regents chemistry midterm review
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Regents Chemistry Midterm Review. Unit 1 – Matter and Measure Unit 2 – Atomic Theory and Structure Unit 3 – Nuclear Chemistry Unit 4 – Periodic Table Unit 5 - Bonding Unit 6 – Naming and Moles. Matter and Measure. Chapters 1-3. Chemistry. What is Chemistry? - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
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Unit 1 – Matter and Measure Unit 2 – Atomic Theory and Structure Unit 3 – Nuclear Chemistry Unit 4 – Periodic Table Unit 5 - Bonding Unit 6 – Naming and Moles
Regents Chemistry Midterm Review
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Matter and MeasureChapters 1-3
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What is Chemistry?◦ Study of matter and the changes it undergoes
Branches◦ Organic◦ Physical◦ Analytical◦ Biochemical◦ Inorganic
Chemistry
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Anything that has mass and takes up space, volume
Classified into two categories◦ Substances (Pure)◦ Mixtures
Matter
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Matter
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Element◦ simplest form of matter that has a unique set of
properties.◦ Can’t be broken down by chemical means
Compounds◦ substance of two or more elements chemically
combined in a fixed proportion◦ Can be broken down by chemical means
Pure Substances
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Physical blend of two or more substances
Two Types:◦ Homogeneous
Composition is uniform throughout
◦ Heterogeneous Composition is not uniform throughout
Mixtures
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Differences in physical properties can be used to separate mixtures◦ Filtration – Separates solids from liquids in
heterogeneous mixtures◦ Distillation – Separates homogeneous liquid
mixtures based on different boiling points◦ Evaporation – evaporate away liquid to leave
solid◦ Chromatography – separation of substances
based on polarity
Separating Mixtures
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Solid (s)◦ Definite shape and volume◦ Particles are packed tightly together in a regular
geometric pattern Liquid (l)
◦ Definite volume, takes shape of container◦ Particles can slide past each other
Gas (g)◦ Takes shape and volume of container◦ Particles are spread very far apart
Phases(States) of Matter
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Solid Liquid Melting Liquid Solid Freezing Liquid Gas Vaporization Gas Liquid Condensation Solid Gas Sublimation Gas Solid Deposition
Temperature does NOT change during a phase change
Phase Changes
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Physical Property◦ quality or condition of a substance that can be
observed or measured without changing the substance’s composition
◦ Ex: Color, shape, size, mass
Physical Change◦ some properties change, but the composition
remains the same◦ Can be reversible or irreversible◦ Ex: melting, freezing, tearing
Identifying Substances
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Chemical Change◦ change that produces matter with a different
composition than the original matter◦ Ex. burning, rusting, decomposing, exploding,
corroding
Chemical property◦ property that can only be observed by changing
the composition of the substance.◦ Ex: Reactivity with acids, reactivity with oxygen
Identifying Substances (cont)
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Exothermic◦ Process when energy is released or given off◦ Ex: Burning, freezing
Endothermic◦ Process when energy is absorbed or taken in◦ Ex: Melting
Energy Exchanges
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Observation◦ using five senses to make observations.
Hypothesis◦ proposed explanation for an observation.
Experiment◦ procedure used to test a hypothesis.
Analyze Data◦ check to see if results support hypothesis.
Theory◦ well tested explanation for a broad set of observations.
Law◦ concise statement that summarizes the results of many
observations and experiments.
Scientific Method
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Shorthand◦ If the decimal point is present, start counting
digits from the LEFT side, starting with the first non-zero digit.
Significant Figures
1 2 3
0.00310
(3 sig. figs.)
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Shorthand ◦ If the decimal point is absent, start counting
digits from the RIGHT side, starting with the first non-zero digit.
Significant Figures (cont)
3 2 1
31,400
(3 sig. figs.)
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Addition and Subtraction◦ Answer has to have the same number of decimal
places as least decimal places in what you are adding or subtracting
Multiplication and Division◦ Answer has to have same number of Sigfigs as
least number of Sigfigs in what you are multiplying or dividing
SigFigs for Math
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Percent Error
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Measure related to the heat of an object
Measured in °Celsius or Kelvin(no degrees)
Conversion
Temperature
273 CK
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Amount of matter in a given amount of space
Amount of mass in a given volume
Density
V
mD
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Back
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Atomic Theory and Structure
Chapters 4-5
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Atom Atoms are made of subatomic particles
◦ Protons◦ Neutrons◦ Electrons
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Electron Discovered first Negative charge (-1) Approx mass ~ 0u Found outside of nucleus
Valence Electron◦ Electrons in the outermost energy level
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Proton Discovered second Positive charge (+1) Approx mass ~ 1u Found inside nucleus
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Neutron Discovered last No charge (0) Approx mass ~ 1 atomic mass unit (u)
◦ Just slightly larger than a proton Found inside nucleus
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Atomic Structure Atoms have no net charge
◦ # of electrons = # of protons
Nucleus◦ Center of atom, contains protons and neutrons◦ Positive charge
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Atomic Structure Atomic Number
◦ Number of protons◦ All atoms of the same element have the same
number of protons
Mass Number◦ Number of protons and neutrons in an atom◦ # of Neutrons = Mass Number – Atomic Number
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Chemical Symbols
Cl-35 Chlorine-35
Cl3517
Mass Number
Atomic Number
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Atomic Structure Isotope
◦ atoms of the same element with different number of neutrons
Ion◦ Atom or group of atoms that have gained or lost
one or more electrons◦ Have a charge
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Average Atomic Mass Atomic Mass
◦ Weighted average based on the relative abundance and mass number for all naturally occurring isotopes
Relative Abundance◦ Percent of each naturally occurring isotope found
in nature
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Atomic Mass C-12 98.9% C-13 1.1%
Carbon = 0.989*12 + 0.011*13 = 12.011u
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Atomic Theories Dalton’s Atomic Model
◦ Also called Hard Sphere Model◦ First model
Plum Pudding Model◦ Uniform positive sphere with negatively charged
electrons embedded within.◦ Came as a result of discovery of electron
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Rutherford Gold Foil Experiment Shot alpha particles at gold foil Most went through, some were deflected
back
Conclusions◦ Atom is Mostly Empty Space◦ Dense positive core (nucleus)
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Atomic Theories Rutherford Model
◦ Dense positive core (nucleus)◦ Electrons moving randomly around nucleus
Bohr Model◦ Dense positive core (nucleus)◦ Electrons in specified circular paths, called energy
levels
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Atomic Theories Wave Mechanical Model
◦ Dense positive core (nucleus)◦ Electrons in orbitals
Regions of space where there is a high probability of finding an electron
◦ Modern (current) Model AKA Quantum Mechanical Model, Electron Cloud
Model
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Electron Configuration The way in which electrons are arranged in
the atom
Ground State◦ When the electrons are in the lowest available
energy level (shown on reference tables)
Excited State◦ When one or more electrons are not in the lowest
available energy level
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Bohr Model Each energy level can only hold up to a
certain number of electrons
Level 1 2 electrons Level 2 8 electrons Level 3 18 electrons Level 4 32 electrons
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Valence Electrons
Electrons in the outermost energy level
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Energy Level Transitions Electrons can move between energy levels
Gaining energy will move an electron outward to a higher energy level
When an electron falls inward to a lower energy level, it releases a certain amount of energy as light
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Nuclear ChemistryChapter 25
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Radioisotopes Nuclei of unstable isotopes are called
radioisotopes.
An unstable nucleus releases energy by emitting radiation during the process of radioactive decay◦ Mass and/or energy
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Radiation Late 1800’s – discovery of radiation
Three Types◦ Alpha◦ Beta◦ Gamma
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Symbols
He42
42
e0101
Alpha
Gamma
Beta
00
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Radiation
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Radiation
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Radiation Three Types
RadiationWhat it
resembles Mass Charge Strength
AlphaHelium Nucleus
4 +2 Weakest
Beta Electron 0 -1 Middle
GammaLight wave
0 0Stronges
t
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Nuclear Stability For smaller atoms a ratio of 1:1 neutrons to
protons helps to maintain stability◦ C-12, N-14, O-16
For larger atoms, more neutrons than protons are required to maintain stability◦ Pb-207, Au-198, Ta-181
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Transmutations Any reaction where one element is
transformed into a different element◦ Nuclear Reactions
Natural◦ Has one reactant◦ Alpha and Beta Decay
Artificial◦ Has more than one reactant◦ Particle Accelerators
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Radioactive Decay Radioisotopes will undergo decay reactions
to become more stable
Alpha Decay
Beta DecayAtFr 216
8542
22087
YSr 9039
01
9038
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Fission Splitting of a larger atom into two or more
smaller pieces◦ Nuclear Power Plants
One Example:
nKrBanU 10
9236
14156
10
23592 3
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Fusion Joining of two or more smaller pieces to
make a larger piece◦ Sun, Stars
Examples: 01
42
11 24 HeH
nHeHH 10
32
21
21
nHeHH 10
42
31
21
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Energy Production Energy is produced by a small amount of
mass being converted to energy◦ More energy is produced by fusion than any other
source
E=mc2
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Fission vs. Fusion Advantages of Fission
◦ Produces a lot of energy◦ Can be a controlled reaction◦ Material is somewhat abundant
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Fission vs. Fusion Disadvantages of Fission
◦ Uses hazardous material◦ Produces hazardous material
Long Half Life◦ Reaction can run out of control.◦ Limited amount of fissionable material
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Fission vs. Fusion Advantages of Fusion
◦ Lighter weight material◦ Easily available material◦ Produces waste that is lighter and has shorter
half-life◦ Produces more energy than fission
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Fission vs. Fusion Disadvantages of Fusion
◦ Must be done at very high temperatures Only been able to attain 3,000,000K
◦ Have not been able to sustain stable reaction for energy production
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Half Life Amount of time for half of a sample to
decay into a new element
Parent Atoms◦ Undecayed atoms
Daughter Atoms◦ Decayed atoms
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Half Life
Number of Half-lives
Fraction left
0 1
1 1/2
2 1/4
3 1/8
4 1/16
5 1/32
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Half Life Number of half-lives
T
tHalfLives #
t = amount of time elapsed
T = half-life
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Half Life Fraction Remaining
T
t
maining
Fraction
2
1
Re
t = amount of time elapsed
T = half-life
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Fraction Remaining
T
t
2
1Mass Left
Original Mass=
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Example How many half lives does it take for a
sample of C-14 to be 11430 yrs old?
25715
11430
y
y
T
t
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Example What fraction of P-32 is left after
42.84days?
8
1
2
1
2
1
2
13
28.14
84.42
d
d
T
t
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Example How long will a sample of Rn-222 take to
decay down to 1/4 of the original sample?
2823.3
2
1
2
1
4
1
d
X2
823.3
d
x
7.646d
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Practice How much Carbon-14 was originally in a
sample that contains 4g of C-14 and is 17145 years old?
8
1
2
1
2
143
5715
17145
y
y
x
g
32g
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More Practice How much 226Ra will be left in a sample that
is 4797 years old, if it initially contained 408g?
8
1
2
1
2
1
408
31599
4797
y
y
g
x
51g
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And One More…. What is the half life of a sample that started
with 144g and has only 9g left after 28days?
428
2
1
16
1
2
1
144
9
x
d
g
g4
28
x
d
7d
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Radioisotopes You must know these radioisotopes and
uses◦ I-131
Diagnosing and treating thyroid disorders◦ Co-60
Treating cancer
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Radioisotopes You must know these radioisotopes and
uses◦ C-14
Dating once-living organisms Compare to C-12
◦ U-238 Dating geologic formations Compare to Pb-206
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Back
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Periodic TableChapter 6
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Dmitri Mendeleev 1869 - Russian chemist and teacher,
proposed a table for organizing elements◦ Arranged the elements by increasing atomic
mass.◦ Left spaces for elements not yet discovered◦ Predicted very closely the properties of Ge, Ga,
Sc, and 5 others
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Periodic Table Arranged in order of increasing atomic
number◦ Columns are called Groups
Numbered 1-18◦ Rows are called Periods
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Periodic Law Periodic Law – When elements are arranged
in order of increasing atomic number, there is a periodic repetition of their physical and chemical properties.
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Group Names Group 1 - Alkali Metals Group 2 - Alkaline earth metals Group 17 – Halogens Group 18 - Inert or Noble gases Groups 3-11 – Transition Metals Bottom 2 rows – Inner Transition
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Valence Electrons Electrons in outermost occupied energy
level
Valence Electrons are responsible for most chemical properties◦ Elements in the same group have similar
properties because they have the same number of valence electrons
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Phases at STP Most elements are solids at STP
Hg and Br are liquids at STP
H, N, O, F, Cl and Noble Gases are all gases at STP
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Classifying Elements Elements are classified into 3 groups based
on their properties:
Metals – Left and Middle
Nonmetals – Right
Metalloids - Staircase
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Metals Good conductors of heat and electrical
current High luster or sheen Many are ductile, meaning they can be
drawn into wires Most are malleable, meaning they can be
hammered into thin sheets
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Nonmetals Most are gases at room temperature, some
are solids, and one is liquid
Most are poor conductors
Most solids are brittle
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Metalloids B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te
Have properties of both metals and nonmetals, based on conditions
Exceptions:◦ Al and Po are metals◦ At is a nonmetal
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Diatomic Elements Eight elements are diatomic molecules
when alone in nature (exist as two atoms bonded together)
H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2, At2
Hydrogen and the Magic 7
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Ions Atom, or group of atoms, that has gained or
lost electrons
Cation – positive ion Anion – negative ion
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Ions When an atom loses an electron, it becomes
positively charged◦ The radius becomes smaller◦ Metals tend to lose electrons
When an atom gains an electron, it becomes negatively charged◦ The radius becomes larger◦ Nonmetals tend to gain electrons
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Properties (Table S) Atomic Radius
◦ Size of the atom
Ionic Radius◦ Size of an ion
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Properties (Table S) First Ionization Energy
◦ Amount of energy required to remove the outermost electron
Electronegativity◦ Ability of an atom to attract an electron from
another atom when in a compound. Noble gases are omitted, don’t form compounds
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Periodic Table Trends Atomic Number
◦ increases across a period.◦ increases down a group
Atomic Mass ◦ generally increases across a period.◦ increases down a group.
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Periodic Table Trends Atomic Radius
◦ Decreases across a period◦ Increases down a group
Ionic Radius◦ Decreases for positive/negative ions across a
period◦ Increases down a group
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Periodic Table Trends First Ionization Energy
◦ Tends to increase across a period◦ Tends to decrease down a group
Electronegativity ◦ Tends to increase across a period◦ Tends to decrease down a group
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Metallic/Nonmetallic Character Metallic Character increases as you move
towards the lower left◦ Most Metallic Element is Francium, Fr
Non-Metallic Character increases as you move towards upper right◦ Most nonmetallic element is Fluorine, F
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Trends Summary
Property Period (LR) Group (TB)
Atomic Number
Atomic Mass
Atomic Radius
Ionic Radius
Ionization Energy
Electronegativity
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Reactivity Elements that are more reactive tend to
either gain or lose electrons very easily Elements that lose electrons easily have low
IE and low EN◦ Lower left, Fr
Elements that gain electrons easily have high IE and high EN◦ Upper right, F
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Back
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BondingChapters 7-8
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Octet Rule Atoms tend to lose or gain electrons to
achieve a full valence shell (8)◦ Exception: First Energy Level is full with 2
electrons
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Electron Dot Structures Diagrams that show valence electrons,
usually as dots◦ AKA Lewis Electron Dot Diagrams
Rules◦ Start on any side◦ First two get paired together◦ Next three are separated◦ Fill in as needed
O
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Ions Atoms that have gained or lost electrons,
and now have a charge
Must show charge
Na+ F- O-2
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Compounds Two Main Types of Compounds
◦ Ionic◦ Molecular (Covalent)
Based on type of bonding involved
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Bonding Bond
◦ Shared or exchanged electrons that hold two atoms together
Three Main Types◦ Covalent◦ Ionic◦ Metallic
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Covalent Bonds Electrons are shared between two atoms to
hold them together◦ Each atom will try to achieve a full valence shell◦ 2 nonmetals
Two types of covalent bonds◦ Non-Polar Covalent – Shared equally◦ Polar Covalent – Shared unequally
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Covalent Bonding
H2
O2
N2
HHSingle Bond
Double Bond
OO
NNTriple Bond
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Covalent Bonding
H2O
CO2
OH
HSingleBond
SingleBond
CO O
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More Examples HCl
NH3
CH4
ClH
NHH
H
CHH
HH
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Bonding Ionic Bond
◦ Electrons are transferred from one atom to another (one gives, one takes)
◦ Metal and nonmetal, NaCl Large electronegativity difference
◦ Polyatomic ion, Mg(NO3)2
More than 2 elements
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Properties Ionic Compounds
◦ Most ionic compounds are hard, crystalline solids at room temperature
◦ High melting points
◦ Mostly soluble in water
◦ Can conduct an electric current when melted or dissolved in water(aq).
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Properties Covalent Compounds
◦ Most molecular compounds tend to have relatively lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds.
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Determining Bond Type Bond type is based on electronegativity
difference (ΔEN) between two bonding atoms
Nonpolar Covalent Bond2 of the same nonmetals (no difference in electronegativity)
Polar Covalent Bond2 different nonmetals (small difference in electronegativity)
Ionic BondMetal and a nonmetal (large difference in electronegativity)
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Determining Bond Polarity The larger the difference in
electronegativity, the more polar the bond. Which is more polar?
H IH BrH ClH F 1.8
1.0
0.8
0.5
ΔEN
BiggestMost Polar
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Dot Structures Shows valence electrons Must show charge for Ions
NaCl
Na+
Cl-
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Polyatomics
Compounds with polyatomic ions contain BOTH ionic and covalent bonds◦ Example: NaNO3
Na+
-NOO
O
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Metallic Bonding Bonding within metallic samples is due to
highly mobile valence electrons◦ Free flowing valence electrons◦ “Sea of Electrons”
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Allotropes Two or more different molecular forms of
the same element in the same physical state◦ Different properties because they have different
molecular structures◦ O2 vs O3
◦ Diamond, Graphite, Fullerenes (pictured on next slide)
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Allotropes
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Network Solids All atoms in a network solid are covalently
bonded together◦ very high melting and boiling points
Examples◦ Diamonds ( C )◦ Graphite ( C )◦ Silicon Dioxide (SiO2)◦ Silicon Carbide (SiC)
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Bond Energy When two atoms form a bond, energy is
released◦ Example: Cl + Cl Cl2 + energy
Energy needs to be added to break a bond◦ Example: Cl2 + energy Cl + Cl
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Molecular Polarity Polar Molecule
◦ one end of a molecule is slightly negative(δ-) and the other end is slightly positive(δ+).
◦ Asymmetrical charge distribution
Nonpolar Molecule◦ Can not be separated into different ends◦ Symmetrical charge distribution
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Polar Molecules
H2O
HCl
NH3
O H
H
δ-
δ+
δ+
H Clδ+ δ-
N
H
δ-
δ+ δ+
δ+
N HH
H
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Nonpolar Examples
CH4
CO2
C H
H
H
H
δ+δ-
δ+
δ+
δ+
O=C=Oδ+
δ- δ-
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Polarity Ionic Compounds are Ionic
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds always indicate Nonpolar Molecules
Polar Covalent Bonds◦ Determine Symmetry
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Polarity Nonpolar Molecules
◦ CH4, CO2, H2, N2, O2, …
Polar Molecules◦ H2O, HCl, HBr, NH3, …
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“Like Dissolves Like” Polar and Ionic substances will dissolve in
other Polar Substances
Nonpolar substance will dissolve in other nonpolar substances
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Intermolecular Forces Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
◦ attraction between two molecules or ions that hold them together (not a bond)
◦ Determines melting and boiling points of compounds
Stronger intermolecular forces, higher melting and boiling points
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Intermolecular Forces Van der Waals
◦ Dispersion◦ Dipole-Dipole
Molecule-Ion Hydrogen Bonding
Weakest
Strongest
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Hydrogen Bonding Hydrogen bonded to N, O, or F, is attracted
to the N, O, or F of another molecule. Not actual bond, just attraction
H F H F
Hydrogen “Bond”
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Back
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Naming and MolesChapter 9-10
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Naming Ions Positive Ions, cations, simply retain their
name.◦ Na+ Sodium Ion◦ Mg2+ Magnesium Ion
Negative Ions, anions, change ending of element to –ide◦ Cl- Chloride Ion◦ Br- Bromide Ion
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Polyatomic Ions Selected polyatomic ions are on Table E in
the Reference Tables.
Polyatomic ions keep their names in most chemical names
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Naming Systems Ionic System
◦ Metals and Nonmetal, more than 2 elements
Stock System (Roman Numerals)◦ Use when the metal element has more than one
positive oxidation number◦ Roman Numeral is the charge of the metal ion
Binary Covalent System (Prefixes)◦ 2 nonmetals (including metalloids)◦ Second element ends in –ide
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Naming Ionic Compounds Name positive ion first, then negative ion.
◦ NaCl Sodium chloride◦ Mg(OH)2 Magnesium hydroxide
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Example
Fe3(PO4)2
Iron(II) Phosphate
-3
-3
+6 -6
PO4
PO4
Fe
Fe
Fe+2
+2
+2
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Roman Numerals
Cation Charge
Roman Numeral
+1 I
+2 II
+3 III
+4 IV
+5 V
+6 VI
+7 VII
+8 VIII
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Binary Covalent Example
N2Cl3◦ Dinitrogen Trichloride
CO2
◦ Carbon Dioxide
PCl5◦ Phosphorus Pentachloride
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Prefixes
Number of atoms Prefix
1 mono-
2 di-
3 tri-
4 tetra-
5 penta-
6 hexa-
7 hepta-
8 octa-
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Avogadro’s Number 6.02 x 1023
Number of representative particles in a mole
1 mol He = 6.02 x 1023 atoms 1 mol H2 = 6.02 x 1023 molecules
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Gram Formula Mass Mass of the formula in g/mol Simply add the atomic masses of each
element in the formula together H2O = 1 + 1 + 16 = 18 g/mol Also known as gram atomic mass, gram
molecular mass, molar mass
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Mole - Mass Conversion
Example: 96 g of Oxygen gas = ? mol
molmolg
gmol 3
/32
96#
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Practice How many moles are there in 506g of
ethanol, C2H6O?
What is the mass of 8 moles of CCl4?
molg
gx
/46
506
molg
xmol
/1548 1232g CCl4
11 mol C2H6O
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Molar Volume At STP, 1 mol of any gas occupies 22.4L of
space
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Mole Road Map
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Percent Composition
%100*Whole
Part
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Percent Composition What is the percent composition of oxygen
in H2SO3?
58.5%
100*82
48
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Hydrates Compounds that have a specific number of
water molecules attached
◦ Dot means plus (+)◦ gfm = 159.5 + 5(18) = 249.5g/mol
CuSO4·5H2O
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Empirical Formula Simplest Whole-Number ratio of atoms in a
compound Examples C6H12O6 CH2O
Molecular Formula is a multiple of the Empirical Formula
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Empirical Formula A molecular formula has an empirical
formula of CH2 and a molecular mass of 28 g/mol.
A molecular formula has an empirical formula of CH2 and a molecular mass of 42 g/mol.
C2H4
C3H6