c) Mineral resourcesCandidates should be able to:

• identify the main locations of limestone, gypsum and rock salt extraction from a map, and understand their uses

• identify the main metallic and non-metallic mineral resources of Pakistan, and in what quantities they(i) are extracted(ii) exist as reserves

• understand the extent to which these can be exploited

• describe the environmental problems caused by mineral extraction

• evaluate the benefits of developing mineral resources and understand the sustainability of extraction

• identify the main imported minerals, where they come from, and in what quantities.Differences between Metallic and non metallic mineralsMetallic Minerals:

I. Metallic mineral re those minerals which can be melted to obtain new products.

II. Iron, cooper, bauxite, tin, manganese are some examples.

III. These are generally associated with igneous rocks.

IV. They are usually hard and have shines or luster of their own.

V. They are ductile and malleable.

VI. When hit, they do not get broken.

Non-Metallic Minerals:

I. Non-metallic minerals are those which do not yield new products on melting.

II. Coal, salt, clay, marble are some examples.

III. These are generally associated with sedimentary rocks.

IV. They are not so hard and have no shine or luster of their own.

V. They are not ductile and malleable.

Methods of mining

Adit mining, a horizontal or near-horizontal passage driven from the Earth’s surface into removing water from a mine.

Where either a vertical shaft or an adit can be used to reach a mineral deposit, the generally lower cost of driving an adit, the saving in the cost of pumping water, and the ease of hoisting ore through the shaft dictate in favour of the adit. Consequently, adits as long as one to three kilometres (one or two miles) are often economically feasible.

The size and cross section of an adit depend upon its use, with a horseshoe shape especially common. The walls may be of the natural rough rock or may be lined with concrete, wood, or steel.

Open-pit mining, open-cut mining or opencast mining is a method of extracting rock or minerals from the earth by their removal from an open pit or borrow.

This form of mining differs from extractive methods that require tunneling into the earth such as long wall mining. Open-pit mines are used when deposits of commercially useful minerals or rock are found near the surface; that is, where the overburden (surface material covering the valuable deposit) is relatively thin or the material of interest is structurally unsuitable for tunneling

(as would be the case for sand, cinder, and gravel). For minerals that occur deep below the surface - where the overburden is thick or the mineral occurs as veins in hard rock - underground mining methods extract the valued material.

Open-pit mines that produce building materials and dimension stone are commonly referred to as quarries.

Open-pit mines are typically enlarged until either the mineral resource is exhausted, or an increasing ratio of overburden to ore makes further mining uneconomic.

A haul road is usually situated at the side of the pit, forming a ramp up which trucks can drive, carrying ore and waste rock.

Waste rock is piled up at the surface, near the edge of the open pit. This is known as the waste dump. The waste dump is also tiered and stepped, to minimize degradation.

Ore which has been processed is known as tailings, and is generally a slurry. This is pumped to a tailings dam or settling pond, where the water evaporates. Tailings dams can often be toxic due to the presence of unextracted sulfide minerals, some forms of toxic minerals in the gangue, and often cyanide which is used to treat gold ore via the cyanide leach process. This toxicity has the potential to negatively impact on the surrounding environment.

Open-cast, or strip, coal mining at Garzweiler, Germany

Open-pit sulfur mining at Tarnobrzeg, Poland currently in land rehabilitation process

RehabilitationAfter mining finishes, the mine area must undergo rehabilitation. Waste dumps are contoured to flatten them out, to further stabilise them. If the ore contains sulfides it is usually covered with a layer of clay to prevent access of rain and oxygen from the air, which can oxidise the sulfides to produce sulfuric acid, a phenomenon known as acid mine drainage. This is then

generally covered with soil, and vegetation is planted to help consolidate the material. Eventually this layer will erode, but it is generally hoped that the rate of leaching or acid will be slowed by the cover such that the environment can handle the load of acid and associated heavy metals. There are no long term studies on the success of these covers due to the relatively short time in which large scale open pit mining has existed. It may take hundreds to thousands of years for some waste dumps to become "acid neutral" and stop leaching to the environment. The dumps are usually fenced off to prevent livestock denuding them of vegetation. The open pit is then surrounded with a fence, to prevent access, and it generally eventually fills up with ground water. In arid areas it may not fill due to deep groundwater levels.

Materials typically extracted from open-pit mines include:

Clay Coal Copper Coquina Diamonds Gravel and stone (stone refers to bedrock, while gravel is

unconsolidated material, as found in glacial or fluvial deposits)

Granite Gritstone Gypsum Limestone Marble

Metal ores, such as Copper, Iron, Gold, Silver and Molybdenum

Uranium

Shaft Mining

Shaft mining is the earnest form of underground mining. Underground mining is selected when the rock or mineral is so far to reach using surface mining. Shaft mining is the kind of mine that you normally see in movies where the miner travels straight down into a profound, dark tunnel until he reaches the base.

The shaft mine has a perpendicular man shaft, a tunnel where the men move up and down in an elevator. Equipment is taken deep inside the mine using this shaft, too. Short tunnels to the ore are excavated from that man shaft. When the ore is dynamited and broken into chunks, it is taken to the apex and loaded into trucks via a second shaft. There is normally an airshaft that gives the mine ventilation.

Tunnels are deepen and the mine is made bigger until there isn't any ore left, or it costs so much money to get it out. Although those old movies show deserted mines that spooky people travel through, the majority mines are filled with some kind of cement or filler when mining is done. This keeps the land round it from sinking when the in mine beams rot away. It is a safer way to close a mine

List of minerals found in Pakistan

Metallic

Aluminium Antimony

Chromite

Coal Copper Dolomite Gold Iron ore

Fire clay

Glass sand Granite Graphite Gypsum

Lead Magnesite Manganese Tungsten

Zinc

Non-Metallic

Asbestos Barite Brine Calcite Kaolin Limestone Marble Mica Rock phosphate Potash Quartz Radioactive minerals Rock salt Silica sand Soapstone Sulphur

Main Minerals in PAkistan Limestone

Lime (Calcium Oxide-CaO) is not found in CaO form in nature. Calcium Carbonate which is the main source of lime is found in the term of minerals Calcite and Aragenite. Limestone may vary from pure Calcium Carbonate to pure Dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2].Lime stone is extensively used in Cement, Hydrated lime, Glass and Ceramic industry.

Pakistan is bestowed with extensive deposits of suitable quality limestone in Sindh. In sindh it is found in Ganjo Takkar, Murli Hills, Mango Pir, Cape Monze, Kot Diji and Ranipir. It is used mainly in the

manufacture of cement. Road making, building construction and in the chemicals industries Lime Stone is present in salt Range Potwar Plateau, Margalla Hills and Zinda Pir (Attock) in large deposits.

suitable quality of limestoneis also found in the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and NorthernAreas. The average annual production of limestone is 8697 Metric tons used mainly in the manufacture of cement. Road making, building construction and in the chemicals industries.

In the province of Balochistan, the average annual production of limestone is 8697 Metric tons, used mainly in the manufacturing of cement, Road making, building construction and in the chemicals industries. It is graded as high quality limestone found in Pakistan.

Gypsum:The largest resources of gypsum found in Pakistan are in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The reserves are mainly found in D.I.Khan & Kohat district .

Punjab stands 2nd in gypsum deposits.The major

deposits of Gypsum are in Dadukhel in Mianwali area which is about 53 million tons. Other resources are in Rakhi-Munh, Khewra and Safed koh-Rodo area. Gypsum is also found in Suleman Range of D.G. Khan, Punjab.

According to geological servey of Pakistan, about 2000 million ton gypsum resources are present in different areas of Baluchistan.

Wednesday, April 8, 2009

World’s largest salt mines located in Pakistan

ISLAMABAD: Pakistan is the only country for having the world’s largest salt mines with proven reserves of about 10 billion ton in three mines including more than 6.687 billion ton only in the Khewra rocky salt mine, located in the area of district Jhelum. Other two salt mines are Warcha and Kalabagh.The main habitat of salt lies there in Punjab at Khewra in Tehsil Pind Dadan Khan, District Jhelum. The salt found here at Khewra Salt Mines is the best, finest and in natural state in the world. Salt was first worked out in Khewra which is at about 175 km and the history tells that long before the Alexander the great invaded the area, Salt was being mined at Khewra at that time.At present the Khewra Salt Mine is being managed by Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation (PMDC). According to availability of data with PMDC, it is said that still large quantities of salt exist in its unexplored areas of the mines.The annual production of salt at Khewra is about 300,000 tonnes according to the data. According to the available data there is still enough salt to last about 400 years to come in the existing mines. These reports reveal that about 534, 512 tonnes of fine rock Salt

had been extracted up to 1850 and till March 1923 the production obtained from Khewra Salt Mines was 49,71,420 tonnes. Not only we meet our salt requirements from the Khewra Salt Mines, but Pakistan also exports salt to India to the tune of 10 thousand to 18 thousand tonnes annually. It is also a source of earning foreign exchange for the government. Khewra Salt Mines has 1290 meters long tunnels. The mine is an open challenge to an adventurous spirit. It has 17 levels and there are 50 feet of rock salt between each level in which there are very large chambers, made when salt was extracted. It is pertinent to mention here that Pakistan is a land of rich natural wealth including precious metals and fluids beneath it like iron, gold, silver, bronze, gas, gypsum and rubies. The richness of our soil is unbelievable having rich treasures of nature beneath the surface.

Source: pakhtun khaw times

Salt:Salt deposits are mainly found in the salt Range (160 kms in length, east and west trending mountainous arc between Rivers Jhelum and Indus). Rock salt is mined at Khewra, Warcha, Kalabagh, Bhadurkhel, Jatta and karak salt Mines by Pakistan Mineral Development corporationPunjab Mineral Development Corporation operates Chakwal and Khushab salt mines. According to Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation, the rock salt reserves within the area of their mining operation are around 600 million tons

Salt:Bright prospects exist for the development of high purity solar salt facility around the coastal areas of Karachi. Solar salt so produced has export potential to the growing southeast Asian Chemical industries and for the growing industries established throughout the country

Problems and solutions:

the mineral deposits of Pakistan are huge but there seems a definite lack of will which is hindering the development of minerals. Taking a 360 degree view, a few things are obvious. Firstly, there is a visible lack of technology available for the miners. Most mine owners are medium to small who are unable to afford expensive machines.As mining is a capital as well as technology intensive industry, huge capital backed with latest technology is imperative. The government must support the mining industry through reduced duty on import of machinery and project funding and sharing otherwise there is little hope for the industry

The mining carried in the country is still based upon the century old techniques where miners dig the coal from underneath thousands of feet (going as deep as 8000 ft.) and carry in sacks of almost 100 kgs on their backs way up or in some instances to a station in between from where the haulage trolley carry it to the surface. The seams of the mines also vary from one to another as in Mach it may be as small as less as a foot and as large as 9 feet in Duki.Another important issue faced by the miners is the lack of security of tenure. At this time the government can take away the lease any time citing reasons low extraction, slow work progress etc. This reason alone is enough to deter investment in the field. The mineral development Act of 1948 is still in place which also needs to be addressed.Mineral department is not only weak in coordination but sometimes works in a non transparent manner, ignoring the mandatory requirement for grant of licenses and leases under political influence. This is very true in case of the Employees Old Age Benefit Institute (EOBI), which is directly related to mine workers welfare. It is mandatory for the contractors (mentioned in the lease granting application), to register their workers with EOBI, and if they do not do so, then their license would be immediately canceled. Employees Old Age Benefits Act 1976-amended says that any mine having minimum five workers must follow the rule. However, majority of the lessee have not registered their workers with the relevant department for the provision of pension, neither the regional office of Mines Department has taken initiative to ensure the implementation of such rules. The contractors also accuse that some officials of regional directorate bypass the rules and regulations and ignore the merit due to their vested interested. Mining has a high presence in the poor areas of Pakistan providing employment and effecting income generation in less developed areas so a complete overhauling is

imperative to reduce poverty and bring revenue.Another very important issue related with the mining industry is the effect on the environment. Mining and quarrying sector is subjugated by the commercial entities. The activities related to quarrying and mining adversely affect the environment either directly through devastating the ecology and natural resources or indirectly by disquieting the health and livelihood of workers and the communities. In view of the poverty-environment nexus, poor people become more vulnerable due to reduced access to their already available limited natural resources as well as adverse effects of environment on their health and ineffective services provisions.Environmental impact of mining and quarrying activities can never be determined merely by the damage it causes to the ecology. It is pertinent to examine the quarrying and mining from at least three dimensions:a. Environmental release (process);b. Environmental effects; and,c. Environmental impact (or damage).The environmental release is the transfer of material or energy to the external environment or outside the process boundary, i.e. by means of (i) solid/mine waste (ii) gaseous emissions (iii) drainage, and, (iv) dust from an open pit.In order to improve the situation, the issue of lack of transparency must be addressed. Similarly, all the provisional mining departments much be centralized as well. To further understand the issue, the following issues are imperative to be understood.Understaffing of Regional Directorates: Regional directorate of minerals and mines is heavily understaffed. There is only one mine inspector to visit for a whole district and only one Assistant Director of License to look after the licenses issues in the whole region. Hence the officials are neither able to visit the mine sites nor are they able to impart important trainings on health and safety issues to the mineworkers. Lack of technical know-how and proper data:Data inconsistency is common in the data provided by the Provincial Offices and District Offices on licenses, leases, budget, revenues, etc. Although the regional offices have recently got modern facilities like computers, they are under staffed and do not have skilled data entry operators to make use of those computers.regional offices is not very reliable and does not help towards well-informed policy initiatives.Lack of interest of the foreign investors:Although the FDI inflow in mining and quarrying sector in Pakistan has increased yet

deteriorating law and order situation and security issues are proving to be major barriers against the inflow of FDI to specially in Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. There is lack of interest of the foreign investors in quarrying and mining sector due to unstable policies as well.Lack of interest of the stakeholders in environmental issues:Ironically, none of the stakeholders seem interested in the environmental issues. The coordination unit has conducted many meetings in this respect. Dust control and controlled blasting regulations are rarely followed and it is mandatory for all the crushers to install the dust controllers in their crushing plants. The licenses of those not following these rules can be cancelled. However, the relevant departments despite many complaints do not take any action against violators. Awareness rising on environmental issues is one of the prerequisite for dealing the above-mentioned issues. Environmental awareness raising requirement can be achieved by means of training and information sharing through effective management to all stakeholders at all levels, i.e. from the grassroots including local communities to policy makers and law enforcing authorities. To improve the situation, awareness on the effects of quarrying and mining on ecology, culture, health and livelihood must be spread. Local initiative pertaining to pro-poor development, i.e. provision of safe drinking water at the door step, agro-forestry, forestation, etc., with the collaboration of CBOs, NGOs and local government could give sustainable solutions to most of the problems related to quarrying and mining by utilizing their traditional knowledge. There is a need to raise awareness of the local communities on cost and benefit analysis of the damages caused due to quarrying and mining activities. Furthermore, the community should be capacitated to realize the monetary and non-monetary benefits/compensation of participatory rehabilitation, environmental protection and improvement. Specialized training sessions of the workers/labors should be imparted by the Directorate of Mines and Minerals and awareness raising sessions by the CBOs and NGOs on Health hazards due to emissions from mining and quarrying and preventive measures Technical training.Contractors/Lease Holders/ and Miners must be provided technical training on waste management and drainage from the mines and its solid waste. Adoption of new methods and techniques at the mining sites to reduce environmental damage either through control of emission or drainage or water depletion must be encouraged.

Proper regulations and monitoring of the mining sites should be the priority of the government. Mines Department should ensure the EIA of each mining site. Monitoring of environmental damages must be done in collaboration with foresters, service Providers, environmentalists and mine owners. Training on coordination mechanism (in terms of responsibilities) focusing on linkages between Environment, Quarrying, Mining and Livelihood and between the end users of the resources and other stakeholders, mining companies/miners and research and development has to be generated.Lack of foreign investors in this sector is a worrying sign. Strong coordination among policy makers and implementing agencies is desired to overcome the gap. Government should give incentives advance machinery, loans, etc to local miner to induce interest. Most importantly, there must be proper law for the surface rent ( Malikana) with the involvement of minerals department. Without safety of the tenure, local investors will continuously to shy away from investing