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Index

AA-posteriori clock synchronization, 575Acceptor processes (Paxos), 463Access control technologies, 551Accidental failures compared to attack, 295ACE (Adaptive Computing Environment), 250ACID database consistency model, 448ACID properties in database systems, 150ACID properties of a database system, 241Active messages, 276Active Registry (Windows), 201AES (Advanced Encryption System), as used

web security, 83AFS, 227–230, 232, 235, 552Agarwal’s replication algorithm for

transactional databases, 605Aggregation, 625Amnesia-freedom in a first-tier cloud service,

448Amnesia-freedom in cloud services, 374ANSA project, 250Architectural structures for reliable systems,

510AS/400 database server product, 597ASP (Application Service Page), 72Astrolabe, 623Asynchronous consensus problem, 362Asynchronous model, 317, 360Asynchronous system (as used in FLP result),

21At least once semantics, 206At most once semantics, 206ATM, 282ATOM web page encoding, 74Atomic rename operation, 245Atomicity, 241, 383Attack spectrum seen in the Internet, 140Authentication, 202, 227, 228, 475, 545, 547,

554, 559, 567, 568in Kerberos, 547

Authentication (with wrappers), 484Authority chains in secure systems, 564Authorization, 298Availability

in secure systems, 559, 567Availability (as used in CAP), 23Azure, 473Azure, used for cloud development, 473

BBASE methodology, 28, 448Beehive, 452Beehive one-hop DHT, 128BGP (Border Gateway Protocol), 109BiFocals network instrumentation, 167BigTable, vi, 443, 452BigTable (Google’s scalable row-column

store), 159Bimodal multicast, 609Binding, 187, 195, 259, 265BitTorrent, vi, 12, 15, 136Bloom filters (used to implement IP multicast

routing), 14Bohrbugs, 289Brewer’s CAP conjection, 22Broadcast storms, 11Byzantine Agreement, 355Byzantine Agreement used in highly robust

servers, 359Byzantine failure model, 63, 354–361, 365,

387, 420, 547, 568lower bounds, 356

Byzantine failure model, used for cloudcomputing, 357

Byzantine Quorum Systems, 359

CCache coherency in Sprite, 229Caching, 214, 224Caching web proxies

consistency options, 493

K.P. Birman, Guide to Reliable Distributed Systems, Texts in Computer Science,DOI 10.1007/978-1-4471-2416-0, © Springer-Verlag London Limited 2012

723

724 Index

CAP Conjecture and Theorem, 22CAP Theorem, 148CAP theorem, 448CASD protocols, 577Cassandra key-value store, 164Causal gap freedom, 412Causal order, 317

in overlapping process groups, 411with multiple, overlapping groups, 397

CausalSend, 370, 388, 403, 434compared to synchronous multicast

protocol, 583in overlapping process groups, 411

Chains of authority, 564Chord DHT, 123Chubby, vi, 26Chubby (Google’s locking service), 165Client mobility, 95Client/server computing, 185, 245Clients of a process group, 399Clock synchronization, 571Closely synchronous execution, 421Cloud computing: replicating soft-state, 497Cloud security limitations, 543Cloud Storage, 180Cluster computing used in telecommunications

coprocessor, 586CODA, 229Coherent cache, 73Coherent caching Web proxy, 492Commercial off the shelf (COTS), 474Communication from a group to a

non-member, 402Communication from non-members to a

group, 399Communications segment, 279Complexity as a threat to reliability, 292Components of a reliable distributed

computing system, 63Computer network, 50Concurrency control, 240Concurrency control tools, 488Concurrency in cloud applications, 73Conservative scheme, 412Consistency, 61, 301, 458, 459, 599Consistency, need for in soft-state services,

443Consistency (as used in CAP), 23Consistency in caching web proxies, 510Consistency (in cloud settings), 34Consistency in network routing, 115Consistent and inconsistent cuts, 318, 394Consistent caching, 484Continuous availability, 61

Continuous Media Toolkit (CMT), 520Controlling and monitoring an insulin pump

from a cloud service, 29Convoy phenomenon in reliable systems, 534Coordinator-cohort algorithm, 440Corba, xiii, 249, 252–256, 258–260, 262–265,

293, 481, 522, 523event notification service, 262hardening applications with Horus/Electra,

522inter-object broker protocol (IOP), 264interface definition language (IDL), 255,

260introducing reliability technologies with,

477life cycle service, 264naming service, 262object request broker (ORB), 254, 261Orbix example, 257persistent object service, 264rebinding to a different server after failure,

259reference model, 254reliability issues, 259reliability properties of Corba solutions,

265transactional services, 259, 264viewed as a wrapper technology, 477

CORBA Fault Tolerance Standard, 477Correct specification, 61COTS (Commercial off the shelf), 474Cyclic UDP, 520

DData access patterns in distributed file systems,

229Data aggregation, 625Data mining, 623Data privacy (in cloud settings), 34Data replication, 35Data replication in cloud systems, 12DCE, xiii, 202Defense against intrusion and attack, 295Denial of access in secure systems, 559DES, 556Detecting failures, 294DHTs (Distributed Hash Tables), 122Dialback security mechanisms, 549Dining Philosophers problem, 414DiskLogger, 447, 463Distances within the Internet, 55Distributed commit problem, 323Distributed computing system, 50

Index 725

Distributed database systems, 236, 237abort viewed as a “tool”, 242ACID properties, 241concurrency control, 239, 592nested transactions, 594serializability, 238state shared by clients and server, 241transactional model, 238, 587write-ahead log, 589

Distributed programming languages, 488Distributed shared memory, 499, 505Distributed system control, 623Distributed transaction, 592DNS, 200Dr. Multicast, 11, 17Dryad/Linq, 488DSM, 505Durability (as implied by CAP definition of

consistency), 23Dynamic membership model, 313, 314, 339,

458Dynamic uniformity, 601Dynamo, 443, 452Dynamo (Amazon’s scalable key-value store),

162

EElectra, 522Embarrassing parallelism, 73Encryption used in virtual private networks,

551ENS, 262Ensemble system

relationship with Horus, 509Enterprise web servers, 510Eternal System (UCSD implementation of

CORBA Fault-Tolerance Standard),477

Event notification service, 262Exactly once semantics, 206Expander graphs (in gossip peer selection),

133Expansion property of a gossip overlay graph,

616Extended virtual synchrony, 424Extensible routers, 116External Data Representation, 197

FFail-safe behavior, 34Fail-stop failures, 62Failover in Corba, 477Failure detectors, 294Failures, 62

False sharing, 504, 505Fault-tolerance, 61, 484, 506Fault-Tolerance (FLP result, CAP Theorem),

21Fault-tolerance (in cloud settings), 34Fault-tolerance tools, 488Fault-tolerant real-time control, 573Fbufs, 274Ficus, 232Filtering actions as a way to enforce security,

566Firefly RPC costs, 271Firewall protection (with wrappers), 484Firewalls, 475, 548First tier cloud services, 155Flash, 74Flush, 416Flush primitive, 374

GGap freedom guarantee, 424GFS, 233, 247Global file systems, viGlobally total order, 414GMS property summary, 385Google AppEngine, 473Google File System (GFS), 26, 233, 247Gossip Objects (GO), 633GPS receivers, 571, 576, 694Group address, 516Group communication and Java applets, 510Group communication in Web applications,

492Group membership protocol, 210, 343, 468Group membership service, 385

extensions to allow partition and merge,352

primary partition properties, 351summary of properties, 385

Group object, 516Guaranteed execution tools, 488

HHadoop, vi, 27, 174, 443Halting failures, 62Hard state in the cloud, 157Hard-state replication, 453Hard-state replication using virtual synchrony

model, 442Hardware cryptographic protection, 551Harp, 225HCPI, 518Health care records in cloud settings, 28Heisenbugs, 289, 422

726 Index

High assurance soft-state services, 443High availability, 61High availability TCP sessions, 113High-assurance for health-care systems, 497Highly available routers, 113Horus system

basic performance, 523, 535Horus Common Protocol Interface (HCPI),

518protocol accelerator, 526real-time protocols, 584replication in the Web, 513robust groupware application, 519

Hostile environments, 295HPC (High Performance Computing), on

Cloud Platforms, 177HRT (Hardware Root of Trust), 85HTML (Hypertext Markup language, 71HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol, 71HTTPS (Secure version of HTTP protocol), 84

IID-90, 278IDL, 255Impossibility results for the asynchronous

model, 364IN coprocessor fault-tolerance, 586Information warfare, 295Insulin pump (controlled by a cloud

application), 28Intentional threats, 295Internet Indirection Infrastructure (I3), 135Internet of things, 76IP multicast, 12IP multicast (management of the IPMC

address space), 17Isis2 System, 509Iterated multicast, 400

JJ2EE, 203, 204, 249, 252, 253, 625Java

groupware opportunities, 492integrated with group communication

tools, 510Java applets structured as object groups,

492Java Enterprise Edition, 249JavaGroups (JGroups), 510JavaGroups (JGroups), in JBOSS, 489Javascript, 74JBOSS, 489JDBC, 625JGroups, viJVM (Java Virtual Machine), 74

KKelips one-hop DHT, 129Kerberos, 202, 203, 227, 545, 548, 554, 557,

559, 567Kerberos authentication, 228Key-value storage services, 158Key-value stores, 443

LLearner processes (Paxos), 463LFS, 235Lightweight Probabilistic Broadcast Protocol,

616Lightweight process groups, 417Lightweight remote procedure call, 271–274Live Distributed Objects, 686Load balancing, 437Local procedure call, 206Locally total order, 414Log-structured file system, 235Logical clock, 317

used to implement CausalSend, 389Long-haul connection (security exposures),

551Lotus Notes, 236LPC, 206

MMaelstrom network encoding scheme, 167Malkhi, 447, 463Management information base (MIB), 625MapReduce, vi, 27, 174, 443MARS, 573Marshalling, 197Master-slave parallel programming style, 278Measurements of distributed file systems, 229Memcached, vi, 443, 452Memcached (scalable key-value store), 158Meridian network coordinates system, 55Message, 50Message Queuing Middleware, 169MIB used for failure detection, 294Microsoft .NET, 189, 191, 192, 195, 252, 253,

291, 371, 625Microsoft Azure, 473Microsoft Visual Studio, used for cloud

development, 473Mobile computing, 95MOM (Message Oriented Middleware), 169Monitoring, 623Monitoring and controlling an insulin pump

from a cloud service, 29

Index 727

Monitoring and logging (with wrappers), 485Multi-level architecture for group computing

tools, 510Multi-phase commit, 592Multicast

consistency issues, 468ordering domains, 415ordering protocols (causal and total), 386stability, 412totally ordered, 397

Multicast deliveryflush used to force strong durability, 374

Multicast delivery property, 374Multicore client systems, 97

NNetwork Coordinates, 55Network database server, 186, 236, 237Network file server, 186, 219, 237Network file servers

replication for high availability, 225Network File System, 197Network Information Service, 200Network partitioning, 62, 424Network Perspective, 101Network Reliability, 101Nexus: A secure microkernel, 546NFS, xiii, 187, 197, 209, 210, 223–227,

230–232, 235, 552, 553, 560prefetching, 224reliability of, 225security of, 560security problems with, 553

NIS, 200.NET, 189, 191, 195, 204, 249, 252, 253, 489,

625

OObject groups, 477, 522Object orientation

groupware solutions, 478technologies supporting, 478viewed as a form of wrapper, 478

Object Request Broker, 254ODBC, 625Off the shelf components (COTS), 474OLE-2

introducing reliability technologies with,477

viewed as a wrapper technology, 477Omission failures, 62On-the-fly security enforcement, 566ONC, xiii, 488, 560

security of, 560

One-hop DHTs, 128, 129OpenFlow standard, 105Orbix, 257Orbix+Isis, 522OrderedCausalSend, 371OrderedSend, 371, 403, 434

locally total and globally total ordering,414

Orleans distributed programming language,488

Overhead of layered protocols, 529Overlay Networks, 118

PP2P protocols, 609Packet filter, 475Packet sniffers, 548Parallel computing (communication support),

278Partition failures, 424Partition Tolerance (as used in CAP), 23Passwords, 548Pastry DHT, 126Paxos, 380, 387, 427, 447, 462, 463Paxos (history of the area), 303Paxos protocol, 463Pbcast, 610Peer-to-peer aggregation, 625Peer-to-peer communication, 609Performance, 62Performance issues in file systems, 229Persistent data, 588PNUTS, 452PNUTS key-value store, 164Potential causality, 317Potential groupware uses of the Web, 492Power law distributions, 153Prefetching in NFS, 224Prefetching versus whole-file transfer, 224Primary component of a partitioned network,

424, 466Primary partition model, 343Primary-backup fault-tolerance, 438Privacy, 61Private investigator (failure detection scheme),

294ProbabilisticSend, 610Protocol, 60Protocol stack, 514Publish subscribe

process group implementation, 519Publish-subscribe

implemented over scalable multicast, 620Publish-subscribe model, 137

728 Index

QQuality of service negotiation (with wrappers),

485QuickSilver, 244, 620Quorum replication, 433

RRAID, 226Real-time, 573

CASD protocol, 577fault-tolerant, in MARS, 573Horus protocols, 584

Real-time virtual synchrony, 586Recoverability, 61, 588Release consistency, 502Reliability in distributed computing systems,

61Reliability of NFS, 224Reliability standards (for web services), 81Reliable multicast

in synchronous systems, 577Remote procedure call, 185, 186, 189

authentication service, 202binding, 195error handling, 194lightweight, 272marshalling, 197naming service, 200over TCP, 211performance issues, 271protocol, 204replay problem, 206use in reliable distributed systems, 208

Remote procedure call stub generation, 191Rename (atomic operation), 245Replicated data, 225, 421, 430

best solution, 433high performance transactional scheme,

603in transactional systems, 593with Byzantine failures, 354

Replicated data tools, 488Replication algorithm for transactional

databases, 605Replication and load-balancing in Web servers,

492Replication of web servers, 510RON (Resilient Overlay Network), 119RPC, 186RSA, 555RSS Feed, 74Runtime security enforcement, 566

SSafe execution of downloaded code, 87SafeSend, 372, 387SafeSend, with a DiskLogger durability

method, 447, 463SafeSend protocol, 463Scalability, 61Scalability analysis of Spread Toolkit, 535Scalable data mining, 623Scalable virtual synchrony, 617Security, 61, 202, 207, 265, 506, 543

and Availability, 567by filtering operations on-the-fly, 566enclave, 484in cloud systems, 34in Isis2, 543policy languages and inference, 564standards (for web services), 83with wrappers, 484

SEDA, 284Selecting peers in a gossip protocol, 617Self-optimizing mesh construction, 133Send, 370Send, 388Send, 403Sharded data, 443Sharded data (updated using ordered

multicast), 414Sharding, 452Shared memory

used for ATM communication in U-Net,280

Shared memory tools, 488Sienna content-based publish-subscribe

system, 137Simple Object Access Protocol, 187Singularity distributed programming

environment, 488Sliver, 633Small World Graphs (importance in gossip

peer selection), 133Smart power grid, 497SMFS: the Smoke and Mirrors File System,

167Snapshot isolation, 27, 164, 443Snapshot Isolation, 606Snapshot of a distributed system, 318SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol), 76,

187Soft state, 24Soft state data replication, 157, 448, 497Soft-state replication using virtual synchrony

model, 442SPKI/SDSI, 564

Index 729

Split C, 278Split secret schemes, 568Spread, vi, 510, 535Spread Toolkit, 509Sprite, 230SS7 telecommunications protocol, 586SSL (Secure Socket Layer), 84SSL security protocol, 561Stability of a multicast, 412State machine approach, 421State transfer, 402, 435Stateful client/server systems, 216, 238Stateful File Servers, 227Stateless client/server systems, 216Static membership model, 309, 339, 458Streams

unbreakable (wrapped for reliability), 496Strong and weak virtual synchrony in Horus,

586Strong durability, 376, 387, 399, 423, 430,

433, 434performance implications, 462

Strong durability multicast delivery property,374

Synchronous model, 354System management, 623

TTAO (The ACE Orb), 250, 489Tcl/Tk, 519TCP

used to support remote procedure call, 211TCP protocol (over U-Net), 282TCP (Trusted Computing Base), 85Telecommunications coprocessor, 586Testing for liveness of an application, 294The Layers of a Cloud, 146The Sinfonia replication service, 166The Web, 186, 216, 489

architectural structures and reliability tools,510

fault-tolerance and load-balancing, 492groupware tools and solutions, 492Java applets structured as object groups,

492replication and reliability, 513security with digital signatures, 492

Three-phase commit, 592Tiers of cloud computing services, 22Time in distributed systems, 316Timed asynchronous model, 576Timeliness, 62Timing failures, 62Token passing, 371, 397

Toolkits, 474, 486Tools for consistent caching, 510Top-level transactions, 598Topological knowledge used in CausalSend,

396Transactional commit protocols, 592Transactional model

compared to virtual synchrony, 588problems encountered in distributed uses,

597weak consistency, 599

Transactional system architectures, 587Transactions, 237

replicated data used for scalability, 605Transportation control, 497Trusted cloud computing, 28Two-phase commit, 326, 592Two-phase locking, 239

UU-Net, 278UDDI, 187, 200UDP protocol

over U-Net, 282Unauthorized use of resources, 298Unintentional threats, 295Universal Description, Discovery and

Integration language (UDDI), 200Universe of things, 76

VVector clock, 321

causal communication with non-membersof a group, 409

timestamp compression, 393used to implement CausalSend, 390

View (of a process group), 381, 516View synchronous multicast delivery, 424Viewstamped Replication, 303Virtual memory used in communication

architecture, 275Virtual private networks, 297, 551Virtual synchrony

applied in cloud settings, 442data replication in cloud caches, 451data replication in first-tier (soft-state)

cloud services, 448execution model, 419hard-state cloud services, 453key-value storage and caches, 452parallel search, 454used to develop new routing services, 455

Virtualization in cloud systems, 175

730 Index

Virtually synchronous process groups, 513algorithms and tools, 430compared to transactional model, 588execution model, 419extended virtual synchrony, 424flush protocol, 384guarantees compared to synchronous

model, 583in Horus, 516replicated data, 430reporting membership through “views”,

381security, 455, 568summary of membership properties, 385

Virus, 296Vivaldi network coordinates system, 55

WWeakly durable multicast delivery, 374Web proxy, 513Web server

wrapped for fault-tolerance, 489Web servers (replication and load-balancing),

492Web Services, 70, 187, 197, 200

Suggested experimental project, 685White-Pages, 201

Whole file transfer compared with prefetching,224

Wide-area group communication for the Web,492

Windows operating system, 201, 216, 229,481, 499, 597, 625

Worm, 296Wrappers, 474, 481Write-ahead log, 589WS_RELIABILITY standard, 81WS_SECURITY standard, 83

Xx-Kernel, 274, 275, 514, 518, 529X.500, 201XDR, 197XML (Extensible Markup Language, 71

YYellow Pages, 200

ZZipf-like distribution, 153Zookeeper (Yahoo’s

scalable and reliable storage system), vi,26, 165