(Relatively Modern) Egyptian History

• 1800s: Independent State (under the Ottoman Empire)– Pasha (Khedive) Muhammad Ali

• 1850s: deLesseps & French build Suez Canal– Forced Labor– Opened 1869

• 1875: British buy controlling stake in canal from Ismail ($4 mill pounds)

• 1882: British Occupation– 1888: Canal zone = neutral, under British

protection

• 1914 (to end of WWI): Protectorate of the British

(Relatively Modern) Egyptian History

• 1919: Revolution– Against British Occupation– Wafd Party

• Nationalist, liberal, independence party 20s & 30s

• 1922 UK recognizes independence– Why?

• 1923: Egyptian Constitution– Developed by the Wafd

• 1936-1952: King Farouk I– Tool of the British

• 1952: Egyptian Revolution / Military Coup– Nasser

The Constituent Assembly of 1923 was composed of only 30 members

source: Magles Al-Shaab Al-Masry (The Egyptian People's Assembly), Bibliotheca Alexandrina, 2008

The opening session of the 1924 parliament, headed by the King

Khedive Ismail's letter to Sherif Pasha, the

prime minister, on the Shura Council

regulations

parliament convening in 1913

Article 3 of the 1923 constitution declared

all Egyptians equal with the same

political and civil rights. It also stressed that there should be no discrimination on

the basis of race, language or religion

The Young Nasser

• Arab-Israeli War of 1948– Skilled tactician & strategist

• Promotion to instructor at Royal Military Academy

• 1949: Founded “Free Officers” movement– 1952 military coup

“Free Officers” MovementGoal: Establish a democratic government by force

Create a MODERN, Orderly, Viable state

New regime led by Free Officers organizational skills, military discipline and authority

Members of new government represented the ordinary people and not just the privileged people claimed to represent people no other parties were needed

Nasser originated from rural poor, symbolized the new Egypt, spoke their language and understood their plight

“The Egyptian masses were to weak to start a revolutionary action to improve their lot, so we your brothers started it for you, but you are the revolution” (Nasser Speech)

Officers became instant bureaucrats and cabinet ministers

Egypt 1952

• King Farouk’s government was replaced with the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC)– King sent into exile

• 1923 Constitution = withdrawn

• RCC obtained the right to rule

• Under new regime Nasser became Vice President and Naghib was President– 1954 Nasser seizes power

• Naghib accused of being a tool of the communists & Muslim Brotherhood

• under house arrest (18 yrs – released by Sadat in ‘72)

Nasser:“The embodiment of what the Arab world wanted to be: assertive, independent and engaged in the construction of a new society freed from the imperial past and oriented towards a bright Arab future”

(William Cleveland)

6 principles that grew out of the "Egyptian people's revolutionary will":

• 1. destruction of imperialism and its stooges among Egyptian traitors

• 2. ending of feudalism

• 3. ending monopoly and the domination of capital over the Government

• 4. establishment of social justice

• 5. building of a powerful national army

• 6. establishment of a sound democratic system

Goal: Modernize Egypt

• Topics to address:– Poverty– Ignorance– “National oblivion”– Neglect of Egypt’s

infrastructure– No sense of national

identity or pride in Egypt

• 1956: New Constitution– 1 Party State

• Arab Socialist Union representing people of Egypt– Disillusionment with

liberal government• Elections did not take

place…

• Redistribute Wealth– What does that mean?

IBM in Egypt

IBM's Cairo office

Installation at the Egyptian-American Joint Committee for Education, December 1955

IBM won its first contract in Egypt in 1953, and opened its first office in 1954

Graduates of the IBM EAM school in August 1956

Islamic Modernization• It’s definitely Modernization

• It’s definitely Socialism

• If this were anywhere other than post-colonial Egypt, would we be calling it Westernization?

Domestic Policies• Political:

– Government structure, laws– Single party state

• what happens to other groups?

• Economic:– Policies, prices, wages, Arab

socialism/Nasserism

• Social:– Rights– Education, arts– Women, children– Minorities

Centralize power within the presidency• Aka Authoritarianism

• Democracy leaves the door open for bourgeois capitalist take over

• Not a theocracy• Islam as state religion, not as state

government• And Non-Aligned with Cold War Power Players

• So not democratic or communist

Repress the Opposition (SPS)

• Communist Party and the Muslim Brotherhood were severely repressed

• 1954: Attempted assassination of Nasser– More than 4,000 MB

activists arrested– 6 MB leaders executed

• 1966: 1,000 Brothers are arrested– 365 tried and the top

leaders executed, including Sayyid Qutb

• Some argue that “When Nasser sent Qutb to the gallows in 1966, it sparked the birth of the jihadist movement” – (CNN Opinion)Muslim Brotherhood Goal:

State founded on Sharia lawIslam dictates P-E-S direction of a state

Arab Nationalism Pan-Arabism

Arab world = nation

Common: Language (Arabic), religion (Islam), history, territory, enemies…

Remove dependencies on the west (origins revolts against imperialism)

Peak under Egyptian leadership

Key Figures:--Nasser, Egypt--Gaddafi, Libya--Ba’ath Party (Iraq)

Unification 7 solidarity in the Arab world

“Supranational communalism”

Alliances

Economic co-operation

Attempts at an Arab Union

*Six-Day war defeat

Arab Socialism

Pan-Arabism + Socialism

Only a socialist system of property and development would overcome the social and economic legacy of imperialism and colonialism

Public control over the means of production = State-run centralized planned economy..but not necessarily nationalization of everything…

Retain private property (But, private property may be subject to public control)

End privileges of large landowners build popular support amongst poor

Series of welfare measures Sense of Communalism

Agrarian Reform Act - farmers better life, fairer distribution of land Labor Laws, raise in minimum wage, reduction in working hours

Full emancipation of women?

Nasserism

• Arab nationalist political ideology

• + Arab Socialism

• 1950s & 1960s

• Focus on ending Western influence

• NAM

Domestic Policy SocietyArab Socialism Nasserism

• Social services provided

• Education reform– Compulsory primary education

• Food and Shelter– Food and clothing subsides– Rent control & low cost housing

• Health care– Increased funding of the health care system and the Ministry of Public Health

• Improve working conditions– Minimum Wage– Ban child employment under age 12

Hugo Chavez, the Venezuelan president, to Al--Jazeera in 2006:

• Someone talked to me about his pessimism regarding the future of Arab nationalism. I told him I was optimistic, because the ideas of Nasser are still alive. Nasser was one of the greatest people of Arab history, to say the least, a Nasserist, ever since I was a young soldier.

From Modern Moderate to Authoritarian

Appealing to the west• Educated, Modern,

Moderate

• Land distribution program– Economic development

• Aswan Dam– World Bank Loan

Scary as all get up• Arab-Israeli Relations

• 1956: – Supports Jordan’s anti-British

moves– Diplomatic recognition of

Communist China• PRC since 1949• No US recognition until ‘70s

• PM Anthony Eden’s vendetta Suez Crisis 1956

Aswan Dam = Cold War Hot Spot• Egypt sought foreign aid to

build Aswan Dam– Nile River

• U S & GB declined to help

• Egypt = political and military ties to USSR

• USSR rushes aid to Egypt

• Wedge drawn between Egypt and the West

Nasser Triumphant• 1956 Suez Crisis– Brits & French = disgraced– US (Ike) have to step into Mid East– USSR = crush Hungarian uprising as signal to the world, emerge as

viable alternative in Mid East– Israel = Military might & US support

• Nasser = Champion of the Arab World

• Oil can be used as a weapon of diplomacy (foreshadowing)

Domestic Policies The Economy• Nationalization of Suez (1956)

• Late 1957:– Nationalization of remaining

French & British assets in Egypt

• Aswan Dam– Hydroelectricity– Water control– 1964: 1st stage of construction

completed– 1970: High Dam project

completed

• 1952 Agrarian Reform Law– Minimum wage– Rental rates & lease durations– Cooperatives

• 5 yr plan– Heavy industrialization

• Continued under Sadat

• Soviet Investment (Aswan Dam)– Cold War Tug of War

• US investment after 6 day war– Eisenhower Doctrine

Non-Aligned Movement• 1955: Bandung Conference

• 1961: NAM – Founders: Egypt, Ghana, India, Indonesia, & Yugoslavia

Goals:

National independence, sovereignty

Territorial integrity

Security of non-aligned countries in their struggle against imperialism, colonialism, racism, foreign aggression, occupation, domination

United Arab Republic(Foreign meets Domestic policy)

• Founded in 1958 • Union between Egypt and Syria

President Gamal Abdul Nasser with Baath Party founders

Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Bitar in 1958 / Aflaq (left) and Bitar were prime advocates of the Syrian-Egyptian Union and

dissolved their party at will for the sake of the United Arab

Republic (UAR)

Arab-Israeli Wars: A Brief History• May 14, 1948: State of Israel

declares independence

• Israeli War of Independence/ "al-Nakba" (The Disaster) (1948-1949)– Invaded by 6 Arab nations:

Egypt, Syria, Transjordan (later Jordan), Lebanon, Iraq and Saudi Arabia

• 1949 Armistice Agreements– New borders of Israel = 78% of

Mandatory Palestine • 50% more than originally

anticipated– Gaza Strip = occupied by Egypt– West Bank = occupied by Jordan

Six Day War

• June 5-10, 1967– Between Israel and an alliance

of Egypt, Syria, and Jordan

• Egyptian military posturing– Preemptive Israeli air strike

• Egypt closed Strait of Tiran to all Israeli ships and ships carrying supplies for Israel (again)– Legal grounds to go to war

under international law

Israeli Forces

• The Israeli army had a total strength, including reservists, of 264,000, though this number could not be sustained, as the reservists were vital to civilian life.

• James Reston, writing in The New York Times on May 23, 1967, noted– "In discipline, training, morale,

equipment and general competence his [Nasser's] army and the other Arab forces, without the direct assistance of the Soviet Union, are no match for the Israelis.... Even with 50,000 troops and the best of his generals and air force in Yemen, he has not been able to work his way in that small and primitive country, and even his effort to help the Congo rebels was a flop."

Six Day War Israel Triumphant

• Arab armies = devastated– Israel gained:

• Sinai Peninsula from Egypt

• West Bank from Jordan• Golan Heights from Syria

• 1967: UN Resolution 242 – Passed by UNSC

– Called for:• Return of the territory

seized by Israel• Recognition of Israel by

the Arab states• Reaffirmation of the

principle of free navigation• Future peace and stability

in the region.

Name: ________________

Key Events and Impacts in Modern Egyptian History Nasser and the 1950s19

50s:

Fre

e O

ffice

rs M

ovem

ent

June

195

6 Co

nstit

ution

Oct

ober

195

6-M

arch

195

7: S

uez C

risis

July

195

7: N

ation

al A

ssem

bly

elec

tions

Febr

uary

195

8: U

AR D

ecla

red

(195

8-19

71)

1958

: 5 Y

ear P

lan

1956

: Nas

ser C

oup

July

195

6: N

ation

aliza

tion

Janu

ary

1957

: US

Adop

ts

Eise

nhow

er D

octr

ine

Ex. U

S re

spon

se to

Sue

z Cris

is,

affirm

ation

of r

enew

ed in

regi

on a

nd

ackn

owle

dgm

ent o

f str

ateg

ic lo

catio

n,

oil,

and

Cold

War

sign

ifica

nce

Late

195

7: N

ation

aliza

tion

of

rem

aini

ng E

urop

ean

asse

ts

Mar

ch 1

958:

Nati

onal

Ass

embl

y cl

osed

Directions: write the significance/impacts for each event

1961

: Ara

b So

cial

ism(O

ct. 1

961:

con

fisca

ted

prop

erty

from

“re

actio

nary

ca

pita

lists

”)

1964

: Pre

siden

t of N

on-A

ligne

d M

ovem

ent,

2nd

NAM

con

fere

nce

held

in C

airo

Mar

ch 1

965:

Re-

elec

ted

Pres

iden

t (6

yr. t

erm

)

May

196

7: S

ix D

ay W

ar

Janu

ary

1968

: War

of A

ttriti

on w

ith Is

rael

(1

967-

1970

)

28 S

epte

mbe

r 197

0: D

eath

of N

asse

r

1971

: Col

laps

e of

the

UAR

Janu

ary

1964

: Ara

b Le

ague

sum

mit

in C

airo

1964

: Asw

an D

am –

firs

t sta

ge o

f con

stru

ction

co

mpl

eted

1966

: Exe

cute

d Sa

yyed

Qut

b, le

ader

of t

he

Mus

lim B

roth

erho

od

Nov

embe

r 196

7: A

ccep

t of U

N R

esol

ution

242

July

197

0: H

igh

Dam

com

plet

ed

Oct

ober

197

0: A

nwar

Sad

at a

ssum

es P

resid

ency

(a

ssas

sinat

ed b

y fu

ndam

enta

list a

rmy

office

rs in

19

81)

Oct

ober

: 197

3: Y

om K

ippu

r War

Key Events and Impacts in Modern Egyptian History From Nasser to Sadat

June 1956New Constitution

-Islam-President (6 yrs)

-Universal suffrage-National Assembly

Wary of more democratic measures

benefit of the bourgeois

July 1957National Assembly

Elections-Women voted

-Poor underrepresented

March 1958National Assembly

closed-UAR declared

Rawya Attiya, in military garb, canvassing the support that would make her Egypt's first female parliamentarian

(1957)

July 1956Suez Canal

Nationalized

October 1956 – March 1957Suez Crisis

1950

s Fre

e O

ffice

rs M

ovem

ent &

Cou

p

1956

Nas

ser C

oup

The man at the tap

Jank

owsk

i, Ja

mes

P. N

asse

r's E

gypt

, Ara

b N

ation

alism

, and

the

Uni

ted

Arab

Rep

ublic

. Bou

lder

, CO

: Lyn

ne R

ienn

er,

2001

. Prin

t

Robert Stephens Nasser (1971)Although afraid of creating a military dictatorship, Nasser and the Free Officers banned opposition parties, student groups, and trade unions, in hopes of creating a mass movement of the people behind the Liberation Rally – but Nasser was dismayed to find the masses did not follow the army’s charge, but hung back as on-lookers.

Anthony Nutting from Nasser (1972) But at the outset, Nasser’s aims and ambitions were strictly limited to the eviction of the British. Far from being directed against the throne, his initial object was, so he subsequently told me, to try and put some stuffing into the king and by creating a military opposition to British imperialism within the army, to strength Farouk’s resistance to further encroachments on Egypt’s sovereignty. Neither Nasser nor his conspirators had any love for the king or his palace clique.

Peter Mansfield, A History of the Middle East (1991)The years 1956-1959 marked the high tide of Nasserism as he seemed to sweep all before him. His appeal to the Arabs – especially the younger generation, who formed the majority – was overwhelming. They saw him as a modern Saladin who would unite them in order to drive out the Zionists, the crusaders of the 20th century. The danger for Nasser was that he was rising expectations which neither he nor Egypt could fulfill.

Said Aburish, Nasser: The Last Arab (2004)There is no escaping the conclusion that Nasser represented an odd type of dictator. He manifested a need to be loved. . . which most other dictators do not have. His dictatorship was a mixture of populism and a need to be accepted as a man of principle.

Anne Alexander’s Nasser (2005)By the 1952 coup, Nasser’s claim that parliament democracy would return seemed highly unlikely and Nasser himself claimed “in a year and half we have been able to wipe out corruption. If the right to vote were restored, the same landowners would be elected – the feudal interest. We don’t want the capitalists and the wealthy back in power. If we open the government to them now, the revolution might just as well be forgotten . . .” Despite widespread poverty and illiteracy, Egyptian agriculture was actually highly capitalized, mechanized and well integrated into the world economy. But the Officers’ campaign struck a social and emotional chord with millions.

Martin Meredith, The State of Africa (2006)Yet whatever disasters befell Egypt, Nasser never lost his popularity with the masses. When after the 1967 defeat , he announced his resignation, popular protests propelled him back into office. His reputation as the man who stripped the old ruling class of their power, nationalized their wealth, booted out foreigners, restored to Egypt a sense of dignity and self-respect and led the country towards national regeneration – all of this counted for far more than the setbacks.

Eric Hobsbawm in Revolutionaries (2007) Although illegal in the use of force, the military takeover was a genuinely innovating military regime of the type that appear where the necessity of social revolution is evident, where several of the objective conditions of it are present, but also where the social bases or institutions of civilian life are too feeble to carry it out. The armed forces, being in some cases, the only available force with the capacity to take and carry out decisions, may have to take the place of civilian forces, even to the point of turning their officers into administrators.