References

Aluminum with Food and Chemieals. 3d ed. 1964. Montreal: Aluminum Company of Canada, Ltd.

Behrens, Dieter, Ed. 1987-1989. Dechema Corrosion Handbook. Frankfurt: Dechema.

Bockris, John O'M. 1953. Electrochemical Constants. NBS Circular 524. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Bockris, John O'M. and Amulyn K. N. Reddy. 1970. Modern Electrochemistry. New York: Plenum Press.

Brandes, Eric A., Ed. 1983. Smithells Metals Reference Book. 6th ed. London: Butterworths.

Britton, S. C. 1952. The Corrosion Resistance of Tin and Tin Alloys. Greenford, Middlesex, England: Tin Research Institute.

Carboline Protective Coatings Reference Handbook. (undated) st. Louis, MO: Car­boline Co.

Craig, B. D., Ed. 1989. Handbook of Corrosion Data. Metals Park, OH: ASM International.

Davis, Joseph R., Ed.1987. Metals Handbook. 9th ed. Vo1.13. Metals Park, OH: ASM International.

De Renzo, D. J., Ed. 1985. Corrosion Resistant Materials Handbpok. 4th ed. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Data Corp.

Dillon, C. P. 1986a. Corrosion control in the process industries with nickel-base and nickel-hearing alloys. In Proceedings of Materials Engineering Workshop. Refer­ence Book Series No. 11 001. Toronto, Canada: Nickel Development Institute.

Dillon, C. P. 1986b. Corrosion Control in the Chemical Process Industries. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Direct Calculation of Economic Appraisals of Corrosion Control Measures. NACE Standard RP-02-72. 1972. Houston: National Association of Corrosion Engi­neers.

Douglass, D. L. 1971. Exfoliation and the mechanical behavior of scales. In Oxidation of Metals and Alloys. Metals Park, OH: American Society for Metals.

330

References 331

Elliott, Peter. 1989. Practical guide to high-temperature alloys. Mater. Performance 28(4):57-66.

Fontana, Mars G. 1987. Corrosion Engineering. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Graver, D. L. 1985. Corrosion Data Survey. 6th ed. Houston, TX: National Associa­

tion of Corrosion Engineers. Hall, G. R. 1986. Cementitious coatings. In Encyclopedia of Materials Science and

Engineering, Michael B. Bever, Ed. pp. 1: 571-575. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Kapusta, Sergio D. 1988. Inhibitors: corrosion. In Encyclopedia of Chemical Process­

ing and Design. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. Kubaschewski, O. and B. E. Hopkins. 1962. Oxidation of Metals and Alloys. 2d ed.

London: Butterworths. Miller, E. C. 1952. Liquid Metals Handbook. 2d ed. Washington, DC: U.S. Govern­

ment Printing Office. Moses, A. J. 1978. The Practicing Scientist's Handbook. New York: Van Nostrand

Reinhold Co. Parker, Earl R. 1967. Materials Data Book for Engineers and Scientists. New York:

McGraw-Hill. Parsons, R. 1959. Handbook of Electrochemical Constants. London: Butterworths. Polar, 1. P. 1961. A Guide to Corrosion Resistance. New York: Climax Molybdenum

Co. Romanoff, Melvin. 1957. Underground Corrosion. NBS Circular 579, Washington,

DC: U.S. Department of Commerce. Schweitzer, Philip A. 1986. Corrosion Resistance Tab/es. 2d ed. New York: Marcel

Dekker,Inc. Schweitzer, Philip A. 1990. Corrosion Resistance of Elastomers. New York: Marcel

Dekker,Inc. Seymour, R. B. 1982. Plastics vs. Corrosives. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Shreir, L. L., Ed. 1976. Corrosion. 2d ed. London: Newnes-Butterworths. Slunder, C. 1. and W. K. Boyd. 1983. Zinc: Its Corrosion Resistance. 2d ed. New York:

International Lead Zinc Research Organization, Inc. Treseder, R. S., Ed.1980. NACE Corrosion Engineer's Reference Book. Houston, TX:

National Association of Corrosion Engineers. Van Delinder, L. S., Ed. 1984. Corrosion Basics-An Introduction. Houston, TX:

National Association of Corrosion Engineers. Weast, R. c., Ed.1988. Reference Handbook ofChemistry and Physics. 69th ed. Boca

Raton, FL: CRC Press. Webster, Harry A. 1992. Economics of cathodic protection. Mater. Performance

31(3):25-30. West, J. M. 1970. Electrodeposition and Corrosion Processes. 2d ed. London: Van

Nostrand Reinhold. Wood, William G. coordinator 1982. Metals Handbook. 9th ed., Vol. 5. Metals Park,

OH: American Society for Metals.

Index

Acetic acid: corrosion rates in, 140 corrosivity, 139

Acid: acidity, see pR aerated,10 vs. cold-worked metal, 49 fluxing, 308 inhibitors for, 242 neutralizers, 246 oxidizing, 10 reduction at cathode, 9-10 vs. steel impurities, 47

Acid-producing bacteria, 91,143 Activation energy, 36 Activation polarization, 35-37

decay,40 Active-passive met als, see

Passivation; Passive film Adsorption:

on cathode, 56 chemisorption, 239 inhibitors, 239 mechanism for sec, 124 physical, 238

Aeration: differential, 77, 83-84, 86, 91 passivation by, 171

Age hardening, see Stainless steels, precipitation hardenable

exfoliation caused by, 69 Air, see also Atmosphere

ceramics service temperatures, 318

exclude to prevent corrosion, 271 pollutants, 131 reaction with metal, 289-305 scaling temperatures, 318

Aircraft: hot corrosion, 307 stress-corrosion cracking, 119 turbine coatings, 326

Alcladding, 220 Alkalies:

compatible nickel alloys, 195 met als suitable for, 153, 156

Alloying: for different oxide, 315-317

Alloys: dealloying, 61-64 development, 6 high-temperature, 313-320 oxidation, 300-301 re-oxidation, 303 two-phase, 71-73

Aluminum and aluminum alloys, 198-199. See also Galvalume

Alcladding, 220 anode reaction, 9 anodizing, 220-221 atmospheric corrosion, 132 commercial alloy grades, 198-199 compatible with atmosphere, 198 corrosion by copper, 11

333

334 Index

Aluminum and aluminum alloys (Cont.)

corrosion resistance, 198 coupled to galvanized steel, 54 coupled to magnesium, 100 embrittled by mercury, 127 embrittled by sodium, 127 exfoliation, 69 fretting corrosion, 111 high-purity, 47 high-temperature alloys, 318-319 hot dip coatings, 218 hydrogen blistering, 115 molten, 162 in nitric acid, 45 overaging, 70 oxide coatings, 322 pitting by chloride, 198 sacrificial anodes, 252 spray aluminized coatings, 323,

324 stainless steels incompatible, 75 stress-corrosion cracking, 124 thermal spray coatings, 218 traffic marks, 111

American Society for Testing and Materials, see ASTM

Ammonia: additive in freshwater, 134 cracking of brass, 119 fertilizer, anodic protection, 259 liquid, cracking of steel, 126

Ammonium ions, see Alkalies Anchor pattern, 225 Annealing, of castings, 52 Anode:

activation polarization, 35, 36 definition, 8 in electrochemical cell, 21 in EMF series, 11 grain boundary network, 72 location,8 oxygen generation on, 24 painting, 56 passivation, 44 polarization 33 sacrificial, see Sacrificial

protection

separated from cathode, 43 in uniform attack, 20-21

Anode reaction, 8-9 in cathodic protection, 254 coupled with cathode reaction, 11 potential, 15 stimulated by cold work, 74

Anodic control: in galvanic corrosion, 60 no velocity effect, 80

Anodic polarization: electrochemical tests, 170

Anodic protection, 249, 257-260 advantages, 258-259 disadvantages, 259 electrochemical theory, 260-261 equipment required, 257 galvanic cathodes, 258 not in organics, 19 on Pourbaix diagram, 26

Anodizing, 220-221 Anti-Corrosion Methods and

Materials, journal, 6 Antifreeze, inhibitor for, 237 APB, see Acid-producing bacteria Area effect, 56

in concentration cells, 77 polarization diagram, 60

Arsenate ions, surface poison, 115 ASTM:

corrosion tests, 168 description, 5 methods for cleaning coupons,

175 planned-interval tests, 168-170 selected corrosion tests, 169 specimen cleaning, 183

Atmosphere, corrosion by, 131-133 vs. aluminum, 132, 198 classifications, 131 condensation in, 94 corrosive vapors in, 271 vs. Galvalume, 132 vs. galvanized steel, 132-133 vs. magnesium alloys, 199 rates, 132-133, 134 vs. weathering steels, 133 vs. zinc, 132-133

Automobiles: cathodic protection of, 254 corrosion cost, 3 engine coolant inhibitors, 241 rusting of, 1

Bacterial corrosion, see Microbial corrosion

Bainite, ringworm corrosion, 72-73 Battery:

alkaline dry cell, 31 cathodic protection power, 255

Beach marks, 113 Beer, contamination, 60-61 Biocides, 92 Biological ~orrosion, see Microbial

corrOSlon Blisters:

hydrogen,115 oxide, 301

Bluing: iron and steel in steam, 305 steel,223

Boilers, cracking of, 120 Brasses:

corrosion resistance, 200 dezincification, 61-62 stress-corrosion cracking, 119, 124

Brazes, embrittlement, 127 Brick, acid, 208 Bridges, rebar corrasion, 153-154 Brines, inhibitors for, 241 British Corrosion Journal, 6 Bronzes, see Copper and copper

alloys Buildings, siting of, 271

Cabrera-Mott theory, 298 Cadmium, electroplated, 216 Calorizing, 220 Cantilever beam test, 172-173 Carbon:

corrosion resistance, 209 graphite, 209 sensitization by, 65-66

Carbonates, see Alkalies molten, 158-159

Carbon dioxide:

Index 335

cathode reaction, 10 in freshwater, 134 mixture with oxygen, 10 oxidation of metal, 305 in soils, 137

Carbon monoxide, oxidation by, 305 Carburizing, coatings, 223 Castings, 52 Cast irons, 197. See also Iron,

silicon iron graphitic corrosion, 63-64 high-nickel alloys, 197 microstructure, 197

Catastrophic oxidation: liquid phase formed, 303-304 pesting of intermetallics, 320 superalloys, 326

Cathode: activation polarization, 35-36 in anodic protection, 257-258 concentration polarization, 37-39 definition, 8 in electrochemical cell, 21 location,8 noble metal, 11 polarization, 33 potential of, 41 reduction at, 9 separated from anode, 43 in uniform attack, 20-21

Cathode reactions, 9-11 coupled with anode reaction, 11 slow step, 36 sluggish, 56 stimulated by cold work, 74

Cathodic contral: determined from potential, 42 in galvanic corrosion, 60

Cathodic polarization, electrochemical tests, 170

Cathodic protection, 249-256. See also Sacrificial protection

coatings used with, 256 cost calculations, 189 direct cost, 3 electrochemical theory, 260 hydrogen charging, 117 impressed current, 252-256

336 Index

Cathodic protection (Cont.) limitations, 249-250 for microbial corrosion, 92 not in organics, 19 polarization diagram, 43 from Pourbaix diagram, 26 for rebar in concrete, 155 resistance polarization, 40 shielding, 250 ships, 1 for stray current corrosion, 99

Caustic embrittlement, 120 Caustics, see Alkalies Cavitation, 108-109

design to avoid, 280 Cells, see Electrochemical cell Cement, see Concrete

coating problems, 232 coatings and linings, 232 inhibitor for, 237, 242

Ceramics, 207-209. See also Brick; Concrete; Glass; Porcelain

coatings, 322 properties, 207 service temperatures, 318

Chemical corrosion, 18-21 designing for, 265-266

Chemisorption, 239. See also Adsorption

Chloride: in concrete, 153-155 in crevice corrosion, 84-85 fused salts, 155-157, 158 in hot corrosion, 310 pitting aided by, 88 pitting prevented by inhibitors,

237 in sewage, 144 stress-corrosion cracking, 121,

122 water corrosivity effect, 135

Chlorine, in freshwater, 134 Chromate:

coatings, 222-223 ions as oxidizer, 78

Chromium: alloyed with iron, 317 carbide stability range, 67

chromized coatings, 220, 324 content of stainless steels, 189 depletion in sensitization, 65-66 electroplated coatings, 215-216 high-temperature alloys,

317-319,319-320 not recycled, 3 oxidation slow, 313 oxide coatings, 322

Citric acid, corrosion by, 139, 140 Cladding, 219-220 Clamshell marks, see Beach marks Clang and clunk test, 64 Clay, particle size, 137 Cleaning:

design to aIlow, 283 prevents crevice corrosion, 86 sampies for failure analysis, 183 of test coupons, 175

Coatings, 214-233. See also Paint ASTM tests, 5 on automobiles, 1 cathodic protection with, 256 cement coatings, 232, 233 conversion coatings, 220-224 differ from linings, 224 evaluation, see Testing field testing, 165 glass coatings, 229, 232 for high temperatures, 313 inhibitors in, 227, 242 metal coatings, 215-220 organic coatings, 224-229,

230-231 overlay, 324-326 oxide,322 oxidizable metal, 323-326 on rebar, 154, 155 requirements, 320-322 silicide, 323 vs. stray current, 99

Cobalt and cobalt alloys, see Medical materials

alloy oxidation, 313 for surgical implants, 142

Cold work, 49 stresses, 74

Columbium, see Niobium

Combustion: condensate, 94 gas reaction with metal, 304-306 products in hot corrosion, 306,

307 Concentration cells, see Oxygen

concentration cell in acids, 78 crevice corrosion, 83-86 distance effect in, 274 with oxidizers, 78 potential,15-16

Concentration of corrosive, polarization diagrams, 81-82

Concentration polarization, 37-39 decay,40 defining equation, 38

Concrete, 209. See also Cement; Reinforcing steel

crevice corrosion in, 276-277 metals suitable, 153 rebar corrosion in, 154-155

Condensate corrosion, 94-95 inhibitors for, 242

Condensation, see Humidity in atmospheric corrosion, 132 on cold surfaces, 278-279

Conductivity, see Resistivity, electrical

by electron holes, 293 by free electrons, 294-295 of steel vs. brine, 250

Constant-extension rate test, 172 Consumer products, design, 265 Conversion coatings, 220-224. See

also specific types Copper and copper alloys, 199-200.

See also Brass; Cupronickels alloys, common, 200 vs. ammonia, 134 bronzes, 200 catastrophic sulfidation, 305 cathode,l1 cathodic protection by steel, 59 vs. chlorine, 134 cladding by, 219 corrosion in acid, 11-13, 15 corrosion of aluminum, 11

Index 337

corrosion in saltwater, 200 corrosion in steam, 200 in freshwater, vs. velocity, 46 hydrogen blistering, 115 plating, 10-11 sodium embrittlement, 127 in steel, 47 steel, coupled with, 58 temperature cell, 134 water compatibility, 135, 136, 199

Coring, of castings, 52 Corrater, see Linear polarization

probes Corrodibility:

in planned-interval tests, 168-170 potential relationship, 40-41

Corrosion, see Cost of corrosion active, polarization diagrams,

44-45 chemical, see Chemical corrosion classifications, 17-18 control, the eight ways, 188 definition, 1 domains in Pourbaix diagrams, 25 testing, 164-173

Corrosion Abstracts, journal, 6 Corrosion current:

in galvanic corrosion, 60 in polarization diagrams, 41-43

Corrosion fatigue, 112-114 cracks, 113 vs. fatigue, 113 fracture mechanics tests, 172-173 initiation, 113

by crevice corrosion, 84 by dealloying, 61 by fretting, 110 by sensitization, 65

metal requirements, 113 prevention,114 strength, 112-113 stresses, 112-113, 281

Corrosion, journal, 5 Corrosion monitoring, 173-174,

175,175-180 Corrosion potential, 33

anodic/cathodic control shown, 60

338 Index

Corrosion potential (Cont.) cold work effect, 74 electrode reactions determined,

42-43 in polarization diagrams, 41-45

Corrosion Prevention & Control, journal,6

Corrosion products: slowing of corrosion, 16, 30 soft, for wear resistance, 110 stress produced, 103, 122

Corrosion rate, 28--30 acceptable, 28--29 calculation, 29-30 change with time, 30 conversion factors, 28 depth of penetration, 28 instantaneous, 179 measurement:

by electrical resistance, 176, 178

by linear polarization, 178-179 potential doesn't predict, 33 with SRB, 91 uniform corrosion, 28 weight loss, 28

Corrosion Reviews, journal, 5-6 Corrosion Science, journal, 5 Corrosives:

concentration, 77-79 metals compatible with, 131 stress-corrosion cracking by,

120-121 Corrosive-mechanical interaction,

103-127 control by design, 266, 279-283

Corrosive wear, 109-112 fretting corrosion, 110-112

Corrosivity, see Oxidizing power from planned-interval tests,

168--170 Corrosometer, see Electrical

resistance probes Cor-Ten, see Weathering steels Cost of corrosion, 3-4

comparison calculations, 188--189 direct,3 energy,4

gas distribution systems, 138 human resources, 4 indirect,3 materials, 189 natural resources, 3 vs. safety, 4

Coulomb, electrical charge, 7 Counter electrode, see Electrode,

auxiliary Coupons:

in corrosion testing, 165 in planned-interval tests, 168-170 test disadvantages, 175 tests in equipment, 284

Cracking, see Hydrogen-induced cracking; Stress-corrosion cracking

corrosion rate meaningless, 28 of oxide, 301-302, 303

Creep: decarburization ai ding, 306 hot corrosion aiding, 307

Crevice corrosion, 83-86 design to avoid, 275-278 initiation by fretting, 111 initiation of SCC, 122 in organics, 19 compared with pitting, 88 prevention, 86 of stainless steels, 54 susceptibility measured, 171-172

Crystal: oxide, 296

preferred orientation, 296 transformation creates stress, 302

Cupronickels, 200 dealloying, 63 exfoliation, 69

Current density, see Corrosion current; Exchange current

measure of corrosion rate, 30 Cutting, sampies, 182 Cyanides:

molten, 158 surface poison, 115

Dealloying, 61-64 Dealuminification, 63

Decarburization, of steels, 306 Decohesion, of oxide, 301 Defects:

in ionic oxide, 291-292 in semiconducting oxide, 293-295

Dental alloys, 143 Depolarization, 91 Deposit corrosion, see Crevice

corrosion Depth of penetration, 28

current density relationship, 30 Design, 265-284

foolproof, 284 overdesign, 3 stress concentration minimized, 1

Dewpoint corrosion, see Condensate corrosion

Dezincification, 61-62 Dichromate ions, oxidizer, 78 Diffusion:

of anions in scale, 294, 295 of cations in scale, 293 coatings, 220 control, see Concentration

polarization effect of crystal defects, 48-49 in grain boundaries, 50, 65 ofhydrogen, 115-116 of ions through oxide, 290, 292,

293,294-295 of metal coatings, 323-324 in oxide coatings, 322 short circuit, 300 slowed by alloying, 313-315 slowed by corrosion products, 30

Diffusivity, controlling corrosion, 38-39

Dirt, holds moisture, 266-267 Discounted cash flow calculations,

189 Dislocations:

in metal crystals, 48-49 slip enhanced, 117

Dissimilar metal corrosion, see Galvanic corrosion

Distance effect, 56-58 in concentration cells, 77 examples, 274

Index 339

shielding similar, 251 Doping, to improve oxide, 313-315 Drainage, design, 266-268 Drawing of metals, see Cold work Drip skirt, 269 Drying, solutions, 270 Duriron, anodes, 254. See also Iron,

silicon iron Dust, air pollutant, 131

Earth, see Soils Earthenware, 208 Economic calculations, 188-189 Elastomers, 202, 205, 207 Electrical resistance probes, 176,

178 Electrochemical cell:

components, 8, 11, 18 driving force, 33 environmental, see

Environmental cells potential, 15 reactions, 11 temperature, see Temperature

cell Electrochemical corrosion, 21-22

designing for, 266 theory, 33-45

Electrochemical tests, 170-172. See also Probes, electronic

Electrode: activation polarization, 35-36 auxiliary, 170 concentration polarization, 37-39 copper-copper sulfate reference,

252,255-256 hydrogen standard, 11, 13 "positive" and "negative," 16 potentials, 11-14, 35 reactions, 8-11, 35-36 reference, for anodic protection,

257,258 resistance polarization, 40 standard potentials, 12

Electrolysi~, see Stray current corrOSlon

Electrolyte: definition, 8

340 Index

Electrolyte (Cant.) diffusion control in, 37-39 in electrochemical corrosion, 21 in galvanic cells, 274-275 ohmic resistance, 40

Electron, charge carrier, 294-295 Electron hole, charge carrier, 293 Electronic conductor:

in electrochemical cell, 8 electron flow, 9

Electronic failures, 3 Electron probes, see Probes,

electronic Electroplating, 215-216 Embrittlement:

by hydrogen, see Hydrogen-induced cracking

by liquid metals, see Liquid-metal embrittlement

EMF (electromotive force) series, 11-13

as measure of corrodibility, 40-41 Enamel, porcelain, see Porcelain End-grain attack, 68-69 Energy, see Gibbs energy Environment, see Corrosives

atmosphere, 131-134 chemistry sometimes

unalterable, 188 corrosivity, see Oxidizing power damage to, 1,4 freshwater, 134-135 in laboratory tests, 166-168 metals compatible with, 132 natural,131-138 real or simulated, 164 sampling, 182 seawater, 135-136 soil,137-138 for stress-corrosion cracking,

120-121 Environmental cells, 21, 77-99

design to avoid, 275-279 Epitaxy, of oxide, 296 Epoxies, coatings on rebar, 154 Equilibrium:

current, see Exchange current dynamic,34

half-cell potentials, 11 isothermal stability diagrams, 308 potential, 37 oxidation reactions, 290 thermodynamic, see

Thermodynamics Equivalent annual cost

calculations, 189 ER probes, see Electrical resistance

probes Erosion-corrosion, 103-109

appearance,103-104 cavitation, 108 design to avoid, 279-281 environments, 105-106 impingement, 107 metals susceptible, 104-105 moved to expendable metal,

280-281 in organics, 18-19 prevention, 107-108 by swirling liquid, 268 turbulence, 106-107

Eutectics: in hot corrosion, 310 molten salts, 158

Evaporation, concentrates liquids, 269-270

Examination, nondestructive, 183 Exchange current, 34-35

determining, 37 in galvanic corrosion, 60 inhibitor effect on, 243-244 reaction rate, 35 values,35

Exfoliation, 69-70 prevention by overaging, 70

External circuit, 21

Failure analysis, 181-183 sampling, 182

Faraday's constant, 7, 29 Faraday's law, 29

with concentration polarization, 38-39

Fasteners: anodic,272 crevice corrosion, 276

Fatigue, see Corrosion fatigue cathodic protection ineffective,

250 in hot corrosion, 307 prevention,114 strength, 112-113

Fatty acids: compositions and uses, 139, 141 corrosion rates in, 141

Ferric ions: cathode reaction, 10 oxidizer,78 reduction, polarization diagram,

42-43 Ferrous hydroxide, oxidation, 11 Ferrous sulfide, from SRB, 91 Ferrules:

even out he at transfer, 278 for inlet-tube corrosion, 106, 280

Fiber-reinforced plastics (FRP), 203,206

Field tests, 165 Filiform corrosion, 86 Filler metal, in welds, 52 Film, see Passive film Fire, danger in refineries, 1 Fireside corrosion, see Hot

corrOSlon Flow:

rate affects diffusion, 39 liquid, design for, 270

Flue gas, condensate, 94 Fluoroplastics, 203, 204, 205 Fluxing:

acid,308 basic, 308

Forgings, ringworm corrosion, 72-73

Formic acid, corrosivity, 138-139 Fracture mechanics, testing,

172-1'73 Free energy, see Gibbs energy Frenkel defects, in oxides, 291, 292 Freshwater, 134-135. See also Water Fretting corrosion, 110-112

corrosion fatigue initiated by, 282 Friction oxidation, see Fretting

corrosion

Index 341

Fuel: catastrophic oxidation from, 304 hot corrosion from, 307, 326

Fuel cell, power source, 255 Fused salts, 155-159

Galvalume, coating, 218 Galvanic corrosion, 54-61. See also

Sacrificial protection dealloying, 61-64 design to avoid, 269, 271-275 design to protect metal, 275 end-grain attack, 68-69 exfoliation, 69-70 initiated by fretting, 111 intergranular corrosion, 65-70 knife-line attack, 67 sensitization of stainless steels,

65-67 Galvanic probe, 131-132 Galvanic series, 54-55 Galvanized steel, 216-217

coupled to aluminum, 54 crevice corrosion prevented, 276 phosphate coating on, 222 rebar, 155 uniform corrosion of, 20

Gas: distribution systems, 138 reactions with metals, 289-310

as chemical corrosion, 18 solubility, 81

Gaskets, crevice corrosion under, 276

Gibbs energy, 7. See also Thermodynamics

for iron oxide equilibrium, 30-31 for oxidation, 290, 299 for selective oxidation, 316

Glass, 207-208 coatings, 229, 232 linings, hydrogen danger, 115 porcelain, 229, 232

Grain(s),50 bo~ndaries, 50-52. See also

Intergranular corrosion penetration by sulfide, 310 stresses in oxide, 300

342 Index

Grain(s) (Cant.) in heat-affected zone, 52 shape, effect of cold work, 52 size,50

Graphite, 209 anodes, 254 galvanic corrosion from, 272

Graphitic corrosion, 63-64 Groundbeds, cathodic protection,

254 Gunite process, 232

Half-cell reactions, see Reduction potentials

at anode and cathode, 15 standard EMF series, 11

Halides, see Salt fused, 155, 158 improve amine adsorption, 239

Hardness: of steel in sulfide, 117 test, 183

Hastelloy C: anodic protection cathode, 258 not pitted by seawater, 136

Hastelloys, 196. See also Nickel alloys

HAZ, see Heat-affected zone Heat-affected zone:

keep stresses low, 281 ne ar weId, 52 sensitization, 66

Heat exchangers, fretting corrosion, 111

Heat transfer, 94 HIC, see Hydrogen-induced

cracking Hot corrosion, 306-310

catastrophic oxidation, 303-304 MCrAIY resistant, 326

Hot working, 52 Human body, 141-143 Humidity, see Condensation;

Moisture condensation, 78 for filiform corrosion, 86

Hydrazine, scavenger, 245 Hydrides, causing hydrogen

embrittlement, 117 Hydrochloric acid:

inhibitors for, 242 materials suitable, 147-149 nickel-molybdenum alloys resist,

196 Hydrofluoric acid, 153,207 Hydrogen:

adsorption, 49 decarburization of steels, 306 gas generation, 47 poisons, see Poisons pressure in corrosion reactions,

16 production at cathode, 9-10, 24 reduction:

polarization diagram, 42-43 poisoned, 243 steps, 36, 115

removal from metal, 115, 216 from water vapor, 304-305

Hydrogenase, 91 Hydrogen damage, 115-118. See

also Hydrogen embrittlement; Hydrogen-induced cracking

hydrogen blistering, 115 by poisons, 243 prevention,119

Hydrogen electrode, 11 Hydrogen embrittlement:

canti lever beam tests, 172 from cathodic overprotection,

249 from electroplating, 216 fracture mechanics tests, 172-173

Hydrogen-induced cracking, 116-117

cathodic protection ineffective, 249

mechanism in SCC, 123 Hydrogen peroxide, oxidizer, 78 Hydrogen stress cracking, see

Hydrogen-induced cracking Hydrogen sulfide:

hydrogen damage, 115 oxidation of metals, 305 sulfide stress cracking, 117

Hydrolysis, of chloride, 84-85

Hydronium ion, 9n Hydroxides, see Alkalies

molten, 158-159 preventing crevice corrosion, 86 production at cathode, 9 stress-corrosion cracking in, 120

Identification: of coupons, 175 of failure sampies, 182

Immunity, in Pourbaix dia grams, 25 Impact tests, 183 Impingement, 107

reduced by design, 279-280 Implant alloys, 141-143 Impurities, metal, 47-48

in dislocations, 49 Incoloy, see Nickel alloys Inconel, see Nickel alloys Inhibitors, 235-246

in concrete, 154 direct cost, 3 evaluation, see Testing ineffective with microbes, 92 asinsurance,l for mercury, 162

Inhomogeneities, metal, 47 Inlet-tube corrosion, 106 Inspection, design for, 283-284 Insulation, electrical:

preventing galvanic cell, 272, 273,274

Insulation, thermal: causing crevice corrosion, 276 design, 271, 277-278 initiating SCC, 122 preventing condensation, 279

Interference, cathodic protection, 96 Intergranular corrosion, 65-70 Intermetallic compounds,

oxidation, 320 Internaioxidation, 304, 320 lOB, see lron-oxidizing bacteria ipy, corrosion rate, 28 lron, see Cast irons; Steels

alloy oxidation, 313 alloys with chromium, 317 in caustics, 153

Index 343

hydrogen reduction on, 36 in nitric acid, 17 oxidation by steam, 305 oxide scale, 299 oxides, see Magnetite; Wustite scrap iron anodes, 254 silicon iron:

corrosion resistance, 197 for nitric acid, 149-151 for phosphoric acid, 153 resistance to

erosion-corrosion, 105 lron-oxidizing bacteria, 92

Joule, energy unit, 7 relationship to voltage, 7

Kinetics: inverse logarithmic, 297-298 linear, 296-297 logarithmic, 297-298 oxidation, 296-299 parabolic, 298-299 relation to driving force, 33

KLA, see Knife-line attack Knife-line attack, 67 Kraft digesters, anodic protection,

259 KTA test panel, 226

Laboratory tests, 166-173 Lacquers, 228 Lamellar corrosion, see Exfoliation Laminar flow:

effect on limiting current, 39 in erosion-corrosion, 106

Laser, surface alloying with, 220 Layer corrosion, see Exfoliation Lead,201-202

in alkalies, 153 chemicallead, 202 corrosion fatigue, 113 hot dip coating, 202 for phosphoric acid, 151-152 pigments in paints, 202 in sulfuric acid, 144, 201

Limiting current: in concentration polarization, 38 flow rate, effect, 39

344 Index

Limiting current (Cont.) in polarization diagrams, 41 variables. controlling, 38-39

Linear polarization probes, 178-179 electrochemical theory, 179

Linings. see Coatings cement,232 differ from coatings. 224 glass. 229, 232 mill vs. field application, 224 organic, 224 protection principles, 226

Liquid: design to exclude, 271 flow, galvanic cell from, 275

Liquid-metal embrittlement, 126-127

by cadmium coatings, 216 dangerous combinations, 159

Liquid metals, 159-162 chemical corrosion by, 18 corrosion damage, 159 embrittlement, 159 erosion corrosion by, 106

LME, see Liquid-metal embrittlement

Loam, texture, 137 Localized corrosion:

cathodic protection for, 249 electrochemical mechanism,

21-22 environment al cells, 77-99 inhibitors often ineffective, 235 rate, 28 stress concentrated by, 103

Logarithmic rate law, 297-298, 303 LPR probes. see Linear

polarization probes Lubricants. for crevice corrosion,

276

Magnafluxing, 183 Magnesium and magnesium alloys:

in alkalies. 153 atmospheric corrosion, 199 galvanic corrosion, 199 oxide coatings. 322 sacrificial anodes. 252

stress-corrosion cracking, 199 Magnetite:

cathodic protection anodes, 254 formed with steam, 305 inverse spinel structure, 317 in oxidation of iron, 299

Magnification, for failure analysis, 181

Maintenance, design for, 283-284 Manganese sulfides. aid cracking,

117 Marine atmosphere, see Seawater Materials, corrosion resistant,

188-210. See also specific materials

ASTM tests of, 5 direct cost, 3 evaluation, see Testing asinsurance,1 relative costs, 189

Materials Performance, journal, 5 Mayari-R, see Weathering steels MCrAIY:

under ceramic coatings, 322 overlay coatings of, 326 vapor deposited coatings of, 218

mdd, corrosion rate, 28 Mechanical properties:

at high temperatures, 313 tests, 172-173

Medical materials, see Human body fretting corrosion, 111

Mercury: corrosion by, 160-162 liquid-metal embrittlement by,

127 Metal coatings, 215-220

cladding, 219-220 diffusion coatings. 220 electroplated,215-216 hot dip, 21~218 laser surface alloying, 220 thermal spray, 218 vapor deposited, 218

Metallurgical cells, 47-74 Metallurgical differences, 21 Metals. see Corrodibility

analysis, 183

coatings of, see Metal coatings compatible environments, 132 instability, 7 microstructural examination, 183 molten, see Liquid metals purity, 47-48 prices, relative, 189 refractory, 313 thermal expansion, 302

Methane, from decarburization, 306 Microbial corrosion, 90-92

acid-producing bacteria, 91 biofilms in seawater, 136 iron-oxidizing bacteria, 92 sulfate-reducing bacteria, 91

Microscopy, 183 Mixed potential theory, 40-45. See

also Polarization diagrams Moisture:

condensation, 278-279 design to eliminate, 270 held by dirt, salts, 266-267

Molten metals, see Liquid metals Molten salts, in chemical corrosion,

18 Molybdenum, silicide coatings on,

323 Monel, see Nickel alloys Mp, see Materials Performance mpy, corrosion rate, 28 Mucks, in soil, 137

NACE: corrosion tests, 168 description, 4-5 student membership, 5 test for sulfide stress cracking,

173 National Association of Corrosion

Engineers, see NACE Nernst equation, 13-14

for ferric/ferrous equilibrium, 24 for FeO(OH)/ferrous

equilibrium,25 Neutralizers, 245-246 Nickel, see Nickel alloys

in alkalies, 153, 195 catastrophic sulfidation, 305

Index 345

corrosion resistance, 195 electroless nickel coatings, 215 electroplated coatings of, 215 in steels, 319 oxidation by steam, 305 recycling difficult, 3

Nickel alloys, 195-196. See also Hastelloys, Nickel

nickel-chromium-iron alloys, 196 nickel-chromium-molybdenum,

196 nickel-copper alloys (Monels),

195-196 nickel-molybdenum alloys, 196 oxidation, 313, 319-320 for sewage, 144

Niobium (Columbium): carbide stability range, 67 coated with zinc, 323-324 intermetallies, scaling, 320

Ni-Resist, 197 Nitrates, fused, 155

met als for, 157-158 Nitric acid:

anodic protection in, 259 cathode re action , 10 inhibitors for, 242 met als suitable for, 149-151 as oxidizer, 78

Nitrides: properties, 306 stability, 306

Nitriding, coatings, 223 Nitrites, fused, 155, 157-158 Nitrogen, nitriding of metals, 306 Nondestructive examination, 183 n-type semiconductors, 294-295 Nuclear reactors:

fretting corrosion, 111 fused-salt coolants, 155, 157 hot corrosion, 307 liquid-metal corrosion, 159 liquid-metal embrittlement, 126 stress-corrosion cracking, 122

Ocean, see Seawater Ohm's law, resistance polarization,

40

346 Index

Oil, see Petroleum catastrophic oxidation, 304 corrosion rates in, 142

Organie acids, 138-139, 141 acetic acid, 138 citric acid, 139 fatty acids, 139, 141 formic acid, 138

Organic solvents: in chemical corrosion, 18-19 polar and nonpolar, 202-203

Orthopedic implants, see Human body

Overvoltage, see Polarization Oxidation:

at anode, 9 at equilibrium, 34-35

Oxidation, high-temperature, 289-310. See also Oxides

breakavva~303,304 catastrophic, 303-304 control of, 313-326 of high-melting metals, 314 internal, 304 inverse logarithmic, 297-298 linear, 296-297 logarithmic, for scales, 303 logarithmic, for thin films,

297-298 mechanism of scaling, 299 parabolic kinetics, 298-299, 300,

304,313 paralinear, 300 pre-oxidation of coating, 323 selective, 315, 323 thin film mechanisms, 298

Oxidation of Metals, journal, 6 Oxides, see Spineis

amorphous, 295-296 amphoteric, 295 anion deficient, 295 anion excess, 294 coatings, 322 cohesive strength, 302 competing, 316-317 cracking and spalling, 303 diffusion through scales, 290-291 double, 317

electric field in, 297 epitaxy,2% fluxing in hot corrosion, 308 immiscible, 316 improvement by alloying,

313-315 internal, 320. See also Internal

oxidation interstitial ions, 294 ion activity, 308 layer thickness, 300 in liquid metals, 162 lovv-melting, 304 melting points, 292 metal deficient, 293 metal excess, 294-295 miscible, 316, 317 multiple scale layers, 299-300 p- and n-types, 293-295, 299-300,

313-315 preferred orientation, 296 protective and nonprotective

scales, 290-291 scale, 299-304 stress, 296, 300-302 structure, 290-296 structure defects, 291-292 thermal expansion, 302 thin film, 297-298 volume, see Pilling-Bedvvorth

ratio Oxidizers, see Passiva tors

in cathode reactions, 10 concentration effect, 23 creating concentration cells, 78 inhibitors, 237 resisted by stainless steels, 189

Oxidizing povver: in cathodic polarization, 41 polarization curves, 44-45

Oxygen: in acid, 10, 11-13 design to avoid, 270 diffusion into alloy, 304 in freshvvater, 134 generation on anode, 44 lack of, danger, 9 mixture vvith carbon dioxide, 10

as oxidizer, 78 producing rust, 10 reduction:

at cathode, 9 in concentration cell, 77 concentration polarization, 38 poisoned, 243

removal by scavengers, 245 solubility, 39 in stability diagrams, 307-308

Oxygen concentration cell, 77-78 in microbial corrosion, 91 in soils, 137-138

Paint, 7. See also Coatings; Painting field testing, 165 formulation, 228 paint-over-rust types, 228 principles of protection, 226-228 thickness on steel, 226 zinc-rich,227-228

Painting: to avoid crevice corrosion, 276 cathode as weil as anode, 56, 272 design to allow, 284 direct cost, 3 shapes difficult to paint, 284 ships, 1 surface preparation, 225

Parabolic rate law, for oxidation, 298-299,300,304,313

Parting, see Dealloying Passivation, 17. See also Anodic

protection in air-saturated solution, 171 domains in Pourbaix diagrams, 25 ease of, metal series, 257 by galvanic corrosion, 60 polarization diagram, 44-45 temperature effect, 80-81

Passivators, 236-238. See also Oxidizers

direct passiva tors, 237 indirect passivators, 237-238 polarization, 243

Passive film: breakdown, see Pitting

Index 347

composition, 17 formation and damage, 44-45 rupture in SCC, 124 on stainless steel, 54

Pearlite, in metallurgical cells, 71 Peat, in soils, 137 Penetration depth, see Depth of

penetration Perchlorate ions, oxidizer, 78 Perchloric acid, cathode reaction, 10 Permanganate ions, oxidizer, 78 Pesting, of intermetallics, 320 Petroleum:

contaminants, 141 metals suitable for, 141 refineries, 1

pH: defined,14 effect:

on Pourbaix diagram, 27 on steel scale, 25 of varying, 23

Phosphate, coatings, 222 Phosphoric acid:

anodic protection in, 259 inhibitor for, 242 metals suitable for, 151-153

Photographs, of failures, 182 Pigging, of pipelines, 92 Pilling-Bedworth ratio, 290-291

linear oxidation, 296-297 for nitrides, 306 for oxides, 292 stress indicator, 300, 301

Pilot plant tests, 165 Piping, avoiding erosion-corrosion,

279-280 Pitting, 87-90

detection by probes, 176 in organics, 18-19 in passivation domain, 25 specimens for, 173 in sulfur-induced corrosion, 310 velocity effect on, 136

Planned-interval tests, 168-170 Plant tests, 165 Plastic deformation, enhanced by

hydrogen, 117

348 Index

Plastics, 202-207 in alkalies, 153 chemical resistance, 204-205 coatings, surface preparation for,

225 in hydrochloric acid, 147 physical properties, 204-205 use in automobiles, 1

Platin um, passivating titanium, 60 Poisons, 243

hydrogen diffusion aided, 115 sulfide stress cracking, 117

Polarization, 15, 33. See also Potentiodynamic polarization

cyclic, 171-172 inhibitors, effect of, 243-244

Polarization diagrams, 40-45 for anodic protection, 260-261 area effect, 60 for cathodic protection, 260 for concentration effects, 81-83 from electrochemical tests,

170-171 for galvanic corrosion, 59-60 hysteresis, 171-172

Polarization resistance probes, see Linear polarization probes

Polyesters, 205, 206 Polyethylenes, 205, 206 Polypropylene, 205, 207 Polyvinyl chloride, 205, 207 Porcelain, 208-209

coatings, 229, 232 Potential:

control in anodic protection, 257 corrodibility relationship, 40-41 difference, see Voltage metallsolution, 23 mixed, for galvanic corrosion,

59-60 of sacrificial anodes, 252 shift, see Polarization standard electrode potentials, 12

Potential-log current graphs, see Polarization diagrams

Potential-pH diagrams, see Pourbaix diagrams

Potentiodynamic polarization:

construction of E-pH diagrams, 27 scanning, 170

Potentiostat: for anodic protection, 257 for polarization curves, 170

Poultice corrosion, see Crevice corrosion

Pourbaix diagrams, 23-27. See also Stability diagrams

pseudo-Pourbaix diagrams, 27 Predominance area dia grams, see

Pourbaix dia grams Prices of materials, 189 Probes, electronic, 175-179

design to include, 284 Process control, by electronic

probes, 176 Protection of Metals, journal, 6 p-type semiconductors, 293-294 Pulp and paper industry, 259 Pyrex,208

Rain, in atmospheric corrosion, 131-132

Rates, see Kinetics Reaction control, see Activation

polarization Rebar, see Reinforcing steel Rectifiers, cathodic protection,

254-255 Redox potentials, 12 Reduction:

at equilibrium, 34-35 simultaneous reactions for, 42-43

Reduction potentials: for nonstandard conditions, 13-14 standard EMF series, 11-13

Reference electrode, see Electrode Refractory metals, 313 Reinforced plastics, 203, 206 Reinforcing steel:

in concrete, 153-155 corrosion prevention, 154-155

Resistance polarization, 40 Resistance probes, electrical, 176, 178 Resistivity, electrical:

of electrolyte, 56, 58 of paint films, 226-227

of soils, 137 Response time, of ER probes, 176 Ringworm corrosion, 72-73 Risk, decisions, 4 Rolling:

effect on grain shape, 52 of metals, see Cold work

Rossini's criterion, 174-175 Rust:

of automobiles, 1 converters, 223-224 corrosion slowed by, 16-17 definition, 2 from oxygen reduction, 10 volume of, 122, 154

Sacrificial protection, 251-252 Safety,4 Salt, see Chloride; Brines; Fused

salts; Sodium chloride; Sodium sulfate

acid and basic components, 308 deicing, on concrete, 153-154 moisture holder, 266-267 molten eutectics, 158

Sampling, for failure analysis, 182 Sand, particle size, 137 Sawing, sampies, 182 Scale, see Oxide

formation, 299 oxide, 298-304 porous, from hot corrosion, 308 protection of steel, 25 temperatures offormation, 317,

318 Scanning electron microscope, 183 Scavengers, 245 SCC, see Stress-corrosion cracking Schottky defects, in oxides, 291-292 Screening, see Shielding Season cracking, of brass, 119 Seawater, 135-136

corrosion rates in, 136 critical velocities of, 80 galvanic series in, 55 inhibitors for, 241 stainless steel in, 1 steel in, 1, 11, 53-54

Index 349

Sediment: moisture held by, 266, 268 pipes containing, 270

Selective leaching, see Dealloying SEM, see Scanning electron

microscope Semiconductors:

amphoteric oxides, 295 intrinsic, 295 n-type, 294-295 p-type, 293-294

Sensitization, stainless steels, 65-67 knife-line attack, 67 oxidation unaffected, 319

Service: simulated, 167, 168 tests, 165-166 unalterable, 188

Se wage, 144 Shear, of oxide, 301, 302 SHE, see Standard hydrogen

electrode Sherardizing, 220 Shielding, of cathodic protection,

250-251 Ships:

cathodic protection of, 255 seawater corrosion of, 1

Shotcrete process, 232 Shot-peening, 90,114,283 Siemans, unit of conductance, 250 Silicon:

in high-temperature alloys, 319 silicide coatings, 323, 324 silicon carbide coatings, 326 silicon dioxide coatings, 322

Silt, particle size, 137 Silver, catastrophic sulfidation, 305 Sketches, of failures, 181 Slag inclusions, in hot working, 52 Slow-strain-rate test, 172 Slurries, causing impingement, 107 Sodium, liquid-metal

embrittlement by, 127 Sodium chloride, in hot corrosion,

307,310 Sodium hydroxide, compatible with

nickel,153

350 Index

Sodium sulfate: acid or basic, 308 hot corrosion by, 307

Soils, 137-138 corrosion cost, 138 corrosion rates in, 138 graphitic corrosion in, 6~ resistivity vs. corrosivity, 137

Soil box, 162 Solar cell, 255 Solder, liquid-metal embrittlement,

127 Solid-metal embrittlement, 127 Solid solutions, 53-54 Sour gas, hydrogen damage by, 115 Spalling:

of ceramic coatings, 322 of oxide scales, 291, 303

Specimens, 173-175. See also Coupons

Spheroidite, ringworm corrosion, 72-73

Spinels, diffusion in, 322 Splashing:

design to avoid, 270 in pipe, 270

SRB, see Sulfate-reducing bacteria SSC, see Sulfide stress cracking Stability diagrams, see Pourbaix

diagrams for hot corrosion, 307-308

Stainless steels, 189-194. See also Nickel alloys, Ni-Cr-Fe

anodic protection of, 257 austenitic:

Alloy 20 and 20Cb-3, 196 compositions, 193 for phosphoric acid, 151-152 properties, 192 sensitization, 66 for sewage, 144 strength ranges, 192 susceptibility to fretting

corrosion, 111 316 in nitric acid, 101 316, passivation, 258

cast, 193-194 prevention of sensitization, 67

chromium content, 54 c1adding, 219 composition of passive film, 17 compositions of wrought,

190-191 crevice corrosion, 84 duplex, 193 end-grain attack, 68 ferritic, 191-192

high-purity, 48 409 in waste water, 144

high-temperature service, 319 knife-line attack, 67 low-carbon grades, 67 martensitic, 189-191 for nitric acid, 149-150 passiva ti on, 90 pitting,88 precipitation hardenable 193 in seawater, 54 sensitization, 65-67 stabilized grades, 67 stress-corrosion cracking, 121,

122,124 super-ferritic, 192

Standard conditions, 11 Standard hydrogen electrode, 11 Steam:

copper alloys in, 200 oxidation of metals by, 304-305

Steels, see Reinforcing steel for alkaline solutions, 197 anode reaction, 9 anodic protection, 257, 258, 260 bluing, 223 carbon effect, 53-54 carburizing, 223 cathodic protection for copper, 59 in caustics, 153 in concrete, 153-155 contrasted with stainless steels,

189 corrodibility, 197

with chlorides, 135 coupled to copper, 58 cracking in liquid ammonia, 126 decarburization by hydrogen, 306 in freshwater, 135

hydrogen blistering, 115 impurity effects, 47 low-sulfur, 115 nitriding of, 223 paint thickness on, 226 porcelain coatings on, 229, 232 potential:

ifrusty,58 if shot peened, 90

production, 3 ringworm corrosion, 72-73 rust protection, 25, 272 in seawater, 11,53-54 in soils, 138 stress-corrosion cracking, 120, 123 in sulfuric acid, 144, 197

Stelcoloy, see Weathering steels Stepwise cracking, line-pipe steels,

117 Stern-Geary equation, 179 Stoneware, 208 Stray current corrosion, 96-99

with corrosive wear, 110 Stress:

from cold work, 74 compressive, prevents cracks, 283 from corrosion products, 282-283 design to move stress, 281-282 elastic strain, 74 in epitaxial oxides, 296 interaction with corrosion, 103 internal, affected by cold work,

49 in nitrides, 306 in oxides, 291 raisers, design to avoid, 282 relief in oxide, 302-303 in scale growth, 300-302 in stress-corrosion cracking,

121-122 thermal, 302 threshold, 117 from transformation, 302 triaxial, 116

Stress cells, 74 design to avoid, 281 from thermal expansion, 278

Stress-corrosion cracking, 118-126

Index 351

cold work effect, 49 from crevice corrosion, 84 from dealloying, 61 environments, 120-121 fracture mechanics tests, 172-173 metal-environment

combinations, 121 not from exfoliation, 69-70 in organics, 18-19 from sensitization, 65 SSRT (CERT) test for, 172 of stainless steels, 1, 121 stresses, 121-122 of test coupons, 175 und er thermal insulation, 271

Subscale, see Internaioxidation Sugaring, see Sensitization,

stainless steels Sulfates:

formed by sulfur dioxide, 305 hot corrosion by, 306-310 molten, 158

Sulfate-reducing bacteria, 91 corrosion of dental alloys, 144 corrosivity discovered, 91 graphitic corrosion by, 63-64 tests for, 92

Sulfidation, 305. See also Hot corrosion

Sulfide: catastrophic sulfidation, 305 compared with oxides, 305 from gas-metal reaction, 305 hot corrosion by, 308 internal, 310 source of, 115 in sulfur-induced corrosion, 310 surface poison, 115

Sulfide stress cracking, 117 testing, 173

Sulfite: formed by sulfur dioxide, 305 scavenger, 245

Sulfur: gases, coatings for, 326 hot corrosion by, 307 oxidation of metals, 305 sulfur-induced corrosion, 310

352 Index

Sulfur dioxide: air pollutant, 131 cathode reaction, 10 in condensate corrosion, 94-95 in humid air, 78-79 oxidation of metals, 305 on zinc in atmosphere, 132

Sulfuric acid, 10 anodic protection in, 259 inhibitors for, 242 lead compatibility, 201 met als suitable for, 144-147 as oxidizer, 78 steel compatibility, 197

Sulfurous acid, 10 Sulfur-oxidizing bacteria, 91 Sulfur trioxide:

in condensate corrosion, 94-95 hot corrosion by, 308 reaction at cathode, 10

Superalloys: aluminized, 324 oxidation, 319-320

Supertankers, see Ships Surface:

cold, condenses moisture, 278-279

energy lowered by hydrogen, 117 film, damage by stress, 103 finish:

in pitting, 88 of specimens, 173

geometry affects oxide stress, 301-302

poisons, 243 preparation for coatings, 224-225 profile, 225 temperature, 94

Surgical materials, see Medical materials

Tafel equation: activation polarization, 36 not observed ne ar equilibrium, 37

Tanks, design, 277-278 Tantalum:

in phosphoric acid, 153 unsuitable for alkalies, 153

Temperature, 80-81 effect on:

diffusivity, 39 polarization curves, 82-83 stress-corrosion cracking, 121

gradient, uniform, 278 maximum for alloys, 317

Temperature cell, 92, 94 copper in freshwater, 134 design to avoid, 278-279 distance effect, 274

Temper colors, 298 Tempered martensite, ringworm

corrosion, 72-73 Tensile strength, of plastics, 202 Tensile test, 183 Terne, coating, 218 Testing, see Laboratory tests

ASTM procedures, 5 design for, 284 destructive or nondestructive,

181 environments, 164 field and plant tests, 165 field kits for SRB, 92 pilot plant tests, 165 service conditions, 164-165 service tests, 165-166

Thermal expansion: met als and oxides, 302 stress created, 278, 302

Thermodynamics, see Gibbs energy of aqueous solutions, see

Pourbaix diagrams of displacement reaction, 316 driving force, 7 of oxidation, 289-290

Thermoplastics, 202, 203-207 Thermosets, 202, 203-206 Thorium, oxide coatings, 322 Throwing power, 258 Time:

liquids concentrate, 269 minimize corrosion time, 266-271

Tin: corrosion fatigue of, 113 in distilled water, 135 electroplated coatings of,216

TItanium and titanium alloys, 200--201

carbide stability range, 67 cathodic protection anodes, 254 in chloride-containing sewage,

144 crevice corrosion, 201 erosion-corrosion unlikely, 105 hydrides, 117 hydrogen embrittlement, 201 for nitric acid, 149, 150, 151 not pitted by seawater, 136 oxide coatings, 322 passivation, 201

with platinum, 60 with platinum in molten salt, 45 resistance to microbial corrosion,

90 stress-corrosion cracking, 121,

124 surgical implants, 142 susceptibility to fretting

corrosion, 111 Transformation, stress, 302 Transpassivation, polarization

curve,44 Transverse cut, 52

end-grain attack, 68 grain boundary attack, 52

Thbercles, from iron-oxidizing bacteria, 92

Thnneling, electron, 298 Thrbulence:

effect on limiting current, 39 reduced by design, 279-280

Two-metal corrosion, see Galvanic corrosion

Ultrasonic inspection, 115 Uniform corrosion:

cathodic protection for, 249 as chemical corrosion, 18, 20-21 corrosion rate, 28 design allowance, 266 in organics, 18-19 prediction of corrosion for, 21 prevention by inhibitors, 235

Index 353

Units, conversion to S.I., 29

Vacancies: in metals, 48-49 in oxides, 291-292, 293, 295

Vapor: design to prevent corrosion by,

271 inhibitors for condensate, 242

Vapor deposition, metal coatings, 218

Vapor-phase inhibitors, 240, 242 Varnishes, 228 Velocity, see Flow

for copper and brass in seawater, 80

effect on: active metal, 79 concentration cells, 79 corrosion products, 80 passive metal, 79-80

erosion-corrosion, 105-106 polarization diagrams, 82 reduced by design, 278-280

Vibration, design to avoid, 282 Vinyls, 204, 205, 207 Voltage:

cell potential, 33 driving force, 7, 11 relationship to energy, 7 shift, see Polarization

Wagner, Carl: mechanism verified, 315 parabolic rate law, 299

Waste: incineration, 144 water, 144

Water, see Freshwater compatibility with copper and

copper alloys, 199 inhibitors, 241-242 stability,24 vapor, 304-305. See also Steam waste, see Sewage

Water mains, graphitic corrosion, 63-64

Wear, see Corrosive wear

354 Index

Weathering steels: in atmosphere, 133

effeet of alloying, 47 Weight loss, 28

ealibration of probes, 179 eonversion to penetration, 30 eorrelation with probes, 176 speeimens for, 173, 174-175

Welds, 52 coupons seldom welded, 165 galvanie eell avoided, 269 knife-line attaek, 67 mierobial eorrosion of, 91 seal to prevent end-grain attaek,

69 stress ereated for eraeking, 121 turbulenee eaused by, 107

WeId deeay, 66 Welding:

ereviees eliminated, 86 filler metal, 272 orient eorreetly, 272 oxy-aeetylene, 75 sensitization prevented, 67, 272 stray eurrent source, 96

Windmill, power source, 255 Wood, 209-210

eause of ereviee eorrosion, 276 impregnated, 210

Wustite: eomposition, 301 formed in steam, 305 in oxidation of iron, 299

Yttrium, oxide eoatings, 322

Zashehita Metallov, journal, 6 Zine, 202

in atmosphere, 132-133 diffusion eoatings of, 323-324 eleetroplated eoatings of, 216 embrittlement by mereury, 127 leaehing from brass, 61-62 passivation in hot water, 94 saerifieial anodes, 252 saerifieial proteetion by, 202 sensitization of stainless steel,

66-67 thermal spray eoatings of, 218 zine-rieh paints, 227-228, 276

Zireonium, 201 hydrides, 117, 201 oxide eoatings, 322