Chapter 7

REFERENCEPresented by :

Diah Desti Lestari

Referent (object) is a person, thing, or idea that a word or expression denotes.

A referring expression is a piece of language, a noun phrase, that is used in an utterance and is linked to something outside language, some living or dead or imaginary entity or concept or group of entities or concepts. A referring expression generally purpose to identify a particular person, place or thing (noun, noun phrase or pronoun).

1. Referents and Referring Expression

Alex : where is the cheese sandwich sitting ?Waiter : he’s over there by the window.

The cheese sandwich is referring expression and the referent being identified is not a thing, but a person.

Example of Referent and Referring Expression

The extension of a lexeme is the set of entities which it denotes.The intension of any lexeme is the set of properties shared by all members of the extension.Example :BIRDExtension : sparrow, dove, bluebird, hawk, and eagle.Intension : lay eggs, has a beak, two wings, two legs, has feathers, can fly.

2. Extension and Intension

a. We swam in Lake Ontario. (Unique referent)b. We swam in a lake. (Non unique referent)

A referring expression has fixed reference when the referent is a unique entity or unique set of entities, like Lake Ontario, Japan, Boris Yeltsin, the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Philippine Islands.

A referring expression has variable reference if its referent may be different every time it is used: that dog, my uncle, several people, a lake, the results, the president of the united states.

3. Some different kinds of referents3.1 unique and non unique referents

Lexemes such as dog, door, leaf, stone denote concrete referents, which can be seen or touched.Example : The key to the front doorA bright lightthe objects denoted by lexemes like idea, problem, reason, knowledge are abstract referent. Example :The key to successA bright future

3.2 concrete and abstract referents

A. Countable referents is a word or phrase which can ordinarily be

counted one by one. such as pen, pencil, orange, mango, pillow, blanket, etc.

Example :They eat two apples.B. Non-countable is a word or phrase which can’t ordinarily be

counted one by one. Such as sugar, sand, salt, sauce, etc.Example :We need some apple sauce.

3.3 countable and uncountable referents

There are three kinds of referring expressions:

Proper names, which have unique reference like Lake Ontario, Barbara Collins, The Beatle, or The Eiffel tower.

Pronouns such as she, he, they, it.Ex : they were off school last week. Noun phrases that have nouns with variable reference as the head, preceded

by a determiner and possibly followed by one or more complements.Ex : The taxi Some questions to be answeredThe taxi waiting outside The plate that is broken that you mentioned

4. Different ways of referring

Generic reference is referring to a noun in a general way.Example : Dogs that barks at night are annoying

- These have generic reference because the change from singular to plural or vise versa, doesn’t make a difference.

Non-generic reference is a sentence which can be expressed by specifying the objects or situation

Example : A dog that barks at night is annoying

4.1 Generic and non-generic reference

1. Specific reference means referring to a particular item or previously mentioned noun.

Example : Most students use the computers in the library.

2. Non-specific reference means referring to any one of many possible items or are introducing a noun for the first time in the text.

Example : There are computers in the library.

4.2 Specific and non-specific reference

The definite determiner “the” occurs in a referring expression when the

speaker assumes that the hearer can identity the referent or when identification is made part of the referring expression.

Example :I’ve got the tickets.

Indefinite determiners, a(n), some and zero, indicate that the referent is part of a larger entity.

Example : I buy a ticket.

4.3 Definite and indefinite reference

Deixis refers to words and phrases, that cannot be fully understood without additional contextual information, in this case, the identity of the speaker and the speaker’s location.Deictic words which ‘point’ to ‘things’ in the physical-social context of the speaker and addressee(s) and whose referents can only be determined by knowing the context in which they are used.

English examples of deictic words include :(1)pronouns I, you and we, which ‘point’ to the participants in any speech act; he, she, it and

they, when they are used to refer to others in the environment;(2)locative expressions here and there, which designate space close to the speaker or farther

away; this/these and that/those, which respectively indicate entities close to or removed from the speaker;

(3)temporal expressions: now, then, yesterday, today, tomorrow, last week, next month and so on. These last are all relative to the time when they are used.

5. Deixis

Temporal expression (today and tomorrow) :“We can’t go today, but tomorrow will be fine.” (deictic word)“Today’s costly apartment buildings may be tomorrow’s slums”. (not deictic word)

Locative expression (here and there) :“James hasn’t been here yet. Is he there with you?” (deictic word)“The children were running here and there”. (not deictic word)

Pronoun (you and me) : “you will get to know me better”

Example of deixis

Anaphora is a kind of secondary reference in which a previous reference is recalled by use of special function words or equivalent lexemes.

Example :1. Jack and Jill tried to lift the box and push it onto the top shelf.

“It” has special function words which repeat a reference “the box” without actually repeating the referring expression or any part of it.

2. John is tired because he has been working all day.

6. Anaphora

A speaker may shift from specific reference to generic reference.

Example :

1. We didn’t buy a NEW car because they cost too much.Here they must be equivalent to ‘new cars’.

2. Every woman who has a husband should treat him with respect.‘him’ is equivalent to ‘the husband that every woman has.

7. Shifts in ways of referring

Referential ambiguity occurs when the context does not make clear

whether a referring expression is being used specifically or not; when the interpretation of a referring expression can be collective or distributed; and when it is not clear to which of two or more referring expressions an anaphoric item is linked.

Example :a. I’m buying a drink for everybody here.(One drink for all or one drink for each?)b. I wanted to buy a newspaper(a newspaper may refer to a specific newspaper or some newspaper or any newspaper?)

8. Referential ambiguity

A referring expression is, first of all, a noun phrase that is linked to

something outside language, its referent. We recognize different kinds of referents and different ways of referring. Referents may be concrete or abstract, unique or non-unique, countable or non-countable items. A referring expression with a proper noun as head is definite and specific. A noun phrase with a common noun as head may be generic or not, specific or not, definite or not.

Referential ambiguity occurs when the context does not make clear whether a referring expression is being used specifically or not; when the interpretation of a referring expression can be collective or distributed; and when it is not clear to which of two or more referring expressions an anaphoric item is linked.

summary

1.What is the definition of referent and referring

expression? Give the example.2.What is the difference between anaphor and deixis

? Please mention type of deixis. 3.What is your opinion about referential ambiguity ?

QUESTION