothercategoriesrepresentedlessthan10%ofmentionedmanagementandcommerceskills.

Table 3: Management and commerce skills

n %Examples of respondents’ wording

Practicalcomputingskills 69 36.7 Computer,wordprocessing,MicrosoftOffice

Sales 42 22.3 Customerservice,cashiering,sales,retail

Secretarialandclerical 15 8.0 Reception,secretarial,clerical

Office 12 6.4 Officeadmin,recordkeeping,

Accounting 10 5.3 Accounting,bookkeeping,budgeting

Businessandmanagement

10 5.3 Supervisory,manager,changemanagement

Purchasing,warehousinganddistribution

10 5.3 Packer,courier,truckdriving,forklift,stores

Keyboardskills 7 3.7 Typing

Marketing 5 2.7 Marketing,promoting

Humanresourcemanagement

3 1.6 Humanresources,recruitment

Publicrelations 2 1.1 Publicrelations

Publicandhealthcareadmin.

1 0.5 Clinicalcoding

Realestate 1 0.5 Realestatesales

Tourism 1 0.5 Touristindustry

Total 188 100.0

Thestatisticalanalysismethodsemployedtoaddresstheresearchquestionsareoutlinedinthenextsectionastherelevantfindingsarepresented.


Findings

Combining forms of learning

WefirstexaminedwhetherrespondentsreportedthatskillsweregainedbyasingleformoflearningorbycombinationsofformsinordertoaddressResearchQuestion1.Forthisexamination,weusedthedataforall460validlyreportedskills.Figure1presentstheresults.2Onlysmallproportionsofallself-reportedskillswerelearntbydrawingupononeformoflearning(thatis,lifeexperienceonly,workexperienceonlyorformaltraining/studyonly).Intotal,only16%oftheself-reportedskillswerelearntusingasingleformoflearning,leavingthevastmajority(84%)ofskillsbeinglearntusingsomecombinationofformsoflearning.Therefore,themajorityofskillsreportedbyrespondentswerelearntusingacombinationoflearningforms.

2 Figure1wasalsogeneratedusingonlythefirst-listedskillinthematrixbyeachrespondent.Thepercentagesforthedifferentformsandcombinationsoflearningwereessentiallythesameandsoarenotreportedhere.Wealsocontrolledforskillbyincludingonlythoseskillsinthelargestcategory(managementandcommerce)andagainthepatternwasverysimilar.


Figure 1: Forms of learning as a percentage of self-reported skills

Twoformsoflearningwereusedfor42%oftheself-reportedskills.Themostcommoncombinationoftwoformswaslifeandworkexperience,relevantto26%ofskills.Thisfindingindicatesthatnon-formalandinformallearning,representedbylifeandworkexperiencerespectively,incombinationrepresentasignificantbasisforlearningthelowerlevelskillssoprevalentamongstthosedisadvantagedinthelabourmarket.

Despitethis,byfarthemostcommoncombination,at42%,wassomemixofallthreeformsoflearning.Thisresultindicatesthatformallearningisrelevanttolowerlevelskillsandpeopledisadvantagedinthelabourmarketbutnotinisolation,asindicatedbythelowpercentageofskillsgainedentirelythroughformallearning(4%).Henceacombinationofformallearningwithotherformsoflearningseemsprevalentanddemonstratestheinterrelatednessofthethreeformsoflearninginskilldevelopment.

WeaddressedResearchQuestion2byexaminingwhetherthereweredifferencesincombiningformsoflearningbasedondemographic


factors.Thefindingsreportedherearebasedonanalysesofonlythefirstmentionedskillbyeachrespondent.Itisnoted,however,thatthesefindingswereessentiallythesameasthoseusingallskills.Itwasconsideredmoreappropriate,however,toreportfindingsusingonlythefirst-mentionedskillbecausedemographicfactorsattheskilllevelarenotnecessarilyindependent.

AMann-WhitneyU-testindicatednodifferencebetweenmalesandfemalesinthemeanrankingofthenumberofformsoflearningused(U=3343;Z=-0.628;p=0.530).However,testingindicateddifferencesbasedonthedemographicfactorsofageandeducation.AKruskal-WallisRanktestindicatedthatthemeanrankingofthenumberofformsoflearninguseddifferedacrossagegroups(χ2=6.825;df=2;p=0.033).Todeterminewhichofthethreeagegroups(15–29years;30–44years;45+years)differed,multiplecomparisontestsusingMann-WhitneyUwerecarriedoutwithBonferroniadjustmentininterpretingprobabilityvalues.Thisindicatedthatthe30–44yearsgrouphadasignificantlyhighermeanrankingofthenumberofformsoflearningusedthanthe45+agegroup(U=1492;Z=-2.515;p=0.12).

Similarly,aKruskal-WallisRanktestindicatedthatthemeanrankingofthenumberofformsoflearninguseddifferedacrossgroupsdefinedbyhighestlevelofeducation(χ2=10.915;df=2;p=0.004).Thethreeeducationgroupswere(1)uptoschoolcertificate,(2)higherschoolcertificate(HSC),and(3)TAFE/collegecertificateorabove.MultiplecomparisontestsindicatedthatthosewithahighesteducationleveluptoschoolcertificatehadsignificantlylowermeanrankingofthenumberofformsoflearningusedthanboththeHSC(U=924.5;Z=-2.719;p=0.007)andfurthereducation(U=1538;Z=-2.707;p=0.007)groups.Figure2presentsamoredetailedpictureofthesedifferences.Thedistributionacrosssingleandcombinedformsoflearningforthosewithuptoschoolcertificateeducationisshownintheupperpanel,whilethemiddlepanelshows


thedistributionforthosewithaHSCandthelowerpanelforthosewithaTAFE/collegecertificateorabove.Thefigureshowsthatalowerpercentageofuptoschoolcertificaterespondentscombineallthreeformsoflearning.

Figure 2: Forms of learning as a percentage of first-mentioned skills, by education

Relativity of forms of learning

Next,toaddressResearchQuestion3,weperformedanoveralltestofdifferenceinlabourmarketprogramparticipants’percentageofskillslearningthroughthethreeformsoflearning:lifeexperience,workexperienceandformaltraining/study.Themeanpercentageofskillslearningfromeachformoflearningwascalculatedforeachrespondent,givinganoverallmeasure(acrossskills)oftherelativeimportanceofeachformoflearningforeachrespondent.ThisdatawasthenanalysedusingasinglegrouprepeatedmeasuresANOVA.3

3 InallanalysesthereportedFstatisticanddegreesoffreedomarebasedonmultivariatetestswithPillai’scriterion.


Therewasasignificanteffectofformofskillslearning(F(2,172)=20.071,p<0.001).PairwisecomparisonsundertakenwithBonferroniadjustmentindicatedsignificantdifferencesbetweenlifeexperienceandformaltraining/study(p<0.001)andbetweenworkexperienceandformaltraining/study(p<0.001).Therewasnosignificantdifferencebetweenlifeexperienceandworkexperience(p=1).Themeansforlifeexperience(37.8%)andworkexperience(39.1%)aresignificantlyhigherthanthemeanforformaltraining/study(23.2%),indicatingthatthelatterformoflearningisrelativelylessimportantforgainingskills.

Wethenexploredanybetween-subjectinteractioneffectsassociatedwithage,genderandhighestlevelofeducationalattainmentinordertoaddressResearchQuestion4.Duetosmallcellsizesforafullmultivariatemodel,eachdemographicvariablewasconsideredseparately.Therefore,theresultshereshouldbeconsideredonlytentativebecauseinteractionsbetweendemographicfactorswerenottakenintoaccount,onlyinteractionswithformoflearning.

Genderdidnothaveasignificantinteractionwithformofskillslearning(F(2,168)=0.397,p=0.673).Hencegenderdoesnotinfluencetherelativeimportanceoftheformsoflearning.Surprisingly,agealsohadnosignificantinteractionwithformoflearning(F(4,338)=1.728,p=0.143).Therefore,agedoesnotinfluencetherelativeimportanceoftheformsoflearning.Incontrast,highesteducationlevelhadasignificantinteractionwithformoflearning(F(6,328)=1.984,p=0.067)atthe0.10level.Notethatforgreaterclarificationinthisanalysisweusedfour,ratherthanthree,educationgroupsbysplittingthe‘TAFE/collegecertificateorabove’groupintotwo:(1)TAFE/collegecertificateand(2)Diplomaorhigher.However,theanalysisusingthreegroupsalsohadasimilarlysignificantinteraction(F(4,330)=2.296,p=0.059).ProfilesofthefoureducationlevelsacrosstheformsoflearningareshowninFigure3.Thefigureshowsthattherelativeimportanceofformaltraining/studyincreasesat


highereducationlevels.Inparticular,therelativeimportanceofformaltrainingandstudytothosewithadiplomalevelorhigherqualification(mean=33.6%)isgreatercomparedwiththosewithuptoschoolcertificate(mean=17.7%).Consequently,andnotsurprisingly,thosewithuptoschoolcertificaterelymoreheavilyonlifeandworkexperiencefortheirskilldevelopment.

Figure 3: Profiles of percentage of skill gained from forms of learning for education levels

ThefinalanalysisinvolvedexploringwhetherthepercentageofskillsgainedfromeachformoflearningdifferedbytypeofskillinordertoaddressResearchQuestion5.Skillswereclassifiedaccordingtotwo-digitASCEDcodes.Duetolownumbersofskillsfallinginthenaturalandphysicalsciences,informationtechnology,healthandeducationcategories,thesewereexcludedfromtheanalysis.Arepeatedmeasuresanalysiswithformoflearningastherepeatedmeasureandskillcategoryasthebetween-subjectsfactorwasundertaken.Themultivariatetestsforformoflearningandtheinteractionofformoflearningandskillcategoryweresignificant(respectively,


F(2,424)=51.441,p<0.0005andF(14,850)=4.056,p<0.001).Theformsoflearningdifferedinthesamewayasthepreviouslyreportedanalysis(thatis,themeansforlifeexperienceandworkexperience,overall,weregreaterthanthemeanforformaltraining/study).Theinteractioneffectbetweenformoflearningandskillcategoryindicatedthattherelativeweightinggiventoformoflearningdependsonskillcategory.Figure4showstheprofilesoftheskillcategoriesacrosstheformsoflearning.Itshowsthatformaltrainingandstudyisrelativelylessimportantfordevelopingarchitectureandbuilding,andagricultureandenvironmentalskills.Architectureandbuildingskillsappeartodrawmoreuponworkexperiencethanotherskills.Architectureandbuilding,managementandcommerceandengineeringandrelatedskillsseemtorelylessonlifeexperiencethanotherskillscategories.

Figure 4: Profiles of percentage of skill gained from form(s) of learning for skill categories


Conclusion

Thereportedfindingsaddresseachoftheidentifiedfiveresearchquestions.Conclusionsabouteachofthequestionsarepresentedbeforeoverallconclusionsaredrawn.

Thefirsttworesearchquestionsareconcernedwithcombiningformsoflearningandthefactorsthatmayimpactonthis.ResearchQuestion1asked,Are skills gained by a single form of learning or by combinations of forms?.Thefindingsofthestudyindicatethatforpeopleinlabourmarketprogramsmostskillsaregainedbycombinationsofformsoflearning;inparticular,combinationsof:

• lifeexperienceandworkexperience,representingnon-formalandinformallearning;and

• lifeexperience,workexperienceandformaltraining/study,representingnon-formal,informalandformallearning.

ResearchQuestion2,whichasked,Are there differences in combining of forms of learning based on demographic factors?,subsequentlybuildsonResearchQuestion1byinvestigatingwhetherdemographicfactorsarerelevanttounderstandingthecombiningofformsoflearning.Thestudyfoundnodifferencesbasedongenderbutthereweresomedifferencesbasedonageandhighestlevelofeducation;inparticular:

• thosebetween30and44yearsagetendtocombinemoreformsoflearningthantheirolderpeers;and

• thosewithuptoschoolcertificateleveleducationarelesslikelytocombineallthreeformsoflearningthanthosewithahigherlevelofeducation.

Onthewhole,however,itcanbeconcludedthatdemographicsdonotneatlydistinguishthewayinwhichformsoflearningarecombinedbypeopleinlabourmarketprograms.Thesecomplexitiesneedtoberecognisedwhenusingdemographicstotargetsub-groupsinthedevelopmentandimplementationoflabourmarketpolicies.


Thefinalthreeresearchquestionsareconcernedwiththerelativeimportanceofthedifferentformsoflearningandthefactorsthatmayimpactonthis.ResearchQuestion3asked,Are there differences between the percentages of skills gained from different forms of learning?Thefindingsofthestudyindicatethattherearedifferences.Inparticular,thepercentagesofskillsgainedfromlifeandworkexperiencewerehigherthanthepercentageofskillsgainedfromformaltraining/study.Thissupportstheliterature,indicatingthatrecognitionofinformalandnon-formallearningisimportantasameansofrecognisingnon-credentialledskillsets,orwhatTough(2002)referredtoasthesubmergedpartoftheadultlearningiceberg.IndustriesandthebusinesscommunityareexperiencingmajorHRMchallengesandtherecognitionofthesesignificantformsoflearningcouldbethefirststepintappingintoapotentialpoolofworkforceapplicantstraditionallyviewedassemiorunskilled.

ResearchQuestion4,whichaskedAre there interactions between the percentage of skills gained from different forms of learningand demographic factors?,buildsonResearchQuestion3byinvestigatingwhetherdifferencesintheimportanceofformsoflearningvaryacrossdemographicfactors.Suchinteractionswerenotfoundforgenderorage.Althoughageprovidesmoreopportunitytolearnskillsthroughlifeexperienceitalsoallowsmoretimetolearnthroughworkexperienceandtoundertakeformaltrainingandstudy.Hence,therelativitiesofformsoflearningarenotlikelytobeaffectedsimplybecauseonebecomesolder.Conversely,highestlevelofeducationalattainmentwasfoundtointeractwiththeimportanceofformsoflearning.Specifically,gainingskillsthroughformaltrainingandstudyismoreimportantthanlifeandworkexperienceforthosewithahighlevelofeducationcomparedtothosewithonlyabasiclevelofeducation.Thisfindingconfirmstheobvious,butaddressestotheauthors’knowledgethepreviouslyuntestedassumptionthatinformalandnon-formallearningisrelativelymoreimportantforpeoplewithlesseducationandtraining.However,withrespectto


ResearchQuestion4overall,itcanbeconcludedthatdemographicsdonothavealargeimpactontherelativeimportanceofformsoflearningforpeopleinlabourmarketprograms.

ResearchQuestion5asked,Is there an interaction between the percentage of skills gained from different forms of learning and category of skill? Thestudyfoundevidenceofsuchaninteraction,indicatingthatdifferentskillcategoriesshowdifferentpatternsoftherelativeimportanceofthethreeformsoflearning.Formaltrainingandstudyisrelativelylessimportantforlearningthearchitecture,building,agricultureandenvironmentalskillsheldbylabourmarketprogramparticipants.Instead,workexperienceismoreimportantthanotherformsoflearningforarchitectureandbuildingskills.Theseskills,alongwiththoserelatedtomanagement,commerceandengineering,alsorelylessonlifeexperiencethanotherskillcategories.

Theresultsareparticularlyinterestinginthecontextofthesampleexaminedinthisstudy;thatis,thosedisadvantagedinthelabourmarketwhoaremainlyunemployedandreportedmainlylowerlevelskills.Overall,theresultssuggestthatcombiningformsoflearningisthenormandthatnon-formalandinformallearningareparticularlyimportant.ThissuggestsRNFILhaspotentialapplicationtothissampleandothersimilarpeopleinlabourmarketprograms.

Thestudywasexploratoryandhashighlightedthesignificanceofinformalandnon-formallearningintheacquiringofskillswhichmayberelevantinassistingingainingemployment.AstudybyGolding,MarginsonandPascoe(1996)usedasomewhatsimilarmethodwithasampleofstudentswhohadmovedfromhighereducationtoTAFEtoshowthatevenpeoplewithtertiary(TAFE&university)backgroundsattributedmostoftheirskillstocombinationsofhome,familyandwork(andoccasionallyschool).Atadefinitionallevel,wenotedthechangeinlanguageandreferencefromadulteducationtowhatamountstoformsoflearningcategorizedbytheirmodesof


facilitationandthecurrenttheoreticalandpoliticaldimensionsoftheseconcepts.

Thestudycouldbeextendedtofurtherinvestigateskillsetsforthoseconsidereddisadvantagedinthelabourmarket.Forinstance,thosegroupstargetedbywelfarereformsaimedatincreasingworkforceparticipationtendtobeconsideredsemiorunskilled.Furtherresearchcouldinvestigatespecificskillsetsandgaugethelevelsofinformalandnon-formallearningthatinformtheseskillssetsforthepurposesofskillsrecognition.ManyindustriesarefacingimmenseHRissuesintermsoftheageingworkforce,skillshortagesandloweringratesofworkforceparticipation.Thisstudyhasimplicationsforfuturepracticesintermsoftheenactmentofpoliciesattheinterfaceofhumancapitaldevelopmentandsocialinclusion.

Duetothenatureofthesample,thefindingsarelimitedtounemployedadults.Despitethis,thepaperhashighlightedtheimportanceandextentoftheinterrelatednessofinformal,non-formalandformallearning,especiallyforthoseconsidereddisadvantagedinthelabourmarket.Thestudyhasidentifiedareasforfurtherresearchinrelationtotheconfigurationsattachedtotherelativityandinterconnectednessbetweeninformal,non-formalandformallearningforspecificselfreportedskillsetsandhassignificantimplicationsfortherecognitionofskillslearnedthroughnon-formalandinformallearning.Weargueforareframefromthefocusonthedifferencesbetweenformsoflearningtoafocusontheconnections,relationshipsandinterrelatednessbetweentheselearningforms.Weassertthiswillprovideamuchricherandfullerpictureofthevariablesandcontextualinfluencesatplaywhenindividualsandgroupsengageinlearningacrossadiverserangeoflearningspacesandacrosstime.Thisreframerecognisesthefluidanddynamicnatureofthecomplexinterplaythatislearning.


References

AustralianBureauofStatistics(ABS)(2001).Australian Standard Classification of Education (ASCED),Canberra:ABS.

AustralianBureauofStatistics(ABS)(2005).Education and Training Experience,6278.0,Canberra:ABS.

AustralianBureauofStatistics(ABS)(2007).Adult Learning Australia,2006–07,CatNo4229.0,Canberra:ABS.

Billett,S(2002).‘Critiquingworkplacelearningdiscourses:Participationandcontinuityatwork’,Studies in the Education of Adults,34(1):56–67.

Bjornaviold,J(2000).Making learning visible: Identification, assessment and recognition of non-formal learning in Europe, Thessaloniki:CEDEFOP.

Bowman,K,Clayton,B,Bateman,A,Knight,B,Thomson,P,Hargreaves,J,Blom,K&Enders,M(2003),Recognition of prior learning in the vocational education and training sector,Adelaide:NationalCentreforVocationalandEducationalResearch.

Bowman,K(2009).Adult Learning Australia: Implementing the 2008 Ministerial Declaration on ACE,Canberra:AdultLearningAustraliaInc.

Coffield,F(ed.)(2000).The necessity of informal learning,Bristol:ThePolicyPress.

Colley,H,Hodkinson,P&Malcolm,J(2003).Informality and formality in learning: A report for the Learning and Skills Research Centre, London:TheLearning&SkillsResearchCentre.

Colley,H,Hodkinson,P&Malcolm,J(2004).Informality and formality in learning: Asummaryofaresearchreport,Informality and formality in learning,commissionedbytheLearningandSkillsResearchCentre(LSRC)andundertakenbytheLifelongLearningInstituteoftheUniversityofLeeds,London:LSRC,http://www.nonformality.org/blog/wp-content/summary.pdf[viewed8March2010].

CommissionoftheEuropeanCommunities(2000).A Memorandum on Lifelong Learning, CommissionStaffWorkingPaper,Brussels:CEC.

CouncilofAustralianGovernments(COAG)(2008).COAGCommunique-29November2008,COAG,http://www.coag.gov.au/coag_meeting_outcomes/2008-11-29/index.cfm[viewed3March2010].

Davies,P(2001).‘Reflectionsonthememorandumonlifelonglearning’,Journal of Adult and Continuing Education, 9(2):109–114.

Davies,P(2003).Transfer between formal, informal and non-formal education: A joint action project, TRANSFINE,EUCEN.


Eraut,M(2000).‘Non-formallearning,implicitlearningandtacitknowledgeinprofessionalwork’,The necessity of informal learning,in(ed.)F.Coffield, ThePolicyPress,Bristol:12–31.

EuropeanCommission(2001).Making a European area of lifelong learning a reality,Brussels:EuropeanCommission.

Golding,B,Marginson,S&Pascoe,R(1996).Changing context, moving skills: Generic skills in the context of credit transfer and the recognition of prior learning,NBEET,Melbourne:CentrefortheStudyofHigherEducation,UniversityofMelbourne.

Golding,B,Brown,M&Foley,A(2009).‘Informallearning:Adiscussionarounddefiningandresearchingitsbreadthandimportance’,Australian Journal of Adult Learning,49(1):34–56.

Hager,P&Halliday,J(2006).Recovering informal learning: Wisdom, judgement and community,Dordrecht:Springer.

Halliday–Wynes,S&Beddie,F(2009).Informal learning: At a glance,Adelaide:NationalCentreforVocationalandEducationalResearch.

Illeris,K(2009).‘Transferoflearninginthelearningsociety:Howcanthebarriersbetweendifferentlearningspacesbesurmounted,andhowcanthegapbetweenlearninginsideandoutsidetheschoolsbebridged?’,International Journal of Lifelong Education,28(2):137–148.

Livingstone,DW(2000a).‘Exploringtheicebergsofadultlearning:FindingsofthefirstCanadiansurveyofinformallearningpractices’,NALLWorkingPaper#10,OntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducation,Toronto:OISE.

Livingstone,DW(2000b).‘Researchingexpandednotionsoflearningandworkandunemployment:FindingsofthefirstCanadiansurveyofinformallearningpractices’,International Review of Education,46(6):491–514.

Livingstone,DW(2001).Expandingnotionsofworkandlearning:Profilesoflatentpower’,New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2,Winter:19–30.

Marsick,V(2009).‘Towardaunifyingframeworktosupportinformallearningtheory,researchandpractice’,Journal of Workplace Learning,21(4):265–275.

McGivney,V(2002).Spreading the word: Reaching out to new learners,Leicester:NationalInstituteofAdultContinuingEducation.

MinisterialCouncilofVocationalandTechnicalEducation(MCVTE)(2008).Ministerial Declaration on Adult Community Education,Canberra:DEEWR.


OrganisationofEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD)(2003).Career guidance and public policy: Bridging the gap,Paris:OECDPublications.

OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)(2005).Theroleofthenationalqualificationssysteminpromotinglifelonglearning:Reportfromthematicgroup2—Standardsandqualityassuranceinqualificationswithspecialreferencetotherecognitionofnon-formalandinformallearning:5,http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/57/27/34376318.pdf[viewed6April2009].

OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)(2007).‘Recognitionofnonformalandinformallearning’,http://www.oecd.org/document/25/0,2340,en_2649_201185_37136921_1_1_1_1,00.html[viewed8March2007].

Pierson,J(2001).Tacklingsocialexclusion,London:Routledge.Schugurensky,D(2000).The forms of informal learning: Towards a

conceptualization of the field,NALLWorkingPaper#19–2000,Toronto:OntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducation.

Tough,A(1978).‘Majorlearningefforts:Recentresearchandfuturedirections’,Adult Education (USA),XXVII(4).

Tough,A(2002).The iceberg of informal adult learning,WorkingPaper#49,NewApproachestoLifelongLearning,Toronto:NALL.

TheWorldBank(2003).Lifelong learning in the global knowledge economy: Challenges for developing countries, TheResearchForum2000.

Werquin,P(2007).Terms, concepts and models for analysing the value of recognition programmes. RNFIL—Third Meeting of National Representatives and International Organisations,2–3October,Vienna,Austria,DirectorateforEducation,EducationPolicyCommittee,Paris:OECD,http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/33/58/41834711.pdf[viewed23≈January2010].

Werquin,P(2010).Recognition of non-formal and informal learning: Country practices,DirectorateforEducation,EducationPolicyCommittee,Paris:OECD,http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/22/12/44600408.pdf[viewed8March2010].

Wheelahan,L,Dennis,N,Firth,J,Miller,P,Newton,D,Pascoe,S&supportfromBrightman,R(2003),Recognition of prior learning: Policy and practice in Australia,commissionedbytheAustralianQualificationsFrameworkAdvisoryBoard,Lismore:SouthernCrossUniversity.


About the authors

Dr Roslyn Cameron is a senior lecturer in the School of Management and Marketing at Central Queensland University. She teaches in both undergraduate and postgraduate programs in the field of Human Resource Management and Development. Roslyn is a Fellow of the Australian Human Resources Institute (FAHRI) and has a particular interest in skill recognition systems from a human resource development perspective.

Dr Jennifer L. Harrison is a senior lecturer in Southern Cross Business School at the Gold Coast campus of Southern Cross University. Her research interests include entrepreneurial learning, collaboration and innovation.

Contact details

Dr Roslyn Cameron, School of Management and Marketing, Central Queensland University, Gladstone Campus, PO Box 1319, Gladstone, Queensland 4680 Tel: 61–7 4970 7627 Fax: 61–7 4970 7252 Email: [email protected]

Dr Jennifer L. Harrison, SCU Business School, Southern Cross University, Gold Coast Campus, Locked Bag 4, Coolangatta, Queensland 4225 Tel:61–755893064 Fax:61–755893701Email:[email protected]


Adults engaged in lifelong learning in Taiwan: Analysis by gender and socioeconomic status

Dian-Fu ChangTamkang University, Taiwan

Ming-Lieh Wu and Sung-Po LinNational Chi Nan University, Taiwan

This study examines the nature of adult engagement in lifelong learning in Taiwan. Previous studies have shown that gender and socioeconomic status (SES) are key variables related to equal access to education. Are these variables related to adults’ engagement in lifelong learning in a specific country? This study analysed data from a survey of adults that was administered by the Ministry of Education in 2009. The results show a strong relationship between gender, SES and the learning experiences of adults. Women in low and middle SES groups were more likely to engage in lifelong learning. This study reveals that women’s engagement in lifelong learning depended on their family concerns. Men’s engagement in lifelong learning, in contrast, was often for career or work-related reasons. By explaining the connections between the gender and SES of adult learners engaging in lifelong learning, the results of this study will enrich the context of lifelong learning.

Adults engaged in lifelong learning in Taiwan 311

Keywords: lifelong learning, adult education, educational policy, engagement theory

Introduction

Theconceptoflifelonglearningwasintroducedinthe1960s.Inthe1970s,internationalorganisationssuchasUNESCOadoptedtheconcept.However,therewaslittlefocusonlifelonglearningfromthe1970stothe1990s.Inthe1990s,theworldwitnessedtheimpactofglobalisation,theeffectsofanagingsociety,andtheinfluenceofinformationtechnology.Atthattime,manycountriesstartedtofocusonlifelonglearning,andnewregulationswereintroducedtoensureitsimplementation(Jarvis2007;Kang2007).Becauselifelonglearningbecameawidely-acceptedconceptinaknowledge-basedeconomy,theTaiwanesegovernmentlaunchedthelegislativeprocessfortheLifelongLearningAct,whichwasimplementedin2002.ByimplementingthisAct,thegovernmenthasplacedgreatimportanceonthepracticeoflifelonglearning.

Thedifferentbackgroundsoflifelonglearnersmayleadlearnerstoengageindifferentlearningactivities.Inamulti-culturalsociety,learnerscandevelopdifferentlearningperspectivesandbehaviours(Chang2004;Moen,Kelly&Magennis2009).However,eventhoughpeopleunderstandtheimportanceoflifelonglearning,itisnoteasytoprovidelearnerswithequalaccesstolimitededucationalresources.Researchhasshownthatgenderdifferencesorlowsocio-economicstatus(SES)canaffecttheeducationalopportunitiesofindividuals(Nesbit2006).Generally,womenhavefeweropportunitiesforformaleducationduetotheirfamilyresponsibilitiesorsocialexpectations(Gunawardena,Rasanayagam,Leitan,Bulumulle&Dort2006;WorldBank2005,2007).Desjardins,RubensonandMilana(2006)foundthatgenerallygenderdifferencesaresmallforthedevelopedcountriesconsidered,butthispartlydependsonthelevelofformal

312 Dian-Fu Chang, Ming-Lieh Wu and Sung-Po Lin

education.Overall,incountrieswherewomentendtohavelowerlevelsofformaleducationthanmen,womenarelesslikelytoparticipateinadultlearning.Furthermore,employersupporttendstobealesscommonsourceoffinancingforwomenthanformen.

• Desjardins,RubensonandMilana(2006)alsoshowedthesignificanceofeducationasasocio-economicmarker,revealingthatinmanycountriesthereisastrongconnectionbetweenhomebackground,educationalattainmentandfurtherlearning.Thisconnectionpointstoacycleofintergenerationalreproductionofinequalitiesthatisstronglylinkedtolifelonglearningprocesses.Thosewhohavehigherlevelsofformaleducation,andhenceagreaterlikelihoodofengaginginfurtherlearning,exhibitatendencytopasstheimportanceofformaleducationontotheirchildren.Basedontheresultsofpreviousresearch,weexplorethefollowingquestionsinaspecificcountrytoenrichtheknowledgeofthisfield:WhataretheexperiencesofadultsengagedinlifelonglearninginTaiwan?

• DowomenofdifferentSESfaceunequalsituationswhenattemptingtoengageinlifelonglearning?

• Dowomenandmenhavesimilaraccesstolifelonglearningprograms?Isthissimilartootherdevelopedcountries?

• WhatarethekeyreasonsthatadultsmightchoosetonotengageinlifelonglearninginTaiwan?

Literature review

In1972,UNESCOpublishedLearning to bewhichwasthefirsttimethatUNESCOpromotedtheconceptoflifelonglearning(Faure,Herrera,Kaddoura,Lopes,Petrovsky,Rahnema&Ward1972).TheOrganizationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)alsoprovidedasignificantcontributiontowardsdevelopinglifelonglearninginaglobalsetting.In1973,itsRecurrent education: A strategy for lifelong learningarguedforrecurrenteducationasanimportantstrategyforlifelonglearning(OECD1998a).Themostsignificantyearforthedevelopmentoftheideaoflifelonglearning


was1996,whentheInternationalCommissiononEducationfortheTwenty-firstCenturyannouncedthereport,Learning: The treasure within,andindicatedthatlifelonglearningwouldbekeyinthetwenty-firstcentury(Delors1996).Inthefollowingyear,UNESCOheldtheFifthInternationalConferenceonAdultEducation,CONFINTEAV,andproposedtheHamburgDeclarationonAdultLearningwhichpositionedlifelonglearningasthekeytohelpingsocietyfacechallengesinthenextcentury(UNESCOInstituteforEducation1997).

TheOECD’sEducation policy analysis 1998selectedlifelonglearningasaspecialissuetopicwithitsanalysisoflifelonglearningpoliciesindifferentcountries(OECD1998b).Inaddition,theEuropeanUnion(EU)proposedA memorandum on lifelong learningtodiscussthestrategiesoflifelonglearningimplementation(EuropeanCommission2000).In2005,theEUproposedKey competences for lifelong learning: A European reference frameworktoreframetheeightkeycompetenciesforlifelonglearning(CommissionoftheEuropeanCommunities2005;TheEuropeanAssociationforUniversityLifelongLearning2009).

Basedonthepromotionoflifelonglearninginthesevariousinternationalorganisations,manycountrieshavebeenexposedtotheimportanceoflifelonglearningandbecomedevotedtodevelopinglifelonglearningforall.Hasan(2001)analysedlifelonglearningandexaminedthevariousdefinitions,policyandpraxisindifferentcountries,includingAustralia,Finland,Norway,theNetherlands,theUnitedKingdom,France,Italy,Japan,Korea,theUnitedStates.However,manycountriessettheirlifelongpolicybasedonnationaladulteducationsurveys.Forinstance,Australia,Germany,theUnitedKingdom,theUnitedStates,andCanadahavesurveyedtheirpopulationsonthetopicapproximatelyonceeverytwotothreeyears(seeTable1).

314 Dian-Fu Chang, Ming-Lieh Wu and Sung-Po LinTa

ble

1:

The

maj

or n

atio

nal s

urve

ys o

f adu

lt ed

ucat

ion

Cou

ntr

ies

Su

rvey

inst

itu

teye

arA

ge o

f ad

ult

s M

eth

odS

amp

les

Fin

al/

rep

ort

Su

rvey

fr

equ

ency

Germany

Infratest Burke

Sozialforschung

1979

19–64

Telephone

7,108

2006

3 years

United

Kingdom

NationalInstitute

ofAdultContinuing

Education(N

IACE)

1996

17&over

Not

available

4,932

2008

1–3years

United

States

National Centerfor

EducationalStatistics

1991

16&over

Telephone

8,905

2006

3–5years

Canada

StatisticsCanada

1984

17&over

Telephone

33,410

2001

3–4years

Australia

AustralianBureauof

Statistics

1995

25–64

Telephone

14,190

2007

not regular


Initiating a national policy for lifelong learning development

Theimportanceofimplementinglifelonglearningistoeliminateagapinaccesstoeducationwithinthecommunityandtoprovidemoreequitableaccesstoeducationalresources(Williamson1998).Reframingpolicytoenhancelifelonglearningisaneffectiveapproachinademocraticsociety(Nerland2008).Inmanycountries,thepurposeoflifelonglearningpoliciesistoeliminatetheunequaldistributionofeducationalattainment,whichmightresultinintellectual,socialandeconomicdisparities.Researchhasshownthatadulteducationparticipationratesarepositivelycorrelatedwithacountry’slevelofeconomicdevelopmentasmeasuredbypercapitagrossdomesticproduct.Onaverage,themoreprosperousthecountry,thehighertheparticipationratereported(UNESCOSixthInternationalConferenceonAdultEducation2009).Furthermore,foreachadditionalyearofeducationintheadultpopulationonaverage,thereisacorrespondingincreaseof3.7%inlong-termeconomicgrowthanda6%increaseinpercapitaincome.Therefore,adultlearningandeducationarenotonlyfinancialexpendituresbutalsoinvestmentsinthefuture(UNESCOInstituteforLifelongLearning2009).

In1998,theTaiwanesegovernmentpublishedawhitepapercalledToward a learning society,andlisted14actionprogramstoestablishlifelonglearninginsociety.Subsequently,theLifelongLearningActwasannouncedin2002,illustratingthatthepromotionoflifelonglearningandtheestablishmentofeducation’simportancetosocietyhadbecomeaclearconceptandanationalpolicy.In2010,theMinistryofEducationproposed‘TheActionYearforLifelongLearning331’, encouragingthepublictospendatleastthirtyminutesforlearning(3),thirtyminutesfordoingexercise(3)andtoundertakeoneactivityforthecommongood(1)perday(MinistryofEducation,Taiwan2010).Toreducethepolicyimplementationgap,Taiwanhasemphasisedthesocialroleoflifelonglearningandencouraged


thegeneralpublic’sacceptanceofitsimportance.AccordingtothepurposesoftheEU’sannouncementofA memorandum on lifelong learningtheintentionistopromoteactivecitizenshipandemployability.Lifelonglearninghasemphasisedtheresponsibilityofcitizenstopursuepersonalself-fulfilment.Ininstanceswherethegovernmenthasplayedaneutralroleinpolicyimplementation,lifelonglearningmaybecomeamarket-drivenactivitytosatisfytheincreaseddemands.SomeprogramsbasedonlifelonglearningpolicyhavebeenimplementedinTaiwan,butthereisstillagrowinggapbetweenthelifelonglearningpolicyanditspractice(Wang2008).Thegapcausesconcernabouttheengagementofdisadvantagedgroups,suchasfemalesandindividualsoflowerSES,inlifelonglearningactivities.

Gender and socio-economic status explanations in lifelong learning

Manystructuralinequalitieshavebeenfoundtolimittheparticipationofdifferentsocialgroupsinlifelonglearning.Ingeneral,thosewhoarefemale,older,lesseducated,lessskilled,inlow-skilljobsorunemployed,immigrantsorfrompoorsocio-economicbackgroundsaretheleastlikelytoparticipateinadulteducationandtraining(Desjardins,Rubenson,&Milana2006).Withinacountry,levelsofparticipationvaryaccordingtosocio-economic,demographicandregionalfactors,revealingstructuraldeficienciesinaccesstoadulteducation.Infrequentparticipationbycertaingroupsillustratesstructuralinequalitiesinsociety,thatthereisunequalaccesstolifelonglearningwhengeneralparticipationislow,orthatinfrequentparticipationinlifelonglearningmaycreateinequalitiesinsociety.Gender,geographicallocation,ageandsocio-economicstatusallplayapartinlifelonglearningengagement(UNESCOInstituteforLifelongLearning2009).

Genderisakeyelementinthediscourseoflifelonglearning(Rogers2006).Inmanydevelopingcountries,women’sliteracyrates


arelowerthanthoseofmen.Comparingratesofdifferentcountries,thereisasignificantgendergap(Mulenga&Liang2008).Therearemultipleconstraintsthatmaypreventwomenfromparticipatinginadulteducation,suchasdomesticduties,childcareandsubmissivebehaviour(Gouthro2007;Lind2006).Womengenerallyhaveresponsibilitiesandconnectionstothehome.However,ongoingsocialchangeshaveencouragedwomentobemoreindependent,andtheyhavebeguntoexpecttoengageinmorelearningactivities.

SESisamajordeterminingfactorintheattainmentofdifferentlevelsofeducation,anditispossiblyanotherimportantfactorinlifelonglearning.Inmanycountries,SEShasbeenoneofthestrongestfactorsassociatedwitheducationaldifferencesinaccessaswellasoutcomes(OECD2001).Generally,wemayassumethehigheranadult’sSES,thegreaterthelikelihoodofhis/herengagementineducation.Atthesametime,effectiveadultlearningmayplayacriticalroleinprovidingopportunitiesforsocialmobility,whichmaydecreasesocialinequality(Nesbit2006).However,Desjardins,RubensonandMilana(2006)indicatedthattheobservedrelationshipisnotnecessarilydirect.

Engagement and lifelong learning

Generally,‘engagement’isdefinedaswhatstudentsdo,feelandthinkduringschool.Whenlearnersareengagedinlearningactivities,theyneedtolearnthroughinteractionswithothersiftheywanttomaketheactivitymeaningful(Kuh2009).Thequalityofeffortandinvolvementinproductivelearningactivitiesfurtherdefinesengagement(Kuh2009).Manyarticlesonstudentengagementatthecollegelevelhavebeenguidedbytheconceptsofbehavioural,emotionalandcognitiveengagements,whilearticlesattheK-12levelhavemainlyfocusedonpsychologicalandbehaviouralengagements(Fredricks,Blumenfeld&Paris2004).Theliteraturedefinescognitiveengagementintermsofself-regulation,andstudents


usemeta-cognitivestrategiestoplan,monitor,andevaluatetheircognitionwhenaccomplishingtasks(Fredricksetal.2004).

Adults,ingeneral,mayhavetheabilitytoengageinself-directedlearning,andadultscanbeseenasself-directedlearners.Whentheyengageinlifelonglearning,theymayevaluatethelearningoutcomes.Adultstudentsengaginginlearningactivitiesinasocialcontextareverydifferentfromstudentsinaschoolcontext.Thedifferencesinclude,forexample,theirpurpose,motivation,worklimitations,familyresponsibilities,availabletimeandfinancialabilities.

Method

Toanswertheresearchquestions,thestudyanalyseddatafromtheAdultSurveyinTaiwanin2009.Thefollowingsectionwilldiscusstheframeworkofanalysis,datacollection,sampling,datatransformationandmethodofanalysis.

Framework of analysis

Toinvestigateadultsengaginginlifelonglearningactivities,weproposetheanalyticalframeworkshowninFigure1.Usingthisframework,thisstudytestedthefollowinghypotheses:

H1:WomenofdifferentSESfaceunequalsituationswhentheyengageinlifelonglearning.

H2:Womenandmendonotengageinsimilarlifelonglearningprograms.

H3:Thereasonsforadultlearners’disengagementfromlifelonglearningvary.


Figure 1: Framework of analysis

Data collection

TounderstandTaiwaneseparticipationinlifelonglearning,weimplementedthesurveysupportedbytheMinistryofEducationandthefindingsmayserveasabasisfordevelopingrelevantpolicies.

Tocollecttheviewsofthesubjectsinashortperiod,thisstudyusedthetelephonequestionnairemethodComputerAssistedTelephoneInterview(CATI)torandomizethedigitdialling.ThesurveywasimplementedfromMondaytoSundayduringtheeveningfrom6to10o’clockfrom1Juneto1July,2009.Thetotalcallsnumbered48,463,andthevalidatedsampleincluded10,000.Inthisstudy,wespecificallyselectedindividuals18–64yearsold,andthevalidatedsampleinthisgroupwas4,065.Therewereonly1,323peoplewhoreportedexperiencingengagementinlifelonglearningactivities,whichis32.55%ofthetotalsample.Basedonthepopulationdistribution,thisstudyemployedpost-stratificationweightingtocalculatethereasonablesamplingdistribution.Inthisstudy,themarginofsamplingerrorwaslowerthan3%,ataconfidencelevelof95%.


AccordingtotheAnnual reportbytheMinistryoftheInteriorofTaiwan,thetotalpopulationinTaiwanaged18to64yearswas15,970,678.Overall,50.11%wasmale,and49.89%wasfemale.Inthisstudy,thedatasetconsistedof4,065validrespondents,ranginginagefrom18to64,with40.91%maleand59.09%female.Chi-squaretestresultsrevealedastatisticallysignificantdifferenceingenderdistributionbetweenthedatasetandthetotalpopulation(p<.001),asshowninTable2.Thisfindingmeansthatthegenderdistributioninthesampleisdifferentfromthatinthepopulation.Therefore,thesamplesneededtobeweightedtofacilitatestatisticalevaluation.Thisstudyemployedpost-stratificationweightingtocalculatethegendervaluesandanalysedthederivedfiguresthroughstatisticalmeans.Theequationisasfollows:

Note: Wi:theweightvalueofgroupi;Ni:thetotalvalueoftheithgroupinthepopulation;N:thetotalvalueofthepopulation;ni:thenumberofvalidsamplesingroupi;n:thetotalvalueofthesamples

Table 2: Gender distribution in the samples and the population

Variables ClassificationSample Populationa

χ2Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

GenderMen 1,663 40.91 8,002,553 50.11

137.55***Women 2,402 59.09 7,968,125 49.89

Total 4,065 15,970,678

Note:a.ThepopulationofTaiwanaged18to64was15,970,678.***p<.001.


Data transformation

Educationalbackgroundandoccupationinthedatabasewereonanominalscale.Forthedatatofitthestatisticalmodel,thisstudyadaptedthesetwovariables,educationalattainmentandoccupation,intoaneducationindexandacareerindex.TheadaptationprocesswasbasedontheInternationalStandardClassificationofEducation(ISCED)proposedbytheOECD(1999).ISCED1(primaryeducation)wasdesignatedas1,whichwaspresentedinthequestionnaireas‘primaryschoolgraduateorbelow’.ISCED2(earlysecondaryeducation)wasdesignatedas2,whichwaspresentedinthequestionnaireas‘juniorhighschoolorjuniorvocationalschoo’.ISCED3A,3B,3C(uppersecondaryeducationorvocationaleducation)wasdesignatedas3,whichwaspresentedinthequestionnaireas‘seniorhighschool(vocationalschool)(includingthefirstthreeyearsofjuniorcollege)’.ISCED4(juniorcollege)wasdesignatedas4,whichwaspresentedinthequestionnaireas‘juniorcollege’.ISCED5A,5B(highereducation)wasdesignatedas5,whichwaspresentedinthequestionnaireas‘university’.ISCED6(highereducation)wasdesignatedas6,whichwaspresentedinthequestionnaireas‘graduateschoolorabove’.

TheoccupationdatawereadjustedaccordingtoHwang’s(2003)proposalin‘NewoccupationalprestigeandsocioeconomicscoresforTaiwan’.Occupationspresentedinthequestionnaireas‘agricultural,forestryandfisheryworkers’and‘non-technicalworkersandmanuallabor’weredesignatedas1.‘Salesandservicepersonnel’,‘technicalworkersandrelatedworkers’and‘machineoperatorsandassembly-lineworkers’weredesignatedas2.‘Administrativestaff’wasdesignatedas3,and‘technicalworkersandassistantprofessionalpersonnel’weredesignatedas4.‘Humanresource,supervisorsandmanagers’and‘professionals’weredesignatedas5.ThemeanandstandarddeviationoftheadaptededucationcareerindicesareshowninTable3.


Table 3: The mean and standard deviation of education and career indices

Variables CategoriesIndices

Education Career

Educationalattainment

Primaryschoolgraduateorbelow 1

Juniorhighschoolorjuniorvocationalschool 2

Seniorhighschool(vocationalschool) 3

Juniorcollege 4

University 5

Graduateschoolorabove 6

Mean=3.598,StandardDeviation=1.275

Occupation

Humanresource,supervisorsandmanagers 5

Professionals 5

Technicalworkersandassistantprofessionalpersonnel 4

Administrativestaff 3

Salesandservicepersonnel 2

Agricultural,forestryandfisheryworkers 1

Technicalworkersandrelatedworkers 2

Machine-operatorsandassembly-lineworkers 2

Non-technicalworkersandmanuallabour 1

Mean=3.322,StandardDeviation=1.416

Thisstudyappliedatwo-stepclassificationtoanalysethedata.Theeducationindex,careerindexandpersonalincomewereincludedinthemodel.TheresultsoftheanalyseswerecategorisedintothreedifferentSESgroups(high,middleandlow-incomegroups),asshowninTable4.

Adults engaged in lifelong learning in Taiwan 323Ta

ble

4: T

wo-

step

clu

ster

ana

lysi

s of

SE

S gr

oups

SE

S

grou

ps

N%

of

com

bin

ed%

of

tota

lE

du

cati

on in

dex

Car

eer

ind

exP

erso

nal

inco

mea

MS

DM

SD

Cat

egor

ies

Fre

qu

ency

High

722

26.52

17.76

4.468

1.083

4.031

1.280

18,000–24,000

24,000–30,000

30,000–45,000

45,000

304

203

144 71

Middle

1,161

42.65

28.56

3.600

1.200

3.115

1.340

6,000–9,000

12,000–18,000

559

602

Low

839

30.82

20.64

3.081

1.270

2.813

1.400

0–6,000

9,000–12,000

431

408

Com

bined

2,722

66.96

3.777

1.238

3.328

1.406

No

response

item

s1,343

33.04

Tot

al4

,06

5

Note:a.M

easuredinUS$.


ThisstudyusedSPSSVersion15.0forWindowstoconductalogisticregressionanalysisandχ2test.Thelogisticregressionmodelwasusedtoanalysetheexperiencesoflifelonglearningamongadultswithdifferentcharacteristics.Inthisstudy,wedesignatedtheengagementinlifelonglearningasadependentvariableandthedisengagementfromlifelonglearningasthereferencevariable.Gender(χgen)andSES(χses)weredesignatedasindependentvariablesofthelogisticregressionmodeltoverifyhypothesisH1.Thelogisticregressionmodelwasasfollows:

Note.p as the probability of engaging in lifelong learning refers to disengaging.

ToverifyhypothesesH2andH3,thisstudyadoptedtheχ2testtoconductacross-analysisofthetypesofadultsengaginginlifelonglearningandthereasonswhyadultsdisengagefromlifelonglearning.Thea posterioricomparisonoftheχ2testswasbasedonthecomparisonofadjustedresiduals.TheZ-score1.96wasusedforthe0.05significancelevel,2.58wasusedforthe.01significancelevel,and3.30wasusedforthe.001significancelevel(Haberman1978).

Results

Inthissection,weaddresstheresultsaccordingtothepurposesofthestudy.Theresultsshowtheadults’lifelonglearningexperiencesandthedistributionofgenderengagementinlifelonglearning.Theresultsalsoshowtherelationshipofgender,socioeconomicstatusandengagementinlifelonglearning.Theadults’programselectionandtheirreasonsfornotengagingarethendiscussedattheend.

Theresultsshowedthat67.45%ofadultsdidnotengageinlifelonglearning,andthatonly32.55%ofadultsreportedtheyhadlifelong


learningexperiences(seeTable5).Thepercentageofwomen(56.34%)engagedinlifelonglearningwashigherthanthatofmen(41.87%).ThepercentageoflowSESgroupsengaginginlifelonglearning(41.59%)washigherthanthatofotherSESgroups.

Table 5: Crosstab analysis by gender and SES for lifelong learning

Engagement

Gender Socio-economic status (SES)

Men (%)

Women (%)

Total (%)

Low (%)

Middle (%)

High (%)

Total (%)

No 1,483(54.08)

1,259(45.03)

2,742(67.45)

353(19.81)

770(42.73)

659(35.73)

1,782(63.55)

Yes 554(41.87)

769(56.34)

1,323(32.55)

425(41.59)

405(38.08)

192(17.43)

1,022(36.45)

χ2 53.219*** 183.834***

***p<0.001.

Women engaged in lifelong learning

Usingalogisticregressionmodel,weanalysedengagementinlifelonglearningasthedependentvariable,pistheprobabilityofnotparticipatinginlifelonglearning,χ gen(1)aswomenreferstomen, χ ses(1)aslowSES, χ ses(2)asmiddleSESreferstohighSES.Inthismodel,genderandSESweretreatedasindependentvariables.Theresultwasasfollows:

Note: a. p as the probability of participating in lifelong learning refers to not participating; b. χ gen(1) as women refers to men, χ ses(1) as low SES, χ ses(2)

as middle SES refers to high SES.

326 Dian-Fu Chang, Ming-Lieh Wu and Sung-Po Lin Adults engaged in lifelong learning in Taiwan 327

TherewerestatisticallysignificantgenderandSESdifferencesinthismodel.Theresultsindicatedthemodelwasfitted(seeTable6).WomeninthelowandmiddleSESgroupsengagedinlifelonglearning5.762and1.926,respectively,timesmorethandidmen.ThefittedlogisticregressionmodelshowedthedatasupportedhypothesisH1.

Table 6: Coefficients of the logistic regression model

Variablesa

Coefficients Fit of modelb

β Exp(β) Wald -2LL HL Percentage Correct

SES*Gender 157.709***

3504.756 .000 67.1%

SES(1)*Gender(1) 1.751 5.762 133.929***

SES(2)*Gender(1) 0.656 1.926 44.134***

Constant -0.847 0.428 304.477***

Note.a.SES(1)referstolowSES;SES(2)referstomiddleSES;b.-2LLis-2loglikelihood,andHListheHosmer-Lemeshowgoodness-of-fitstatistic.***p<.001.

Engagement in different programs

Amongtheadultswhoengagedinlifelonglearningactivities,8.74%wereinaccreditedprograms,17.73%wereincertificationcourses,53.52%wereinprofessionaldevelopmentcourses,and20.02%wereinleisure-relatedcourses.Thisindicatesthatalargernumberofadultspreferredtoengageinprofessionaldevelopmentcoursesthananyotherkindoflifelonglearningactivity.ThisstudyfurtheranalysedtheengagementindifferentprogramsbygenderandSES(seeTable7).Accordingtotheresultsoftheχ2test,therewerenosignificantdifferencesbetweenmen’sandwomen’sengagementindifferentprogramsbydifferentSES.Theresultoftheχ2testdidnotprovidesufficientevidencetosupporthypothesisH2.

326 Dian-Fu Chang, Ming-Lieh Wu and Sung-Po Lin Adults engaged in lifelong learning in Taiwan 327Ta

ble

7:

Cro

ssta

b an

alys

is o

f eng

agin

g in

diff

eren

t pro

gram

s

Pro

gram

s

Low

SE

SM

idd

le S

ES

Hig

h S

ES

Tot

al (

%)

Men

(%

)W

omen

(%

)M

en (

%)

Wom

en (

%)

Men

(%

)W

omen

(%

)

Accredited

programs

26(8.81)

24(11.59)

10(5.68)

25(8.83)

6(8.57)

12(8.11)

103(8.74)

Certification

courses

42(14.24)

35(16.91)

33(18.75)

57(20.14)

16(22.86)

26(17.57)

209(17.73)

Professional

developm

ent

185

(62.71)

118

(57.00)

85(48.30)

142

(50.18)

31(44.29)

70(47.30)

631(53.52)

Leisure-related

courses

42(14.24)

30(14.49)

48(27.27)

59(20.85)

17(24.29)

40(27.03)

236(20.02)

χ22.172

3.520

0.932

Note:thereisnosignificantdifferencebetweencategoriesinthecrosstabanalysis

328 Dian-Fu Chang, Ming-Lieh Wu and Sung-Po Lin Adults engaged in lifelong learning in Taiwan 329

Reasons for not engaging in programs

ThereasonsfornotengaginginlifelonglearningactivitiesarelistedinTable8.Themostpopularreasonsincludedlackoftime(58.43%),nodesire(12.65%)andworklimitations(10.95%).Accordingtotheanalysis,wefoundthatlackofdesireandworklimitationswerethemainreasonswhymendidnotengageinlifelonglearning.Themainreasonforwomen’slackofengagementwasalsolackoftime,butwomenalsocommonlynotedoverwhelmingfamilyresponsibilities.HypothesisH3,statingthatreasonswouldvaryforadultlearners’disengagementfromlifelonglearning,wasnotfullysupportedbythedata.

328 Dian-Fu Chang, Ming-Lieh Wu and Sung-Po Lin Adults engaged in lifelong learning in Taiwan 329Ta

ble

8:

Cro

ssta

bs a

naly

sis

of r

easo

ns fo

r no

t eng

agin

g

Rea

son

sG

end

erS

ES

Men

(%

)W

omen

(%

)L

ow (

%)

Mid

dle

(%

)H

igh

(%

)

Lackoftime

754

(62.52)

452

(37.48)

242

(20.07)

533

(44.20)

431

(35.74)

Nodesire

189

(72.41)

72(27.59)

52(19.92)

98(37.55)

111

(42.53)

Worklim

itations

157

(69.47)

69(30.53)

46(20.35)

90(39.82)

90

(39.82)

Lackofrequiredcourses

72(66.67)

36(33.33)

28(25.93)

48(44.44)

32

(29.63)

Overwhelmingfamily

responsibilities

28(31.11)

62(68.89)

10(11.11)

44(48.89)

36

(40.00)

χ262.32***

29.49

***p<.001.


Discussion

Basedontheaboveanalysis,thestudyshoweddifferentexperiencesoflifelonglearningamongTaiwaneseadults.Thesimilaritiesanddifferencesinexperiencesarenowdiscussed.

Generally,womenhadlessaccesstoformaleducationduetofactorssuchasfamilyresponsibilitiesandsocialexpectations,whichmightaffecttheirparticipationinlifelonglearning(WorldBank2005,2007).Recently,womenhavegraduallysurpassedmeninlifelonglearningparticipation(Bryans2001;Moen,Kelly&Magennis2009;Wu2010).Theresultsofthisstudyshowedthatwomen,incomparisonwithmen,hadgreaterlifelonglearningengagement,especiallyinthelowSESgroup.Infact,theopportunitiestoaccesslifelonglearningforbothgendergroupswerenotquiteequal.AlthoughmanywomenareenteringthejobmarketinTaiwan,theyarestillexpectedtoshouldermostoftheresponsibilityforraisingchildrenandmaintaininghouseholds.However,thesocialenvironmenthaschangedgradually,andwomenaremoreawareoftheirself-development.ThisawarenesswillmotivatemanywomentoengageinlifelonglearninginTaiwan.

Daines,Daines,&Graham(2006)indicatedthereasonsforadultengagementwerecategorisedintovocationalorprofessionaldevelopment,aspirationsforfurtherlearningorcreativity,personaldevelopmentgoals,orasocialneed.BecausemoreTaiwaneseadultsengageinprofessionaldevelopmentcourses,thereappearstobeanemphasisonthevocationalcategory.Governmentshavegenerallysetbudgetsforlifelonglearningprograms.Thekeyfocusisusuallyonyouth,professionaltrainingorspecialinterestcourses.Manyadultshavechosentoimprovetheirprofessionalskills,andthereisgreaterbenefitwhenlearningprogramsarearrangedatatimeandaplacesuitableforthem.


Previousstudieshaveshownthatalackoftimeand financesareprimereasonswhyadultschoosenottoengageinlifelonglearning(Desjardins,Rubenson&Milana2006).Familyresponsibilitywasanotherreasongivenbyadultsfornon-participation(Merriam,Caffarella&Baumgartner2007).Thisstudyalsoshowedthatlackoftimewasthemainreasonfornotengaginginlifelonglearning.Fromasituationalpointofview,reasonsfornon-participationduetolackoftimecanbeproblematicbecauseitisavagueconcept(Rubenson1999).Thevalueascribedtolearningwillaffectaperson’sperceptionofwhethertheyhavetimeforitornot(Desjardins,Rubenson&Milana2006).Inapreviousstudy,theresponse‘nomoney’wasthesecondmostcommonreasonstatedfornotparticipatinginacourse(Desjardins,Rubenson&Milana2006).However,thisstudydidfindasimilarrationalebecausemanyprogramswereprovidedbythegovernmentornon-profitorganisationsinTaiwan.

Incomparisonwithmen,womenweremorelikelytoengageinlifelonglearning.However,theyreportedalackoftimeduetofamilyresponsibilities.Thisisamajorbarrierpreventingwomenfromengaginginlifelonglearning.Menwereoftenunabletoengageinlifelonglearningduetowork-relatedfactorsandlackofdesire.Typically,meninvolvedinlifelonglearningweredeeplyinfluencedbywork-relatedfactors,suchasimprovingprofessionaldevelopmentandachievingtheircareergoals.However,whentheattractionofworkdecreases,therateofmaleparticipationmayalsodecrease(Porfeli&Vondracek2009).

Conclusion

Ifweanalyselifelonglearningexperiencesbasedonsocialstatus,wemayobtaindifferentresults.Forinstance,adultsfromdifferentculturesinthesamesocietymightviewlifelonglearningdifferentlyormightengageinlearningactivitiesinverydifferentways.Theeconomicdevelopmentstageofacountryinfluencestheresource


allocationforadults’learningprogramsanddiffersdependingonthestageofdevelopment.TheexperiencesofadultsinTaiwanmayprovideanexplanationforlifelonglearningengagement.Inthisstudy,genderandsocio-economicstatusaresignificantvariablesthatwerefoundtobecloselyrelatedtoadults’lifelonglearningexperiences.Theresultsindicatethatmanymendonotengageinlifelonglearning.Itisimportanttorethinkhowtoeliminateoratleastminimisethebarriersthataffectadults’engagementinlifelonglearning.

References

Bryans,P(2001).‘Familylearningintheworkplace:Nurturinglifelonglearning’,Futures,33:531–540.

Chang,W-W(2004).‘Across-culturalcasestudyofamultinationaltrainingprogramintheUnitedStatesandTaiwan’,Adult Education Quarterly,54(3):174–192.

CommissionoftheEuropeanCommunities(2005).Lifelong learning and key competences for all: Vital contribution to prosperity and social cohesion,http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/05/1405&format=HTML&aged=1&language=EN&guiLanguage=en[retrieved16January,2008].

Daines,J,Daines,C&Graham,B(2006).Adult learning, adult teaching(4thed.),Cardiff:WelshAcademicPress.

Delors,J(1996).Learning: The treasure within(ReporttoUNESCOoftheInternationalCommissiononEducationfortheTwenty-firstCentury),Paris:UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization.

Desjardins,R,Rubenson,K&Milana,M(2006).Unequal chances to participate in adult learning: International perspectives,Paris:UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization.

EuropeanCommission(2000).A memorandum on lifelong learning,Brussels:EuropeanCommission.

Faure,E,Herrera,F,Kaddoura,A-R,Lopes,H,Petrovsky,AV,Rahnema,M&Ward,FC(1972).Learning to be: The world of education today and tomorrow,Paris:UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization.

Fredricks,JA,Blumenfeld,PC&Paris,AH(2004).‘Schoolengagement:Potentialoftheconcept,stateoftheevidence’,Review of Educational Research,74(1):59–109.


Gouthro,PA(2007).‘Activeandinclusivecitizenshipforwomen:Democraticconsiderationsforfosteringlifelongeducation’,International Journal of Lifelong Education,26(2):143–154.

Gunawardena,C,Rasanayagam,Y,Leitan,T,Bulumulle,K&DortA(2006).‘QuantitativeandqualitativedimensionsofgenderequityinSriLankanhighereducation’,Women’s Studies International Forum,29:562–571.

Haberman,SJ(1978).Analysis of qualitative data,NewYork:AcademicPress.

Hasan,A(2001).‘Lifelonglearning:Amonitoringframeworkandtrendsinparticipation’,inAspin,D,Chapman,J,Hatton,M&Sawano,Y(eds.),International of handbook of lifelong learning,Dordrecht,Netherlands:KluwerAcademic:379–402.

Hwang,Y-J(2003).‘Theconstructionandassessmentofthe“NewoccupationalprestigeandsocioeconomicscoresforTaiwan”:Theindigenizationofthesocialscienceandsociologyofeducationresearch’,Bulletin of Educational Research,49(4):1–31.

Jarvis,P(2007).Globalization, lifelong learning and the learning society: Sociological perspectives,London:Routledge.

Kang,DJ(2007).‘Rhizoactivity:Towardapostmoderntheoryoflifelonglearning’,Adult Education Quarterly,57(3):205–220.

Kuh,GD(2009).‘Thenationalsurveyofstudentengagement:Conceptualandempiricalfoundations’,New Directions for Institutional Research,141:5–20.

Lind,A(2006).‘Reflectionsonmainstreaminggenderequalityinadultbasiceducationprogrammes’,International Journal of Educational Development,26:166–176.

Merriam,SB,Caffarella,RS&Baumgartner,LM(2007).Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide(3rded.),SanFrancisco,CA:Jossey-Bass.

MinistryofEducation,Taiwan(2010).The action year for lifelong learning 331,Taipei,Taiwan:MinistryofEducation,Taiwan.

Moen,P,Kelly,E&Magennis,R(2009).‘Genderstrategies:Socializationallocation,andstrategicselectionprocessesshapingthegenderedadultlifecourse,’inSmith,MC&DeFrates-Densch,N(eds.),Handbook of research on adult learning and development,NewYork,NY:Routledge:378–411.

Mulenga,D&Liang,J-S(2008).‘Motivationsforolderadults’participationindistanceeducation:AstudyattheNationalOpenUniversityofTaiwan’,International Journal of Lifelong Education,27(3):289–314.


Nerland,M(2008).‘Knowledgeculturesandtheshapingofwork-basedlearning:Thecaseofcomputerengineering’,Vocations and learning,1:49–69.

Nesbit,T(2006).‘What’sthematterwithsocialclass’,Adult Education Quarterly,56(3):171–187.

OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)(1998a).Recurrent education: A strategy for lifelong learning,Paris:OECD.

OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)(1998b).Education policy analysis 1998,Paris:OECD.

OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)(1999).Classifying educational programmes: Manual for ISCED-97 implementation in OECD countries,Paris:OECD.

OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)(2001).Education policy analysis 2001,Paris:OECD.

Porfeli,EJ&Vondracek,FW(2009).‘Careerdevelopment,work,andoccupationalsuccess’,inSmith,MC&DeFrates-Densch,N(eds.),Handbook of research on adult learning and development,NewYork,NY:Routledge:412–435.

Rogers,A(2006).‘Lifelonglearningandtheabsenceofgender’,International Journal of Educational Development,26:189–208.

Rubenson,K(1999).‘Supplyoflifelong-learningopportunities’,inTuijnman,A&Schuller,T(eds.),Lifelong learning policy and research: Proceedings of an international symposium,London:PortlandPress:109–120.

TheEuropeanAssociationforUniversityLifelongLearning(2009).The recommendation on key competences for lifelong learning.http://www.lifelonglearning-observatory.eu/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=73&Itemid=35[retrieved18August,2008].

UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO)2009.Belem framework for action: Harnessing the power and potential of adult learning and education for a viable future,SixthInternationalConferenceonAdultEducation.Belem,Brazil:UNESCO.

UNESCOInstituteforEducation(ed.)(1997).CONFINTEA: Adult education,Hamburg,Germany:UNESCOInstituteforEducation.

UNESCOInstituteforLifelongLearning(2009).Global report on adult learning and education,Hamburg,Germany:UNESCOInstituteforLifelongLearning.

Wang,C-Y(2008).‘EnhancingtheinteractiverelationshipbetweenlifelonglearningandsocialchangestocarryoutalearningsocietyinTaiwan’,International Journal of Lifelong Education,27(5):535–542.


Williamson,B(1998).Lifeworlds and learning, Leicester,England:NationalInstituteforAdultContinuingEducation.

WorldBank(2005).World development report 2006: Equity and development,NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.

WorldBank(2007).2007 world development indicators,Washington,DC:WorldBank.

Wu,M-L(2010).‘ComparativeresearchonkeycompetencesforlifelonglearningofUNESEO,OECDandEuropeanUnion’,Educational Policy Forum,33:45–75.

About the authors

Dian-Fu Chang is a Professor in the Graduate Institute of Educational Policy and Leadership at Tamkang University in Taiwan.

Ming-Lieh Wu is a Professor in the Graduate Institute of Adult and Counting Educationat the National Chi Nan University in Taiwan.

Sung-Po Lin is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Educational Policy and Administration at the National Chi Nan University in Taiwan.

Contact details (respectively)

Address: No. 151, Yingzhuan Road. Tamsui District, New Taipei City 25137, Taiwan Email: [email protected]

Address: No. 1 University Road. Puli, Nantou County, 54561, Taiwan Email: [email protected]

Address: No. 1 University Rd. Puli, Nantou County, 54561, Taiwan Email: [email protected]


Lifelong learning in German learning cities/regions

Denise Reghenzani-Kearns and Peter KearnsGlobal Learning Services

This paper traces the policies and lessons learned from two consecutive German national programs aimed at developing learning cities/regions. Known as Learning Regions Promotion of Networks, this first program transitioned into the current program, Learning on Place. A case study chosen is from the Tölzer region where a network has self-sustained from its genesis in the initial program and conducts successful Learning Festivals. The German Government funded the Learning Regions Promotion of Networks Program from 2001 to 2008, with support from the European Union (EU) Social Fund. Over 70 regions were supported with a substantial budget on a phasing-out funding basis. When this program ended in 2008, a new program titled Learning on Place began, funded by the German Government and the EU Social Fund, commencing in 2009. This program has a focus on public and private partnership in supporting good educational management in cities and rural communities. In this way, by involving private

Lifelong learning in German learning cities/regions 337

foundations as partners, a framework for civic engagement has been introduced. To understand the purposes of and outcomes from these initiatives, it is important to grasp the European context within which the German Government and its Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF [BundesministeriumfürBildungundForschung]) responded in answering the call to implement ‘coherent and comprehensive strategies for lifelong learning’ (European Commission 2001: 4). In setting this challenge, the Commission communication quoted from a Chinese proverb that has philosophically underpinned the approach: When planning for a year, plant corn. When planning for a decade, plant trees. When planning for life, train and educate people. (Guanzi c. 645BC) Keywords: Learning communities; civic engagement; place making; educational partnerships; capacity building; learning festivals

Introduction

Basedonconcernsaboutmovingintothe‘knowledgeage’,theLisbon(March2000)andFeira(June2000)EuropeanCouncilsoftheEuropeanCommissionforesawamandate—‘lifelonglearningforall’whichledtothelaunchofaworkingpaper,A memorandum on lifelong learningon30October,2000.Thisembodiedaimsofactivecitizenship,socialcohesion,andemployabilitywithin‘sixkeymessages’(2000:10–19):

• guarantee universal and continuing access to learning for gaining and renewing the skills needed for sustained participation in the knowledge society;

338 Denise Reghenzani-Kearns and Peter Kearns

• visibly raise levels of investment in human resources in order to place priority on Europe’s most important asset—its people;

• develop effective teaching and learning methods and contexts for the continuum of lifelong and lifewide learning;

• significantly improve the ways in which learning participation and outcomes are understood and appreciated, particularly in non-formal and informal learning;

• ensure that everyone can easily access good quality information and advice about learning opportunities throughout Europe and throughout their lives; and

• provide lifelong learning opportunities as close to learners as possible, in their own communities and supported through ICT-based facilities where appropriate.

The1996EuropeanYearofLifelongLearninghadalsoinfluencedthisemergenceofpolicyneededforthe‘neweconomies’ofthe‘knowledgeage’.Broadervisionsofthenatureoflearningandlearningenvironmentswererecognisedasstrengtheningsocial,culturalandeconomicrationalesforlifelonglearning(Kearns1999:25).Paramountwasanunderstandingofthevalueoflearning.

AlsohavingsignificantimportancewastheUNESCOInternationalCommissiononEducation’sDelorsReport(1996)withits‘pillars’of‘learningtoknow,learningtodo,learningtolivetogetherandlearningtobe’,reflectedinthefurtherdebateoftheirTaskForceonEducationfortheTwenty-firstCentury.

CoupledwiththeseinitiativeswastheOECDworkonlearningpartnershipsandlearningcities/regionsespecially.Thus,therewereparallelinfluencesandguidelinesthathadadeepimpactonenablingGermanytoshapeandmoulditsprograms.

TenpolicyprinciplesforcreatinglearningcitiesandregionswerepublishedbytheOECD(2001:120)andwereseentobeapplicabletoanynationalorlocalisedinitiativeinembracingalearning


communitypurview,basedoninputstoandmechanismsofthelearningprocess.DevelopedinEurope,thesepolicyprinciplesweregearedtoimprovingeconomicperformanceandregionaldevelopmentwith‘innovative-intensiveactivities’.Whiletheymightappearorganisationallybiased,theprinciplesaretransferableintootherlearningcommunityenvironments.

BeingimplementedconcurrentlywiththeLearning Regions Promotion of Networks Program,butculminatingin2004,wastheR3L(RegionalLifeLongLearning)initiativeacrossEuropefundedbytheEuropeanCommission.GermanLearningRegionsNetworksweredirectlyinvolved,coordinatingfouroftheseventeenEuropeanR3Lnetworksforcross-borderexchangesonissuesofgoodpracticetoachievingcooperationinthelifelonglearningfieldforamoredurableandsustainablefooting.

MuchwascoalescingtohaveaneffectontheinitiativestakeninGermany.

Objectives in German Learning City/Region Networks

TheLearning Regions Promotion of NetworksProgramwasfundedasacontributiontotheEuropeanCommissiondevelopmentobjectivesarisingfromtheLisbonConferenceof2000.Itwasaccordinglyaimedatthedevelopmentofnetworkstosupportthetransitionintoaknowledgesociety,withthesestructuresenvisagedasimprovingaccesstolearning.

TheFederalMinistryofEducationandResearchpublisheditsframeworktorealisethisfuture-orientedtaskin‘LearningRegions—ProvidingSupportforNetworks’tohighlighttheProgram’sprocessandproposals,whichreiteratedtheirlifelonglearningsocietygoals(2004:6):

• Strengtheningthelearners’personalresponsibilityandself-management;


• Motivatingdisadvantagedgroupsthatarecurrentlylessinvolvedineducation;

• Strengtheningrelationsbetweenalleducationalsectors;

• Cooperationofeducationalprovidersandusers;and

• Improvingthequality,quantityandstructureofoffersinordertopromoteuser-orientationinparticular.

Inthefirsttwoyearsofoperation,theProgramsoughtpublicbidsforNetworkfunding.Astudyofthesocio-economicdemographicsinpotentiallearningregionsprovidedaprofileofsettlement,populationdevelopment,employmentandunemploymentwhichinformedthemostpromisingproposalsfrom2000/2001forFederalgovernmentandstates’selection.

Intheearlyphaseofdevelopment,theNetworkschosensubmittedfour-yearplanstosupporttheirevolvingdevelopment,innovativemeasurestoachievethelifelonglearninggoals,andbusinessmodelstoincreaseasustainableco-contributionfinancially(uptoatleast40%asagoal).

Twoyears’continuationfundswerecontestedforaround50regionstoextendtheirworkandforabout40focusedlearningcommunitiesinaccordwiththenewlyidentifiedcategoryonlearningcities/regions.Thiswasduetoa‘consolidation’phaseinensuringtransferofsuccessesandresultsthrougharevisedagenda,namely,forprojectsthatprovided:

• educational counselling to foster change management—organisational guidance and instruments for guidance through counselling institutions, youth authorities, employment offices (mandatory) and other agencies;

• the creation of learning centres—curricula, courses and certification;

• continuance between lifelong learning stages (from the cradle to the grave)—including transition from school to employment;


• small to medium enterprises as relevant partners and referents for training and qualifications; and

• communities as specific learning centres—learning cities/regions.

(Thinesse-Demel2010:114).

InthisextensionoftheProgram,humanresourcescostsweremettotallybythegrants,butin-kindcontributionsforfacilitiesandequipmentfromtheparticipatingbodiesandinstitutionsmetabout20%ofbudgets.Strengtheningenvironmentaleducationandruraldevelopmentwerealsointroducedasfociandnewregionallearningcommunitiesgaveemphasistoeducationasameanstolocaltransformation.Increasinginter-regionalcooperation/networkingandgreatermobilityinlifelonglearningwerestrongpurposesforimprovingtransparencyandinformationflowsbetweenregionstoachievetheEUthemeof‘lifelonglearningforall’.

Overtheyearsofavailablefundingto2007,phasingoutin2008,118millionEURweregranted.Withinthis,approximately51millionEURcamefromtheEuropean(Union)SocialFund.OverallprojectmanagementwasoutsourcedtotheserviceprovideragencyoftheGermanCentreforAerospace.

InApril2008,theFederalGovernmentapprovedaConcept for Lifelong Learningundertheir‘QualificationInitiative’,sothisfurtherintegratedandcomplementedafocusoncontinuingeducationthroughoutlife.

Support for Networks

Asaregionalstrategyofcooperationandnetworking,stakeholdersincludedallsectorsofformaleducation,corporateandcommercialrelatedorganisations/chambers/unions,culturalandsocio-culturalinstitutions,bodiesinvolvedwithyouthactivities,guidanceandemployment,aswellasteachersandlearners.An‘exemplary’organisationalstructureofa‘NetworkforLifelongLearning’issetout


inFigure1(FederalMinistryofEducationandResearch2004:8).Networksoperatedasregisteredassociations,non-profitlimitedliabilitycompanies,legalentitieswithmemorandums,throughagreementsofcooperativeintent,orfoundations.

Becauseofthebroadsocio-economicobjectivesandrelevantpartners,Networksoftenhadasignificantnumberofmembers,35%oftheNetworkshavingbetween40–99members,whileeightpercenthadover100members.Thisrangeofparticipationmadecommunication,buildingsocialcapitalandcoordinationofeffortkeyissuesfortheNetworks.But,sizeachievedpositiveoutcomes,suchascomprehensivemarketingandbenefitsfromnon-traditionalpartnerships.

Figure 1: Exemplary organisational structure

TheLearning Regions Promotion of Networks Programillustratedanambitious,bottom-upapproachtosocio-economicdevelopmentwithinitiativesalsoinfluencedbyAmericanresearchprominentintheperiodbyscholarssuchasSenge(1990)onlearning

The NetworkManagement group Network management

Plenum

Knowledge Exchange

Education marketing

Youth aid, school and industry

Lifelong guidance

Network partners and strategic partners(schools, educational institutions, chambers, companies,

employment offices, administration, et al.)

Election

Projects

Working committees

Contracts

exte

rnal

exp

erts

Educ

atio

n po

rtal

Qua

lifica

tion

of

volu

ntar

y st

aff

Conf

eren

ce a

nd

exhi

bitio

ns

Publ

ic R

elat

ions

and

ad

vert

isin

g fo

r LLL

Educ

atio

n pr

ojec

ts a

t ne

w le

arni

ng lo

catio

ns

Dev

elop

men

t of

skill

ed la

bour

Gui

danc

e ag

ency

Qua

lifica

tion

of

coun

selo

rs


organisations.ThisapproachmeantthattherewasconsiderablediversityintheoutcomesfromindividualNetworks.

ThesignificanceofthisProgram’sapproachlargelyexistedintheroleofNetworksasanorganisingprincipleforcommunityandregionaldevelopmentwithanimpactonsuchaspectsasbuildingasharedvision,enhancingsupportingattitudes,integratingstrandsofdevelopmentand,inthelongterm,contributingtothecreationofsocialcapitalandalearningculture.

Early innovations

Akeytounderstandingwhatwasbeingnurturedwashowreflectivepracticecametotheforeinthestudyofinitiatives.Itisnotablethataseriousevaluationranconcurrentlywithdevelopments(thisisdiscussedlater).FormativeexemplarswereprovidedasrepresentativeforotherRegions,alsodemonstratingdifferentthemesoremphases,andshowingadiversityofpossibilities.Thisearlyoverviewdocumentedinnovationsandchanges;ongoingachievementswerethenrecordedinthemagazineInformandonawebsite(portal),bothsupportedbytheFederalMinistryandtheemergentBoardoftheAssociationofLearningRegionsGermany.

ThefirstscanofimplementedprojectswithintheProgramresultedinajointconferencewiththeOECDinOctober2003,Policies to Strengthen Incentives and Mechanisms for Co-financing Lifelong Learning andthe2004FederalMinistrypublicationalreadyacknowledged.AselectionoftheLearningRegionprojectsprovidesawealthofresourcesandexperiencesinsummary:

• Lake Constance—Learnservicepoints(L-points),opentoallageswithinformationandguidanceavailableonanythingtodowithlearning,trainingandfurthereducation,includingcompetencyassessment.TenL-pointsexistinschools,furthereducationinstitutions,libraries,youthcentresandotherpubliclocations.


• Lower Rhine—Marketingandmotivationalcampaignreachingpeoplethroughregularmediareporting(radioandprint)aboutlearningregionactivities,suchasschooltoworktransitions,mobilitywithlearning,orusingfamousandhighprofilecitizenstocommentontheimportanceoflearning.

• Emmendingen District—Economicstimulationbyovercomingeducationdeficitsandup-skillingpotentialemployeesforsmalltomedium-sizedenterprisesasatargetgroupinthedomesticeconomywithfurthereducationachievedthroughTheCollegeforPersonalDevelopment.

• Central-Mecklenburg-Coast—Improvingqualitysystemsineducationandlifelonglearningwithinanecological,heritageandtourismcitydevelopmenttomeetemployerandcommunityneeds.

• City of Mainz/District of Mainz-Bingen—Reachingthose‘distanced’fromeducation,especiallyoldermigrants,created‘StepOn’,aseriesofseminarsinaccessibletownhalls,neighbourhoodcentresandnetworkcafestoaccessinformationrangingfromhealthadvice,toculturallysensitivenursing,tojobsearchesviatheinternet.

• Marzahn-Hellersdorf—Educationandarchitecturehavedevelopeda‘learninglocationathome’projectbyrenovatingpre-fabricatedhousingremainingfromabuildingExpotoreceivecableprogramsproducedinhighschoolmulti-mediastudies(forexample,videoreportsofneighbourhoodliving,‘Braindays’,elearning).

• Oldenburg District—Consolidatingalearning-for-lifeapproach,50partnersintheNetworksoughttostrengthenanewlearningculturethroughfivesub-projectsonlearningcounselling,demandandsupplyeducationmodels,‘StrongforChildren’activities,mediacompetenceinrural/countrysideadulteducation,andtourismeducation.

• Wartburg Region—Inpreparingdisengagedyouthforthejobmarket,companiesandvocationaltrainingworkedtogetherina‘LearningLandscape’matchingindividualskilltoregionaleconomicfuturesconceivedas‘KnowledgecreatesPerspectives’,


andalsoinformingparentshowtoassistwithteenagerjobpreparation.

• Unna District—Cultureandtheartscapitalisedupona‘NewLearningWorld’foryouthandadultlearning,andinbuildingaCentreforInformationandEducationonanindustrialruin.Newcompetencieshavebeenlearntthroughphotography,publicart,museumvisitsandsoontobuildnewmotivations,businessandconfidence.

• Pontes/Euroregion Neisse—Amulti-historicalcityseeingitselfasa‘borderlessbridge’betweentheadjoiningthreecountries:Germany,PolandandtheCzechRepublic.TheNetwork,inconjunctionwiththeInternationalHigherEducationInstitute,workedasaEuro-regionaleducationandknowledgeserver,enablinggreatermobilitylinguisticallyandculturally.

GreatertransparencyineducationandreachingthedisengagedordisadvantagedwerecommonissuesfortheNetworkalliances.Learner-centredapproachestomakinglearningaccessibleandfundrovemanyinnovations.Astrongconnectionwasforgedbetweenacquiringnewskillsthatmatcheddemandintheworldofwork,froma‘new’worldoflearning.So,thelinkbetweeneducation,labour,aswellassocialoutcomesandfurthereducationwasimproved.Itwasobservedthatattimestherewasasolution-oriented,competitiveapproachtosimilarproblemsbetweenregions,andthatthesubsequentideasexchangesstimulated‘newimpulses’tomaximiselearningoutcomes.

Impact on state and municipal education development

TheJanuary2010issueofInform,themagazineoftheLearningRegionsGermanyAssociation,citesanumberofexampleswheretheProgramhasinfluencedinitiativestakenbystateandmunicipalauthorities.TheseareexamplesoftherippleeffectsthatoftenaccompanysuccessfulinnovationscarriedforwardasevidentinthenewLearning on Place Program.


TheexistenceoftheLearning Regions Network Programinfluencedinitiativesthatdrewontheconceptsandactivitiesoflearningregionswithinstateorcityjurisdictions.ExamplescitedinthelastissueofInform,acknowledgingthecentralreformofmakinglifelonglearningareality, includedthefollowing.

State initiatives• Hessen—‘HESSENCAMPUS—Lifelong Learning’,a

consortiuminitiativethatinvolvedcooperationbetweenfiveLearningRegionswithinthestate.

• Lower SaxonyfoundedanInstituteforInfants’EducationandDevelopmentbasedonthenetworkingprinciplesbeingimplementedinthestate.

• Schleswig-Holsteinpromotedastate-widenetworkoftwelvefurthereducationallianceswithfederal,stateandEUfunding.Thealliancesfunctionedasregionalnetworkstofosterinformationandknowledgeflows,andpromotecooperation.Theymetinafederal-stateworkinggroupsetupbytheMinistryofEconomyinwhichtheLearningRegionsinthestatealsoparticipated.

Intheseexamples,applicationsofnetworkingprinciplesinrelatedfieldsextendedthebenefitsfromtheProgramandattemptedtoensuresustainability.

Municipal/city initiatives• Lippe, inNorth-RhineWestphalia, establishedfivelearning

centreswithlinkstotheLearningRegion,offeringinnovativeapproachestolifelonglearningforarangeoftargetgroups.

• Nuremburg collaboratedintheprovisionforlifelonglearningthroughtheLearningCentreSouth(Südpunkt)‘House’andmobile‘LearningLounges’.

• Offenbachchampionedthecross-departmentalmunicipalmanagementprogramtofurtherdevelopsoundinfrastructureforurbaneducationthroughacomprehensiveregionaldatabaseandaSelf-LearningCentre.


TheseexamplesreinforcetheimportantpointthattheoutcomesoftheLearning Regions Network Programresidenotonlyintheactivitiesandsustainabilityofindividualnetworksbutalso,andperhapsmoreimportantly,inthestimulustoinitiativestakenbythestatesandmunicipalitieswhichapplynetworkingandcooperationprinciplesinextendingprovisionforlifelonglearning.

Evaluation

TheLearning Regions Promotion of Networks ProgramwassubjecttoacarefulevaluationthroughoutitsdurationbyateamfromtheLudwig-MaximillianUniversity(LMU),Munich.Thisstudyledtoasubstantialreportpublishedin2009thatisavailableinGermanonly,butaccesstoanEnglishSummaryofthereport(Gylling:undated)producedbytheLearningRegionsGermanyAssociationdocumentedusefulinformationonthisstudy.

Outcomes and results

ItwasevidentfromdiscussionswithLMUthattheProgramhadmixedresults,asmighthavebeenexpectedfromthebottom-upphilosophyprocesswithadiversityofapproaches.Inthiscontext,thesuccessfactorsidentifiedintheevaluationreportassumeparticularsignificance.

TheevaluationreportSummaryprovidedtheresultsofthePrograminthefollowingstructure:

• Innovationinnetworks

• Interlockingthesectorsofeducationandfacilitatingtransitions

• Qualityassurance

• Marketingeducation

• Educationalcounselling

• Newlearningworlds.


ThisSummaryshowedtheProgramencouragedagooddealofinnovationinareassuchasfosteringimprovedtransitionbetweensectorsofeducation(‘interlockingofthesectorsofeducation’),marketingeducation,theuseofe-learningandfacilitatingeducationin‘newlearningworlds’.Insomecases,theProgramservedasatriggerforinnovationinregionaleducationdevelopmentandpromotingnewproductsfortheregionaswellasinfluencingstateandmunicipalrolesineducation.

Benefits of networking

TheSummaryidentifiedthreedirectbenefitsofhorizontalandverticalnetworking:

• Changeintheattitudesofparticipantstowardsnetworking.

• Knowledgetransferbetweeninstitutions.

• Increaseincompetenceoftheindividualinstitutions.

Thesebenefitsarecentraltoachievingclearsynergiesfromnetworkdevelopment.ThebenefitsmayalsobeseenaslearningprocessessothattheNetworksfunctionaslearningorganisationswithbenefitsthatenhancetheperformanceandproductivityofnetworkmemberswhilealsobuildingaculturethatsupportsfurtherdevelopmentofthecommunityorregion.

Achievingeachofthesebenefitsinvolvedaddressingvariousbarriers,suchascompetitionpressures,thatimpededachievementofthebenefits.ItwasseenNetworksneededtoestablishsocialcohesionandidentityinordertosurvive.Maximisingcommunicationbetweenthepartnersandbuildingonindividualstrengthswereseenasmotivatingfactorsforsuccess.

Success factors

SuccessfactorsidentifiedintheevaluationSummaryinvolvedaspectrumofelementsincludingeffectivecommunication,goodmanagementpractice,andstrategiesthatbuiltsocial,cultural,


educationalandeconomiccapital.Whenwellexecuted,theNetworkledtosynergyandproductivityoutcomesthatclearlybroughtbenefitstoallstakeholders.ApointofinterestintheSummarywastheachievementrecognisedbythegeographicclosenessofaregionalapproachacceleratingexchanges:

…abetterrevelationandmobilisationoftheresources…strengthenstheproblemsolvingpotentialoftheNetworks…acorrelationbetweensocietal,culturalandeconomicdevelopmentbecomesclearandmeaningfulonaregionallevel.(Gylling,undated:6)

IdentificationoftheNetworkpartnerswiththeNetworkanditsgoalswasseenalsoasakeysuccessfactor.FosteringmutualtrustandbuildingsocialcapitalwasobviouslycentraltotheNetworkconcept.ItissalutarytonotealsoReghenzani’s(2002:14)Australiancasestudyassessment,inthatpartnershipsmustattendcomprehensivelytoallimpactsandareheavily relational, dynamic and need to recognise the investment of all partnersinestablishingandmaintaininglearningcommunitiesofpractice.

WhiletherewasprogressinmanyNetworks,theSummaryalsopointedtodifficultiesinbalancingcooperationandcompetitionandthevaryingcommitmentstoNetworksbymembersandsectorssothattheintensityofcooperationvariedbetweenNetworksandpartners.

Notsurprisingly,leadership,soundcommunicationsandeffectivemanagementinareassuchasundertakinganintensiveregionaldemandorneedsanalysisatthebeginningwereseenasimportant.

AusefuloverviewofsuccessbasicsandbenefitsinsustainingNetworkswasprovidedbyGnahsoftheGermanInstituteforAdultEducation,whichwasincludedinInform(January2010:7).Thesefactorswereseenas:


• Learning Networks were generally created out of a concrete problem (e.g. high unemployment, problems in the further education market), and oriented towards enhancing the problem solving capability of the network and improving the situation.

• The implementation and success of Learning Region Networks is highly dependent on personal and institutional considerations. Personal and institutional hostilities and competition are often barriers.

• Learning Networks are especially successful when they are interlocked with other policy fields. Integrated in the larger connection (reducing unemployment, strengthening regional economic capacity) gives Networks legitimacy and promotes access to scarce resources.

• Learning Networks are most effective when they open up new opportunities for cooperation leading to synergy and productivity benefits.

• Learning Networks generally improve the conditions of the regional education market (e.g. through greater transparency), as supply and demand become more tailored to meet market needs, and more concrete and specific.

• Learning Networks often have a pioneering and innovation role in leading to guidelines for regional development that complement existing measures.

ThisprécisreflectsmuchoftheexperiencedocumentedintheEvaluationReportSummarywhichalsosynthesisedkeyfeaturesofaLearningNetwork,notedashighperformanceagainststructure,functionandproactivedevelopments.Marketabilityoflearningproductswasidentifiedforthoseprovidingthe‘biggestchances’forindependenceandsustainability.


SuccessfulLearningNetworks,suchastheBadTölzNetwork,whichisdiscussedasacasestudy,demonstratewhatcanbeachievedinservingthelearningneedsofacommunitythroughabottom-upapproachtoregionaldevelopmentdrivenbyqualityleadership,highregardforlocalconditions,cooperativepartnershipsandsound,systematicmanagement.

Network typology

TheevaluationteamdevelopedaNetworktypologywithproduct/processandcentralised/decentraliseddimensions.Fivepositionswereidentifiedwithinthetypologyasidealtypes(GyllingreproducedtheLMUderivedtypology:27).Astheevaluationstudywasundertakenbeforethediscontinuanceofgovernmentfunding,thesubsequentrelationshipofsustainabilityofNetworksintermsoftypologypositionswouldbeasubjectofconsiderableinterest.

Figure 2: German Learning Regional Network Typology

Initiators

Central

Product Innovation

Decentralised

Process/Structural Innovation

Regional Developers

Structural Developers

Workshop of Products

Cross Border Openers


Achieving sustainability

TheLearning Region Promotion of Networks ProgramaimedfromthebeginningforNetworkstoachievesustainabilitywithoutgovernmentfunding.Fundingwasprovidedonadecreasingbasistoencourageexplorationofalternativefundingsources.WhileabouthalftheNetworksfoldedwithoutcontinuinggovernmentfinancialsupport,BadTölzprovidesafineexampleofaNetworkthathasremainedsustainableandindependent.

Bad Tölz Learning Region case study

BadTölzLandkreis(District)inthestateofBavariahasapopulationof121,373(December2010),withadistributionof110inhabitantsperkm2.Whilethereare21identifiedcommunities,orcounties,threemajortownsarethefocalpointsoftheLearningRegion:BadTölz(pop.17,815),Wolfratshausen(pop.17,992)andGerestreid(pop.23,306)(http://www.nationmaster.com/country/gm-germany/geo-geography).

Consideredtheheartofthedistrict,BadTölzisanhistoric,medievaltownwithspas,Alpviews,pilgrimagesite,Europe’sfirstindoorwaterpark,theIsarRiverflowingtoMunich,andaneighbouringspreadofservice,commercialandruralindustries.Unemploymentis2.4%(July2011),significantlylowerthanthenationalaverageof6.5%(August2011).Therehasbeendescribedatensionbetweenpreservingthetraditionsoftheoldwithmodernisation.

FirsthandinsightsintothemanagementandoutputsoftheBadTölzLearningRegion(southofMunich)initiativeweregainedfromtheChairofthemanagingBoardofthisNetwork,andhiswifewhoisalsoactiveintheNetwork asanAdvisor.Asformerjournalists,theChairhavingformerlyservedasmanagingeditorofabusinessjournal,theyareseenasbringingexpertiseincommunicationcombinedwithhighlydevelopedmanagementskills,especiallyinmarketing


practicesforthedevelopmentoftheLearningRegion.ThisexpertisewasrecognisedbytheMinistryofEducationandResearchwhichgavethemtheleadershiproleincommunicationpracticeworkshopsforthewholeProgram nationally.

Thisroleincludedtheconductofrelevantconferencestopassonbestpracticeincommunicationandmarketing.TheattentiongiventoeffectivecommunicationsandbusinessplanningisevidentinthesuccessoftheLearning Festival (LernFest)conductedbyBadTölzeverysecondyearataformermonastery—Benediktbeurern.ThisFestivalispromotedthroughoutsouthernGermanyandhasattracted38,000participantsinasingleday.Ontheinterveningyear,aHealth LernFest isorganised.

Structure

BadTölzLearningRegionoperatesinadualwaywithcommercialprojects(forinstance,workshopsandsymposia)thatbringinrevenue,andcommunityoriented,non-profitactivities.Thisdualityisreflectedinorganisationalandfinancialarrangements.Trainingisconductedonafee-for-servicebasis.TheLearning FestivalandFamily Compassareexamplesofaltruisticcommunity-orientedprojects.TheLearningRegionhasalegalstatuswithstrongrepresentationonitsBoard.

Theimportantcompanyroleinthestructureofthisinitiativeisreflectedintheownershipofthenon-profitcompanythatcoordinatesactivities(LRTZGmblinBadTölz),withshareholdersincludingwell-knowncompaniesintheregion,aswellasotherprojectpartners.LocalcompaniessupporttheLearning Festivalinvariousways,aswellassponsorshipfrommajorcompanies,forexample,Audi,Roche,SparkasseBank,SitecAerospace,RadioOberlandandTyczkaEnergy.

Anofficeismaintainedwithfull-andpart-timestaffinmanagement,jointprojectcontrol,eventorganisation,communication,advisorsandofficeassistance,inadditiontothevoluntarycommittee.


TheFamily Compassprojecthasacontact/coordinationofficer.Anewsletterispublishedeverytwomonths,withanonlinerequestfacility.

Function

CommunityresourcesineachofthethreemajortownsoftheBadTölzLandkreisaredrawnuponinfurtheringtheobjectivesoftheLearningRegion.Communicationandmarketinghavebeenapriorityfromthebeginning,givingtheinitiativeahighvisibilityintheRegion,especiallywithattractivemottosandcatchphrasesforprojects.Transparencyandcommunicationareveryimportantinprovidingthe‘gluetobind’anyNetwork.Thetransparencyobjectiveinfluencedanapproachtooutcomes,withprecisioninoutcomes(dataonoutcomesandbenefits)seenasimportantinpromotiontopartnersandforsuccess.

ThelifelonglearningmessagesingeneralprogramsandthroughLernFestfurtheredtheinterestsofcompaniesinattractingandretainingyoungpeoplesothattherewascommoninterestinsupportingtheLearningRegioninitiative.

Proactive developments

Projects(products)otherthanthebiennialLernFestundertakenbyBadTölzhaveincluded:

• vocationalguidanceentrepreneurshipactivityforyoungpeople,aJob Compassaptitudetest,programsforyouthwithspecialneeds;

• conductofaHealth(andWellbeing)Festival(Health LernFest);• atransitionmanagementinitiativeinvolvingalleducationsectors

tosolveissuesinthemovementfromschooltofurthertrainingandprofessions;

• conductoffuture-orientedForumsintheBenediktbeuernMonastery,forexample,socialandeconomicchallengesforguidanceandcareorganisations,managementinturbulenttimesandsoon;


• aSustainabilityDeclarationthatwasadoptedbylocalorganisationsandalliancescoveringeconomical,environmentalandenergysustainabilityresultingfromtheBenediktbeuernForums;

• developmentofacareerguidancemanualcoveringschooltoworktransitionwhichisavailableasafreee-book‘trainingoffensive’inconjunctionwithstrengtheningwork-relatedskills;and

• conductofaparentsurveyoninformationandserviceneedsoffamiliesresultinginFamily Compass (seminars,databaseguideforeducationalandcounsellingservicestowardsfamilystrengthening,interfacebetweenaschool-family-circlewithincommunityeducationproviders,carefacilities,furthereducationforparentswithkindergartenagechildren,andactiveteenopportunities[suchasScouts])4.

TheBadTölzLearning Festival(LernFest)providesavehicletofocuscommunityattentiononemergingthemesandissues;forexample,bionicshasbeenbroughtintotheFestivalasamajortopicwithavideothatcanbedownloadedbythecommunityinadvanceoftheFestival.TheFestivalissupportedbya32-pageprogramthatdirectscommunityattentiontohighlights.IntheLernFest,allagesandpopulationsarecateredforacrossthemesdesignedtopresenttheassetsoftheTölzerlandintheneedfor‘activeexchangesandevernewimpulses’.Thethemesin2010were:

• UNI Learning Fair(discoveringandexperiencingscienceandtechnology)

• Economy(securinganentrepreneurialfuturethroughsustainablemanagement)

• Family(workingandshapingenvironmentsthroughfamilylife)• Children and Youth(developingincrementaleducationandjob

opportunities)

4 FamilysupportinitiativeshavebeenafeatureoftheBadTölzLearningRegionincollaborationwithrelevantfoundationsandorganisations.


• Bio Mall(findingbioproductsandservicesfordemanding,healthylifestyles)

• Liveability(usinglifevaluesandculturaltraditionsforthefuture)

• Health Services(harnessingstrengthandnaturaltranquillity).

Festivalsuccessisreflectedintheincreasinghighparticipation,attractingpeoplefromMunichaswellasthesurroundingarea/county.The2008LearningFestivalwasawinnerinaFederalGovernmentcompetitionon‘Germany—LandofIdeas’initsapproachtomobilisingfurtherlearningbyovercomingresistanceorbarrierstolearning.

Justreleasedprogrammingforthe2012LernFestinsetaroundinspiringparticipantstoknowtheirabilitiesandbuildonpotential.Approximately300‘actionstations’havebeenarranged,withideasworkshopsheldinNovember2011andFebruary2012forstakeholdersonthethemes:

• Youthneedfutures

• Weallhavegreatminds

• Strongfamily

• Sportasaculturalasset

• Valuesthatsurvivehistoricalturningpoints.

TheroleofthisLearningRegioninleadingmarketingforNetworkshasresultedinaseriesofconferencedocumentationsadvisingon,forexample,thewaytoformalearningregion,strategiccollaborations,partnerenthusiasm,targetmarketing,thewaytoabrand,andnewapproachesforsitemarketing.Professionalsfromeconomicdevelopment,regionaltourismdevelopment,localgovernmentandeducationprovidershavebeenengagedinworkshops,innovationforumsandanalysestokeepbuildingknowledgeandcooperationmomentumforthefuture.


TheFourthHealth(andWellbeing)FestivalwasheldinSeptember2011,adoptingasitsmotto:Feel Life—Conscious Health ExperienceswiththeongoingentreatytoExperience, Learn, Recall amongthe130displaysprovidinginsightsintohealthcareandrecreation.Manyoftheexhibitorsarrangedinteractiveandoutdooropportunities.Afree,one-daycongressprecedingtheFestivalbuiltonthehistoricalBadTölzspatowneconomywithpresentationspersonallyandcorporatelyonthelatestscientificresearchandhealthpolicy/practiceperspectivesforthisindustry.

Ininitiativessuchasthese,theBadTölzLearningRegionhasdemonstrateditsrelevanceandvalue,andsoachievedabasisforsustainability.Afactorinsecuringthehighvisibilityandcontinuityofcommitmentisintheacknowledgementreceivedfromnationalandstatepoliticalandcivicleadersengagedinopening,speakingorhostingroleswithintheLernFestactivities.

Thecaregiventogoodcommunication,soundmanagementandregionalidentityarekeyfactorsinitssustainability,whilethebroadapproachadoptedthatrangesacrosssocial,cultural,educationalandeconomicdevelopmentillustratesthevalueofholisticandintegratedstrategiesofthisnature.Intheseways,theLearningRegioninitiativeisassistingBadTölzinmakingthetransitiontoaknowledgesocietyandeconomy.

Learning on Place Program

WiththeendingoftheLearning Regions Promotion of Networks Program,theGermanGovernmentisnowfundinganewProgramtitledLearning on PlacewhichcommencedinNovember2009.Fortyprojectshavebeenfundedincitiesandcountieswithparticipationfromallstatesoverathree-yearperiodwiththeoptionoftwoyears’extension.OverallprojectmanagementonceagainisundertakenbytheGermanCentreforAerospaceonbehalfoftheFederalMinistryofEducationandResearch.Fortheinitialthreeyears,60millionEUR


areavailablefromtheFederalGovernmentandtheEuropeanSocialFund.

TheProgramisdirectedatpublicandprivatepartnershipstosupportgoodeducationalmanagementon‘site’,‘spot’or‘location’,thatis,‘place’,incitiesandcounties/ruraldistricts.

Engagement with Foundations

TheimportantroleofFoundationsinbringingaprivatesectorpartnershiproleconveyssomewhatofa‘big’or‘civilsociety’flavourtothisinitiativewhichisbothlessambitiousandmorehighlystructuredthantheformerLearning Regions Promotion of Networks.Thefoundationsformanationaladvisorybodyprovidingadviceondirectionsforthiscurrent Program.Incollaboration,theNationalFoundationNetworkwilldevelopkeyfindingsandconclusionsfromtheProgram.

Foundationsareseentoexerciseinterdependenceinbeing‘catalystsforeducationinnovation’,especiallyinunderstandingtheeducationallandscapeoftheirlocality.Theycanalsosponsorandprovideamentorrelationship.Twenty-sixfoundationsbeganinaNationalFoundationNetwork(nowthereare46)tobeengagedintheProgramoverall,whileindividualfoundationsarespecifictothe40projects.

Thus,therearelevelsoffoundationinvolvementbeyondtheNationalNetwork.Morethan140foundationscomposeacommitmenttoinitiatives.Alocalauthoritymighthaveanumberoffoundationscontributingthroughanumbrellafoundation,sometimesincludinganationallyoperatingfoundation;oralocalfoundationisorganised.Ifthereisaclusterorconsortiumoffoundations,atleastoneisrepresentedontheNationalNetwork.Wherethereisco-sponsorshipofprojects,acooperationagreementexists.


Efficiencyandcoordinationareimportantthemeswithakeyobjectivebeingtoshiftresponsibilitytothemunicipalities.Newissuessuchasdemographicchangewithanageingpopulation,under-educationofmigrants,andskillshortageswithwomenunder-representedinscienceandengineering,havearisenthatnowneedtobeaddressedsystematicallysothatmorecoherentandcoordinatedarrangementsforeducationaredevelopedintheparticipatingcitiesandcounties.

TheProgramthusaimstofostercohesive,integratedsystemsforlifelonglearning,supportedbytheFederalMinistryofEducationandResearchandtheFoundationNetwork.TheProgramisimportantintestingapublic/privatepartnershipapproachtofosteringlifelonglearningincommunities.Theconceptof‘lifelonglearningforall’remainscentralwiththemotto,Advancement through Education.Itisforeseenthatwell-educated,creativeandimaginativepeoplewillmaintaineconomicandsocialdevelopmentaswellascityandregionalcompetiveness,inadjustingtolifecoursechanges.

Objectives of Learning on Place

ObjectivesofthiscurrentPrograminclude:

• increasingschoolparticipation;

• strengtheningemployability;

• meetinglaboursupplyrequirements;

• improvingthetransparencyofeducation;

• improvingtransitionsbetweendifferentphasesofeducation;

• improvingeducationalaccess;

• strengtheningdemocraticculture;and

• managingdemographicchange.

Thismixofeducational,social,labourmarket,economicandculturalobjectivesisorientedtotheneedsandconditionsofparticularcitiesandcountiessothatplacemanagementwillbeanimportanttheme.


Eachoftheparticipatingcommunitieshasidentifiedparticulargoalsinapplications,forexample,fiveBavariancommunitiesbeingfundedincludethefollowingobjectivesasexamplesguidingtheirinitiatives.

Lindau• Aneducationalcounsellingcentrewillbesetupwithanetworkof

supportthroughoutthecounty;

• Anearlydetectionsystemfortheregionaltrainingmarketwillbedeveloped;

• Anewdepartmentofeducationandregionaldevelopmentisenvisaged;

• TheprojectwillbesupportedbythePeterDornierFoundation,theLakeConstanceFoundationandtheFoundationLindauCitizenstobuildonlessonsfromtheBodenseeLearningRegion.

Kaufbeuren• Therewillbeaspecialfocusontransitionsbetweensectors,

buildingontheworkofexistingbodiessuchastheIntegrationForumandtheCityYouthCouncil;

• Educationalguidancewillbestrengthened;

• Familylearningandrespondingtodemographicchangewillbepriorities;

• TheprojectwillbesupportedbytheCommunityFoundationofKaufbeuren,theHansSeidelFoundationandtheBavarianSavingsBankFoundation.

Landkreis Mühldorf am Inn• Toincreaseparticipationofcitizensinlifelonglearningwillbea

priority,therebyincreasingregionalhumancapital;

• Aholisticapproachtoeducationwillbeadoptedwithstrongcoordinationbetweensectors;

• TheMühldorfEducationNetworkwillbeextended;


• TheRolandBergerFoundationandacompositeoflocalfoundationswillsupporttheinitiative.

Munich• Theinitiativewilldevelopresponsestocurrentstructuralchanges

intheenvironmentsetbyfamilies,includingtheincreasingvarietyoflifeforms,adeteriorationofthesocio-economicsituationandthelabourmarket,andthesegmentationofpopulationgroups;

• Initiativeswillbebuiltintoacity-widestrategy;

• Neighbourhood-basededucationwillbestrengthened;

• AMunichconferenceoneducationwillbeestablished;

• Holisticeducationmanagementwillbeprogressed;

• Socialdiversitywillbeaddressedthroughastrengtheningofintegration/diversitymanagement;

• TheinitiativewillbesupportedbytheEberhardvonKuenheimFoundationofBMWAG.

Nuremberg• Acoherentoverallapproachtourbaneducationinthecitywillbe

developed;

• TheEducationConferenceandBoardofEducationwillbebroughttogetherinEducationfortheCityofNuremberg;

• Currenthumanrightsdevelopmentwillbeextended;

• Integration/diversitymanagementwillbeenhancedwithculturalmainstreaming;

• TheinitiativewillbesupportedbytheSparkasseNurembergfortheCityofNuremberg,andtheFoundationNuremberg—ACityofPeaceandHumanRights.

Thesewereallidentifiedaswhatweretermed‘Individual’projects.Anexampleofa‘Collaborative’projectcomesfromthenorth,asundertakenbyacity-state.


Bremen and Bremerhaven (Bremen’s harbour)• Across-departmentalsteeringgroupbridgingmunicipalitieswill

overseethedesignofacomprehensiveeducationandlifelonglearningsystemthroughtheSenateforEducationandScience;

• Aparenteducationvisionwillbedeveloped;

• Integrationofneighbourhoodorientedapproacheswillbepartofanurbandevelopmentstrategy;

• Modelprojectswilltestimprovedtoolsformonitoringandqualitycontrol;

• TheinitiativewillbesupportedbytheGermanChildrenandYouthFoundation.

SimilarobjectivesmaybeseenforotherparticipatingcommunitiesinthesummariesavailableontheProgramwebsite:www.lernen-vor-ort.info.

TheLearning on Placeinitiativewillprovidemodelsforplacemanagementinbuildingcoherentarrangementstofosterlifelonglearning,whilealsoaddressingmajorchallengesposedbysocialandeconomicchange,suchastheexamplesgivenabove.

Related initiatives

Germanlearningcitiesandregionshavealsobeenengagedinarangeofinternationalandnationallyrelatedinitiatives,namely:

• PIE(ProgramofInternationalExchanges)—PASCAL(PlaceManagement,SocialCapitalandLearningRegions)InternationalObservatory,www.pie.pascalobservatory.org;

• EUROlocal,www.eurolocal.info;

• ELLI(EuropeanLifelongLearningIndicators),www.elli.org;and

• LearningRegionsGermany(LRD)Association,www.lrd-ev.net.


Comments on learnings from Germany

TheGermanexperienceinbuildinglearningcommunitiesandregionsisofinterestindemonstratingtheoutcomesofabottom-upnetworkingapproach,withtop-downgovernmentsupport,tofosteringlifelonglearningandfacilitatingthetransitionofcommunitiestoaknowledgesocietyandeconomy.Whiletheresultshavebeenmixed,agooddealhasbeenlearnedfromsuccessfactorsthroughtheLearning Regions Promotion of Networks.

TheapproachadoptedbytheBadTölzregionprovidesacriticalexemplarofhowleadership,communicationandgoodmanagementareexercisedtoachievethebenefitsofsynergyandenhancedproductivityfromnetworkingtobuildsocialandhumancapitalincitiesandthesurroundingcountryside.

Animportantbenefitresidesintheinfluenceofalifelonglearningstrategyonstateandmunicipalapproacheswhichintegratescohesiveplanningandpublic/privatepartnershipsforeducationandlearning.TheimmediacyofaddressingkeypolicyandpracticeissueslocallyisseeninthecurrentLearning on Place Program.

WhiletheearlierGermanNetworkapproachraisedquestionsofsustainabilitywhengovernmentmoneyceased,theunderstandingofeducational,social,culturalandeconomicdevelopmentwasadoptedaspartofthefabricofalearnedsociety.Howtomaintainandachievethisholisticapproachisakeychallengeforallcommunitiesmovingforward.

UniversitieshavenotbeenleadingplayersintheGermanprograms,yetfosteringsocialandhumancapitalthroughserviceinbuildingnetworks,raisingstudentattributesandundertaking‘realtime’researchisessentialforregionalcommunityengagementanddevelopment.ThenewLearning on Place Programencouragesgreaterrepresentationincollaborativeefforts.


Theroleofprivatefoundationsbothinadvisinggeneraldirectionsandinsupportingindividualprojectsbringsanewwaveofphilanthropicresponsibilityandaccountabilitythatviewslifelongandlife-widelearningaspurposefulandnecessary.

Insummary,theGermanexperiencehasbeena‘lighthouse’tolearningcommunitypolicyandimplementation,withthekeyinsightsgainedincludingthefollowing:

• ThevalueofanationalrolethroughfundingframeworkssuchastheFederalMinistryofEducationandResearchandaccesstoEuropeanSocialFund/EuropeanCommissiongrants;

• Soundstrategiesandstructuresinnetworkbuilding,interactionandinsupportingrelevantinnovativeprojects;

• Fosteringofcreative,solution-orientedcross-fertilisationofprocessesandprojectsinthegenerationofcohesively,transparentresponses;

• Abalancebetweenreflectivecontinuousimprovementandtheimportanceofevaluativemeasuresthroughout;

• Holisticapproachbetweenvariousplayersandstakeholdersinprovidinglearningwhereitisneeded,includingthejustificationforelearninginitiativesandcommunications;

• Monitoringofprogressandadoptingrelevanttransnationalmethodsandmodelstoinformwideraudiences;

• Conductofongoingworkshopssharingknowledgeandexpertisesothatbestpracticeissystematicallyintegratedandpromotedinmaximisingthetake-upof‘big’ideasandproducts;

• Considerationsforsustainabilityacrossallfacetsoflearningfordevelopment,themestoaddress,andinclusionofthoseengaged,suchasfoundationsandmunicipalities;and

• Understandingoflifelonglearningascentraltosocial,educational,culturalandeconomicdevelopment,withlearningcities/regionsasthesocietalmechanismtorealisethispotential.


Overall,theGermanexperienceinbuildinglearningcommunitiesbasedontheLearning Region NetworksandLearning on PlaceProgramsholdsconsiderableinterestasalaboratoryfortestingapproachestolifelonglearningincitiesandregions.ThefundamentaltenantsofA Memorandum on Lifelong LearningandtheOECDlearningcityandregionsprincipleshavebeenprogressed.

Networkingthenetworksinordertoaddressimportantpolicy/practiceissuesbringstogetherthebenefitsfromlocal,regional,stateandnationalpartnershipsandthepolicythrustsofgovernmenttorespondtomajorchallenges.ManyoftheseapproachesaretransferabletootherinternationalcontextsandtherearefundamentalpoliciesandkeycommitmentsAustraliacanadopt.

Acknowledgements

Theauthorsacknowledgethesupportininterviews/meetingsandongoingdiscussionswith:

• DrAndreaReupold,memberofLudwig-MaximillianUniversityresearchteamthatevaluatedtheLearningRegionsNetworkProgramwithProfessorTippelt

• DrJuttaThinesse-Demel,Chair—LearningRegionsGermanyAssociation

• Mr&MrsRolf&RominaPrudent,ManagerandAdvisorrespectivelyoftheBadTölzLearningRegion

• BielefeldandBremenlearningcitypersonnel.

References

BertelsmanStiflung(2010).The ELLI Index—Europe 2010: Making lifelong learning tangible,Gütersloh.

Delors,J(Chair)(1996).Learning: The treasure within,Paris:UNESCO.EuropeanCommission(2000).A memorandum on lifelong learning,

Brussels:EuropeanCommission.


EuropeanCommission(2001).Making a European area of lifelong learning reality,Brussels:EuropeanCommission.

FederalMinistryofEducationandResearch(2004).Learning Regions—providing support for networks,Berlin.

Gnahs,D(January2010).Inform,Berlin:MinistryforEducationandResearch.

Gylling,C(undated).Learning Regions—promotion of networks. Summary,Fürstenfeld:BoardofGermanLearningRegionsNetwork.

Kearns,P,McDonald.R,Candy,P,Knights,S&Papadopoulos,G(1999).VET in the learning age: The challenge of lifelong learning for all,Adelaide:NationalCentreforVocationalEducationandResearch.

OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)(2000).Literacy in the information age,Paris:OECD.

OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)(2001).Cities and regions in the new learning economy.Paris:OECD.

Reghenzani,D(2002).‘Creatinglearningpartnershipsandalearningcorridor’,paperpresentedattheOECDLearningCitiesandRegionsInternationalConference,Melbourne.

Senge,P(1990).The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization,NewYork:DoubledayCurrency.

Thinesse-Demel,U(2010).‘LearningregionsinGermany’,inLongworth,N&Osborne,M(eds.),Perspectives on learning cities and regions: Policy, practice and participation,Leicester:NationalInstituteforAdultContinuingEducation.

About the authors

Dr Denise Reghenzani-Kearns has had an extensive and diverse working life in adult and lifelong learning through youth affairs, VET and university initiatives. Her work in the field, policy and international education has kept her abreast of key life phase and operational issues. In an ‘encore career’, she serves on professional and community association executives and has worked with her husband in Global Learning Services.


Peter Kearns OAM is known nationally and internationally for his thought-provoking research and writing on lifelong learning and learning communities. The author of over 80 consultancy reports on educational concerns, he is an Associate of the PASCAL International Observatory and inceptor of its Program of International (Ideas) Exchanges. He is a founding member of the Advisory Board to the Hume Global Learning Village and Global Learning Services. In 2003, he will be guest co-editor of a special learning cities issue of the International Journal of Lifelong Education.

Contact details

Tel: +61 (0)7 3378 0601 Email: [email protected] and [email protected]


Learning cities as healthy green cities: Building sustainable opportunity cities

Peter KearnsPASCAL International Exchanges

This paper discusses a new generation of learning cities we have called EcCoWell cities (Economy, Community, Well-being). The paper was prepared for the PASCAL International Exchanges (PIE) and is based on international experiences with PIE and developments in some cities. The paper argues for more holistic and integrated development so that initiatives such as Learning Cities, Healthy Cities and Green Cities are more connected with value-added outcomes. This is particularly important with the surge of international interest in environment and Green City development so that the need exists to redefine what lifelong learning and learning city strategies can contribute. The paper draws out the implications for adult education in the Australian context. We hope it will generate discussion.

Learning cities as healthy green cities 369

Introduction

TheUNRio+20SummitheldinJune2012remindsusofthecriticalimportanceofaddressingthegreatenvironmentalissuestoensurethefutureofPlanetEarth.Atthesametime,escalatingurbanisationaroundtheworldpointstothechallengeofbuildingcitiesthatarejustandinclusive,andwhereopportunitiesareavailableforallthroughoutlife,andwherethewell-beingofallisanaspirationthatisactivelyaddressedincitydevelopment.

Thischallengeiswidelyrecognised.TheWorldBankinitsECO2Citiesinitiativehasobservedthat‘[u]rbanisationindevelopingcountriesisadefiningfeatureofthe21stcentury’(WorldBank2011).Citiesalmosteverywherefacethetriplechallengesofurbanisation,sustainabilityandsocialjustice.

Thechallengeofthesebigissuesforcitydevelopmentclearlyrequiresnewparadigmstoguidedevelopment,andinnovativeformsofpartnershipwhereallstakeholdersareunitedforjointactionformutualbenefit.However,thescenearoundtheworldcontinuestobecharacterisedbysegmentedsilodevelopment,withfewsignsofintegratedconnectedstrategiesthatbringallstakeholderstogetherinpartnerships,includingnon-traditionalpartnerships,toachievevalueaddedoutcomesandbenefitsforall.

Inthiscontext,thispapercommentsontherolesofLearningCities,HealthyCitiesandGreenCities,andassertsthatmuchcouldbeachievedbyaddressingthebigissuesconfrontingtownsandcitiesthroughaconvergenceoftheseconceptstosupportamoreholisticandintegrateddevelopmentinwhatIhavecalledSustainableOpportunityCities.Whilethereismuchdiscussionoftownplanning,environmental,andarchitecturalfeaturesofcitiesofthefuture,thereisfarlessdiscussionofsocialaspects.Thisimbalanceneedstoberedressedwithacoherentsocialvisionoffuturecitiesinwhichlifelonglearning,andsocialjusticeandinclusion,arefoundations.

370 Peter Kearns

ThispaperdrawsoninternationaldevelopmentsIhavedirectedasIntellectualDirectorofthePASCALInternationalExchanges(PIE),aprojectofthePASCALInternationalObservatoryinvolvingonlineexchangesofinformationandexperiencebetweentwelvecitieslocatedacrossfivecontinentsaroundtheworld.Thisinitiativeisdiscussedbelow.

InconnectingtheroleofLearningTownsandCitieswithkeyenvironmentalandwell-beingissuesintownsandcities,IamawareoftheneedtorevitalisethenotionoflearningcommunitiesandcitiesinAustraliabyshowingtheirrelevancetopriorityissuesthatattractcommunityandpoliticalattention.TherealitythataLearningCityisanoverarchingconceptthatcanbeappliedinaddressingsuchkeyissuesaspreservingtheenvironment,fosteringwell-beingforall,andensuringpublicsafetyhasnotbeensufficientlyrealised,andisreflectedinthepoorleveloffundingfortheseinitiativesbygovernmentsinAustralia.

Inframingthisperspectiveinthepaper,IgivesomebackgroundonthelandscapeofLearningCities,HealthyCitiesandGreenCitiespointingtosomeofthethingstheyholdincommonwhichcouldbeusedinbuildingconnectionsandsynergies.IsuggestthatthisprocessofbuildingSustainableOpportunityCitiesshouldbeseenasacreativeprocesswherenewideasandinnovativestrategiesarerequired,butwheretherewardscanbesubstantialinaddressingthebigissuesconfrontingcitiesIhavementioned,andbuildingajust,humanesociety.

IshouldclarifyupfrontwhatImeanbySustainableOpportunityCities.BySustainabilityImeanthewellknownpillarsofenvironmental,socialandeconomicsustainability.ByOpportunityIrefertothethingsthatLearningCityinitiativeshavetraditionallybeendirectedat:lifelonglearning,buildingpartnership,communityandcitizenship,andfosteringenterprise.Expressedanotherway,


Iamtalkingofbuildingsocial,humanandidentitycapitalincohesive,inclusiveandsustainablecities.

IcommentbelowonafewrelatedfeaturesofLearningCities,HealthyCitiesandGreenCities,andthendiscusssomepossiblepathstowardsSustainableOpportunityCitiesinAustralia.Someimplicationsfortheroleofadulteducationaresuggested.

Learning cities

TheLearningCityideaemergedfromtheworkoftheOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)onlifelonglearningindrawingattentiontoopportunitiestoprogressallformsoflearninginmanycontextsthroughpartnershipandbuildingasharedvision.

ThisconceptevolvedthroughearlymanifestationsasEducatingCitieswitha1992reportbytheOECDonCity strategies for lifelong learning,preparedfortheSecondCongressofEducatingCitiesinGothenburg,drawingattentiontothepotentialofthecityasaframeworkforfosteringlifelonglearninginmanycontexts(OECD1992).

TheroleoftheEuropeanUnioninsupportinglifelonglearningasanorganisingprincipleforallformsofeducationhasbeenimportantindrivingtheevolutionoftheideaofthecity(ortown/region/community)asaframeworkforlifelonglearningforall.VariousprojectsfundedbytheEuropeanCommissionhavecontributedmuchinshowingtherangeofstrategiesthatcanbeappliedinbuildinginnovativeLearningCities.InformationandlessonsderivedfromthisexperiencemaynowbeaccessedthroughtheEUROLocalwebsite:www.eurolocal.org.

AgoodstatementoftheaspirationsandidealsthatunderpintheconceptofaLearningCityexistsinadefinitionbyLongworth(1999:112):

372 Peter Kearns

Alearningcommunityisacity,townorregionthatgoesbeyonditsstatutorydutytoprovideeducationandtrainingforthosewhorequireitandinsteadcreatesavibrantparticipative,culturallyaware,andeconomicallybuoyanthumanenvironmentthroughtheprovision,justificationandactivepromotionoflearningopportunitiestoenhancethepotentialofallitscitizens.

WhilethisdefinitiondrawsattentiontomuchthatiscentraltotheLearningCityidea,afurtherstatementbyLongworth(1999:109)addsadditionalkeydimensionstothisconcept:

Alearningcommunityisacity,townorregionwhichmobilisesallitsresourcesineverysectortodevelopandenrichallitshumanpotentialforthefosteringofpersonalgrowth,themaintenanceofsocialcohesion,andthecreationofprosperity.

Takentogether,thesestatementspointtotheentwinedindividualandcommunitydevelopmentobjectivesofLearningCities,theequityandsocialjusticethrustsintheconcernfor“allitscitizens”,andtheaspirationstobuildcommunitiesthatfosterpersonaldevelopment,socialcohesionandeconomicprosperity.Thekeyroleofalocalgovernmentcouncilinbuildingaframeworkforpartnershipiswidelyrecognised.

TheLearningCityconcepthasevolvedinnewcontextsaschallengeshavebeenencounteredas,forexample,inthedevelopmentoflearningcommunityinitiativesinEastAsiancountriessuchasChina,SouthKorea,andChineseTaipei.5Experiencehasshownthatthecoreideasinthe

5 ApaperfortheMay2010InternationalForumonLifelongLearninginShanghaidrewona2009surveyconductedbytheChineseMinistryofEducationtoestimatethattherewere,bytheendof2009,114nationalexperimentalorpilotlearningcommunitiesorganisedin30provinces,autonomousregionsormunicipalitiesunderthedirectjurisdictionofthecentralgovernmentwhilethenumberofpilotlearningcommunitiesorganisedbyprovincialauthoritiesexceeded4,000(HaoKeming2011:64).


LearningCityconceptaresufficientlyflexibletoaccommodatetheseapplicationsinawiderangeofinternationalcontextswhileatthesametimeevolvinginternationalexperienceaddstotherichnessencapsulatedinthisconcept.

ToenablecomparisonoftheLearningCityconceptwiththeprinciplesIgivebelowforHealthyCitiesandEcoCities,IsumupmyconceptofaLearningCityasacitygivingexpressiontothefollowingprinciples.

Principles for Sustainable Learning Cities:• Developasharedvision

• Buildpartnership

• Addresssocialjusticeandequity

• Involvethecommunityactively

• Progresslearninginmanycontextsandforms

• Makedevelopmentstrategic

• Addressthebigissuesconfrontingcities.

PASCAL International Exchanges

Inordertoshareideasandexperienceacrossnationalboundaries,thePASCALInternationalObservatoryinJanuary2011inauguratedthePASCALInternationalExchanges(PIE)totestonlineexchangesasavehicleforinternationaldialogueongoodideas.Twelvecitiesacrossfivecontinentsarecurrentlyparticipatinginthisproject:Glasgow,Kaunas,Bielefeld,Bari,Cork,DaresSalaam,Dakar,Kampala,Beijing,HongKong,HumeGlobalLearningVillage(Melbourne)andVancouver.Furthercitiesexpectedtojoinshortly.

InformationonPIE,includingthemethodologyadoptedandtheexperienceofparticipatingcities,maybeobtainedfromthePIEwebsite:www.pie.pascalobservatory.org.Afteraninitialstageofdevelopmentbasedonstimuluspaperspostedbyparticipatingcities,PIEhasnowprogressedtoasecondstagebasedonsixmajor

374 Peter Kearns

themes:CulturalPolicy;RespondingtoSocialChange;PreservingtheEnvironment;ICTandMedia;MobilisingCivilSociety;HealthyCities.

TheinclusionofPreservingtheEnvironmentandHealthyCitiesasPIEmajorthemesillustrateswaysinwhichtheLearningCityconceptcanreachouttoaddressmajorissuesinthedevelopmentofcities.Atthesametime,developmentsofthesesectorsstandstobeenrichedbyexchangesofexperiencebetweencitiesonheritageandculturalaspectsofdevelopment,learningstrategiesandcommunitybuilding,andstrategiestoaddressequityandsocialjusticeissuessoastobuildinclusive,cohesivecities.TheLearningCityconceptoffersafundamentallyhumanisticvisionoffuturelifeincitiesthatcanalsosupportstrategiestoaddresskeyissuesinarangeofsectorscontributingtosustainability.

ExamplesmaybefoundamongthecitiesparticipatinginPIEofapproachestofosteringlifelonglearninginawiderangeofcontexts.Forexample,theHumeGlobalLearningVillageisaninitiativeofHumeCityCouncilinadistrictofMelbournewithconsiderabledisadvantage,greatdiversitywithmigrantsfrommanypartsoftheworld,butwithacouncilcommittedtoideasofsocialjusticeandopportunitiesforall.Thesuccessofthisinitiativesince2004showstheimportanceofvaluesindrivingpartnershipaction,thekeyroleofalocalgovernmentcouncil,andthepayofffromcarefulstrategicactionguidedbyasharedvisionofthefutureandstrategiestoinvolveandinformthecommunity.

Ontheotherhand,theBeijingLearningCityinitiativeshowswhatcanbeachievedwithleadershipandcarefulplanninginacitywithapopulationofover20million.TheBeijinginitiativewithanactiveLeadershipGroupreachesdownintoall16AdministrativeDistrictssothatthewholecityisconnectedthroughaseriesoflearningnetworksacrossthecity.Alldowntownareasinthecityhaveacommunityeducationnetworkbaseledbycommunitycollegesandadulteducationcentres.


TheBeijingstimuluspaperforPIEreportedthat80percentofsub-districtshaveestablishedcommunityeducationcentresorlearningcentres.Morethan1,000full-timeandpart-timeteachershavejoinedinthiscity-wideeffortassistingcommunitiesindevelopingcommunityeducationactivities.Thisisanincredibleeffortthatdemonstrateswhatcanbeachievedwithvision,leadershipandconcertedaction.

OtherstimuluspapersonthePIEwebsiteillustrateimportantthemesincitydevelopment.TheGlasgowpaperisinterestinginillustratinghowmuseumsinGlasgowhaveadoptedasocialjusticeapproachtotheirwork,andsomakeimportantconnectionsbetweenculturalpolicyandsocialobjectivesincitydevelopment.TheBaripapershowshowacitycanadoptabroadpartnershipapproachincombatingcrimeandpromotingpublicsafety.ThethreeAfricanpapers(DaresSalaam,KampalaandDakar)demonstratemassiveproblemsarisingfromrapidurbangrowthwiththeDakarpapershowingtheimportanceofharnessingtraditionalAfricanwaysoflearninginfosteringlifelonglearninginAfrica.Altogether,thereismuchtobegainedfromacarefulreadingofthePIEstimuluspapers.

Healthy cities

IthasbecomeevidentthatLearningCitiesandHealthyCitiesshareagooddealincommon,andthatcommunitylearningstrategiescancontributemuchtoHealthyCityobjectives.ThisconvergenceofinterestshasbecomemoreapparentwiththestronginterestofHealthyCityinitiativesinthesocialdeterminantsofhealthfollowingtheworkoftheWorldHealthOrganisation’s(WHO)CommissionontheSocialDeterminantsofHealth.Thisprovidesacommonplatformofinterestinaddressingequityandsocialjusticeissues,withtheexperienceofLearningCityinitiativesintheseareasaresourcethatcanbedrawnonwithbenefitsforhealthobjectives.

376 Peter Kearns

TheHealthyCitymovementemergedfromtheworkoftheWHO,andhasbeenprogressedbyanumberofregionalnetworksthatlinkcitiescommittedtoHealthyCityprinciples.IntheAsianregion,forexample,anAllianceofHealthyCitiesnowlinksalargenumberofcitiesintheAsianregion,includingsomeAustraliancities.

WHO(2011)hasdefinedaHealthyCityinthefollowingmanner:

AHealthyCityisonethatiscontinuouslycreatingorimprovingtheirphysicalandsocialenvironmentsandexpandingthosecommunityresourceswhichenablepeopletomutuallysupporteachotherinperformingallthefunctionsoflifeandindevelopingtheirmaximumpotential.

ThiscouldbeadefinitionofaLearningCity,withconsiderablecommonalitywiththedefinitionofaLearningCitygivenbyLongworthcitedabove.Bothconceptsdrawonanddeveloparangeofcommunityresources,developpeopletotheirmaximumpotential,andfosterpartnershipsintheseendeavours.

KeycommonintereststhatLearningCitiesandHealthyCitiessharewerearticulatedintheFinalReportoftheWHOCommissionontheSocialDeterminantsofHealth(WHO2008).Thesocialdeterminantsofhealthhavebeendefinedasthe:

…socio-economicconditionsthatinfluencethehealthofindividuals,communitiesandjurisdictionsasawhole.Thesedeterminantsalsoestablishtheextenttowhichapersonpossessesthephysical,social,andpersonalresourcestoidentifyandachievepersonalaspirations,satisfyneedsandcopewellwiththeenvironment.(Raphael2004)

FollowuponthereportoftheCommissiononSocialDeterminantsofHealthincountriessuchastheUKhasidentifiedareaswhereactionislikelytobethemosteffectiveinreducinghealthinequalities.Thesehaveincludedareassuchasearlychildhooddevelopmentandeducation,socialprotection,andsustainabledevelopmentwhicharetypicallytheheartlandofLearningCityinitiatives(Campbell2010).


Healthy cities principles and values

AusefulstatementofHealthyCityprinciplesandvaluesmaybefoundinthe2009Zagreb Declaration on Healthy Cities.Theseareshownbelow(WHO2009):

• Equity: addressinginequalityinhealth,andpayingattentiontotheneedsofthosewhoarevulnerableandsociallydisadvantaged.Inequityisinequalityinhealththatisunfairandunjustandavoidablecausesofillhealth.Therighttohealthappliestoallregardlessofsex,race,religiousbelief,sexualorientation,age,disabilityorsocioeconomiccircumstance.

• Participation and empowerment:ensuringtheindividualandcollectiverightofpeopletoparticipateindecisionmakingthataffectstheirhealth,healthcareandwell-being.Providingaccesstoopportunitiesandskillsdevelopmenttogetherwithpositivethinkingtoempowercitizenstobecomeself-sufficient.

• Working in partnership: buildingeffectivemulti-sectoralstrategicpartnershipstoimplementintegratedapproachesandachievesustainableimprovementinhealth.

• Solidarity and friendship:workinginthespiritofpeace,friendshipandsolidaritythroughnetworkingandrespectandappreciationofthesocialandculturaldiversityofthecitiesoftheHealthyCitiesmovement.

• Sustainable development:thenecessityofworkingtoensurethateconomicdevelopment,andallthesupportiveinfrastructureneeds,isenvironmentallyandsociallysustainable.

ItisevidentthatmuchofthisstatementcouldapplyequallytoLearningCitieswiththethrustsoftheseinitiativestowardsequity,participation,empowermentandpartnershipprovidingaframeworktoprogresstheobjectivesofhealthycities.

Healthisoneofthefoundationsforwell-being.Inthinkingaboutthewell-beingofindividualsandcommunities,weareinevitablydrawntothinkingaboutlearning,self-esteem,andtheconfidencethatan

378 Peter Kearns

educatedpersonabletocontinuelearninganddevelopingthroughoutlifeacquires.Learningtobeissurelyapillarofwell-being.

Green cities and Eco cities

LikeHealthyCities,therehasbeenconsiderablepromotionoftheconceptsofGreenCitiesandEcoCities.WiththeRio+20Summitdrawingattentiontotheneedtofindinnovativewaystoaddresstheenvironmentalchallengestotheplanetweinhabit,thepotentialofthecityasanarenaforprogressisattractinggrowinginterest—and,rightlyso.

ThisinterestisreflectedinstudiesandinitiativessuchastheEuropeanUnion’sGreenCapitalsawards,theEco2programoftheWorldBank,theCitystateconceptdevelopedbySustainability,theSustainableCitiesCollective,andtheEcCoWellconceptIdevelopedforPASCAL.Ifwelookacrossthesecompetingyetcomplementaryvisions,wewillfindanumberofcommonthemesthatarerelevanttothedevelopmentoftownsandcitiesinAustralia.

TheEco2programoftheWorldBankwaslaunchedasanintegralpartoftheBank’sUrbanandLocalGovernmentStrategy.Thecoreideaisstatedinthefollowingterms(WorldBank2011:2):

…anEco2citybuildsonthesynergyandinterdependenceofecologicalandeconomicsustainability,andtheirfundamentalabilitytoreinforceeachotherintheurbancontext.

ThisideahasbeentakenupbyotheragenciessuchastheOECDinitsGreenGrowthStrategythatisdiscussedbelow.

TheWorldBankinitsEco2programidentifiedfourprinciplesforthedevelopmentofEcoCities.Theseare:

1. A city based approach—enableslocalgovernmentstoleadadevelopmentprocessthattakesintoaccounttheirspecificcircumstances,includingtheirlocalecology.


2. An expanded platform for collaborative design and decision making—accomplishessustainedsynergybycoordinatingandaligningtheactionsofkeystakeholders.

3. A one system approach—enablescitiestorealisethebenefitsofintegrationbyplanning,designing,andmanagingthewholeurbansystem.

4. An investment framework that values sustainability and resiliency—incorporatesandaccountsforlifestyleanalysis,thevalueofallcapitalassets(manufactured,natural).

AsIhavenotedwithHealthyCityprinciples,theseprinciplescouldapplytogoodLearningCitydevelopment,andcouldlargelyapplytoHealthyCities.

TheEuropeanGreenCapitalawardoftheEUillustratesthegrowingsignificancegiventotheenvironmentalchallengesconfrontingcitiesinEurope,andthekeyroleoflocalgovernmentauthoritiesinimprovingandsustainingtheenvironment.Thisawardisintendedtoshowcasegoodpracticemodelssoastodisseminateideasaboutbestpractice.

Sincetheawardcommencedin2010,thefollowingcitieshavewontheaward:Stockholm(2010),Hamburg(2011),Vitoria-Gasteig(2012)andNantes(2013).Aswithothergreeninitiatives,thewardslinkrespectfortheenvironment,qualityoflifeandeconomicgrowth.

TheideathatGreengrowthisaboutmorethantheenvironmentorecologywasalsosupportedbytheGreenGrowthLeaders(2011:5)inastudyofthesocio-economicbenefitsofgreendevelopmentinCopenhagen:

Greenmust,therefore,beenseeninabroaderperspectivethanstrictlyenvironmental.Itisalsoaboutimprovingqualityoflifeandcreatingjobsandbusinessopportunitiesthroughouttheentireeconomy—notjustintheclean-techsector.

380 Peter Kearns

TheOECDhasaddedtotheseevolvingperspectivesonGreengrowthwithitsreleaseoftheOECD Green growth strategy: A lens for examining growth(OECD2011a).ThisstrategywasseenasprovidingaframeworkforGreengrowth,includingaddressingseemingconflictsofeconomicandenvironmentalobjectives(OECD2011a:10):

Agreengrowthstrategyiscentredonmutuallyreinforcingaspectsofeconomicandenvironmentalpolicy.Ittakesintoaccountthefullvalueofnaturalcapitalasafactorofproductionanditsroleingrowth.Itfocusesoncost-effectivewaysofattenuatingenvironmentalpressurestoeffectatransitiontowardsnewpatternsofgrowththatwillavoidcrossingcritical,local,regionalandglobalenvironmentalthresholds.

TheOECDGreenGrowthStrategyattemptstobringtogethereconomic,environmental,social,technologicalanddevelopmentalaspectsintoacomprehensiveframework,pointingthewaytolinkGreengrowthtotheotherdomainsofsocio-economicdevelopment.

Similarly,theZero-draftoftheOutcomeDocumentfortheUNRio10+20Conferenceecognisestheneedfortheintegrationofeconomicdevelopmentandenvironmentalsustainabilityinbalancingthethreepillarsofsustainabledevelopmentseenaseconomic,social,andenvironmentalsustainability(UnitedNations2012).Thisrecognitionofthecaseforanintegratedandholisticapproachtodevelopingsustainablecitiesisinaccordwiththethesisofthispaper.

ThekeyroleoflocalgovernmentauthoritiesinthedevelopmentofaframeworkforsustainabledevelopmenthasemergedfromtheworkofICLEI—LocalGovernmentsforSustainability,aninternationalorganisationwithover1200membersacrosstownsandcitiesaroundtheworld.TheworkofICLEIpromoteskeyaspectsofsustainabilityin‘Urbanresilienceandadaptation’andaddstogoodpracticemodelsthatareemergingfromleadingGreenCitiessuchasCopenhagen,StockholmandHamburg. (Thein-depthprofileofCopenhagenasaGreenCitypreparedbytheGreenGrowthLeaders(2011)provides


agoodexampleofthesocio-economicbenefitsfromwell-managedgreengrowth.)

ThegrowingliteratureonGreenCitiesandEcoCitiespointstotheneedforstrategiestoprogressholisticapproachestourbandevelopmentthatlinkenvironmental,health,learning,communitybuildingandeconomicaspectsofdevelopment,andwhichaccordwiththeprinciplesforLearningCities,HealthyCitiesandEcoCitiesIhavementioned.IturnnowtothecriticalquestionofhowwebuildpathwaystowardsSustainableOpportunityCitiesthataccordwiththeseprinciplesandwhichaddvaluebeyondtheseseparateaspirations.

WhileIhavedrawnsubstantiallyinthispaperontheEcCoWellpaperIwroteforPASCALonSustainableOpportunityCities,IhaveomittedpartsofthatpaperwhichaddtothefullcaseforSustainableOpportunitycities.Theomittedpartsrelatetowellbeing,communityandculturalaspects,economicaspects,placemaking,andbalancingindividualandcommunityinterests.ThesepartsofthecasemaybereadintheEcCoWellpaperonline:http://pie.pascalobservatory.org.

The path towards Sustainable Opportunity Cities

Ihavetakenthepositioninthispaperthatcitiesaroundtheworldareconfrontedbyaseemingconvergenceofforcesthatunderpinkeylearning,health,environmentandculturalobjectives.Thisprovidesanopportunitytoseizethis‘conjunctureofforces’todevelopinacoordinatedcomprehensivewaythroughpartnershipsandasharedvision,citiesthataresustainable,humane,andfosterlearningandwell-beingforall.IhavetermedsuchcitiesSustainableOpportunityCities(EcCoWell)—citiesthatcombinethebenefitsofLearningCities,HealthyCitiesandGreen/EcoCities.

WhilethereisnowasignificantknowledgebaseonLearningCitiesandHealthyCities,andagrowingbaseonGreenCities,thepath

382 Peter Kearns

toSustainableOpportunityCitiesislikelytoinvolveareframingofourideasaboutcitydevelopment,involvingnewparadigms,anda‘processofdynamicsynergy’(Hall1998:18):‘Thekeyistheabilitytotransferideasfromonecircuitintoanother—forwhich,theremustbemanysuchcircuits’(Hall1998:19).

Thisprocessoflinkingnetworksina‘processofdynamicsynergy’willrequireframeworkstoenablethistohappen,arequirementthatisbecomingincreasinglyimportantwiththegrowthofcitiesinsizeanddiversity.Theroleoflocalgovernmentcouncilsinthisprocesswillbecentral.

AneffectiveLearningCityinitiativecanprovideamoralandethicalframeworkforstimulatinglearningthroughoutlife,andbuildingcitizenshipandasharedsenseofidentityandcommunitythatreachesouttoothersaswellasaddressinglocalconcernsthroughcity-basedinitiatives..Thisprovidesanecessaryfoundationforaddressingissuessuchaspreservingtheenvironment,eradicatingpoverty,andenhancinghealthandwell-beingthatarebothlocalandglobalintheirramifications.

Therearelayersofconnectionsincitiesthatcanbebuiltoninfosteringthisprocessofdynamicsynergy,asLandry(2008:22)notes:

Therearelayersuponlayersofurbaninterconnections—personal,politicalandeconomic-oftenbasedonhistoricmigratorypatternssuchasthebamboonetworkofexpatriateChinese,whofromVancouvertoSydneyarepartofChina-basedtradingsystem.

TheexperienceofrapidgrowthAfricancities,suchasDaresSalaam,KampalaandAddisAbaba,pointstothesignificanceofunderstandingtheselayersofurban/ruralinterconnectionsasafoundationinthepathtowardssustainableEcCoWellcities.


Withgrowingdiversityinmanycitiesthroughincreasedmigration,bothfromruralareasandinternationally,respondingtodiversityisakeychallengeonthepathtosustainability.ThishasbeentermedbyWoodandLandry(2008:23)asthecentraldilemmaoftheage:‘Dealingwithandvaluingdiversityandthedesirefordistinctivenessisthecentraldilemmaofanage’.

Whiledealingwithdiversitywillbeachallengeformanycities,ontheotherhandplanningfordiversityadvantagecanbeasourceofculturalrichesandcreativitythataddstotheethosandspiritofacity(Wood&Landry2008:10–13).

Achievingdiversityadvantageinaninterculturalcitycanoftenbeamatterofthesocalled‘Medicieffect’,theconvergenceofideasandconceptsacrossrelatedareasofcitydevelopmentwhichprovidesopportunitiestoestablishaprocessofdynamicsynergythatwillleadtovalueaddedoutcomesacrossthesesectors,ashappenedintheburstofcreativityinfifteenthcenturyFlorenceunderitsMedicirulers(Johansson2004:2–3).

TheconceptsofLearningCity,HealthyCityandGreenCityhavemuchincommonsothatconnectinguptheseconcepts,andtheirlinkedstrategies,willprovideopportunitiestoprogresstheseobjectivesinhumane,sustainablecities.Theinteractionofideasattheintersectionsoftheseconceptswillprovideopportunitiesforbreakthroughinsightsinharnessingthe‘Medicieffect’.

Therearesurelyopportunitiesinconnectingupourlearning,community,health,well-beingandenvironmentalaspirationstomakethisprocesscreative.AstheWorldBankinitsEco2Cityinitiativeremindsus,weshouldthinkstrategicallyintermsofaone-systemapproachthatconnectsindividualinitiatives.

TheaspirationsofGreenCitiesandHealthyCitiesneedthehumanismthatunderpinstheLearningCityconceptiftheyareto

384 Peter Kearns

flourishandtobesustainedinthelongterm.TheLearningCityconceptwillberevitalisedthroughthecontemporaryrelevanceoftheGreenCityandHealthyCityobjectives.Thereisinthissituationaconvergenceofinterest,aswellasaconvergenceofcommonconcernsandobjectives.

Theseaspirationswillallbenefitfromtheactivepromotionofabroadconceptoflifelonglearningforall.Overtime,thiswillcontributetobuildingalearningcultureincitiesthatisreceptivetonewideas(Kearns&Papadopoulos2000).And,perhapsaLearningSociety(Kearns:2006).

Whiletheconceptoflifelonglearninghassometimesbeennarrowedtoafocusonskillandeconomicdevelopmentobjectives,thereismuchmeritintheassertionbyDukethatthereismostbenefitinwideningthescopeoflifelonglearning‘toaddressthesocial,civicandsustainableecologicalneedsofcomplexageingsocieties’(Duke2011:5).Activepartnershipinimplementingsuchaconceptoflifelonglearningwillbenefitalltheaspirationsdiscussedinthispaper.AsGlaeser(2011:269)haswiselyobserved:‘Webuildcivilizationandculturetogether,constantlylearningfromoneanotherandfromthepast’.

AsuccessfulLearningCityinitiativeprovidesanoverarchingframeworkandstimulustoharnessthisprocessofon-goinglearningandpartnershipsoastofurthershareaspirationsandcontributetorevitalisingcivilizationandculture.Thisrequiresacertainboldnessofvision,understandingofthepastandpresent,andgoodwillinreachingouttoothers(Ferguson2011:324–325).

BoththeHealthyCityandGreenCityaspirationsneedtheworkofsuccessfulLearningCityinitiativesinprogressingequityandsocialjustice,openingopportunitiesforlearningandpersonaldevelopmentthroughoutlife,andbuildingcommunityandacivicsenseof


commoninterest.Fosteringtheseaspirationswillbuildaplatformforfurtheringhealth,well-being,environmentandeconomicobjectives.

Whilehistoricallytradehasbeenthevehicletospreadanddeepencivilizations,moderntechnologiesprovideanopportunitytofostertheinterplayofideasandcultureseverywhereintheglobalmarketplaceofideas.

What are the implications for adult education in Australia?

IturnnowtothequestionoftheimplicationsoftheideasdiscussedinthispaperfortheroleofadulteducationinAustralia—andfortheopportunitiesnowemergingforthoselabouringinthevineyardinbuildinglearningcommunitieswithlittlesupportandrecognitionfromgovernments.

IntheEcCoWellworkingpaper,fourwaystoprogressaconvergenceofLearningCity,HealthyCityandGreenCityaspirationswereidentified.Thesewere:

1. LearningCitiesthatbroadentoprogressHealthyCityandGreenCityobjectives.

2. HealthyCityandGreenCityinitiativesthatapplyLearningCityobjectivesandstrategies.

3. NetworksthatlinkLearningCity,HealthyCityandGreenCityinitiativesinaparticularregion,orinternationally.

4. NewinitiativesthatadopttheEcCoWellapproachfromthebeginning.

Eachoneoftheseapproachesinvolvesextendingpartnershipsandbuildingasharedvisionofthefuture.Itissurelytimetoasserttheadulteducationrole,inaframeworkoflifelonglearningandcommunitybuilding,asakeyplayerandpartnerinapproachestosustainabilityintownsandcities.Thelearningcityideaisan

386 Peter Kearns

overarchingconceptthatcanreachouttosupportarangeofpillarsofsustainablehumanecities.

TheexamplesIhavecitedfromthePASCALInternationalExchangesillustratedifferentapproaches.TheBeijingLearningCity,forexample,demonstratesacomprehensivereachingdownapproach,reachingdowntoallAdministrativeDistrictsandsub-districts.Goodpracticeisrecognisedandrewarded.TheHumeGlobalLearningVillageillustratesamoreevolutionaryapproachwhichcommencedasaLearningCityinitiativeinadistrictwithconsiderabledisadvantage,butwhichisnowconsideringhowhealthandenvironmentobjectivescanbelinkedtotheon-goingLearningCityinitiative.BothdevelopmentshaveanactiveLeadershipGroup,thestrongsupportoftheCitygovernment/council,andbuildonresearchinstrivingforcontinuousimprovement.

TheEcCoWellpapermakesthesuggestionthatmuchwouldbegainedfromamixoftheseapproachesthatfosteredarichmilieuofinnovativeideasandsharingofexperience.SuchanapproachwouldbemostproductiveifsupportedbyrelevantorganisationsandagenciessuchasPASCAL,UNESCO,WHO,UNEPandGreenGrowthLeaders.

TherearevariousportentsthattheLearningCityisanideawhosetimehascomeinacontextofgrowingconcernwithurbanisation,sustainabilityandpoverty/exclusionissues.TheUNESCOInstituteforLifelongLearninginHamburgiscurrentlyundertakingplanningforaGlobalLearningCityNetworktobelaunchedinlate2013withPASCALcontributingtothisdevelopment.AspecialissueoftheInternational Journal of Lifelong EducationwithafocusonLearning


CitiesaroundtheworldisplannedforJuly20136.Boththesedevelopmentsareraisingaraftofquestions,includingassessmentofprogress.

Thecontextdiscussedinthispapercallsfordeepenedpartnershipsthatexploreareasofcommoninterest,mutualaspirationsandstrategiesthatprogressallaspirationsinvalue-addedways.Thisapproachgoesinthedirectionof‘thedeepeningrecognitionofthevalueandnecessityofpartnership,pluralism,andtheinterplayofmanyperspectives’(Tarnas1991:443).

ThefundamentalcommoninterestthatallstakeholdersinAustraliantownsandcitieshaveinpromotingjust,sustainablefuturespointstotheneedforamutualcommitmenttoactiontoensureasustainablefuture.ThisideahasbeengivenshapebytheGermanGovernment’sAdvisoryCouncilonGlobalChangeasaSocialContractforSustainability—acommitmentbyallsectorsofsocietytojointactionintheGreatTransformationtoasustainablesociety(GermanAdvisoryCouncilonGlobalChange2011).IsthisanideawithimplicationsforAustralia?

WhilethispaperhashadafocusonLearningCities,HealthyCitiesandGreenCityinitiatives,otherrelevantnetworksexistincitiesthatarerelevanttotheideaofagoodcitydiscussedinthispaper.Networkingthenetworksincities,regionallyandinternationallyisakeychallengeandopportunity.Thereareopportunitiesinthissituationtorevitalisetheconceptoflearningcommunities,andtheroleofadulteducationinAustraliansociety.

6 TheIJLEissuewillincludeachapterontheinterestingworkdonebytheformerCanadianCouncilonLearningindevelopingandimplementingoverfiveyearsaCompositeLearningIndexbasedonthefourpillarsidentifiedbytheUNESCODelorsCommission(LearningtoKnow,Do,LearningtoLivewithOthers,LearningtoBe).TheCanadianCLIIndexhasbeenappliedinEuropeinastudysponsoredbytheBertelsmannFoundation(ELLI2010).

388 Peter Kearns

Living,learningandgrowinginSustainableOpportunityCitiesprovidesanopportunitytobuildacreativesynthesisoftheidealsandvaluesthathavemotivatedinitiativesacrosseducationandlearning,health,cultureandenvironmentsectorsinurbancontexts,andtoreassertthehistoricroleofcitiesasthecradlesofcivilizationandculture.

Thetimeforsegmentedresponsesissurelypastandthepathtowardssustainabledevelopmentinhumanetwenty-firstcenturycitieswillbeoneofhighinterestwithmanyopportunitiesforcreativeideasandinnovations.

References

BertelsmannFoundation(2010).ELLI: European lifelong learning indicators—making lifelong learning tangible, www.deutscher-lernatlas.de[accessed11April2012].

Bynner,J&Hammond,C(2004).‘Thebenefitsofadultlearning:Quantitativeinsights’,inSchuller,Tet.al.(ed.),The benefits of learning,London:RoutledgeFalmer.

CampbellF(ed.)(2010).The social determinants of health and the role of local government,IDeA,http://www.idea.gov.uk[accessed5April2012].

Cohen,G(2005).The mature mind: The positive power of the aging brain,NewYork:BasicBooks.

Duke,C(2011).‘LifelonglearningandtheautumnofEuropeanization’,unpublished.

Ferguson,N(2011).Civilization: The west and the rest,London: AllenLane.Field,J(2008).Well-being and happiness: IFLL thematic paper 4,Leicester:

NationalInstituteforAdultContinuingEducation.Fujs,M(2011).‘Senseofplace,children,holdersofinterculturaldialogue:

Theprojectofcross-borderco-operationbetweenSloveniaandHungary’,in Kearns,P,Kling,S&Wistman,C(eds),Heritage, regional development and social cohesion,Fornvardaren31:Östersund.

GermanAdvisoryCouncilonGlobalChange(2011).‘Worldintransition:Asocialcontractforsustainability’,www.wbge.de/en/flagship-reports[accessed11April2012].

Glaeser,E(2011).Triumph of the city,London:Macmillan.


GovernmentOfficeofScience(2008).Mental capacity and well-being: Making the most of ourselves in the 21st century,London:StationaryOffice.

GreenGrowthLeaders(2011).Copenhagen—beyond green, Copenhagen.Guenther,C&Al-Shanaf,M(2012).‘Citystates,Sustainability’,www.

greenbiz.com/sites/default/files/Sustainability[accessed4April2012].Hall,P(1998).Cities in civilization,London:Weidenfeld&Nicolson.Johansson,F(2004).The Medici effect: Breakthrough insights at the

intersection of ideas, concepts and cultures,Boston:HarvardBusinessSchoolPress.

Kearns,P&Papadopoulos,G(2000).Building a learning and training culture: The experience of vive OECD countries, Adelaide:NationalCentreforVocationalEducationResearch.

Kearns,P(2006).Achieving Australia as an inclusive learning society,Canberra:AdultLearningAustralia.

Kearns,P(2011).‘Introduction’,inKearns,P,Kling,S&Wistmann,C(eds.),Heritage, regional development and social cohesion, Fornvårdaren31:Östersund.

Kearns,P,Kling,S&Wistmann,C(eds.)(2011).Heritage, regional development and social cohesion, Fornvårdaren31:Östersund.

Kearns,P(2012).‘EcCoWell:Livingandlearninginsustainableopportunitycities’,http://pie.pascalobservatory.org[accessed4April2012].

Keming,H(2011).‘ThedevelopmentofaninstitutionalframeworkforlifelonglearninginChina’,inYang,J&Valdés-Cotera,R(eds.),Conceptual evolution and policy developments in lifelong learning,Hamburg:UNESCOInstituteofLifelongLearning.

Landry,C(2008).The creative city,London: Earthscan.Longworth,N(1999).Making lifelong learning work: Learning cities for a

learning century,Sterling,VA:StylusPublishing.NewEconomicsFoundation(2009).National accounts of well-being:

Bringing real wealth into the balance sheet,London:NewEconomicsFoundation.

OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)(1992).City strategies for lifelong learning.Paris:OECD.

OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)(2011a).Towards green growth.Paris:OECD.

OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)(2011b).Towards green growth: A summary for policy makers,Paris:OECD.

390 Peter Kearns

OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)(2011c).Your better life, http://oecdbetterlifeindex.org.

OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)(2011d).Towards an OECD skills strategy,http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/58/27/47769010.

OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)(2011e).What well-being and sustainability measures,www.oecd.org/ssfplus2.

OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)(2012).Forum newsletter,7February2012,[email protected].

O’Neill,M(2011).‘Museumaccess—welfareorsocialjustice’,inKearns,P,Kling,S&Wistmann,C(eds.),Heritage, regional development and social cohesion, Fornvårdaren31:Östersund.

Raphael,D(2004).Social determinants of health, CanadianPerspectives:TorontoCSPI.

Sani,M(2011).‘Museumsinthelearningage’,inKearns,P,Kling,S&Wistmann,C(eds.),Heritage, regional development and social cohesion, Fornvårdaren31.Östersund.

Schuller,T,Preston,J,Hammond,C,Brassett-Grundy,A&Bynner,J(2004).The benefits of learning: The impact of education on health, family life and social capital,London: RoutledgeFalmer.

Tarnas,R(1991).The passion of the western mind,NewYork:HarmonyBooks.

UnitedNations(2012).The future we want: Zero-draft of the outcome document for Rio10+20, http://www.uncsd2012.org/rio20/content/documents[accessed2February2012].

Wood,P&Landry,C(2008).The intercultural city: Planning for diversity advantage,London: Earthscan.

WorldBank(2011).Eco2 cities: Ecological cities as economic cities,www.worldbank.org/eco2[accessed2April2012].

WorldHealthOrganisation(2011).Healthy cities: Health promotion glossary,http://www.who.int/entity/healthy.settings/publications/en[accessed10December2011].

WorldHealthOrganisation(2008).Closing the gap in a generation: Health equity through action on the social determinants of health.Geneva:WHO.

WorldHealthOrganisation(2009).Zagreb Declaration on Healthy Cities,Europe.


About the author

Peter Kearns is Intellectual Director of the PASCAL International Exchanges, a project of the PASCAL International Observatory. He has had careers as a teacher, Australian public servant, and consultant. He served as a member of the Australian Delegation to OECD in Paris and was Director of Global Learning Services from 1996 to 2011. His interests include lifelong learning, building inclusive learning communities, and international and comparative education.

Contact details

[email protected]


Living and learning in EcCoWell cities: Discussion paper

Peter KearnsPASCAL International Exchanges

These notes and questions have been prepared to promote discussion of the ideas set out in the Clarifying paper, ‘Living and learning in EcCoWell cities’ to be found on the PASCAL International Exchanges (PIE) website. This Discussion Paper sets ten questions for discussion. We are hoping to encourage discussions of these issues around the world.

ThesenotesandquestionshavebeenpreparedtopromotediscussionoftheideassetoutintheClarifyingpaper,‘LivingandlearninginEcCoWellcities’.TheClarifyingpaperwaspreparedtoprovideapossibleframeworkforfurtherexchangesbetweencitiesparticipatinginthePASCALInternationalExchanges(PIE)thatgointhedirectionofbroader,moreholisticandintegratedstrategies.(TheClarifyingpaperandinformationonPIEisavailableonthewebsite<www.pie.pascalobservatory.org>).

Living and learning in EcCoWell cities 393

Itishopedthatarrangementswillbemadeforcross-sectoraldiscussionoftheideasintheClarifyingpapersoastoidentifyareasofcommoninterestandwaysinwhichthesesharedinterestscanbestrengthened.FeedbackfromthesediscussionstoPIEwillhaveconsiderablevalueforallthecitiesparticipatinginPIE,andwillenableanexpandeddraftoftheClarifyingpapertobepreparedtoincludepracticalwaysofworkingtowardsholisticstrategiesthatadvancelearning,community,healthandwell-being,environmentalandculturalobjectivesinparticipatingcitiesincost-effectivewaysthataddvalue.

Itwouldbeparticularlyusefulifthefollowingquestionscouldbediscussedbymixedgroupsthatbringtogetherpeoplewithexperienceacrosseducation/learning,health,environment,communitybuildingandculturalsectors.

A. The convergence and common interest themes (pp. 4–12)

ThecentralthesisoftheClarifyingPaperisthatLearningCity,HealthyCityandGreenCityinitiativessharecertaincommoninterests,sothattheseaspirationswillbeprogressedbestincitiesifholisticintegratedstrategiesareadoptedthatrecognise,andbuildon,areasofcommoninterest.

Forexample,LearningCityinitiativescommonlyaimtoprovidelearningopportunitiesforallsectionsofthecommunity,andsofurtherequity,socialjusticeandcommunityobjectives.Anempoweredandenlightenedcitizenrywillhaveanenhancedunderstandingofenvironmentalissues,whiletheequitystrategiesofLearningCitieswillfacilitateprogressinaddressingthesocialdeterminantsofhealth.

Question 1:Whatlinksandconnectionsmaybeidentifiedbetweenlearning,community,healthandwell-being,andenvironmentalobjectivesinyourcity?Towhatextenthavetheseconnectionsbeenforgedinpolicies?Whatmorecouldbedone?

394 Peter Kearns

Question 2:Whatarethemainbarrierstomoreholisticandintegratedstrategies?Howcouldthesebeaddressed?

B. Advancing well-being in the city (pp. 10–11)

Thepaperassertsthatlearning,health,communitybuildingandculturalpoliciescaneachcontributetothewell-beingofcitizensandtheirfamilies.Thisimpactcanbeenhancedifpoliciesandstrategiesareco-ordinated.Centralaspectsinclude:

• learningencouragessocialinteractionandincreasesself-esteemandfeelingsofcompetency;

• benefitsfromlearninginonedomainsuchashealthandenvironmentimpactonfunctioningindomainssuchasfamilyandcommunity;

• asbettermeasuresofwell-beingarebecomingavailable,thepolicysignificanceofwell-beinghasincreased;and

• therehasbeenagrowingconcerninsomecountriesatmentalhealthproblemsandincreasedalienationofsectionsofthepopulation,includingmanyyoungpeople.

Question 3:Towhatextentaresectoralpoliciesthatenhancewell-beingco-ordinatedinastrategicapproachtopromotingwell-beinginyourcity?Whatmorecouldbedone?

Question 4:Inwhatwaysarementalhealthproblemsandgrowingsocialalienationofsomegroupsbeingaddressed?Whatmorecouldbedone?

C. Enhancing place-making (pp. 12–13)

TheClarifyingpapersuggeststhattheconceptofplace-makingcanprovideanimportantframeworkforbringingstakeholdersintopartnershiparrangementstoadvanceasharedvision.Theactiveinvolvementofthecommunityiscentraltothisconcept.Thecommunityroleofcivicspacesisakeyaspectofcreativeplace-making.

Living and learning in EcCoWell cities 395

Question 5:Inwhatwayscouldplace-makinginyourcitybeenhancedasademocraticprocesscontributingtoempoweringthecommunity,strengtheningcitizenshipandasenseofidentityinthecity,andcontributingtotheaspirationsandidealsdiscussedinthispaper?

D. Community and cultural policies(pp.8–9)

Heritageandculturalpoliciescanbeimportantinbuildingcommunity,asenseofidentityandbelonging,andaddingtosocialcohesionincities—aswellasenhancingthequalityoflifeandwell-beingofresidents.Thesedimensionsofgoodcitiesareespeciallyimportantincitiesthathaveexperiencedrapidgrowth,large-scalemigration,andconsiderablepovertyandinequality.

Question 6:Whatroledocommunityandculturalpoliciesplayinthedevelopmentofyourcity?Inwhatwayscouldtheirimpactbeenhanced?

E. Preserving the environment (pp. 7–8)

Manycitieshaveadoptedpoliciestopreserveandenhancetheenvironment,andanumberofleadingGreenCitieshaveemerged.ThesuccessofGreenCitystrategiesdependsoncommunityunderstandingandsupportforthepoliciesadoptedsothatthereareimportanteducationalandlearningdimensions.Innovativeeco-communityprojectsprovideexamplesofcommunity-ledinitiatives.Communityunderstandingofcomplexissues,suchasglobalwarming,presentschallengeswhereeducationandlearningstrategiescanmakeacontribution.

Question 7:InwhatwaysdoGreenCityobjectivesconnectwithLearningCityandHealthyCityaspirationsandstrategies?Howcouldtheseconnectionsbestrengthened?

F. Towards Sustainable Development in EcCoWell Cities (pp. 15–17)

TheClarifyingpaperassertsthatwaysneedtobefoundtoprogressbeyondsilodevelopmentincitiessothatholisticandintegrated

396 Peter Kearns

acrosssectorsleadstoasharedvision,communitysupport,andvalue-addedoutcomesinbuildinghumanesustainablecities.

Thiswillrequirearrangementsthattransferideasfromonecircuittoanotherandwhichrecognisethelayersuponlayersofurbaninterconnections.Thegrowingdiversityinmanycitiesisaparticularissuetobeaddressed.

Question 8:Whatstepscouldbetakeninyourcitytostrengthensectoralunderstanding,co-operationandpolicyintegration?

Question 9:Inwhatwayscouldallsectorscollaborateandcontributeinaddressingthequestionofgrowingdiversityinmanycities,andinprogressingtowardsasharedidentitywithsocialinclusioninasustainablecity?

Question 10:Overall,whatdoyouregardasthesinglemostimportantinitiativethatneedstobetakeninbuildinghumane,inclusiveandsustainablecities?

About the author

Peter Kearns is Intellectual Director of the PASCAL International Exchanges, a project of the PASCAL International Observatory. He has had careers as a teacher, Australian public servant, and consultant. He served as a member of the Australian Delegation to OECD in Paris and was Director of Global Learning Services from 1996 to 2011. His interests include lifelong learning, building inclusive learning communities, and international and comparative education.

Contact details

[email protected]


Research report

Flexible models for learning English are needed for refugee mothers

Elisha Riggs1,2, Karen Block1, Lisa Gibbs1, Elise Davis1, Josef Szwarc3, Sue Casey3, Philippa Duell-Piening3 and

Elizabeth Waters1

1 The Jack Brockhoff Child Health and Wellbeing Program, The McCaughey Centre,

The University of Melbourne2 Healthy Mothers Healthy Families Research Group,

Murdoch Children’s Research Institute 3 The Victorian Foundation for the Survivors of Torture

(Foundation House)

The importance of English language acquisition for resettlement of refugees is well established, particularly as a pathway to education, employment, health and social connections. A qualitative study was conducted in 2011 in Melbourne, Australia utilising focus groups with 87 refugee background women from Karen, Iraqi, Assyrian Chaldean, Lebanese, South Sudanese and Bhutanese refugee

398 Elisha Riggs, Karen Block, Lisa Gibbs, Elise Davis, Josef Szwarc, Sue Casey, Philippa Duell-Piening and Elizabeth Waters

backgrounds. Focus groups and interviews were also conducted with 18 service providers and five bicultural and community workers. Several barriers were identified that prevented refugee mothers from learning English; however, some innovative and flexible models appear promising. The development, implementation and evaluation of innovative models and settings for refugee background women with young children to learn English in a culturally appropriate way are essential.

Importance of English for refugee settlement

Australiareceivesapproximately13,750refugeeseachyear(DIAC2011).Theprocessofrefugeeresettlementiscomplex,andithasbeenwidelydocumentedthatgaininghost-countrylanguageproficiencyiscriticalforintegration(Colic-Pesker&Walker2003;Taylor2004).Researchshowsthatgroupsmostatriskofexclusion,suchaswomen,theelderlyandthosewithlimitedpreviouseducation,arethoseleastlikelytolearnEnglish(Beiser2009).Languageskillsarevitalforparticipatingineducationandemployment,andaccessingservices,whichinturn,affectopportunitiestodevelopsocialconnections(Ager&Strang2008).

Aspartofasuiteofsettlementservices,newmigrantstoAustraliawithlessthan‘functional’Englishareeligiblefor510hoursoffreeEnglishlanguageclasses(DIAC2011).RefugeesarelesslikelythanothermigrantstohavefamilyandfriendsalreadyinAustralia,andsotheyrelyonEnglishclassesandothersettlementservicesassourcesofinformation(AMES2011).FailuretoaccessEnglishclasses,therefore,heightenstheriskofsocialisolation.AnAustralianstudyfoundlowEnglishproficiencywasasignificantpredictorofpost-partumdepressionformigrantmothers.Womeninthiscategorymorecommonlyreportedlonelinessandisolationandaneedformoresupport(Bandyopadhyay,Small,Watson&Brown2010).

Flexible models for learning English are needed for refugee mothers 399

ACanadianlongitudinalstudyfoundassociationsbetweenlimitedEnglishfluencyanddepressionandunemploymentamongrefugeewomentenyearsafterarrival(Beiser2009).Conversely,Englishlanguageproficiencyhasbeenfoundtopromotewellbeingandself-esteem(SunHeeOk,Ehrich&Ficorilli2012).

This study

Theauthorsconductedaqualitativestudyexploringexperiencesofutilisationofthestate-widematernalandchildhealthservicesbyrefugeebackgroundpeopleinMelbourne,Australia.Thisreportpresentsadditionalunsolicitedfindingsconcerningbarriersforwomen’sparticipationinEnglishlanguagecoursesthatemergedduringthestudy.

Focusgroupswereconductedwith87mothersfromdiversebackgroundsincluding:Karen,Iraqi,AssyrianChaldean,Lebanese,SouthSudaneseandBhutanese.ParticipantshadlivedinAustraliaforanaverageof4.7years.Serviceproviders,includingnurses,biculturalworkersandothercommunityworkers,alsoparticipated.Thefullmethodsandresultsofthisstudyarepublishedelsewhere(Riggsetal.underreview).

Results

Barriers for learning English

ParticipantsreportedwantingtolearnEnglish,butfoundattendanceatclassesimpossible.Formanythiswasduetochild-rearingresponsibilitiesandconcernsthatavailablechildcareoptionswereculturallyinappropriate.Processesforaccessingpart-timestudyoptionsarecomplexandwomenexpressedconcernthatpart-time,ratherthanfull-time,studymayaffecttheirwelfarepayments.

ServiceprovidersreportedthatmostrefugeefamiliesprioritisedattendanceatEnglishclassesforthemale,asheadofthehousehold,


toincreaseemploymentopportunities.Severalalsostatedthatsomewomenwerediscouragedfromattendingmixed-genderclassesbytheirhusbandsorotherfamilymemberswhoconsideredtheminappropriate.Asonenursecommented:

It’sprettysad;itjustdoesn’tseemtobeconsideredimportantthatthewomanknowshowtospeakEnglishtoo,andtomethat’sahugepowerimbalancethere,soherhusbandlearnstospeakEnglishandshedoesn’tknowhowtosayanything(RefugeeHealthNurse).

ThosemotherswhoaccessedEnglishclassesfoundtheallocated510hoursinsufficient,asthiswasthefirstexperienceformanyofclassroom-basedlearning.Somereceivedhometutoring,butusuallyonlyonehourperweek,whichisnotenoughtolearnanewlanguage.

Impact of limited English

OurstudyconfirmedpreviousfindingsthatlimitedEnglishproficiencyleavesmothersatriskofisolationandmarginalisation.AstheirchildrenrapidlybecomeproficientinEnglish,communicationissuesandfamilydysfunctioncanarise.MostmothersfelttheirfamilieswouldbenefitiftheylearntEnglish,astheycouldbeindependentandnotreliantonotherstotranslateandinterpretforthem.Englishlanguageacquisitionwouldalsoincreasemothers’confidenceinaccessingmainstreamservices:

...somepeopletheyareafraid.Theydon’tknowEnglishandhowtheygoonthe[answering]machine.Forme,ittookmethreedaystomakeanappointmentmyself,Igotthecard,thenumberandIgotthephonebutIcan’t...becauseitscaresme(SouthSudanesemother).

AllmothersgivingbirthinVictoriaareinvitedtoattendamothers’group,whichaimstoprovidepeersupportfornewmotherslivingclosetoeachother.Forrefugeemothers,lackofEnglishlimitsthisopportunity,astheyreportedbeingtooscaredtoattend.


DespitegivingupopportunitiestolearnEnglishinfavouroflookingaftertheirchildren,attimesthisdecisioncompromisedtheirparenting.Assomewomenexplained,theywereunabletocommunicatewiththeirchildren’skindergartenandschoolteachers.

DependenceonpublictransportwasparticularlychallengingformotherswhohadtotakechildrentokindergartenandschoolbeforegoingtoEnglishclasses.Manyrefugeessettleinnewareasofhousingdevelopment,wherepublictransportiseitherinaccessibleortoodifficulttonegotiatewithseveralyoungchildren,particularlywhenservicesareinfrequent.

TheBhutaneseandSouthSudanesemothers,inparticular,identifiedcomputerandinternetaccessandskillsasproblematic—asseekingemployment,obtainingqualificationsanddrivinglicencesallrequirecomputerskillsandEnglishlanguageproficiency.

Innovative models for learning English

Someinnovativead hocmodelswereidentifiedwhichofferedopportunitiesforwomentolearnEnglishbyincorporatinglanguagelearningintolocalprograms,includingcookingclasses,culturally-specificandmulticulturalplaygroups,andbilingualstory-time.SeveralserviceprovidersreportedthatopportunitiesforconversationalEnglishintheseprogramsallowedwomentoimproveeverydaylanguageskillssuchasreadingfoodpackagesandreadingtimetablesforpublictransport.ManyserviceprovidersandseveralwomenreportedthatgainingconfidenceinspeakingEnglishinthesecontextswasakeyfactorinassistingthemtobecomeself-sufficient.AprograminQueenslandwastrialledinculturallyappropriatesettingsandinvolvedworkshop-stylelearningbasedonreal-lifeliteracyneedsandadoptedasocio-culturalapproachtoEnglishlanguagelearning(HewagodageandO’Neill2010).


Conclusion

Enhancinginclusionforrefugeebackgroundwomenisamatterofhumanrightsandisasignificantcommunityconcernwithlifelongandintergenerationalimpacts.Languageproficiencyisanimportantmeansofachievinginclusion.However,thisstudyidentifiedarangeofbarriersparticulartomothersinaccessingEnglishlanguageclasses.ItalsoconfirmedtheexistingevidencethatlackofEnglishcompromisesstudyandworkopportunities,impedesaccesstoarangeofhealthandsocialservices,andincreasessocialisolation.FlexiblemodelsthatincorporateEnglishlearningintoreal-worldcontextsdemonstratepromise.Rigorousevaluationofthesemodelsiscriticalforidentifyingsuccessfulstrategiesforsupportingrefugeesettlement.

Acknowledgements

ThisstudywassupportedbytheVictorianFoundationfortheSurvivorsofTorture(FoundationHouse)ResearchProgramwhichisfundedbytheSidneyMyerFundandWilliamBucklandFoundation.Wethankandacknowledgethecommunityparticipants,MCHstaff,theotherhealthprofessionals,VICSEGrefugeementorsandstaff,ArabicWelfare,DianellaCommunityHealthService,andtheothercommunityrepresentativesforprovidingtimetoparticipateinthisresearch,facilitatingaccesstocommunityparticipantsandprovidingvenuestoconducttheresearch.WearealsogratefultomembersoftheAdvisoryGroup:HelenRowe,SueEdwards,AnneColahan,AlisonNuske,GeorgiaPaxton,LaraWilliamsonandNaomiPriest.ElishaRiggs,ElizabethWaters,EliseDavis,LisaGibbsandKarenBlockalsogratefullyacknowledgefundingsupportfromtheJackBrockhoffChildHealthandWellbeingProgram.ElishaRiggsacknowledgessupportfromtheMurdochChildren’sResearchInstitutewhichissupportedbytheVictorianGovernment’sOperationalInfrastructureSupportProgram.


References

Ager,A&Strang,A(2008).‘Understandingintegration:Aconceptualframework’,Journal of Refugee Studies,21(2):166–191.

AdultMulticulturalEducationServices(AMES)(2011).Words to work: The experiences of people in the Adult Migrant English Program in Melbourne,Melbourne:AdultMulticulturalEducationServices,Victoria.

Bandyopadhyay,M,Small,R,Watson,LF&Brown,S(2010).‘Lifewithanewbaby:HowdoimmigrantandAustralian-bornwomen’sexperiencescompare?’,Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health,34(4):412–421.DOI:10.1111/j.1753–6405.2010.00575.x.

Beiser,M(2009).‘Resettlingrefugeesandsafeguardingtheirmentalhealth:LessonslearnedfromtheCanadianRefugeeResettlementProject’,Transcultural psychiatry, 46(4):539–583.DOI:10.1177/1363461509351373.

Colic-Pesker,V&Walker,I(2003).‘Humancapital,acculturationandsocialidentity:BosnianrefugeesinAustralia’,Journal of Community and Applied Psychology,13:337–360.

DepartmentofImmigrationandCitizenship(DIAC)(2011).English courses for eligible migrants and humanitarian entrants in Australia. Fact Sheet 94,Canberra:DepartmentofImmigrationandCitizenship,AustralianGovernment,availableat:http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/94amep.htm.

DepartmentofImmigrationandCitizenship(DIAC)(2011).‘Settlementreportingfacility’,http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/60refugee.htm[retrieved14October2011].

Hewagodage,V&O’Neill,S(2010).‘AcasestudyofisolatedNESBadultmigrantwomen’sexperiencelearningEnglish:Asocioculturalapproachtodecodinghouseholdtexts’,International Journal of Pedagogies & Learning,6(1):23–40.

Riggs,E,Davis,E,Gibbs,L,Block,K,Szwarc,J,Casey,S,Duell-Piening,P&Waters,E(2012).AccessingmaternalandchildhealthservicesinMelbourne,Australia:Reflectionsfromrefugeefamiliesandserviceproviders,BMC Health Services Research,12:117,DOI:10.1186/1472–6963–12–117,http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472–6963/12/117.


SunHeeOk,K,Ehrich,J&Ficorilli,L(2012).‘Perceptionsofsettlementwell-being,languageproficiency,andemployment:AninvestigationofimmigrantadultlanguagelearnersinAustralia’,International Journal of Intercultural Relations,36(1):unpaginated.

Taylor,J.(2004).‘Refugeesandsocialexclusion:Whattheliteraturesays’,Migration Action,XXVI(2):16–31.

About the authors

Dr Elisha Riggs,thecorrespondingauthor,isaSeniorResearchOfficerattheMurdochChildren’sResearchInstitute(MCRI).Sheworksonseveralrefugeehealthresearchprojectsandhasresearchinterestsinmaternalandchildhealth,qualitativeandparticipatorymethodologiesandethics.

Contact details

Dr Elisha Riggs, Healthy Mothers Healthy Families Research Group, Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, 50 Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria 3052 Tel: (03) 9936 6646 Fax: (03) 9348 1391 Email: [email protected]

Karen Block, The Jack Brockhoff Child Health and Wellbeing Program, The McCaughey Centre, Melbourne School of Population Health, The University of Melbourne, Level 5, 207 Bouverie Street, Victoria 3010 Tel: +61 3 8344 0862 Fax: +61 3 9348 2832 Email: [email protected]

Dr Lisa Gibbs, The Jack Brockhoff Child Health and Wellbeing Program, The McCaughey Centre, Melbourne School of Population Health, The University of Melbourne, Level 5, 207 Bouverie Street, Victoria 3010 Tel: (03)–8344 0920, 0439 393 917 Fax: +61 3 9348 2832 Email: [email protected]


Dr Elisa Davis, The Jack Brockhoff Child Health and Wellbeing Program, The McCaughey Centre, Melbourne School of Population Health, The University of Melbourne, Level 5, 207 Bouverie Street, Carlton, Victoria 3010 Tel: +61 3 8344 0921 Fax: +61 3 9348 2832 Email: [email protected]

Josef Szwarc, Foundation House—Victorian Foundation for Survivors of Torture, 6 Gardiner Street, Brunswick, Victoria 3056 Tel: (03) 9388 0022 Fax: (03) 9277 7871 Email: [email protected]

SueCasey,FoundationHouse—VictorianFoundationforSurvivorsofTorture,6GardinerStreet,Brunswick,Victoria3056Tel:93898911 Mobile:0421612876Fax:(03)92777871Email:[email protected]

PhilippaDuell-Piening,FoundationHouse—VictorianFoundationforSurvivorsofTorture,6GardinerStreet,Brunswick,Victoria3056TelDirect:(03)93898909 Fax:(03)92777871Email:[email protected]

ProfessorElizabethWaters,TheMcCaugheyCentre,MelbourneSchoolofPopulationHealth,TheUniversityofMelbourne,Level5,207BouverieStreet,Carlton,Victoria3010Tel:0408573966 Fax:+61393482832Email:[email protected]


BOOK REVIEW

Improving working as learning

Alan Felstead, Alison Fuller, Nick Jewson and Lorna UnwinAbingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2009

ISBN: 978–0-415–49646–9; $41.95; 225 pages (pbk.)

Theauthorsofthissoftcover,British-based,firstbookwhichexaminesthedevelopmentanduseoftheirtheoryoftheWorkingAsLearningFramework(WALF)areAlanFelstead,aResearchProfessorattheSchoolofSocialSciences,UniversityofCardiff;AlisonFuller,aProfessorofEducationandWorkintheSchoolofEducation,UniversityofSouthampton;NickJewson,anHonoraryResearchFellowatCardiff’sSchoolofSocialSciences;andLornaUnwin,aProfessorofVocationalEducationattheInstituteofEducation,UniversityofLondon.

Intheprefaceofthissolidlyreferencedbook,theserieseditor—AndrewPollard—statesthat‘theauthorsconvincinglydemonstratethatthe[WALF]frameworkoffersasophisticatedunderstandingof

Book review 407

howimprovingtheworkenvironment—bothwithintheworkplaceandbeyond—canenhanceandsustainimprovementsinlearningatwork’.

ItisclearfromtheoutsetthatFelsteadetal.aremakingseveralassumptions,onebeingthattheworktowhichtheyreferispaidemployment.Althoughnotdefinedassuch,itisapparentfromtheoutsetthattheyarenotinterrogatingtheothermeaningsthathavebeengiventoworkinothersocietiesandothereras.Casey’s(1995)briefhistoryofworkrevealsthewiderangeofmeaningsgiventoworkovertime,fromitslowlystatusintheancientworld—whereonlyslaves,artisansandwomenworked—tobeingasocialobligationtodayintheformoftheworkethic.Moreover,Beder(2000)arguedthattheworkethicoriginatedastheheartofcapitalistculturefromsixteenthcenturyCalvinism—latertobetakenupbyMethodisminBritain—butwastransformedintoageneralisedsecularethic(‘hardworkleadstosuccess’)inthenineteenthcenturyandisstillthedominantvalueinoursociety.Thisisimportant,astheauthorsmaketheeconomicrelationshipbetween(paid)workplaceproductivityandlearningascentraltotheirthesis.Thisignoresthemorecontemporaryunderstandingoftheterm‘work’,whichallowsustoexaminetheideathatworkincludestheunpaidworkresponsibilitiesinvolving—butnotlimitedto—theskillsneededforallformsofcaring,volunteering,domesticresponsibilitiesandfamilycommitments.Furthermore,suchunpaidworksavesourcommunitiesconsiderableamountsofexpenditure.Thelearningthatoccursinsuchsettingsalsohaseconomicbenefitsforourmodernsociety;ifthesetaskswereundertakenbypaidworkers,whowouldpayforit?Butasidefromthissociologicalquibble,thebookisinterestingwell-writtenandwell-structured.

InChapter1,‘Settingthescene’,theauthorsexplaintheirchoiceofworkplacecontexts,eachofwhichrepresentsdifferenttypesofindustry.Theyincludesectorswhichhavedifferinghistories,

408 Dr Lisa Davies

productionmethods,marketsanddrivingforces(althoughallseemtohavetheneed,perhapsnotsurprisingly,tobedrivenbyprofit).Theyalsonotethat,astheywerecompletingthebook,thefirstfalloutfromtheGlobalFinancialCrisiswasbeingfelt,andusedthistoassertthattherewasthereforeanevengreaterneedtoincreasetheskillsandproductivityofworkerstosustaintheeconomy.Perhapstheywouldexpressthisdifferentlynowin2012,giventhatdespitehighskillsandproductivity,therehasbeenadramaticincreaseinunemploymentandfailedbusinessesandeconomiesduetoexplosiveeconomicfailureintheUnitedKingdomandelsewhere.Thishassurelybeengreaterthantheycouldhaveimaginedin2009.Theirnowslightlyproblematicclaim,however,doesnotdiminishtheusefulnessoftheirframework,asisexaminedasfollows.

InChapter2,‘Mappingtheworkingaslearningframework’,theWALFisunpickedagainstarangeofotheraspectsofworkplacelearningtheories.Inessence,theyuseaspectsofthetheoryofproductivesystems,asthesecanallowanexaminationofthe totalityofagamutofworkersinorganisationsfromindividualsandsmallworkgroupstoglobal,politicalandfinancialnetworkswhichmaybeinvolvedintheproductionofcommoditiesinoureconomicsystem.Theyalsofocusontheimportanceofpowerstructuresinanysuchanalysis,andofthecentralityoftheconceptofdiscretion—theamountofcontrolthatworkershaveovertheaimsandobjectivesoftheirworkprocesses,howthoseobjectivesareobtainedandwhotakesresponsibilityfortheiroutcomes.Interlinkedwiththeseelementsarethoseofhabitualtrust,inwhichthegrantingofdiscretionisvalidatedbyperhapstraditionandreliability.Symbolictrustaboutdiscretionisvalidatedbysymbolsofmoralorethicalvalues.Finally,thereiscommunaltrust,whereinpeople,groupsandentitiesidentifywithoneanotherandsharesomecommunalbondingwhichisoftenrepletewithemotionalcapital.Insummary,theauthorsdetailthattheWALFisanewworkandlearningtheoryinwhichtheinterconnectedtheoriesofproductivesystems,work

Book review 409

organisations,learningenvironmentsandlearningterritorieshasbeenre-conceptualised.GiventhepotentialofgeneratingextremelycomplexdatagatheringandanalysisiftheWAFLwereusedinlarger,multifacetedbodies,theauthorshaveinsteadfocusedtheirresearchhereonsmaller,morespecificworkplacerolesandcontexts.

Inthechapterswhichfollow,theauthorsprovideevidencetosupporttheuseofWAFLasameansofimprovinglearningatwork.Forexample,Chapter3,‘Processingcalls’,isfocusedonacallcentre(referredtohereasacontactcentre)inalocalgovernmentauthority,andtheauthorsexaminehowitsestablishmentalteredthepowerrelationshipsandauthorityofbothindividualsanddepartmentsacrossthewholelocalentity.InChapter6,theuseofhighdiscretionaryrelationsanddownwarddevolutionofpowerwasexemplifiedbyasoftwaredevelopmentcompanyinwhichdecisionmakingwaslefttoprojectteamsandemployeerewardsweretiedtocompanyperformance.InChapter8,theforeignownersofasmallpartsfirmrequired‘proof’thattheworkerswerecompetent,clearlyacontextinwhichtrustalonewasnotenough.

Inthefinalchapter,Chapter9,theWALFispositionedasavaluable,validandreliabletoolforresearchpolicyandpractice.

Thelanguageinthistextisthatwhichisusedbyacademiceducationalistsandhencecouldbechallengingtoanewresearcherinthefieldwhoisnotacquaintedwiththemanyandvariedworkplacelearningtheoriesthatabound.Whilethebookwasstronglyreferencedthroughout,IwasslightlysurprisedthattherewasnoreferencetoPoell’sLearningNetworkTheory,towhichitappearstosharesomeelements;however,thisisaminorquery.Itisdifficulttodojusticetothiswellresearchedandthoughtfulbookinashortreview,butinsummarythistextwouldbeavaluableadditiontothelibraryofanyonewhoisresearchinginareaswhicharefocusedonworkplacelearning.

410 Dr Lisa Davies

References

Beder,Sharon(2000).Selling the work ethic,London:ZedBooks.Casey,Catherine(1995).Work, self and society: After industrialism,London:

Routledge.

Dr Lisa DaviesSchool of Education

University of South Australia


BOOK REVIEW

Makers, breakers and fixers

Mark ThomsonSydney: Harper Collins, 2007

ISBN: 0732283434; price $27.99 232 pages with photographs and illustrations

Mark Thomson’s corrugated culture

Theprofileofthisextraordinaryandenrichingbookmentionsinpartthatitexamines

…thelinkbetweencreativityandresourcefulness,apowerfulAustraliantraditionforgedoutofisolation,drought,fire,warandthedepression.Fromfarmtofactorytoartist’sstudio,theshedhascometobetreasuredasapalaceofeverydaycreativity.It’stheplacewhereproblemsaresolvedandcommunitiesbuilt.

ThisisthethirdbookinThomson’s‘Shed’series,withBlokes and shedsandRare trades.Itcouldbeofconsiderableinteresttoeducatorssinceitlooksatthephysical(andmetaphoric)shedasa

412 Dr Peter Willis

placewherethemaintenanceworksoflocallivingareaddressedaslearningprojectspursuedbyindividualsandgroups.

Thislandscape-formattedbookislikeacompact‘coffeetable’book.Itisprintedonthickartpaperfullofphotographsofmenworkinginandeffectively‘framed’bytheirsheds,someinsolitarysplendor,othersinamiablegroups.ThesevenchaptersareprefacedwithasignificantintroductionaboutwhatThomsoncallsthe‘nationalsecret’,whichisthat‘shedculture’revealsresourcefulnessaroundpracticalproblemsolving,adaptationandinventionandthatthesepracticalqualitiesareworthdwellingonandencouraginglesttheydeteriorateinathrow-awaycultureofspectatorshipandconsumerism.

AsThomsonpointsoutinhisintroduction,buildingsconstructedbycorporateentitieslikecathedrals,banks,courthousesandretailemporiumsstandforsignificantcorporatevaluesinsociety.Wherebuildingsofthesecorporateentitiescandwarfthepeoplewhousethem,theshedsthatmeninhabitaremoreoftheirownscaleandstandforandenablepersonalandlocalpracticalengagement,usefulnessandresourcefulness.Practicalproblemsolvingandresourcefulnesstranslatehappilytolotsofareasoflife,includingbigthingslikedisasterreliefonagrandscaleandthealleviationoflocalformsofsocialdistresscausedbybrokentoys,toolsandfurniture.Suchsmall-scalereliefcangenerateakindoflocalwell-beingdrawnfrombeinguseful,belongingandfittingintoaplaceinthephysicalandsocialworld.Theexchangeofacupofteaandasandwichforamendedkitchenchairhasacertainrecognisablecurrencyinsocialcapitalandbelongsinthesamelocaleconomyofresourcefulshedsandbountifulkitchens.

ThebookbeginswithproblemsolversandThomson’scelebrationofthetacitknowledgeofpracticalpeoplewho often know more than they can tell.Inaway,thecelebrationoftacit,resourcefulknowledgeunderliesthisrichandcolourfulbook.Thechaptersthatfollowfocus

Book review 413

ondifferentkindsofshed—thefarmshed,thecarshed,thecreativeshedandtheshedaspalace,togetherwithearlystoriesofcommunalmen’ssheds.

Thomsontravelledinsearchofthesemakersandfixersandtheirsheds.Manyoftheseencountersendedupaschaptersinthebookwithastoryoftheauthormeetingtheshedpeople.Thestorywasthencombinedwithhelpful,nuancedphotographsandinterviewswiththeinhabitantsoftheshed,theirinterestsandwork.Theworkintheshedsrangedfromheavymechanicalworkinsomeofthefarmshedstomaintenanceworkandcarpentryinothermoregeneralshedsandfinallytowhatcouldbecalledstudiosheds.Theseareenclosureswhere‘making’artistsplytheirtrades,makingartinstallations,musicalinstruments,andsculptures.

Oneofthesignificantfeaturesofmakingandfixinginshedsistheuniqueformthatmanyoftheseshedstook.ThemanandhisshedseemedoftenasinglehighlyindividuatedentityinwhichThomsonrejoicedandonwhichhecelebrated.Atthesametime,isolationcouldbeadownsidetosomemen’ssingularandidiosyncraticshedlife.Thiscouldparticularlybethecaseifthelarger,domesticcontextwithhouse,spouseandchildrenofwhichtheshedanditsactivitywasaparthaddissipatedthroughlossand/orinfirmity.Someshedshadalreadybecomeplacesawayfromthehouse,whereoneortwofriendscouldmeetaroundsharedmakingandfixingproblemsandsharetimeandfoodanddrink.Followingreportedbenefitsofsuchinformalsocialengagements,anumberofmeneitherdesignatedcommunalshedsforthemselvesoracceptedinvitationtousepurpose-builtshedsforamixtureofusefulandsocialactivities.

Suchcommunalmen’sshedshavenowbecomeanintegralpartofmanylocalcommunityservices.Thomsonissensitivetowellmeaninginnovationswhichhaveleadtoshedsbeingbuiltandthenmenbeinginvitedtousethemwithoutmuchconsultation.Hecelebratesmoredemocraticdevelopmentswhereshedsascommunalfocalpointswere

414 Dr Peter Willis

morebottom-upthantop-down,asinthecaseoftheWilliamstownShedwhichisdiscussedwiththeNambuccaValleyMen’sShedinthechapteronCorrugatedBrotherhood.

Thomson’scelebrationofthebeautythatcanbefoundinsomeshedsisunleashedinthesectionontoolswhichseemalmostlikeshedjewelleryphotographedintheirgleamingarraysonmanydifferentwallsandracks.

IreadthisbookawhileagoandthenagainforthisreviewanddiscoveredtimeswhenIfeltanacheofrecognitionforaearliertimeofdiversitywhenmorecouldbemadeofman’sendlessinventivenessandwherecompetitivepyramidsandbenchmarkingdidnotfillthegloballandscape.Ihaverealisedthoughreadingthisbookthat,incomparingandrankingthingsandexperiencesaccordingtocompetitiveperfection,Imighthaveoverlookedgoodandbeautifulthingsclosetohand,someofwhichIcouldpossiblydoormakemyself—notperhapstoworld’sbeststandardbutatleasttoacertainjoyfullocalperfection.

Thomson’sfocusontheshedasthesimplestofbuildingsforactsofmakingandfixingcanraiseawarenessofhumanconvivial,collaborativeandcreativepowers,capacitiesandobligationswhicheachgenerationhastoensurehaveaplaceintheonethatfollowswithitsnewcontextsandnewchallenges.

Thiscolourfulandwittygemishighlyrecommendedforeducatorsofadultsincommunitysettingsandgeneralreaders.

Dr Peter WillisCentre for Research in Education, Equity and Work

University of South Australia

Book review 415

BOOK REVIEW

Learning life from illness stories

Peter Willis & Kate Leeson (eds.)Mt Gravatt, Queensland: Post Pressed, 2012

ISBN: 9780646579320 (pbk.), 169pp.

A fascinating study of the way one authentic narrative—in this case Havi Carel’s- can evoke the stories of others… (BruceRumbold,Director,PalliativeCareUnit,LaTrobeUniversity,Melbourne,Australia)

Perhapsitisbecausethisbookistheresultofcollaborationinaprojectaboutaparticularkindofreflectiveor‘listeningreading’thatitbringstomindtheimageofahallofmirrors.Idon’tmeanthefairgroundkindofhallthatdistortstheimagesintocaricatures.Rather,Iseeitasoneofthosemirroredroomsusedbyfashiondesignerstoexplorethemanyaspectsoftheircreationsfrommanydifferentangles.

Thesestoriesbytwelvedifferentpeopleareoftheirexperiencesoflivingwithseriousillness.Mostarewritingabouttheirownillnessesandafewabouttheillnessanddeathofaclosepartnerorrelative.They

416 Margaret Byrne

haveallusedthepersonalaccountandphenomenologicalapproachsharedbyphilosopherHaviCarelinherbook,Illness: the cry of the flesh(Stocksfield,UK: Acumen,2008),asalensthroughwhichtoreflectontheirownexperienceofillnessanditspotentialforteachinglifelessons.Indoingso,theyalsotouchonadditionalaccountsoftheexperienceofillnesspublishedbyvariousotherauthors.Theresultisarichlyoverlappingwealthofreflectionsandexperiencesthroughwhichthereadercanallowtheirownexperienceand,inturn,theirunderstandingofillnessanditsimpactonlife’sjourneytobereflectedupon,challenged,extendedandenriched.

Theseexperientialchaptersareprecededbyausefulintroductioncontainingasuccinctoutlineofeach.Thisisprecededby‘somehelpfulideasaroundbeingill,learningandlearninglife,readingandlisteningreading,andstoriesforlearninglife…’(p.2).Thusprimed,thereaderlistenstotwelveresponsestoCarel’sexpositionoftheimpactofseriousillnessasitisactuallylivedoutandasitchallengesandreshapesthedominantdiscourse.

ThesetwelveessaysvalidatetheverisimilitudeofCarel’saccounteventhoughtheydifferinseveralwaysbothfromherandfromeachother.Thereisacommonthemeofthetraumaticexperienceofhavingone’smortalitysobleaklyforegrounded,andmanycommentonthelackofempathyfromsomemedicalexpertswhodeliverthis.Thevariousreactionsofeitherdenialorangerordepressioncomeasnosurprise.Butwhatismoresurprisingmightbethatcommontoallistheneedtoaffirmtheimportanceofwhatonehas,littleasitmaybe,ratherthanwhatonehaslost,andtodothisnotoncebutdailybyreallylivinginthepresentmoment.

Anothercommonthemecentresonrelationshipsandconversationsandhowthesearehighlighted,challengedandoftenchanged.Withinthisthemethereareinterestingdifferencespointedout.AnumberofthewritersfeltisolatedbythelackofintimateconversationabouttheirexperienceoftheirillnessandcouldrelatetoCarel’sassertionthat‘I

Book review 417

cancountononehandthenumberofintimateconversationsIhavehadaboutmyillnesswithfriends’(p.18).ThispuzzledtheauthorofthefirststoryasshealsoreadthatCarelhadawidecircleoffriendsbutonreflectionwondersifthishastodowithageandsays:‘IamtwentyfiveyearsolderthanHavi,soitseemsnaturalformyfriendstoshareconversationsaboutthewaysourbodiesarefallingapart,andourhopesandfearsfortheendoflife’(p.18).

Athirdcommonthemeinthestoriesisthatofthegiftor‘souvenir’(p.53)ofillness.Despitethewriters’acknowledgmentandvividdescriptionsofthenegativesideoftheirillnesses,theseauthorsnamethepositivesascommonexperiences;adeeperawarenessofthevalueoftheordinary,ofthebeautyparticularlyofnature,ofthevalueoflovingrelationships.Thereisalsomentionedthegrowthofgratitudefortheseandeven,perhapssurprisingly,thepresenceofhappinessandjoyinlife.

Thesecommonthemesgroundeachindividualstorywithinthematrixofthewiderhumanexperienceandchallengemuchinthedominantdiscourseaboutqualityoflife.Theyalsogroundthediversityfoundintheindividualstories.

Theeditorshavechosentheparticipantswellsothatweareinvitedintotheillnessexperienceofbothmenandwomensufferingavarietyofdifferentillness;thosemainlyphysicalsuchascancers;neurologicalconditionssuchasMSandParkinsons;dementiaandthesufferingsofgriefinthoseclosetothem.Therearecontributorsofdifferentagesandstagesoflife;ofdifferentbackgrounds,social,culturalandspiritual;andwithdifferentwaysofexpressingtheirtruthsandoffindingstrength.

Mostoftheauthorshavetosomeextentanacademicbackgroundandexpressthemselvesthroughautobiographicalnarrativecross-referencedwiththewideravailableliterature.ManyseemtohavereadthesameauthorsasindeedIfoundIalsohave.However,a

418 Margaret Byrne

fewexpressedthemselvesinpoetry,themainvehicleforDianaNeutzelivingwithadvancedMS.JohnKnight,whohassincediedofcancer,alsoincludedpoeticsnippets.Neutze’schapterinparticularprovidesabreathingspaceorreflectingpoolwhereonecanreturnagainandagaintoabsorbgraduallythemanytreasuresofthisbookthroughherdistilledversionsofthethemes.Everychapterofthisbooktouchedmeinitsownway,butparticularlypoignantwasthecourageofKateSwaffer,anearlyonsetdementiasufferer.

HaviCarelemphasisesthebenefitshefoundinherstudyofphilosophyandherapproachtoillness,deathanditsattendantproblemsandfearsaregroundedandsupportedbyastronglyrationalandsecularmindset.Gatt-Rutterpointsoutthat‘HaviCarel’sphenomenologyimplicitlyexcludestranscendence’(p.62).ThisisalsoevidentinanumberoftheauthorsofthisbookandGatt-Rutterhasfoundthat‘Lifewritingisnotintrinsicallyatheisticorhostiletothetranscendentalorthespiritualbut,…tendstosystematicallyelidethisdimension…’(p.62). However,althoughthereisnoauthorinthisbookasovertlyreligiousasNickVujicic,authorofLife without limits(NewYork:Doubleday,2010),equalspaceisgiventootherauthorslikeBattestiniwhoisathomewithChristianandeasternmysticismandKnightwhowantsto‘confrontthemetaphysicsofdeath’(p.48).ThisIbelieveshouldwidenthebook’sappealandacceptance.

Idon’tknowifitisrighttosaythatIenjoyedthisbook.Iwasfascinatedandextremelytouchedbythemanystoriesandadmiredthecourageoftheauthors.Itdeservesawidereadership—amustformany,suchasthoseinthehelpingprofessions.Itisalsoasupportandavoiceforthosewhostruggleinacompetitiveworldwithchronicillness.ItisabookIthinkIwillreturntoofteneachtimereadingmoreslowlysoastolistenwithrespectandbeinspiredbythosewhohavespokenupfortherestofus.

Margaret ByrneFlinders University

NOTES FOR INTENDING CONTRIBUTORS1 Papers are to be sent to the Editor, Professor Roger Harris, Adult and Vocational

Education, School of Education, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes Boulevard, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095. Phone: 08 8302 6246. Fax: 08 8302 6239. Email: [email protected]

2 Submission of an electronic copy of a contribution is preferred, with one paper copy posted, against which the electronic print-out may be checked for accurate layout.

3 The paper should not exceed 5,500 words in length. The paper (and its title) is to be clearly typed on one side only of A4 paper.

4 Authors are also to submit, separately from the paper:(a) the title of the article (repeated), name(s) of the author(s) and your institutional

affiliation(s);(b) an abstract of between 100 and 150 words;(c) a five-line biographical note on present position and any information of special

relevance such as research interests; (d) complete contact details, including postal and email addresses, and telephone and

fax numbers; and(e) a clear indication of whether you want your paper to be refereed (that is, blind peer

reviewed by at least two specialist reviewers from Australia and/or overseas)—if there is no indication, the paper will be considered as a non-refereed contribution.

5 Any complex tables, figures and diagrams are to be supplied in camera-ready copy, on separate sheets with an indication of the appropriate location in the text.

6 Authors are to follow the style used in this issue of the Journal. Footnotes should not be used. References should be indicated in text with the author(s), the year of publication and pagination, where necessary, in parentheses; for example, Jones (1998), or (Collins 1999:101). References are then listed in full, including pages, at the end of the paper in consistent form; for example,for books: Athanasou, J. (ed.) (2008). Adult education and training, Terrigal,

NSW: David Barlow Publishing.for articles: Hamer, J. (2010). ‘Recognition of prior learning—Normative assessment

or co-construction of preferred identities?’, Australian Journal of Adult Learning, 50(1): 98–113.

for chapters: Newman, M. (2009). ‘Educating for a sustainable democracy’, in Willis, P, McKenzie, S & Harris, R (eds.) (2009), Rethinking work and learning: Adult and vocational education for social sustainability, Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer: 83–91.

7 Papers are accepted on the understanding that they are not being considered for publication elsewhere. Authors of main papers accepted for publication in the Journal will receive one copy of the Journal and five reprints of their paper. Other authors will receive two reprints of their contribution.

8 Brief research reports and book reviews (of approximately 800 words) relating to adult learning would be welcomed.

9 Some issues of the Journal are thematic. While papers published in a particular issue are not restricted to the theme, intending contributors are encouraged to submit papers on themes announced from time to time.

AJAL is indexed and abstracted in the Thomson Reuters product and custom information services: • Social Sciences Citation Index ® • Social Scisearch ® • Journal Citation Reports/ Social Sciences Edition

AustrAliAN JourNAl ofADult lEArNiNGVolume 52 n number 2 n July 2012

AU

ST

RA

LIA

N J

OU

RN

AL

OF

AD

ULT

LE

AR

NIN

G Ju

ly 2

012

AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF ADULT LEARNINGVolume 52, number 2, July 2012

207 Editor’sdeskRoger Harris

Refereed articles214 Exploringrelationshipsineducation:Aphenomenologicalinquiry

David Giles, Elizabeth A. Smythe & Deborah G. Spence









Research report397 FlexiblemodelsforlearningEnglishareneededforrefugeemothers

Elisha Riggs, Karen Block, Lisa Gibbs, Elisa Davis, Josef Szwarc, Sue Casey, Philippa Duell-Piening & Elizabeth Waters


406 Improving working as learning (Felstead,Fuller,Jewson&Unwin)Lisa Davies

411 Makers, breakers and fixers (Thomson)Peter Willis

415 Learning life from illness stories (Willis&Leeson,eds.)Margaret Byrne

refereed articles · (formal learning). their paper argues for a holistic focus on the dynamic...

Documents