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Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah: A Fourteenth Century Defense against Astrological Divination an

Alchemical TransmutationAuthor(s): John W. LivingstonSource: Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 91, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 1971), pp. 96-103Published by: American Oriental SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/600445

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IBN QAYYIM AL-JAWZIYYAH: A FOURTEENTH CENTURY DEFENSE AGAINSTASTROLOGICAL DIVINATION AND ALCHEMICAL TRANSMUTATIONJOHN W. LIVINGSTON

HARVARDNIVERSITYThis article is a review of the arguments of the hanbalt theologian Ibn Qayyim al-Jaw-

ziyyah (d. 1349 A.D.) against the occult sciences that existed in Islam during his time. Thearticle takes as its point of departure Professor Armand Abel's argument (La place dessciences occultes dans la d6cadence, in Classicisme et declin culturel dans l'histoire de l'Islam,edited by R. Brunschwig and G. E. Von Grunebaum, Paris, 1957) that the Sunni religiousinstitution protected, and indeed sanctioned, the rising tide of occultism which, accordingto Abel, inundated the lands of Islam in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries of the Christianera. Ibn Qayyim, one of the great spokesmen of the Sunni tradition, devoted over twohundred pages in his Miftah Dar al-SaCadah in harshly denouncing divinatory practices,especially astrology and alchemy, which does not at all tally with the conclusions drawnby Professor Abel. Some of Ibn Qayyim's arguments appear to be original, while some,according to his own admission, definitely are not. The author of the present article dealswith Ibn Qayyim's refutations of astrology and alchemy and has tried to show from whatsources the theologian may have learned his arguments.

AN ATTITUDE SHARED BY A GREAT MANYWRITERSon Islamic intellectual decline, regardless of theirhistorical perspective, is that when the "rational"(i.e., the Greek) sciences1 gave way to religioustotalitarianism, occult sciences-which had alsoentered Islam in the train of its Hellenic inherit-ance-flourished in their place. This theme formsthe substance of Armand Abel's contribution("La place des sciences occultes dans la d6ca-dence") to an international symposium of Islamicscholarswhich met in Bordeaux in 1956 to discuss;he decline of Islamic civilization.2 I shall leaveaside the problems evoked by Professor Abel'sarticle, and the symposium as a whole.3 I shall

1The rational sciences were called by Muslim writersal-'ulim al-'aqliyyah or 'ulum al-awd'il: sciences in-herited by Islam, particularlyfrom the Greeks. A secondcategory of the sciences distinguished by Muslims wasthe 'ulum al-'arab (sciences of the Arabs) or 'ulum al-shari'ah (sciences of religious law). See Ibn al-Nadim,Fihrist al-'Ulum, ed. G. Fliigel, Leipzig, 1871-72;Muhammad bn Ahmadal-Khwarizmi,Mafdtihal- Ulum,ed. G. Van Vloten, Leiden, 1895; Abu Nasr al-Farabi,Kitdb Ihsa' al-'Ulm, Cairo, 1931; Abu 'All ibn Sina,Risalah fI Aqsam al- 'Aqliyyah, in Tis'a Rasa'ilfi1-Hikmah wa 1-Tabi'iyydt, Cairo, 1908.

2 Classicisme et declin culturel dans l'histoire de l'Islam,organized by R. Brunschwig and G. E. von Grunebaum.Paris, 1957.3 For example, the vague meaning of "decadence"

rather examine Abel's depiction of the rise of theoccult sciences in Islam, for I believe him to haveoverstated the case in putting forth the exampleof Abfu -'Abbas Ahmad ibn 'Abdullah al-Qurashial-Bini as proof of occultism's grand success inthe thirteenth century:Avec celui-ci (al-Buni), la science des invocations, destalismans, des divinations, de l'astrologie, de l'emploides noms sacres, des mots magiques et secrets, lacabbale, l'usage du djafr, tout cela va se trouversystematise, clarifi6, autant que faire se peut, vul-garis6 et mis definitivement sous l'egide de la religion.4In view of the number of first-rate thinkers inIslam from every religious quarter, includingal-Jabiz (d. 869), Ibn Hazm (d. 1064), al-Ghazzali (d. 1111), Ibn al-Jawzi (d. 1200),

as it was used, the nature of "science" as the naturalphilosophers and scientists of Islam conceived it, thesubtle differences that distinguished "legitimate" from"occult" sciences in the minds of some medieval thinkersbut not of others; and the particularly difficult problemof whether in actual fact occult science took the place ofnatural science as interest in the latter retreated from asociety tyrannized by religious totalitarianism, orwhether occultism, as an integral part of the Greek giftto Islam, enjoyed more or less the same attention in thethirteenth and fourteenth centuries as it did during theHigh 'Abbasid period, 850-1050.4 Classicisme et declin culturel, p. 301.

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LIVINGSTON:strologicalDivination and A chemical Transmautation,and Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 132S), all of -whomwrote against the occult sciences, it comeswith some surprise to be told that the occultsciences were to find a refuge in religion.5 If byreligion Abel meant the established religiousinstitution of High Islam (as opposed to folkIslam) as represented by the jurists, judges,jurisconsults, the religious and legal thinkers andofficials, known collectively as the ulema, thensome qualification must be made to Abel's thesis,since the temper of the ulema regarding 'ulbimal-awd'il, and in particular alchemy and astro-logical divination, often became violent in itsopposition.6In considering the attitudes representative ofthe Sunni religiousestablishment in the thirteenthand fourteenth centuries, account should be takenof the HanbalTwriters and jurists, especially IbnQayyim al-Jawziyyah (d. 1349), who, thoughoverlooked by Abel, was as important a spokes-man against occultism in the fourteenth centuryas al-B-un!was for it in the thirteenth century.Ibn Qayyim stands out as one of the most im-portant thinkers in the Hanbali tradition, whichincluded his own teacher Ibn Taymiyyah, and acentury before him Ibn al-Jawzi. All three of thesereligious scholars express in the corpus of theirwritings, sermons and legal decisions (fatadia),sentiments not only of the Hanbalz school, butof all the members of the Sunni community whowere seriously concerned with defending theestablished Sunna of Islam from innovationsfrom any direction, whether Christian saint-worship, Aristotelian metaphysics, or astrologicaldivination and the pursuit of alchemical trans-mutation. With respect to occultism in particular,those who saw in its practice a threat to SunniIslam as it had developed throughout the centuriesfound their most eloquent and violent guardianin Ibn Qayyim. His attack, or defense, depending

5This does not include "non-religious thinkers,"such as the three famous falasifa, al-Farabi (d. 950),Ibn Sina (d. 1037) and Ibn Rushd (d. 1198) who alsowrote against occultism and whose arguments wereused by the religious thinkers when they suited thepurpose.6 I. Goldziher, "Stellung der Alten IslamischenOrthodoxie Zu der Antiken Wissenschaften", Abhand-lungenderAkademiederWissenschaften,Berlin, 1914-15.

on how one chooses to view it, comes in histliftah/Dar al-Sa'ddah,7compared by Nallino toPico della Miirandola's Adversus Astrologiam.8His arguments, some of which by their originalityreveal a certain scope of imagination, and evenhumor-not that Hanbali or any type of con-servatism should engender an "ankylose" ofhumor and imagination-stand by their ownmerit as worthy of being reviewed. In addition tothis, however, the thesis put forth by ProfessorAbel, who by neglecting to mention the traditionexpressed by Ibn Qayyim's polemic has given adistorted picture, makes a review of these argu-ments all the more desirable.Ibn Qayyim's arguments are directed generallyagainst alchemy and divination of all varieties,but particularly against the astrologers: thosewho would dare think they could know secretslocked within the mystery of God's supreme andall-embracing wisdom. For the astrologicaldiviners, the heavens, with the unchanging har-mony and periodicity of the fixed and movingstars, were the key to divine secrets which byexpert interpretation of the initiated could beknown to man; but for Ibn Qayyim the heavensoffered divine proofs of the perfection of God'scosmic creation, the product of a wisdom so greatthat it would be the height of folly for one to claimknowledge of even the smallest scrap of it. ForIbn Qayyim, the structure and harmony of theuniverse, and of the earth's relation to it, with itsfour seasons, its moon and sun winding aroundtheir celestial belts, were God's gifts to man. Thesun nourished plants and animals for man'ssustenance and measured his years and days. Bythem he reckoned religiousfeasts and propertimesto pray. The stars were the traveler's nightlyguideposts. The earth, with its elements of fire,water, air and earth, its seasons, seas, mountainsand winds all in perfect balance, about whichcircumambulated the accoutrements of the cos-mos, formed a well-built and furnished home, a

7 There are two editions of this book, both made inCairo; the first was printed in two volumes, 1905-07;the second in one volume, 1939, by al-AzharLibrary.8 C. A. Nallino, Raccoltadi Scritti Editi e Inediti, Vol.V, Astrologia, Astronomia, Geographia,a cura di MariaNallino, Rome, 1944, p. 33.

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Journal of the American OrientalSociety, 91.1 (1971)masterpiece of cosmic utilitarianism, whose archi-tect had designed with infinite vision and un-wasted effort for man's needs and pleasures.9As for him who believes that human personalitiesand events are influenced by the heavenly bodies,he is

the most ignorant of people, the most in error and thefurthest from humanity; he as much as declares him-self publicly to know not that his creator is the samecreator of the heavens and the earth; nor does heknow the Lord's attributes nor His acts. Indeed, heknows not his own soul within him, nor does he knowits purpose or why it was created, nor by what it isperfected and what is good for it, what corrupts it andwhat destroys it. He is certainly the most ignorant ofpeople concerning his own soul and its creator.'0

He is even worse off than the ignorant Christianswith their trinity, pope and ecclesiastical hier-archy.1l "Is this anything but deceit and lies"by those ignorant of God's revelation, who claimthe sublunary world is influenced by heavenlybodies and spirits,u in the same manner the sunand moon influence plants and animals?The change and transformation, the generation anddegeneration of this world can have no relationshipwith a star [excluding the sun and moon] whose oc-currence (wuqu') can only be imagined (yatasawwaru)as the will of an all-powerful active agent (fd'il) towhose power are subjugated the effects of stars andspirits, and by whose will they are ordered.l3

If the stars had intelligence and will, would theynot leave their fixed orbits? They do not do so,for they cannot, bound as they are by the Al-mighty Will.And so for those who claim happiness and sadness tobe in relation with the stars, they are laughed at byintelligent people from every country. Their ignoranceand error make them a center for all excesses and ig-norance concerning prophetic and rational truth. Sowe shall show you their ignorance and lies and contra-dictions and the falsity of what they say.'49 Miftdh, pp. 214-300.10 Mift.ah, p. 462. This page is mispaginated as 362.n Miftdh, p. 488.12 That is, spirits which guide the movements of theseven moving stars.13 Miftdh, p. 462.14Miftah, pp. 462-63.

Having properly castigated the astrologers asbeing worse than infidels, quite in accordancewith the form of Muslim polemics, Ibn Qayyimwhittles their art away in more rational tones. Itmust not be thought, however, that the presenta-tion here of his arguments is in the same order asthat in his own narrative. Only the most interest-ing arguments will be mentioned, and presentedso as best to bring out their essence in the fewestpossible words; Ibn Qayyim often repeats himselfin unfolding his arguments and sometimes punc-tuates them with emotional outbursts and piousadmonitions irrelevant to the logic of his proofs.Also, details or variations of some of his mainarguments which are scattered throughout thetext have been brought together for unity andcoherence.His first argument is drawn from Aristoteliancelestial physics, ironical though this may be for a.Hanbalz urist.15

Let it be asked of them: Concerning the thing whichcauses influences with respect to good and bad fortune,is it from one star by itself, or one zodiacal constella-tion, or is it from a star but conditional upon thestar's being a part of a constellation? All [three] areabsurd. The first and second necessitate the continu-ance of the influence, since that which influences isperpetually fixed in place. The third is also absurdbecause when the influence of the star changes becauseof a change of two constellations [along the zodiac] itis necessary that the nature of each constellation differin essence from the nature of the second, since if itwere not so, the natures of all the constellations wouldbe the same in essence and therefore the influence ofthe [influencing] star in all of the constellations wouldnecessarily be the same influence, since it is impossiblethat differences follow from things identical in nature.When the influences of all stars are necessarily differentby reason of the difference in the constellations, itfollows that there must be a break (qit'a) or dividingpoint in the state (kawn) of the zodiac which marks adifference in nature and essence, and this requires thatthe state of the celestial sphere be composed of severalsubstances and not one. Yet all the philosophers have

15However, a Hanbali faylasuf was not unknown.Isma'il ibn Azj I studied logic and philosophy and wrotethat the knowledge of the prophets was in accordancewith that of Aristotle and Hermes; Goldziher, "Stel-lung," p. 8.

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LIVINGSTON: AstrologicalDivination and Alchemical Transmutationsaid that the celestial sphere is of one pure, simplesubstance and not a compound.16In the following section, entitled "The Second

Aspect in Discourse on the Falsity of Astrology,"Ibn Qayyim presents a number of short proofs,some of which are criticisms of the astrologer'smethodology and technique rather than proofsbearing on the falseness of the art. This is true ofthe first three arguments which are quite similarto one another. Since human eyesight is not cosmicin its reach, the number of moving stars, he argues,(now dispensing with the celestial system ofAristotle) is unknown, and therefore knowledge oftheir sublunary influences must be limited. Forexample, if a body the size of Mercury were in thehighest sphere, human eyesight would not per-ceive it, and accordingly, smaller stars in pro-portionately lower spheres would also be im-perceptible. Influences of these stars, unseen be-cause of size and distance, would be indeterminate.

And if you astrologers answer that it is precisely be-cause of this distance and smallness that their influ-ences are negligible, then why is it that you claim agreat influence for the smallest heavenly body, Mer-cury? Why is it that you have given an influence toal-Ra's and al-Dhanab,which are two imaginary points[ascending and descending nodes]?17If the Milky Way is a myriad of tiny starspacked together in the sphere of the fixed stars itis certainly impossible to have knowledge of theirinfluences.l8 In a later section Ibn Qayyim usesthe same argument but with an empirical ap-

proach. The only way to know the individualinfluences exerted by all possible combinations ofpositions of the moving and fixed stars is by repe-tition of experience. The same outcome of aworldly event must occur for each identical stellar

16 Miftdh, pp. 363-64. Compare with al-Farabi's argu-ment, Nallino, Raccolta di Scritti, V, pp. 23-24.17 For the importance of nodes, see Willy Hartner,"The Pseudoplanetary Nodes of the Moon's Orbit inHindu and Islamic Iconographies. A contribution to theHistory of Ancient and Medieval Astrology", ArsIslamical, vol. V, 1938.

18 Pages 364-65. Ibn Sina posed essentially the sameargument; A. F. Mehren, "Vues d'Avicenne sur l'as-trologie," Le Museon, III, 1884,p. 400.

configuration. But since, in terms of minutes andseconds of degrees, the moving and fixed starsreturn to an identical position with respect to oneanother only after thousands of years, how canone hope to draw conclusions from experience?Not even history extends far back enough for this.Even if all the heavens returned to the same posi-tion a thousand times the astrologer still wouldnot know if the cause of the influence was due tocertain conjunctions or to the totality of theheavens in that one particular position. IbnQayyim gives two further arguments related tothis: that since the natures of the perceived fixedstars are imperfectly known, their influences areas imperfectly known; and that the human mindcould not possibly comprehend the great multi-plicity of composed natures obtained from morethan one thousand stars, each of which had itsown nature.'9His fifth argument is essentially thesame as one used by ibn Iazm three centuriesearlier. Since the distance of the sphere of fixedstars from the earth is so great that one secondof degree is many thousands of times the diam-eter of the earth, precise measurement in termsof seconds and thirds was impossible.20In fact,so quickly did the outer sphere move that in thetime a fast-walking man took one step, a fixedstar moved three thousand miles;21or as presentedseveral pages later, in the interval between theseparation of the baby from the womb and theastrologer's setting up of his astrolabe and takinghis readings, the fixed stars moved over a distanceof one thousand times the size (diameter) of theearth.22Observational instruments were not ac-curate enough to measure such minuscule differ-ences.One argument of his-that the zodiacal symbolsof the bear, snake, lion and scorpion, etc. in noway resemble the constellations after which they

19This had been an argument of Ibn Sina; Nallino,Raccolta di Scritti, V, pp. 29-30.20 Nallino, Raccolta di Scritti, V, p. 3121Miftdh, p. 465.22Miftah, p. 470. This had been mentioned in hiseighth argument (p. 468) with reference to a treatise bythe scientist 'Ali ibn al-Haytham on defects in observa-tional equipment and man's inability to perfect them.

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Journal of the American OrientalSociety, 91.1 (1971)are named-may seem exceedingly weak. Morein sympathy with modern thought is his ques-tioning of a science that claimed for itself onetruth, but had so many different systems-Persian, Chinese, Babylonian and Indian-noneof which could agree with the other as to whethercertain conjunctions cause happiness or sadness,wealth or poverty, ugliness or beauty, good orbad character.23As for the claim that a person's personality isdetermined by the stars at the moment of birth,it would have to follow that everyone born atthe same moment would have the same charactertraits, which is nonsense. Will a twin who goes tothe northern regions of snow and cold not differfrom the other who lives in a hot climate? Whatof men killed in the same hour in battle, ordrowned in the same moment of some disaster atsea, whose horoscopes were different?24 The onlysimilarity between the ascendant constellation ofthe zodiac and the child just taken from the wombis that both appear after having been concealed.Whoever claims otherwise is weak-minded.25Furthermore, if the astrologers truly thought ofexactitude, they would consider the moment ofconception, not birth, as the determining pointin a person's character. It is then that generationand existence begin. Birth, by which time thefoetus has already become a person in existence,is no more than a transference from one place tothe next.In a section dealing with the contradictions ofastrologers Ibn Qayyim ridicules their division ofthe Zodiac to account for variation in influencesinto sexes, colors, and the four qualities, hot,cold, dry and moist. Does this not refute theircontention that the super-lunary spheres are ofone pure nature?26How could a particular stellarconfiguration transmit the same influence to

23 Miftah, p. 467.24 See Ibn jHazm, Al-Fisal fi 1-Milal wa-l-Ahwa'wa-l-Nihal, Cairo 1347 H., vol. 5, pp. 24-25 for a similarargument.

25 Mift.h, p. 468.26 Miftd.h, pp. 490-502. For an earlier development ofthis argument by Ibn Sina see Mehren, "Vues d'Avicennesur l'astrologie," p. 388.

people living in opposite regions of the world?The only heavenly influences come from the raysof heat which fall in varying quantities upon theseven climes of the earth. In comparison to thesun the heat of all other stars is negligible. Thesun does have a direct physical effect. Peopleliving in southern regions are dark, with hot anddry natures inversely proportional to their dis-tance from the equator. People in the warm,moderate region are quick and agile in body andmind, qualities that disappear upon separationfrom this choice climate. Inhabitants of northernplaces are excessively white with unhealthy blueeyes. Their skin is flaccid, their nature sluggish.These unfortunates tend to be a bit stupid, theinsides of their heads having been frozen fromlack of sun. They are hardly any better off thanthe blacks who live by the equator. Both of theseextreme regions have deleterious effects; accord-ingly, little civilization is found there. The highestcivilizations are found in the middle regions,Syria, Iraq, Iran, Khorasan and China, and it isonly natural that Islam should have taken roothere. The people of this region are neither sicklywhite nor black, but a healthy tan and ruddycolor. "What all this seems to indicate is that theinfluences on the types of human character areattributable to the natural conditions prevailingin the seven regions. Sun, wind, earth, the reflec-tion of the rays are all partial causes, the totalityof which is the One Cause, the All-Knowing,The Powerful, from whom comes the order of theworld... which these ignoramuses (the astrolo-gers) know not." 27The astrologers claim ability to foretell out-comes of future events by their science. Why thenare they so often incorrect?Why in fact are theynot rich by the secrets of their craft? Few indeedare the occasions when they divine things cor-rectly, and these few successful occasions are thecombined results of past experience, a great dealof conjecture, pure luck and considerabledeceit.

There was a woman who came to an astrologer andgave him a dirham for her horoscope. He told her some-thing or other. "Nothing of the sort has happened!"

27 Miftdh, p. 501 if.

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LIVINGSTON: AstrologicalDivination and Alchemical Transmutationshe exclaimed. He read her horoscope again and toldher something else. This too she denied. He then toldher that her horoscope indicated loss of money. "Nowyou have told the truth," she answered-"The dirhamI gave you!"28Finally, several examples of the errors astrolo-

gers have made are drawin from famous events inIslamic history. The first is the battle of Siffin(37 H.) where 'Ali and his followers met Mu'-awiyah and the Syrian army. Astrologers hadjudged that 'All would be killed and his army de-feated. But they were proved to be liars and'Ali was victorious over the Syrians. There wasalso a story that the astrologers had predicted de-feat for 'All in his war against the Kharijites.29"They had agreed that those who seceded at thetime of this horoscope would destroy his ('Ali's)army, for the moon was in Scorpio. But 'Allcontradicted them, saying 'We shall go out withtrust in God, depending upon him, holding theastrologers to be liars'. And so he was victoriouswith the help of God".30 The same pious notesounds through the several succeeding examples.Sometimes astrologers appear to be correct in theshort run of things, but eventually history bringsthem to the lie. When Baghdad was built astrolo-gers claimed that never would a caliph die in it.For a while it seemed that this prophecy would befulfilled. Mansfir, the founder of Baghdad, diedon his way to Mecca. His successor al-Mahdidied outside of the city, as did Harun al-Rashid.But when Ma'mfin killed Amin in Baghdad thedeceit and lies of the astrologers again becamemanifest.

Ibn Qayyim's arguments against alchemy comeearly in his attack on the divinatory arts. Theyare essentially the same as Ibn Sina's famousargument against the alchemists, i.e., the mostthey are able to do is make substances appear tobe gold and silver by cunning artifice, but as formaking the real thing they are helpless.31 Trans-

28 Miftdh, p. 471.29 Those who seceded fromsupporting 'Ali because hehad condescended to mediate with his opponent Mu'-awiyah.30 Miftdh, p. 473.31E. J. Holmyard and D. C. Mandeville, De Congela-

mutation like divination is impossible. To believeor engage in it is to join hands with the devil, forit is against the divine order that was mirroredinthe social, economic and political order of theworld.Reflect on the wisdom of God, the Powerful, the Glori-ous, concerningthe scarcity of those two types of cur-rency, gold andsilver, and the reduction of the world'swealth and goods [that would result] from their [thealchemists'] artifices to create gold and silver by simu-lating God's creation of them. The intense avidity oftheir attempts to realize their goal reach the extremityof effort and struggle. And yet they never succeed. Ifthey were able to make what God created of these[two metals] the order of the world would crumble,since gold andsilver would multiply andspread amongall people until they became no more important thanpottery and palm fronds. Because of this, the benefitsfor which they were originally put on earth would nolonger exist. Their superabundance would deprivethem of their preciousness and use as money and pay-ment for warriors.... The order of the world whichGod made would fall when everyone possessed goldand silver and those who had been subjugated toothers would no longer be so. If enough of the twoprecious metals were created to sufficeeveryone, theneveryone would be at the same time impoverished. Goddesigned the scarcity of these metals as the basis ofthe orderof the world. He did not make them so scarcethat they lost their utility, such as is the case with redsulphur. Rather He deposited them in the earth andmultiplied them in accordance with the divine plan ofHis wisdom, mercy and the benefits he willed for hisworshippers . . . Compared to iron, copper and lead,gold and silver were madescarce by the wisdom of Godfor the good of the people, since a fine thing is con-sidered valuable and precious as long as it is little inquantity and desired; but once it increases and be-comes plentiful among both the upper class and thegenerality of people, their desire for it decreases and itfalls in the opinion of everyone.32It is by trickery that the alchemists fool peopleinto believing that they are able to change copper,lead and brass into gold and silver. They produce

optical illusions, similar to the tricks nature some-times plays on us, such as what happened in astory Ibn Qayyim read of the men who weresearching for metals.tione et Conglutinatione Lapidum; being sections of theKitib al-Shifa'; Paris, 1927;pp. 41, 54, 85.32 Miftdh, p. 241.

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Journal of the American Oriental Society, 91.1 (1971)Having deeply penetrated within a region of a moun-tain in their search they came to a certain place andbehold, before them they saw the likeness of moun-tains of silver. Below these mountainous walls ofsilver was a copious, fast-flowing river. The men,finding no way to cross in order to get to the silver,proceeded until they came to a crossing place. Theycrossed and returned along the river's edge to theplace where they had seen the silver. But now theyfound no trace of it. They searched in every direction.Not knowing where else to look they sadly departed.And this shows the falsity of alchemy; that upon in-vestigation it is discovered to be nothing more than amatter of counterfeit and tinting.33These are the main arguments against the occultsciences found in Ibn Qayyim's Miftah Ddral-Sa'ddah.They present no architecture ofgenius.Some were weak, even absurd; some were too

strenuously contrived; some were hardly boundby any semblance of logical method, alternating asIbn Qayyim did in his search for proofs, one timeusing Aristotelian physics for substantiation, thenext ridiculing and insulting all philosophers asthose "liars and fools" who negated God and Hisprophets.34The only note of consistency prevail-ing throughout his argumentation comes fromKoranic verse, hadith, and those precepts ofIslam by which he could demonstrate the idea ofthe omnipotence of God, to whose will andwisdom everything in this universe belonged.Ibn Qayyim did not even adduce the best of argu-ments that had been used by earlier Muslimthinkers, especially those of al-Farabi and ibnSina.35 However, for the problem under discus-sion, the importance of Ibn Qayyim is not the witor ingenuity with which he tried to lay bare theinequity of his enemy-the enemy of Islam as hesaw it-but what he stood for as one of the para-mount spokesman for the religious institution inits perpetual battle against those who trans-gressed beyond the limits of the Sunni creedwhich had evolved during the first four centuriesof the Muslim historical experience.

33 Miftlh, p. 241.34 Miftah, p. 504.36 For a summary of these see Nallino, Raccolta di

Scritti, V, p. 24 ff; and Mehren, "Vues d'Avicenne surl'astrologie," p. 388 ff.

His arguments do not represent a fanatic,overall condemnation of the 'ulam al-awd'il, ofwhich, as earlier stated, astrology and alchemywere considered a part. For example, ibn Qayyimis careful to distinguish between the two sciencesor arts (sind'atayn) encompassing the study of thestars. One of these two arts he refers to as 'ilmal-hay'ah,the ordinaryexpressionfor astronomy.36He also refers to astronomy as an 'ilm al-awd'il(pl. 'ulam al-awd'il)-a pre-Islamic science orGreek science-which may indicate that ibnQayyim considered astronomy a gift of theGreeks, and astrology a debased accretion of latertimes.37 The practitioners of astronomy he callsby several names: arbdbal-hay'ah, busard' (thosewho have perception, understanding or knowl-edge); ashab al-irsdd (those who observe, andwhose science is rasadiyyah-pertaining to ob-servation). These are to be differentiated fromthose who do not know the fundamentals of theirart, the 'umydn-the blind ones who practice "thesecond science" or 'ilm al-ahkdm (literally "thescience of judgment" or judiciary astrology), theusual expression for astrology.38This was the art"detested by most of those devoted to astronomy.They denied the usefulness of astrology, claimingit to be an arbitrary thing, destitute of proofs." 39One final note. In reference to one of the ques-tions that was mentioned in footnote three ofthis article-the relative positions of astronomy

36 Nallino, Raccoltadi Scritti, V, p. 42.37 Miftah, p. 485.38 Miftah, p. 369.39 Miftah, p. 485. Ibn Qayyim's teacher Ibn Taymiy-yah made a similar distinction between astronomy andastrology, referring to the first as hisdb (reckoning,computing), and the second as ahkdm."As for hisdb,it isknowledge of the measurement of the spheres and stars,of their qualities and their movements and all related tothat; this is a basically true science in which there is no

doubt." The second, ahkdm, s a type of magic, it is falseand mendacious. It is worship of the stars and hencepolytheistic. See Majmu'at al-Fatdwd, Cairo, 1326-29/1908-11, vol. I, pp. 323-36. Three centuries earlier IbnSina had made the distinction in almost identical terms;astronomy had a solid, mathematically demonstrablebasis, astrology was a false science with no scientificbasis: Mehren, "Vues d'Avicenne sur l'astrologie," p.398.

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IVINGSTON: Astrological Divination and Alchemical Transmutationand astrology in Islam during the tenth andeleventh centuries-ibn Qayyim's use of the termahkam and ahkamiyymnto designate astrologyand those who practice it leads one to believe thatat one time in Islam the relationship between thetwo arts was so close that either they were one orastrology, whose divinatory aspect must havebeen limited, was considered a respectablescience.40

We say that the likes of the blind ones among theahkdmiyyinare those who do not know the laws of thestars (ahkdm al-nujfm) [astrology as the term was40See Mehren, "Vues d'Aviceine sur l'astrologie,"p. 19.

ordinarilyemployed]; they are the majority. The likesof those who understand (al-busard')among them arethe professionals of this work, and they are thefewest.41Further on he writes that "if anything similar tothe approach of Ibn al-Zarqali,42who followed apath in ahkdm unlike the one today, had con-tinued, we would have seen a difference.But thisart has died, and nothing remains but the tradi-tion of these errors." 43

41 Miftdh, p. 469.42Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-Naqqash al-Zar-qali (Azarchel), the Spanish Muslim astronomer, whoflourishedduringthe last half of the eleventh century.43 Mift.h, p. 487.

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