Reference 2 Wikipedia

Contents

1 Annotation 11.1 Literature and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1.1 Textual scholarship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.2 Student uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Software engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.1 Text documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.2 Source control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.3 Java annotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.3 Computational biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.4 Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.5 Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.6 Linguistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Citation 42.1 Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.2 Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2.2.1 Unique identiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.3 Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2.3.1 Vancouver system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.3.2 Parenthetical referencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.3.3 Citation-name system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2.4 Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.4.1 Humanities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.4.2 Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.4.3 Sciences, mathematics, engineering, physiology, and medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.4.4 Social sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2.5 Boundary marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82.6 Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

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2.9.1 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102.9.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3 Citation Style Language 133.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133.2 Software Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133.3 Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3.5.1 Other XML-based bibliographic metadata systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4 Comment (computer programming) 154.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164.2 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4.2.1 Planning and reviewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164.2.2 Code description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164.2.3 Algorithmic description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174.2.4 Resource inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174.2.5 Debugging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174.2.6 Automatic documentation generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4.3 Normative views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184.3.1 Need for comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184.3.2 Level of detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184.3.3 Oensive comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184.3.4 Comments in web templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

4.4 Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194.4.1 End-of-line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194.4.2 Tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

4.5 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204.5.1 Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204.5.2 In context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244.7 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

5 Cross-reference 265.1 Structure of a cross reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265.2 How cross references contribute to usability of a document or set of documents . . . . . . . . . . . 275.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

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6 Data citation 286.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

7 Direct reference theory 297.1 John Stuart Mill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297.2 Saul Kripke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

8 Empty name 318.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

9 Epicene 339.1 Specialized uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

10 Hashtag 3510.1 Origin and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3610.2 Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3610.3 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3610.4 Use outside of social networking websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3710.5 Websites that support hashtags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3710.6 Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

10.6.1 Mass broadcast media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3810.6.2 Purchasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3910.6.3 Event promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3910.6.4 Consumer complaints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3910.6.5 Sentiment analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

10.7 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4010.7.1 Adaptations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

10.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

11 Holophrastic indeterminacy 4311.1 Indeterminacy of translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4311.2 Naturalized epistemology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4311.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4411.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4411.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4511.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

12 Informationsdienst Wissenschaft 46

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12.1 Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4612.2 Idea and Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4612.3 Financial Support and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4612.4 Signicance and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4712.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4712.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

13 Inscrutability of reference 4913.1 Status among Quines other theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4913.2 Illustration by the use of gavagai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4913.3 Anti-Realist interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5013.4 Application in the sorites paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5013.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5013.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

14 Key Word in Context 5214.1 References in Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5214.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5214.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

15 Mediated reference theory 5415.1 Gottlob Frege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5415.2 Bertrand Russell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5415.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

16 Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria 5616.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5616.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

17 Non-rigid designator 5717.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5717.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

18 Note (typography) 5818.1 Academic usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5818.2 Literary device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5918.3 HTML . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6018.4 Opponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6018.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6118.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6118.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

19 Reference 62

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20 Purple Numbers 6320.1 Other implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6320.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6320.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6320.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

21 Qiqqa 6421.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6421.2 Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6421.3 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6521.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6521.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6521.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

22 Reference 6622.1 Etymology and meanings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6622.2 Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

22.2.1 Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6622.2.2 Absent referent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6722.2.3 Linguistic sign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

22.3 Computer science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6822.4 Library and information sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6822.5 Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6822.6 Scholarship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6822.7 Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6822.8 Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6922.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6922.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6922.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

23 Referent 7023.1 Etymology and meanings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7023.2 In semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7023.3 In syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7123.4 In computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7123.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7223.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

24 Rigid designator 7324.1 Proper names and denite descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7324.2 Essentialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7424.3 Causal-historical theory of reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7424.4 Necessary identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

vi CONTENTS

24.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7424.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

25 Stamp catalog 7525.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7525.2 Current catalogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7525.3 Online catalogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7625.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7625.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

26 Stumpers-L 8126.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8126.2 Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8126.3 Public notice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8126.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8226.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

27 Tag (metadata) 8327.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8427.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

27.2.1 Within a Blog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8527.2.2 For an event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8527.2.3 In research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

27.3 Special types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8527.3.1 Triple tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8527.3.2 Hashtags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8627.3.3 Knowledge tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

27.4 Advantages and disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8627.4.1 Complex system dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8727.4.2 Spamming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

27.5 Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8727.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8727.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8827.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

28 The Map Library 9028.1 Statement of purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9028.2 Data format and conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9028.3 Data sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9028.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9028.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

29 Vivid designator 92

CONTENTS vii

29.1 Willard van Orman Quine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9229.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9229.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

30 Wholistic reference 9330.1 Booles 1854 denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9330.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

31 Zotero 9531.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9531.2 Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

31.2.1 Citation formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9531.2.2 Annotation and mobile devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9531.2.3 Language support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9631.2.4 Product support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

31.3 Financial support and awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9631.4 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

31.4.1 Zotero 1.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9631.4.2 EndNote lawsuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9631.4.3 Zotero 2.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9631.4.4 Zotero 2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9631.4.5 Zotero Standalone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9731.4.6 Zotero 3.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9731.4.7 Zotero 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

31.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9731.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9731.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9831.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9831.9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

31.9.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9931.9.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10231.9.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Chapter 1

Annotation

An annotation is metadata (e.g. a comment, explanation, presentational markup) attached to text, image, or otherdata.[1] Often annotations refer to a specic part of the original data.

1.1 Literature and education

1.1.1 Textual scholarship

Main article: Textual scholarship

Textual scholarship is a discipline that often uses the technique of annotation to describe or add additional historicalcontext to texts and physical documents.

1.1.2 Student uses

Students often highlight or underline passages in books in order to refer back to key phrases easily, or add marginaliato aid studying. One educational technique when analyzing prose literature is to have students or teachers circle thenames of characters and put rectangular boxes around phrases identifying the setting of a given scene.Annotated bibliographies add commentary on the relevance or quality of each source, in addition to the usual bibli-ographic information that merely identies the source.

1.2 Software engineering

1.2.1 Text documents

Markup languages like XML and HTML annotate text in a way that is syntactically distinguishable from that text.They can be used to add information about the desired visual presentation, or machine-readable semantic information.

1.2.2 Source control

The annotate function (also known as blame or praise) used in source control systems such as Team FoundationServer and Subversion determines who committed changes to the source code into the repository. This outputs a copyof the source code where each line is annotated with the name of the last contributor to edit that line (and possibly arevision number). This can help establish blame in the event a change caused a malfunction, or identify the author ofbrilliant code.

1

2 CHAPTER 1. ANNOTATION

1.2.3 Java annotationsMain article: Java annotation

A special case is the Java programming language, where annotations can be used as a special form of syntacticmetadata in the source code.[2] Classes, methods, variables, parameters and packages may be annotated. The anno-tations can be embedded in class les generated by the compiler and may be retained by the Java virtual machine andthus inuence the run-time behaviour of an application. It is possible to create meta-annotations out of the existingones in Java.

1.3 Computational biologySince the 1980s, molecular biology and bioinformatics have created the need for DNA annotation. DNA annotationor genome annotation is the process of identifying the locations of genes and all of the coding regions in a genome anddetermining what those genes do. An annotation (irrespective of the context) is a note added by way of explanationor commentary. Once a genome is sequenced, it needs to be annotated to make sense of it.For DNA annotation, a previously unknown sequence representation of genetic material is enriched with informationrelating genomic position to intron-exon boundaries, regulatory sequences, repeats, gene names and protein products.This annotation is stored in genomic databases as Mouse Genome Informatics, FlyBase, andWormBase. Educationalmaterials on some aspects of biological annotation from the 2006 Gene Ontology annotation camp and similar eventsare available at the Gene Ontology website.[3]

The National Center for Biomedical Ontology (www.bioontology.org) develops tools for automated annotation[4] ofdatabase records based on the textual descriptions of those records.As a general method, dcGO [5] has an automated procedure for statistically inferring associations between ontologyterms and protein domains or combinations of domains from the existing gene/protein-level annotations.

1.4 ImagingIn the digital imaging community the term annotation is commonly used for visible metadata superimposed on animage without changing the underlying master image, such as sticky notes, virtual laser pointers, circles, arrows, andblack-outs (cf. redaction).In the medical imaging community, an annotation is often referred to as a region of interest and is encoded in DICOMformat.

1.5 LawIn the United States, legal publishers such as Thomson West and Lexis Nexis publish annotated versions of statutes,providing information about court cases that have interpreted the statutes. Both the federal United States Code andstate statutes are subject to interpretation by the courts, and the annotated statutes are valuable tools in legal research.

1.6 LinguisticsIn linguistics, annotations include comments andmetadata; these non-transcriptional annotations are also non-linguistic.A collection of texts with linguistic annotations is known as a corpus (plural corpora). The Linguistic AnnotationWiki[6] describes tools and formats for creating and managing linguistic annotations.

1.7 See also Abstract (summary)

1.8. REFERENCES 3

Automatic image annotation Coding (social sciences) Comment Footnote Java annotation Marginalia Nota Bene PDF annotation Text annotation Web annotation XPS annotation

1.8 References[1] http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/annotation

[2] JDK 5.0 Developers Guide: Annotations. Sun Microsystems. 2007-12-18. Archived from the original on 6 March2008. Retrieved 2008-03-05..

[3] GO Teaching Resources. Archived from the original on 10 October 2006. Retrieved 21 September 2006.

[4] http://bioontology.stanford.edu/annotator-service

[5] Fang, H.; Gough, J. (2012). DcGO: Database of domain-centric ontologies on functions, phenotypes, diseases and more.Nucleic Acids Research 41 (Database issue): D536D544. doi:10.1093/nar/gks1080. PMC 3531119. PMID 23161684.

[6] annotation.exmaralda.org

Chapter 2

Citation

This article is about the research concept that acknowledges use of anothers ideas. For other uses, see Citation (dis-ambiguation).Cite redirects here. For the HTML element , see HTML element cite.ForWikipedias citation guideline, seeWikipedia:Citing sources. ForWikipedias citation templates, seeWikipedia:Citation templates.Referencing redirects here. For other uses, see Reference.

Broadly, a citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source (not always the original source). More precisely,a citation is an abbreviated alphanumeric expression embedded in the body of an intellectual work that denotes anentry in the bibliographic references section of the work for the purpose of acknowledging the relevance of the worksof others to the topic of discussion at the spot where the citation appears. Generally the combination of both the in-body citation and the bibliographic entry constitutes what is commonly thought of as a citation (whereas bibliographicentries by themselves are not). References to single, machine-readable assertions in electronic scientic articles areknown as nanopublications, a form of microattribution.Citation has several important purposes: to uphold intellectual honesty (or avoiding plagiarism),[1] to attribute prioror unoriginal work and ideas to the correct sources, to allow the reader to determine independently whether thereferenced material supports the authors argument in the claimed way, and to help the reader gauge the strength andvalidity of the material the author has used.[2]

The forms of citations generally subscribe to one of the generally accepted citations systems, such as the Oxford,[3]Harvard, MLA, American Sociological Association (ASA), American Psychological Association (APA), and othercitations systems, as their syntactic conventions are widely known and easily interpreted by readers. Each of thesecitation systems has its respective advantages and disadvantages relative to the trade-os of being informative (butnot too disruptive) and thus are chosen relative to the needs of the type of publication being crafted. Editors oftenspecify the citation system to use.Bibliographies, and other list-like compilations of references, are generally not considered citations because they donot fulll the true spirit of the term: deliberate acknowledgement by other authors of the priority of ones ideas.[4]

2.1 Concept A bibliographic citation is a reference to a book, article, web page, or other published item. Citations shouldsupply detail to identify the item uniquely.[5] Dierent citation systems and styles are used in scientic citation,legal citation, prior art, and the arts and the humanities.

2.2 ContentCitation content can vary depending on the type of source and may include:

4

2.3. SYSTEMS 5

Book: author(s), book title, publisher, date of publication, and page number(s) if appropriate.[6][7]

Journal: author(s), article title, journal title, date of publication, and page number(s). Newspaper: author(s), article title, name of newspaper, section title and page number(s) if desired, date ofpublication.

Web site: author(s), article and publication title where appropriate, as well as a URL, and a date when the sitewas accessed.

Play: inline citations oer part, scene, and line numbers, the latter separated by periods: 4.452 refers to scene4, line 452. For example, In Eugene Onegin, Onegin rejects Tanya when she is free to be his, and only decideshe wants her when she is already married (Pushkin 4.452-53).[8]

Poem: spaced slashes are normally used to indicate separate lines of a poem, and parenthetical citations usuallyinclude the line number(s). For example: For I must love because I live / And life in me is what you give.(Brennan, lines 1516).[8]

Interview: name of interviewer, interview descriptor (ex. personal interview) and date of interview.

2.2.1 Unique identiersAlong with information such as author(s), date of publication, title and page numbers, citations may also includeunique identiers depending on the type of work being referred to.

Citations of books may include an International Standard Book Number (ISBN). Specic volumes, articles or other identiable parts of a periodical, may have an associated Serial Item andContribution Identier (SICI).

Electronic documents may have a digital object identier (DOI). Biomedical research articles may have a PubMed Identier (PMID).

2.3 SystemsBroadly speaking, there are two types of citation systems (the Vancouver system and parenthetical referencing).[9]However, the Council of Science Editors (CSE) adds a third, the citation-name system.[10]

2.3.1 Vancouver systemThe Vancouver system uses sequential numbers in the text, either bracketed or superscript or both.[9] The numbersrefer to either footnotes (notes at the end of the page) or endnotes (notes on a page at the end of the paper) thatprovide source detail. The notes system may or may not require a full bibliography, depending on whether the writerhas used a full-note form or a shortened-note form.For example, an excerpt from the text of a paper using a notes system without a full bibliography could look like:

The ve stages of grief are denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.1

The note, located either at the foot of the page (footnote) or at the end of the paper (endnote) would look like this:

1. Elisabeth Kbler-Ross, On Death and Dying (New York: Macmillan, 1969) 4560.

In a paper with a full bibliography, the shortened note might look like:

1. Kbler-Ross, On Death and Dying 4560.

6 CHAPTER 2. CITATION

The bibliography entry, which is required with a shortened note, would look like this:

Kbler-Ross, Elisabeth. On Death and Dying. New York: Macmillan, 1969.

In the humanities, many authors also use footnotes or endnotes to supply anecdotal information. In this way, whatlooks like a citation is actually supplementary material, or suggestions for further reading.[11]

2.3.2 Parenthetical referencingParenthetical referencing, also known as Harvard referencing, has full or partial, in-text, citations enclosed in paren-theses and embedded in the paragraph.[9]

An example of a parenthetical reference:

The ve stages of grief are denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance (Kbler-Ross,1969,p 4560).

Depending on the choice of style, fully cited parenthetical references may require no end section. Other styles includea list of the citations, with complete bibliographical references, in an end section, sorted alphabetically by author. Thissection is often called References, Bibliography, Works cited or Works consulted.In-text references for online publications may dier from conventional parenthetical referencing. A full reference canbe hidden, only displayed when wanted by the reader, in the form of a tooltip.[12] This style makes citing easier andimproves the readers experience.

2.3.3 Citation-name systemSuperscripted numbers are inserted at the point of reference, just as in the citationsequence system, but the cita-tions are numbered according to the order of cited works at the end of the paper or book; this list is often sortedalphabetically by author.

2.4 StylesMain articles: APA style, MLA style, The Chicago Manual of Style, Bluebook, ALWD Citation Manual, ASA style,Harvard referencing and Vancouver system

Citation styles can be broadly divided into styles common to the Humanities and the Sciences, though there is consid-erable overlap. Some style guides, such as the ChicagoManual of Style, are quite exible and cover both parentheticaland note citation systems. Others, such as MLA and APA styles, specify formats within the context of a single cita-tion system. These may be referred to as citation formats as well as citation styles.[13][14][15] The various guides thusspecify order of appearance, for example, of publication date, title, and page numbers following the author name, inaddition to conventions of punctuation, use of italics, emphasis, parenthesis, quotation marks, etc., particular to theirstyle.A number of organizations have created styles to t their needs; consequently, a number of dierent guides exist.Individual publishers often have their own in-house variations as well, and some works are so long-established as tohave their own citation methods too: Stephanus pagination for Plato; Bekker numbers for Aristotle; citing the Bibleby book, chapter and verse; or Shakespeare notation by play.

2.4.1 Humanities The Chicago Style (CMOS) was developed and its guide is The Chicago Manual of Style. It is most widely usedin history and economics as well as some social sciences. The closely related Turabian stylewhich derivesfrom itis for student references, and is distinguished from the CMOS by omission of quotation marks inreference lists, and mandatory access date citation.

2.4. STYLES 7

The Columbia Style was created by Janice R. Walker and Todd Taylor to give detailed guidelines for citinginternet sources. Columbia Style oers models for both the humanities and the sciences.

Evidence Explained: Citing History Sources from Artifacts to Cyberspace by Elizabeth Shown Mills covers pri-mary sources not included in CMOS, such as censuses, court, land, government, business, and church records.Includes sources in electronic format. Used by genealogists and historians.[16]

Harvard referencing (or author-date system) is a specic kind of parenthetical referencing. Parenthetical ref-erencing is recommended by both the British Standards Institution and the Modern Language Association.Harvard referencing involves a short author-date reference, e.g., "(Smith, 2000)", being inserted after thecited text within parentheses and the full reference to the source being listed at the end of the article.

MLA style was developed by the Modern Language Association and is most often used in the arts and thehumanities, particularly in English studies, other literary studies, including comparative literature and literarycriticism in languages other than English ("foreign languages"), and some interdisciplinary studies, such ascultural studies, drama and theatre, lm, and other media, including television. This style of citations andbibliographical format uses parenthetical referencing with author-page (Smith 395) or author-[short] title-page(Smith, Contingencies 42) in the case of more than one work by the same author within parentheses in thetext, keyed to an alphabetical list of sources on a Works Cited page at the end of the paper, as well as notes(footnotes or endnotes). See The MLA Style Manual and The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers,particularly Citation and bibliography format.[lower-alpha 1]

The MHRA Style Guide is published by the Modern Humanities Research Association (MHRA) and mostwidely used in the arts and humanities in the United Kingdom, where the MHRA is based. It is available forsale both in the UK and in the United States. It is similar to MLA style, but has some dierences. For example,MHRA style uses footnotes that reference a citation fully while also providing a bibliography. Some readersnd it advantageous that the footnotes provide full citations, instead of shortened references, so that they donot need to consult the bibliography while reading for the rest of the publication details.[17]

In some areas of the Humanities, footnotes are used exclusively for references, and their use for conventional footnotes(explanations or examples) is avoided. In these areas, the term footnote is actually used as a synonym for reference,and care must be taken by editors and typesetters to ensure that they understand how the term is being used by theirauthors.

2.4.2 LawMain article: Legal citation

The Bluebook is a citation system traditionally used in American academic legal writing, and the Bluebook(or similar systems derived from it) are used by many courts.[18] At present, academic legal articles are alwaysfootnoted, but motions submitted to courts and court opinions traditionally use inline citations, which areeither separate sentences or separate clauses. Inline citations allow readers to quickly determine the strengthof a source based on, for example, the court a case was decided in and the year it was decided.

The legal citation style used almost universally in Canada is based on the Canadian Guide to Uniform LegalCitation (aka McGill Guide), published by McGill Law Journal.[19]

British legal citation almost universally follows the Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities (OS-COLA).

2.4.3 Sciences, mathematics, engineering, physiology, and medicineMain article: Scientic citation

The American Chemical Society style, or ACS style, is often used in chemistry and some of the physicalsciences. In ACS style references are numbered in the text and in the reference list, and numbers are repeatedthroughout the text as needed.

8 CHAPTER 2. CITATION

In the style of the American Institute of Physics (AIP style), references are also numbered in the text and inthe reference list, with numbers repeated throughout the text as needed.

Styles developed for the American Mathematical Society (AMS), or AMS styles, such as AMS-LaTeX, aretypically implemented using the BibTeX tool in the LaTeX typesetting environment. Brackets with authorsinitials and year are inserted in the text and at the beginning of the reference. Typical citations are listed in-linewith alphabetic-label format, e.g. [AB90]. This type of style is also called a "Authorship trigraph."

TheVancouver system, recommended by the Council of Science Editors (CSE), is used inmedical and scienticpapers and research.

In one major variant, that used by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), citationnumbers are included in the text in square brackets rather than as superscripts. All bibliographical infor-mation is exclusively included in the list of references at the end of the document, next to the respectivecitation number.

The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) is reportedly the original kernel of thisbiomedical style, which evolved from the Vancouver 1978 editors meeting.[20] The MEDLINE/PubMeddatabase uses this citation style and the National Library of Medicine provides ICMJE Uniform Re-quirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals -- Sample References.[21]

The AMA Style. The style of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), or IEEE style, encloses citation num-bers within square brackets and numbers them consecutively, with numbers repeated throughout the text asneeded.[22]

Pechenik Citation Style is a style described in A Short Guide to Writing about Biology, 6th ed. (2007), by JanA. Pechenik.[23]

In 2006, Eugene Gareld proposed a bibliographic system for scientic literature, to consolidate the integrityof scientic publications.[24]

2.4.4 Social sciences The style of the American Psychological Association, or APA style, published in the Publication Manual of theAmerican Psychological Association, is most often used in social sciences. APA style uses Harvard referencingwithin the text, listing the authors name and year of publication, keyed to an alphabetical list of sources at theend of the paper on a References page.

The American Political Science Association publishes both a style manual and a style guide for publications inthis eld.[25] The style is close to the CMOS.

The American Anthropological Association utilizes a modied form of the Chicago Style laid out in theirPublishing Style Guide.

The ASA style of American Sociological Association is one of the main styles used in sociological publications.

2.5 Boundary marksIn the case of direct citations, the boundaries of a citation are apparent from the quotation marks. However, theboundaries of indirect citations are usually unknown. To clarify these boundaries, citation marks () can be used.Example:

This is sentence 1. This is sentence 2. This is sentence 3. (Smith et al., 2013)

Here, it becomes apparent from the citation marks that the citation refers to both sentence 2 and 3, but not to sentence1.

2.6. ISSUES 9

2.6 IssuesSee also: Impact factor Editorial policies that aect the impact factor

In their research on footnotes in scholarly journals in the eld of communication, Michael Bugeja and Daniela V.Dimitrova have found that citations to online sources have a rate of decay (as cited pages are taken down), which theycall a half-life, that renders footnotes in those journals less useful for scholarship over time.[26]

Other experts have found that published replications do not have as many citations as original publications.[27]

Another important issue is citation errors, which often occur due to carelessness on either the researcher or journaleditors part in the publication procedure. Experts have found that simple precautions, such as consulting the authorof a cited source about proper citations, reduce the likelihood of citation errors and thus increase the quality ofresearch.[28]

Research suggests the impact of an article can be, partly, explained by supercial factors and not only by the scienticmerits of an article.[29] Field-dependent factors are usually listed as an issue to be tackled not only when comparisonacross disciplines are made, but also when dierent elds of research of one discipline are being compared.[30] Forinstance in Medicine among other factors the number of authors, the number of references, the article length, and thepresence of a colon in the title inuence the impact. Whilst in Sociology the number of references, the article length,and title length are among the factors.[31]

Citation patterns are also known to be aected by unethical behavior of both the authors and journal sta. Suchbehavior is called impact factor boosting, and was reported to involve even the top-tier journals. Specically the high-ranking journals of medical science, including the Lancet, JAMA and New England Journal of Medicine, are thoughtto be associated with such behavior, with up to 30% of citations to these journals being generated by commissionedopinion articles [32]

2.7 See also Acknowledgment (creative arts)

Bible citation

Case citation

Coercive citation

Citation analysis

Citation creator

Citation signal

Citationality

Credit (creative arts)

Cross-reference

Scholarly method

Source evaluation

Style guide

Wikipedia:Verifiability

San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment

10 CHAPTER 2. CITATION

2.8 Notes[1] The eld of Communication (or Communications) overlaps with some of the disciplines also covered by the MLA and

has its own disciplinary style recommendations for documentation format; the style guide recommended for use in studentpapers in such departments in American colleges and universities is often The Publication Manual of the APA (AmericanPsychological Association); designated for short as "APA style".

2.9 References

2.9.1 Citations[1] Massachusetts Institute of Technology, WhatDoes itMean to Cite?"MITAcademic Integrity. http://web.mit.edu/academicintegrity/

citing/whatandwhy.html.

[2] Association of Legal Writing Directors & Darby Dickerson, ALWD Citation Manual: A Professional System of Citation,4th ed.(New York: Aspen, 2010), 3.

[3] Oxford Referencing System. Retrieved 18 January 2011.

[4] Gibaldi, Joseph. Work Cited, References, and Bibliography-Whats the dierence?". OCLC Online Computer LibraryCenter, Inc. Retrieved 15 March 2012.

[5] Library glossary. Benedictine University. August 22, 2008. Archived from the original on April 30, 2008. Retrieved2009-02-27.

[6] Long Island University.

[7] Duke University Libraries 2007.

[8] Brigham Young University 2008.

[9] Neville, C. (2012). Referencing: Principles, practices and problems. In RGUHS Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. Vol2:2. pp. 1-8

[10] Council of Science Editors, Style Manual Committee (2007). Scientic style and format: the CSE manual for authors,editors, and publishers.

[11] How to Write Research Papers with Citations - MLA, APA, Footnotes, Endnotes. Retrieved 2010-01-31.

[12] Live Reference Initiative. Accessed 2012-04-28.

[13] California State University 2007.

[14] Lesley University 2007.

[15] Rochester Institute of Technology 2003.

[16] Elizabeth Shown Mills. Evidence Explained : Citing History Sources from Artifacts to cyberspace. 2d ed. Baltimore:Genealogical Pub. Co., 2009.

[17] The 2nd edition (updated April 2008) of the MHRA Style Guide is downloadable for free from the Modern HumanitiesResearch Association ocial Website.

[18] Martin 2007.

[19] Canadian Guide to Uniform Legal Citation (Cite Guide). McGill Law Journal. Updated October 2008. Retrieved on2009-02-05.

[20] Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals.

[21] International Committee of Medical Journal Editors. ICMJE Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted toBiomedical Journals -- Sample References.

[22] IEEE Style Manual. Accessed 2015-02-16.

[23] Pechenik Citation Style QuickGuide (PDF). University of Alberta, Augustana Campus, Canada. Web. November 2007.

2.9. REFERENCES 11

[24] Gareld, Eugene (2006). Citation indexes for science. A new dimension in documentation through association of ideas.International Journal of Epidemiology 35 (5): 11231127. doi:10.1093/ije/dyl189. PMID 16987841.

[25] Stephen Yoder, ed. (2008). The APSA Guide to Writing and Publishing and Style Manual for Political Science. Rev. ed.August 2006. APSAnet.org Publications. Retrieved on 2009-02-05.

[26] Bugeja, Michael andDaniela V. Dimitrova. Vanishing Act: The Erosion of Online Footnotes and Implications for Scholarshipin the Digital Age. Duluth, Minnesota: Litwin Books (2010)

[27] RaymondHubbard and J. Scott Armstrong (1994). Replications and Extensions inMarketing Rarely Published But QuiteContrary (PDF). International Journal of Research in Marketing 11 (3): 233248. doi:10.1016/0167-8116(94)90003-5.

[28] Malcolm Wright and J. Scott Armstrong (2008). The Ombudsman: Verication of Citations: Fawlty Towers of Knowl-edge?" (PDF). Interfaces (INFORMS) 38 (2): 125139. doi:10.1287/inte.1070.0317.

[29] Bornmann, L., & Daniel, H. D. (2008). What do citation counts measure? A review of studies on citing behavior. Journalof Documentation, 64(1), 45-80.

[30] Anauati, Maria Victoria and Galiani, Sebastian and Glvez, Ramiro H., Quantifying the Life Cycle of Scholarly ArticlesAcross Fields of Economic Research (November 11, 2014). Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2523078

[31] van Wesel, M.; Wyatt, S.; ten Haaf, J. (2014). What a dierence a colon makes: how supercial factors inuence subse-quent citation. Scientometrics 98 (3): 16011615. doi:10.1007/s11192-013-1154-x.

[32] Heneberg, P. (2014). ParallelWorlds of Citable Documents andOthers: Inated CommissionedOpinionArticles EnhanceScientometric Indicators. Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology. doi:10.1002/asi.22997.

2.9.2 Bibliography ACS (American Chemical Society) Style Guidelines Quick Guide. Berkeley.edu. 2006. Retrieved 2008-02-03.

Anatomy of a Citation. LIUNet.edu. Archived from the original on January 9, 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-03. APA Citation Format. Lesley.edu. 2005. Archived from the original on December 28, 2007. Retrieved2008-02-11.

APA Citation Format. RIT.edu. 2003. Retrieved 2008-02-11. Armstrong, J Scott (July 1996). The Ombudsman: Management Folklore and Management Science - OnPortfolio Planning, Escalation Bias, and Such (PDF). Interfaces (Providence: Institute of Management Sci-ences) 26 (4): 2842. doi:10.1287/inte.26.4.25. OCLC 210941768.

ASME Journals Digital Submission Tool. ASME.org. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Retrieved2008-02-08.

Bugeja, Michael (2010). Vanishing Act: The Erosion of Online Footnotes and Implications for Scholarship inthe Digital Age. Duluth, Minnesota: Litwin Books. ISBN 978-1-936117-14-7.

Book with a Single Author. Duke.edu. 2007. Retrieved 2008-02-04. CBE - Council of Biology Editors (Citation/Sequence System)". ColoState.edu. 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-11. Citation Formats & Style Manuals. CSUChico.edu. 2007. Retrieved 2008-02-11. Citation Systems and Style Manuals by Subject Discipline. lib.umd.edu. 2012. Retrieved 2013-08-02. How to cite sources in the body of your paper. BYUI.edu. 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-08. IEEE Citation Reference (PDF). IEEE.org. 2009. Retrieved 2011-05-12. Martin, Peter W (May 2007) [1993]. Introduction to Basic Legal Citation (LII 2007 ed.)". Cornell.edu.Retrieved 2008-02-03.

MHRA Style Guide: A Handbook for Authors, Editors, and Writers of Theses. MHRA.org.uk. ModernHumanities Research Association. 2008. Retrieved 2009-02-05. (2nd ed.)

12 CHAPTER 2. CITATION

Pechenik, Jan A (2004). A Short Guide to Writing About Biology (5th ed.). New York: Pearson/Longman.ISBN 0-321-15981-0. OCLC 52166026.

Why Are There Dierent Citation Styles?". Yale.edu. 2008. Retrieved 2013-10-10. Wright, Malcolm; Armstrong, J Scott (March 2008). The Ombudsman: Verication of Citations: FawltyTowers of Knowledge?" (– SCHOLAR SEARCH). Interfaces (Providence: Institute of Management Sci-ences) 38 (2): 125139. doi:10.1287/inte.1070.0317. OCLC 229821277.

Live Reference Initiative. livereference.org. 2012. Retrieved 2012-04-28.

2.10 External linksGuidelines

Citing Government Documents/Government Agency Style Manuals, University of North Texas Document it Citation and Referee AMS, and the AMSRefs package. Guide to Citation Style Guides What is citation?", Turnitin.com Cater all your Citation needs?", Makecitation.com Citation Maker

Examples

Illustrated examples, generated using BibTeX, of several major styles, including more than those listed above. PDF le bibstyles.pdf illustrates how several bibliographic styles appear with citations and reference entries,generated using BibTeX.

Style guides

How to write footnotes, endnotes and electronic references in a proper format Swarthmore librarys Guide to Citation Styles for Science and Humanities.

Other online resources

thehistorysite.org Online resources for scientic research and writing.

Citations are also the making of a website.

Chapter 3

Citation Style Language

The Citation Style Language (CSL) is an open XML-based language to describe the formatting of citations andbibliographies. Reference management programs using CSL include Zotero, Mendeley and Papers.

3.1 HistoryCSL was created by Bruce D'Arcus for use with OpenOce.org,[1][2] and an XSLT-based "CiteProc" CSL proces-sor. CSL was further developed in collaboration with Zotero developer Simon Kornblith. Since 2008, the coredevelopment team consists of D'Arcus, Frank Bennett and Rintze Zelle.The releases of CSL are 0.8 (March 21, 2009), 0.8.1 (February 1, 2010), 1.0 (March 22, 2010), and 1.0.1 (September3, 2012). CSL 1.0 was a backward-incompatible release, but styles in the 0.8.1 format can be automatically updatedto the CSL 1.0 format.[3]

On its release in 2006, Zotero became the rst application to adopt CSL. In 2008 Mendeley was released with CSLsupport, and in 2011, Papers and Qiqqa gained support for CSL-based citation formatting.

3.2 Software Support Zotero, Mendeley, Docear, Papers, Labstory, Pajoohyar and Qiqqa all support CSL 1.0 (Zotero also supportsCSL 0.8.1 styles, which are internally updated to CSL 1.0).

Zotero, Mendeley, Docear, Refeus and Qiqqa rely on the citeproc-js JavaScript CSL processor.

CSL 1.0 processors have also been written in Haskell (citeproc-hs), PHP, Python, and Ruby.[4]

Zotero, Mendeley, and Qiqqa provide a built-in CSL editor to help create and modify CSL styles.

3.3 StylesThe CSL project maintains a CSL 1.0 style repository at https://github.com/citation-style-language/styles, whichcontains over 6000 styles. These styles can be browsed and searched via the Zotero Style Repository.

3.4 References[1] CiteProc at OpenOce Bibliographic Project. http://bibliographic.openoffice.org/citeproc/index.html

[2] OpenOce Bibliographic Project. http://bibliographic.openoffice.org/

13

14 CHAPTER 3. CITATION STYLE LANGUAGE

[3] Update instructions to convert CSL 0.8.1 styles to the 1.0 format. http://citationstyles.org/downloads/upgrade-notes.html#updating-csl-0-8-styles

[4] Jakob Vo (May 2010), Quick introduction to the Citation Style Language (CSL)", Lightning Talk proposal EuropeanLibrary Automation Group Conference. http://www.slideshare.net/nichtich/voss-elag-csl2010

3.5 External links Project home of the Citation Style Language

CSL 1.0.1 Specication Zoteros CSL documentation WYSIWYG CSL 1.0 style editor (in development, by Mendeley)

3.5.1 Other XML-based bibliographic metadata systems OSBIB, another approach to using XML style les for bibliographic metadata BiblioX, Peter Flynns 2004 experiment in creating anXML-based system for formatting bibliographic citationsand references using XSLT

Chapter 4

Comment (computer programming)

For comments in Wikipedia markup, see Help:Wiki markup#Character formatting and WP:COMMENT.In computer programming, a comment is a programming language construct[1] used to embed programmer-readable

/** * Simple HelloButton() method. * @version 1.0 * @author john doe */HelloButton(){ JButton hello = new JButton( "Hello, wor hello.addActionListener( new HelloBtnList

// use the JFrame type until support for t // new component is finished JFrame frame = new JFrame( "Hello Button" Container pane = frame.getContentPane(); pane.add( hello ); frame.pack(); frame.show(); // display the fra}

An illustration of Java source code with prologue comments indicated in red and inline comments in green. Program code is inblue.

annotations in the source code of a computer program.[2] Those annotations are potentially signicant to program-mers but are generally ignored by compilers and interpreters.[3][4] Comments are usually added with the purpose ofmaking the source code easier to understand. The syntax and rules for comments vary and are usually dened in aprogramming language specication (see the syntax of comments in various programming languages).

15

16 CHAPTER 4. COMMENT (COMPUTER PROGRAMMING)

Comments have a wide range of potential uses: from augmenting program code with basic descriptions, to generatingexternal documentation.[5] Comments are also used for integration with source code management systems and otherkinds of external programming tools.The exibility provided by comments often allows for a wide degree of variability and potentially non-useful infor-mation inside source code. To address this, many technical commentators and software analysts subscribe to any ofseveral philosophies and guidelines regarding the proper use of comments.

4.1 OverviewComments are generally formatted as either block comments (also called prologue comments or stream comments) orline comments (also called inline comments).[6]

Block comments delimit a region of source code in which the region is allowed to span multiple lines. This region isspecied with a start delimiter and an end delimiter. Some programming languages (such as MATLAB) allow blockcomments to be recursively nested inside one another, but others (such as Java) do not.[7][8][9]

Line comments either start with a comment delimiter and continue until the end of the line, or in some cases, start ata specic column (character line oset) in the source code, and continue until the end of the line.[9]

Some programming languages employ both block and line comments with dierent comment delimiters. For exam-ple, C++ has block comments delimited by /* and */ that can span multiple lines and line comments delimited by //.Other languages support only one type of comment. For example, Ada comments are line comments: they start with-- and continue to the end of the line.[9]

4.2 UsesHow best to make use of comments is subject to dispute; dierent commentators have oered varied and sometimesopposing viewpoints.[10][11] There are many dierent ways of writing comments and many commentators who oersometimes conicting advice.[11]

4.2.1 Planning and reviewing

Comments can be used as a form of pseudocode to outline intention prior to writing the actual code. In this case itshould explain the logic behind the code rather than the code itself./* loop backwards through all elements returned by the server (they should be processed chronologically)*/ for (i =(numElementsReturned - 1); i >= 0; i--){ /* process each elements data */ updatePattern(i, returnedElements[i]); }

If this type of comment is left in, it simplies the review process by allowing a direct comparison of the code withthe intended results. A common logical fallacy is that code that is easy to understand does what its supposed to do.

4.2.2 Code descriptionComments can be used to summarize code or to explain the programmers intent. According to this school of thought,restating the code in plain English is considered superuous; the need to re-explain code may be a sign that it is toocomplex and should be rewritten.

Don't document bad code rewrite it.[12]

Good comments don't repeat the code or explain it. They clarify its intent. Comments should explain,at a higher level of abstraction than the code, what you're trying to do.[13]

Comments may also be used to explain why a block of code does not seem to t conventions or best practices. Thisis especially true of projects involving very little development time, or in bug xing. For example:

4.2. USES 17

' Second variable dim because of server errors produced when reuse form data. No ' documentation available onserver behavior issue, so just coding around it. vtx = server.mappath(local settings)

4.2.3 Algorithmic descriptionSometimes source code contains a novel or noteworthy solution to a specic problem. In such cases, commentsmay contain an explanation of the methodology. Such explanations may include diagrams and formal mathematicalproofs. This may constitute explanation of the code, rather than a clarication of its intent; but others tasked withmaintaining the code base may nd such explanation crucial. This might especially be true in the case of highlyspecialized problem domains; or rarely used optimizations, constructs or function-calls.[14]

For example, a programmer may add a comment to explain why an insertion sort was chosen instead of a quicksort,as the former is, in theory, slower than the latter. This could be written as follows:list = [f (b), f (b), f (c), f (d), f (a), ...]; // Need a stable sort. Besides, the performance really does not matter.insertion_sort (list);

4.2.4 Resource inclusionLogos, diagrams, and owcharts consisting of ASCII art constructions can be inserted into source code formatted asa comment.[15] Further, copyright notices can be embedded within source code as comments. Binary data may alsobe encoded in comments through a process known as binary-to-text encoding, although such practice is uncommonand typically relegated to external resource les.The following code fragment is a simple ASCII diagram depicting the process ow for a system administration scriptcontained in aWindows Script File running underWindows Script Host. Although a sectionmarking the code appearsas a comment, the diagram itself actually appears in an XMLCDATA section, which is technically considered distinctfrom comments, but can serve similar purposes.[16]

ClientApp (async_run, batch_process) | | V mru.ini (mru_history) ]]>

Although this identical diagram could easily have been included as a comment, the example illustrates one instancewhere a programmer may opt not to use comments as a way of including resources in source code.[16]

4.2.5 DebuggingComment out redirects here.

A common developer practice is to comment out a code snippet, meaning to add comment syntax causing that blockof code to become a comment, so that it will not be executed in the nal program. This may be done to excludecertain pieces of code from the nal program, or (more commonly) it can be used to nd the source of an error. Bysystematically commenting out and running parts of the program, the source of an error can be determined, allowingit to be corrected. An example of commenting out code for exclusion purposes is below:For example, one might write:if (opt.equals (e)) opt_enabled = true; /* if (opt.equals (d)) opt_debug = true; // */ //* if (opt.equals (v))opt_verbose = true; // */

The above code fragment suggests that the programmer opted to disable the debugging option for some reason. Thisspecic comment style is more suitable for debugging. A single slash character in front of the opening delimiter isthe switch on en/disabling the block comments.Many IDEs allow quick adding or removing such comments with single menu options or key combinations. Theprogrammer has only to mark the part of text they want to (un)comment and choose the appropriate option. It isuseful with large parts of code.

18 CHAPTER 4. COMMENT (COMPUTER PROGRAMMING)

4.2.6 Automatic documentation generation

Main article: Documentation generator

Programming tools sometimes store documentation andmetadata in comments.[17] These may include insert positionsfor automatic header le inclusion, commands to set the les syntax highlighting mode,[18] or the les revisionnumber.[19] These functional control comments are also commonly referred to as annotations. Keeping documentationwithin source code comments is considered as one way to simplify the documentation process, as well as increase thechances that the documentation will be kept up to date with changes in the code.[20]

Examples of documentation generators include the programs Javadoc for use with Java, Ddoc for D, Doxygen for C,C++, Java, IDL, and PHPDoc for PHP.C#, F# and Visual Basic implement a similar feature called XML Comments which are read by IntelliSense fromthe compiled .NET assembly.[21]

4.3 Normative viewsThere are various normative views and long-standing opinions regarding the proper use of comments in sourcecode.[22] Some of these are informal and based on personal preference, while others are published or promulgated asformal guidelines.[23]

4.3.1 Need for comments

Technical commentators have documented varying viewpoints on whether and when comments are appropriate insource code.[12] [24] Some commentators assert that source code should be written with few comments, on the basisthat the source code should be self-explanatory or self-documenting.[12] Others suggest code should be extensivelycommented (it is not uncommon for over 50% of the non-whitespace characters in source code to be contained withincomments).[25][26]

In between these views is the assertion that comments are neither benecial nor harmful by themselves, and whatmatters is that they are correct and kept in sync with the source code, and omitted if they are superuous, excessive,dicult to maintain or otherwise unhelpful.[27][28]

Comments are sometimes used to document contracts in the design by contract approach to programming.

4.3.2 Level of detail

Depending on the intended audience of the code and other considerations, the level of detail and description mayvary considerably.For example, the following Java comment would be suitable in an introductory text designed to teach beginningprogramming:String s = Wikipedia"; /* Assigns the value Wikipedia to the variable s. */

This level of detail, however, would not be appropriate in the context of production code, or other situations involvingexperienced developers. Such rudimentary descriptions are inconsistent with the guideline: Good comments ...clarify intent.[13] Further, for professional coding environments, the level of detail is ordinarily well-dened to meeta specic performance requirement dened by business operations.[26]

4.3.3 Oensive comments

Sometimes comments in source code are used as a way to relieve stress or to speak unfavorably about developmenttools, competitors, employers, working conditions, or even the quality of the code itself. The occurrence of thisphenomenon can be easily seen from online resources that track profanity in source code.[29]

4.4. STYLES 19

4.3.4 Comments in web templatesWeb development presents a special security challenge related to comments, because it is not uncommon for HTMLcomments to be viewable in plain text by any user of the application. Sections of code that are commented out inHTML templates may therefore present a security vulnerability.[30]

4.4 StylesThere are many stylistic alternatives available when considering how comments should appear in source code. Forlarger projects involving a team of developers, comment styles are either agreed upon before a project starts, orevolve as a matter of convention or need as a project grows. Usually programmers prefer styles that are consistent,non-obstructive, easy to modify, and dicult to break.[31]

The following code fragments in C demonstrate just a tiny example of how comments can vary stylistically, whilestill conveying the same basic information:/* This is the comment body. Variation One. *//***************************\ * * * This is the comment body. * *Variation Two. * * * \***************************/

Factors such as personal preference, exibility of programming tools, and other considerations tend to inuence thestylistic variants used in source code. For example, Variation Two might be disfavored among programmers who donot have source code editors that can automate the alignment and visual appearance of text in comments.Software consultant and technology commentator Allen Holub[32] is one expert who advocates aligning the left edgesof comments:[33]

/* This is the style recommended by Holub for C and C++. * It is demonstrated in ''Enough Rope'', in rule 29. *//* This is another way to do it, also in C. ** It is easier to do in editors that do not automatically indent the second** through last lines of the comment one space from the rst. ** It is also used in Holubs book, in rule 31. */

4.4.1 End-of-lineIn this form, all the text from the ASCII characters // to the end of the line is ignored.// begin: Variation Three. // ------------------------- // This is the comment body. // -------------------------

Dierent styles can be chosen for dierent areas of code, from individual lines to paragraphs, routines, les, andprograms. If the syntax supports both line comments and block comments, one method is to use line comments onlyfor minor comments (declarations, blocks and edits) and to use block comments to describe higher-level abstractions(functions, classes, les and modules).Sometimes projects try to enforce rules like one comment every ten lines. These kinds of rules can be coun-terproductive when too rigorous, but may provide a useful standard of measurement and consistency if the projectparticipants deem it necessary.

4.4.2 TagsCertain tags are used in comments to assist in indexing common issues. Such tags are commonly syntax-highlightedwithin text editors and can be searched for with common programming tools, such as the Unix grep utility. Examplesof tag conventions include:

FIXME to mark potential problematic code that requires special attention and/or review. NOTE to document inner workings of code and indicate potential pitfalls. TODO to indicate planned enhancements. XXX to warn other programmers of problematic or misguiding code.

20 CHAPTER 4. COMMENT (COMPUTER PROGRAMMING)

There is a risk that tags accumulate over time; it is advisable to include the date and the tag owner in the tag commentto ease tracking.[34]

4.5 Examples

4.5.1 Comparison

Main article: Comparison of programming languages (syntax) Comments

Typographic conventions to specify comments vary widely. Further, individual programming languages sometimesprovide unique variants. For a detailed review, please consult the programming language comparison article.

4.5.2 In context

Ada

The Ada programming language uses '--' to indicate a comment up to the end of the line.For example:-- the air trac controller task takes requests for takeo and landing task type Controller (My_Runway: Run-way_Access) is -- task entries for synchronous message passing entry Request_Takeo (ID: in Airplane_ID; Take-o: out Runway_Access); entry Request_Approach(ID: in Airplane_ID; Approach: out Runway_Access); end Con-troller;

AppleScript

This section of AppleScript code shows the two styles of comments used in that language.(* This program displays a greeting. *) on greet(myGreeting) display dialog myGreeting & " world!" end greet --Show the greeting greet(Hello)

BASIC

This BASIC code fragment is a completely functioning program in which the comments describe what the programdoes for the benet of novice programmers.10 REM This BASIC program shows the use of the PRINT AND GOTO statements. 15 REM It lls the SCREENwith the phrase HELLO 20 PRINT HELLO 30 GOTO 20

When run, this program repeatedly prints the word HELLO (without quotes) in an innite loop.In Microsoft BASICs, including QuickBasic, Qbasic, Visual Basic, Visual Basic .NET, and VBScript, and in de-scendants such as FreeBASIC and Gambas, any text on a line after an ' (apostrophe) character is placed is markedas a comment. Lines that begin with 'REM' (for 'remark') are treated as comments as well, similar to other BASICdialects. Following is an example in Visual Basic .NET:Public Class Form1 Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As System.EventArgs)Handles Button1.Click ' The following code is executed when the user ' clicks the button in the programs window.MessageBox.Show(Hello, World) 'Show a pop-up window with a greeting End Sub End Class

4.5. EXAMPLES 21

C

This C code fragment demonstrates the use of a prologue comment or block comment to describe the purposeof a conditional statement. The comment explains key terms and concepts, and includes a short signature by theprogrammer who authored the code./* * Check if we are over our maximum process limit, but be sure to * exclude root. This is needed to make itpossible for login and * friends to set the per-user process limit to something lower * than the amount of processesroot is running. -- Rik */ if (atomic_read(&p->user->processes) >= p->rlim[RLIMIT_NPROC].rlim_cur && !ca-pable(CAP_SYS_ADMIN) && !capable(CAP_SYS_RESOURCE)) goto bad_fork_free;

This excerpt is from the fork.c le from the Linux kernel source.Since C99, it has also been possible to use the // syntax from C++, indicating a single-line comment.

ColdFusion

ColdFusion uses comments similar to HTML comments, but instead of two dashes, it uses three. These commentsare caught by the ColdFusion engine and not printed to the browser. Hello World

Fortran IV

This Fortran IV code fragment demonstrates how comments are used in that language, with the comments themselvesdescribing the basic formatting rules.C C Lines that begin with 'C' (in the rst or 'comment' column) are comments C WRITE (6,10) 10 FORMAT(12HHELLO WORLD) END

Fortran 90

This Fortran code fragment demonstrates how comments are used in that language, with the comments themselvesdescribing the basic formatting rules.!* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * !* All characters after an exclamation mark areconsidered as comments * !* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * program comment_testprint '(A)', 'Hello world' ! Fortran 90 introduced the option for inline comments. end program

Haskell

Single line comments in Haskell start with '--' (two hyphens), and multiple line comments start with '{-' and end with'-}'.{- this is a comment on more lines -} -- and this is a comment on one line putStrLn Wikipedia

Haskell also provides a literate programming method of commenting known as "Bird Style"; to encourage the useof comments to generate documentation, the code is marked with a leading '>' on each line instead of marking thecomments:This code simply outputs the word Wikipedia to the current output. It serves as an example of Bird Style Haskellcode. The code itself follows after this paragraph and a blank line. > putStrLn Wikipedia

22 CHAPTER 4. COMMENT (COMPUTER PROGRAMMING)

Java

This Java code fragment shows a block comment used to describe the setToolTipText method. The formatting isconsistent with Sun Microsystems Javadoc standards. The comment is designed to be read by the Javadoc processor./** * Registers the text to display in a tool tip. The text * displays when the cursor lingers over the component. * *@param text the string to display. If the text is null, * the tool tip is turned o for this component. */ public voidsetToolTipText(String text) {

MATLAB

In MATLAB's programming language, the '%' character indicates a single-line comment. Multi line comments arealso available via %{ and %} brackets, e.g.% These are the derivatives for each term d = [0 1 0]; %{ We form the sequence, following the Taylor formula.Note that we're operating on a vector. %} seq = d .* (x - c).^n ./(factorial(n)) % We add-up to get the Taylor ap-proximation approx = sum(seq)

OCaml

OCaml uses nestable comments, which is useful when commenting a code block.codeLine(* comment level 1(*comment level 2*)*)

Pascal

In Niklaus Wirths pascal family of languages (including Modula-2 and Oberon), comments are opened with '(*' andcompleted with '*)'.for example:(* test diagonals *) columnDierence := testColumn - column; if (row + columnDierence = testRow) or .......

Perl

Line comments in Perl, and many other scripting languages, begin with a hash (#) symbol. A comment at the begin-ning, called the shebang, tells the system what interpreter to use.#!/usr/bin/perl my $s = Wikipedia"; # Sets the variable s to Wikipedia. print $s . "\n"; # Add a newline characterafter printing for shells that do not do so automatically.

Instead of a regular block commenting construct, Perl uses Plain Old Documentation, a markup language for literateprogramming,[35] for instance:[36]

=item Pod::List-Enew() Create a new list object. Properties may be specied through a hash reference like this:my $list = Pod::List->new({ -start => $., -indent => 4 }); See the individual methods/properties for details. =cut subnew { my $this = shift; my $class = ref($this) || $this; my %params = @_; my $self = {%params}; bless $self, $class;$self->initialize(); return $self; }

PHP

Comments in PHP can be either in C++ style (both inline and block), or use hashes. PHPDoc is a style adapted fromJavadoc and is a common standard for documenting PHP code.

4.5. EXAMPLES 23

PowerShell

Comments in Windows PowerShell# Single line comment Write-Host Hello, World!" Write-Host Goodbye, world!"

Python

Comments in Python use the hash character. This Python program starts with #! (a so-called shebang) to tell theoperating system which interpreter to use.#!/usr/bin/env python # this program prints Hello World to the screen and then quits. print(Hello World!")

Python also supports docstrings, a special sort of comment usually enclosed in triple-quotes (''').def foo(x, y): '''Frobnicate the bar and baz together with one another''' return frob(frob(x), frob(y))

Ruby

Comments in Ruby.Single line commenting: (line starts with hash "#")puts This is not a comment #this is commented puts This is not a comment

Multi-line commenting: (comments goes between keywords begin and end)puts This is not a comment =begin whatever goes in here will be ignored =end puts This is not a comment

SQL

Comments in SQL are in single-line-only form, when using two dashes:-- This is a single line comment -- followed by a second line SELECT COUNT(*) FROM Authors WHERE Au-thors.name = 'Smith'; -- Note: we only want 'smith' -- this comment appears after SQL code

The syntax for Transact-SQL also supports alternative formats for specifying comments.[37] One format supportedby this syntax is identical to the block comment style used in the syntax for C++ and Java./* This is a comment line 1 This is a comment line 2 */ SELECT COUNT(*) FROM Authors

XML

Comments in XML (or HTML) are introduced with

For example,

24 CHAPTER 4. COMMENT (COMPUTER PROGRAMMING)

4.6 See also Docstring, a specic type of comment that is parsed and retained throughout the runtime of the program. HTML comment tag Literate programming, alternative documentation paradigm Syntax of comments in various programming languages

4.7 Notes and references[1] For purposes of this article, programming language comments are treated as indistinct from comments that appear in

markup languages, conguration les and other similar contexts. Moreover, markup language is often closely integratedwith programming language code, especially in the context of code generation. See e.g., Ganguli, Madhushree (2002).Making Use of Jsp. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-21974-6., Hewitt, Eben (2003). Java for Coldfusion Developers.Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education. ISBN 0-13-046180-6.

[2] Source code can be divided into program code (which consists of machine-translatable instructions); and comments (whichinclude human-readable notes and other kinds of annotations in support of the program code).Penny Grubb, ArmstrongTakang (2003). Software Maintenance: Concepts and Practice. World Scientic. pp. 7, 120121. ISBN 981-238-426-X.

[3] Some programming environments include comments as one element of the language syntax that is retained for furtherprocessing, instead of discarded once recognized by the language processor.

[4] Comments must be indicated in a way that allows a source code processor to recognize them as such. This is often simpliedby saying comments are ignored (after they have been recognized and discarded) by the processor.

[5] Comments can be processed in various ways to generate documentation external to the source code itself. See e.g.,Comparison of documentation generators.

[6] Dixit, J.B. (2003). Computer Fundamentals and Programming in C. Laxmi Publications. ISBN 81-7008-882-8.

[7] Higham, Desmond (2005). MATLAB Guide. SIAM. ISBN 0-89871-578-4.

[8] Vermeulen, Al (2000). The Elements of Java Style. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-77768-2.

[9] Using the right comment in Java. Retrieved 2007-07-24.

[10] W. R., Dietrich (2003). Applied Pattern Recognition: Algorithms and Implementation in C++. Springer. ISBN 3-528-35558-1. oers viewpoints on proper use of comments in source code. p. 66.

[11] Keyes, Jessica (2003). Software Engineering Handbook. CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-1479-8. discusses comments and theScience of Documentation p. 256.

[12] The Elements of Programming Style, Kernighan & Plauger

[13] Code Complete, McConnell

[14] Spinellis, Diomidis (2003). Code reading: The Open Source Perspective. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-79940-5.

[15] CodePlotter 1.6 - Add and edit diagrams in your code with this 'Visio-like' tool. Retrieved 2007-07-24.

[16] Niederst, Jennifer (2006). WebDesign in aNutshell: ADesktop Quick Reference. O'Reilly. ISBN0-596-00987-9.Sometimesthe dierence between a comment and other syntax elements of a programming or markup language entails subtle nu-ances. Niederst indicates one such situation by stating: Unfortunately, XML software thinks of comments as unimportantinformation and may simply remove the comments from a document before processing it. To avoid this problem, use anXML CDATA section instead.

[17] See e.g., Wynne-Powell, Rod (2008). Mac Os X for Photographers: Optimized Image Workow for the Mac User. Oxford:Focal Press. ISBN 0-240-52027-0. page 243

[18] Lamb, Linda (1998). Learning the VI Editor. Sebastopol: O'Reilly & Associates. ISBN 1-56592-426-6. describes the useof modeline syntax in Vim conguration les.

[19] See e.g., Berlin, Daniel (2006). Practical Subversion, Second Edition. Berkeley: APress. ISBN 1-59059-753-2. page 168.

4.8. FURTHER READING 25

[20] Ambler, Scott (2004). The Object Primer: Agile Model-Driven Development with UML 2.0. Cambridge University Press.ISBN 1-397-80521-8.

[21] Murach. C# 2005. p. 56.

[22] Goodlie, Pete (2006). Code Craft. San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 1-59327-119-0., Smith, T. (1991). IntermediateProgramming Principles and Techniques Using Pascal. Belmont: West Pub. Co. ISBN 0-314-66314-2.

[23] See e.g., Koletzke, Peter (2000). Oracle Developer Advanced Forms & Reports. Berkeley: Osborne/McGraw-Hill. ISBN0-07-212048-7. page 65.

[24] Worst Practice - Bad Comments. Retrieved 2007-07-24.

[25] Morelli, Ralph (2006). Java, Java, Java: object-oriented problem solving. Prentice Hall College. ISBN 0-13-147434-0.

[26] How to Write Doc Comments for the Javadoc Tool. Retrieved 2007-07-24. Javadoc guidelines specify that commentsare crucial to the platform. Further, the appropriate level of detail is fairly well-dened: We spend time and eort focusedon specifying boundary conditions, argument ranges and corner cases rather than dening common programming terms,writing conceptual overviews, and including examples for developers.

[27] Yourdon, Edward (2007). Techniques of