relief and landscape factors (a task from agricultur faculty)

9
MAIN ORIGINAL TEXT The effect of aspect on soil development and vegetaton was studied on a small hill on the south side of the Snake River in an arid region of south central Idaho (Klennedson 1964) (Table 9.1). The hill stood about 200 feet high and was 1,500 feet long and 800 feet wide. It was a deposit of Crownest outhwash gravel, exposed for at least 18,000 years. Lithology is quartzite, prophyry, and granite. The vegetation is sagebrush grass, distuerbed by uniform grazing and occasional fires. Data were collcted along a north-south transect and an oval transect along a contour at an average slope of 37%. In 1962 the following comparisons were made between north and south slopes. It should be noted that the organic matter content of the top 10 cm of soil is greater on the north slope than on the south slope even though the production of herbage was reversed. This is generally considerd to be result of higher soil temperatures on south- facing slopes, causing more rapid organic mineralization. The greater intensity of insolation, however, places the plants under a greater moisture strees and reduces their production of root. Losche (1967), found in the mountains of Virginia that the upper part of the south-facing slopes was composed of Pinus rigida and Quercus coccinea, whereas Quercus coccinea predominated on the lower part of the slope. On the north- facing slope the dominant species were Quercus rubra, Quercus coccinea, Quercus prinus, and Carya spp. As part of the same study in the western part of North Carolina he found that on the lower part of the north-facing slope, Liriodenron tulipifera

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MAIN ORIGINAL TEXTThe effect of aspect on soil development and vegetaton was studied on a small hill on the south side of the Snake River in an arid region of south central Idaho (Klennedson 1964) (Table 9.1). The hill stood about 200 feet high and was 1,500 feet long and 800 feet wide. It was a deposit of Crownest outhwash gravel, exposed for at least 18,000 years. Lithology is quartzite, prophyry, and granite. The vegetation is sagebrush grass, distuerbed by uniform grazing and occasional fires. Data were collcted along a north-south transect and an oval transect along a contour at an average slope of 37%. In 1962 the following comparisons were made between north and south slopes. It should be noted that the organic matter content of the top 10 cm of soil is greater on the north slope than on the south slope even though the production of herbage was reversed. This is generally considerd to be result of higher soil temperatures on south-facing slopes, causing more rapid organic mineralization. The greater intensity of insolation, however, places the plants under a greater moisture strees and reduces their production of root.Losche (1967), found in the mountains of Virginia that the upper part of the south-facing slopes was composed of Pinus rigida and Quercus coccinea, whereas Quercus coccinea predominated on the lower part of the slope. On the north-facing slope the dominant species were Quercus rubra, Quercus coccinea, Quercus prinus, and Carya spp. As part of the same study in the western part of North Carolina he found that on the lower part of the north-facing slope, Liriodenron tulipifera and Quercus rubra dominated, and Quercus prinus, Quercus rubra, and Carya spp. composed the major part of he canopy on the upper slope. The south-facing slope was dominated by Quercus coccinea and Pinus rigida. Upon analyzing the litter under each site, he found that more basic cations wer recycled and accumulated on the forest floor of the north facing slope than on the south-facing slope. More clay and more pronounced argilic horizons were found on the south-facing slopes than on the north-facing slopes. The depth of organic litter accumulation was greater on the north-facing slope than on the south-facing slope.Table 9.1Some characteristic of tesseras on north and south slopes of an isolated hill in Idaho

ItemNorth SlopeSouth Slope

% gravel by vol. in 0-10 cm soil520 (max. of 40% somewhat downslope)

% organic carbon in 0-10 cm soil126

Water retenntion capacity in 0-10 cm soil, in kg/0.1 m26.23.2

Dominant vegetationPerennial grasses (Poa, Stipa)Annuals (Bromus, Salsola)

Wt. of dry herbage in g/m50100

Relative root wt/per unit volume of soil, on the basis of 100% for the north slope10037

Klemmedson, 1964.

RELIEF RELATED TO INITIAL MATERIAL.In many cases, relief prior to and during soil formation is related to the nature of the initial soil material. In broad river deltas, crests of natural levees near the stream channels have coarser material than the areas beyond the levees that are very nearly level and have the finer textured initial material (Russell 1967).In steeper topography where the valleys below the mountain rangers are characterized by broad alluvial-colluvial fans, the initial material near the mountain range contains more coarse and angular material than areas farther away from the mountain range (Birot 1960).RELIEF RELATED TO TIMW.Relief changes with time. Therefore, the age of soil is determined to a large extent by the stability of the surface. Soil erosion is often discussed with the inference that it is detrimental because of the effects of washing or blowing soil material caused by the mismanagement of the land by man. In addition to man-made or accelerated erosion is the natural geologic erosion, which can be thought of as a continuous process but actually occurs sporadically. Coexistent with erosion is deposition. In the case of water erosion, the removal of material is usually from the sloping position of the landscape, and the deposition takes place in the valleys and depressions. Wind erosion may be independent of slope direction. Wind erosion is severe on slopes facing predominant strong winds during seasons of the year when the surface is relatively devoid of vegetation.If one conceives of the deepening of soil as taking place by the extension of weathering into the geologic substratum as measured from the air-soil interface, it is easy to see that erroneous relationships of soil depth as related to slope position and weathering instensities are possible because erosion and deposition of soil material is primarily at the soil-air interface. The absolute position of the soil-air interface is seen to change during the course of soil formation. Such changes are very difficult to measure.In addition to losses or grains of soil material at the soil-air interface related to slope there is also creep or solifluction of the entire soil volume downslope (Birot 1960). This can often be seen by observing the bowed shape of trees growing in such situations. In general, the upper part of the soil profile tends to move faster than the lower part and the trees are tilted downslope. A growing tree than attempts to correct for this and to return to a vertical posture, with the result that it bends with convex side in a downslope direction (Fig. 9.1).Geomorphology is the science that deals with the form or relief features of the earths surface, classifies these features, and attempts to explain their origin and history. Because the formation of soil takes place at the earths surface, the processes of soil formation are influenced-by geomorphic changes. Changes in landform occur through time. It is not possible to express these stages of landscape development in terms of the years. The rate of development depends on several factors but mainly on the resistance of the existing features to the type of enviromental forces attempting to make the changes and on the intensity of the enviromental forces involved.

TRANSLETPengaruh aspek pengembangan tanah dan vegetasi dipelajari di sebuah bukit kecil di sisi selatan Snake River di wilayah gersang selatan pusat Idaho (Klennedson 1964) (Tabel 9.1).Bukit berdiri sekitar ketinggian 200 kaki dan panjang 1.500 kaki dan lebar 800 kaki.Merupakan kerikil yang tercuci berbentuk sarang gagak, terbuka untuk setidaknya selama 18.000 tahun.Litologi adalah kuarsit, prophyry, dan granit.Vegetasi adalah rumput semak-semak, terganggu oleh penggembalaan seragam dan kebakaran musiman.Data yang terkumpul sepanjang transek utara-selatan dan transek oval sepanjang kontur pada kemiringan rata-rata 37%.Pada tahun 1962 perbandingan berikut dibuat antara lereng utara dan lereng selatan.Perlu dicatat bahwa kandungan bahan organik dari pada ketinggian 10 cm dari tanah lebih besar di lereng utara daripada di lereng selatan meskipun produksi rumput-rumputan terbalik.Hal ini umumnya dipertimbangkan merupakan hasil dari suhu tanah yang lebih tinggi di lereng yang menghadap selatan, menyebabkan mineralisasi organik lebih cepat.Intensitas yang lebih besar dari insolasi, bagaimanapun, menempatkan tanaman di bawah tekanan kelembaban yang lebih besar dan mengurangi produksi akar mereka.Losche (1967), menemukan di pegunungan Virginia bahwa bagian atas lereng yang menghadap ke selatan terdiri dariPinus rigidadanQuercus coccinea,sedangkanQuercus coccineadidominasi pada bagian bawah lereng.Di sebelah lereng menghadap utara spesies dominan adalahQuercus rubra, Quercus coccinea, Quercus prinus,danCaryaspp. Sebagai bagian dari studi yang sama di bagian barat North Carolina ia menemukan bahwa di bagian bawah lereng yang menghadap utara,Liriodenron tulipiferadanQuercus rubra mendominasi, danQuercus prinus, Quercus rubra,danCaryaspp.merupakan bagian utama dari kanopi di lereng atas. Lereng yang menghadap selatan didominasi oleh Quercus coccinea danPinus rigida.Setelah menganalisis sampah di bawah setiap situs, ia menemukan bahwa lebih banyak kation yang lebih mendasar di daur ulang dan terakumulasi di lantai hutan lereng yang mengahdap ke utara daripada di lereng menghadap selatan.Tanah lebih liat dan cakrawala argilic lebih jelas ditemukan di lereng yang menghadap selatan daripada di lereng menghadap utara.Kedalaman akumulasi sampah organik lebih besar di lereng menghadap utara daripada di lereng menghadap selatan.Tabel 9.1Beberapa karakteristik tesseras di lereng utara dan selatan bukit terpencil di Idaho

ItemLereng UtaraLereng Selatan

% Kerikil dengan vol.dalam 0-10 cm tanah520 (max. 40% agak lereng bawah)

Karbon organik% pada 0-10 cm tanah126

Kapasitas retenntion air 0-10 cm tanah, di kg / 0,1 m26.23.2

Vegetasi yang dominanRumput abadi(Poa, Stipa)Semusim(Bromus, Salsola)

Wt.rumputan kering di g / m50100

Relatif akar wt / per satuan volume tanah, atas dasar 100% untuk lereng utara10037

Klemmedson 1964.

RELIEF BERHUBUNGAN DENGAN AWAL MATERIAL.Dalam banyak kasus, bantuan sebelum dan selama pembentukan tanah terkait dengan sifat material tanah awal.Dalam delta sungai yang luas, puncak-puncak tanggul alam di dekat saluran sungai memiliki bahan kasar dari daerah di luar tanggul yang sangat hampir tingkat dan memiliki bahan awal bertekstur halus (Russell 1967).Topografi curam di mana lembah di bawahnya rentang gunung dicirikan oleh penggemar aluvial-colluvial luas, bahan awal dekat pegunungan mengandung lebih bahan kasar dan sudut dari daerah jauh dari pegunungan (Birot 1960).RELIEF BERHUBUNGAN DENGAN WAKTU.Relief berubah dengan waktu.Oleh karena itu, usia tanah ditentukan untuk sebagian besar oleh stabilitas permukaan.Erosi tanah sering dibahas dengan kesimpulan bahwa itu adalah merugikan karena efek mencuci atau meniup material tanah yang disebabkan oleh salah urus tanah oleh manusia.Selain buatan manusia atau erosi dipercepat adalah erosi geologi alami, yang dapat dianggap sebagai proses yang berkesinambungan, tapi benar-benar terjadi secara sporadis.Hidup berdampingan dengan erosi adalah deposisi.Dalam kasus erosi air, pemindahan bahan biasanya dari posisi miring lanskap, dan deposisi berlangsung di lembah-lembah dan depresi.Erosi angin mungkin independen dari arah kemiringan.Erosi angin parah di lereng menghadapi angin kencang dominan selama musim tahun ketika permukaan relatif tanpa vegetasi.Jika salah satu conceives dari pendalaman tanah sebagai berlangsung dengan perpanjangan pelapukan ke substratum geologi yang diukur dari antarmuka udara-tanah, mudah untuk melihat bahwa hubungan yang salah dari kedalaman tanah yang terkait dengan posisi kemiringan dan pelapukan instensities yang mungkin karena erosi dan pengendapan material tanah terutama pada antarmuka tanah-air.Posisi absolut dari interface tanah-air terlihat berubah selama pembentukan tanah.Perubahan tersebut sangat sulit untuk diukur.Selain kerugian atau butiran material tanah pada antar muka tanah-udara yang berkaitan dengan kemiringan ada juga merayap atau solifluction dari seluruh volume tanah lereng bawah (Birot 1960).Hal ini sering dapat dilihat dengan mengamati bentuk membungkuk pohon yang tumbuh dalam situasi seperti itu.Secara umum, bagian atas dari profil tanah cenderung bergerak lebih cepat dari bagian bawah dan pohon-pohon yang miring lereng bawah.Sebuah pohon yang tumbuh dari upaya untuk memperbaiki ini dan kembali ke postur vertikal, dengan hasil yang membungkuk dengan sisi cembung ke arah lereng bawah (Gbr. 9.1).Geomorfologi adalah ilmu yang berhubungan dengan bentuk atau bantuan fitur permukaan bumi, mengklasifikasikan fitur ini, dan mencoba untuk menjelaskan asal-usul dan sejarah mereka.Karena pembentukan tanah berlangsung di permukaan bumi, proses pembentukan tanah dipengaruhi oleh perubahan-geomorfik.Perubahan bentuk lahan terjadi melalui waktu.Hal ini tidak mungkin untuk mengekspresikan tahapan ini pembangunan lanskap dalam hal tahun.Laju pembangunan tergantung pada beberapa faktor, tetapi terutama pada perlawanan dari fitur yang ada dengan jenis kekuatan enviromental mencoba untuk membuat perubahan dan pada intensitas kekuatan enviromental yang terlibat.