religion and belief systems in australia …...religion and belief systems in australia post-1945...
TRANSCRIPT
RELIGION AND BELIEF SYSTEMS IN AUSTRALIA
POST-1945
CONTEMPORARY ABORIGINAL SPIRITUALITIES.
Aboriginal spirituality is determined by the Dreaming in:
- Kinship.
- Ceremonial life.
- Obligations to the land and people.
The Dreaming – Land, Mythology, People, Totemic Sites. Dreaming: incorporates every aspect of music, storytelling, artwork, food gathering and hunting activities
within a complex framework of kinship or family totem relationship – Underpins aboriginal spirituality.
Dreaming: spiritual concept of purpose, tie, connectedness and spirit, encompassing spiritual knowledge
and the past, present and future. It explains all life, the connections between people, land and spirit,
expressed through a continuing journey of growth and learning.
Explains universe origins – how the world formed from ancestral beings actions who determined rules
for all living creatures to abide by.
Involves all knowledge and understanding in Aboriginal communities – incorporates all belief & practise.
Way of living grounded in direct links to land and out of these relationships come responsibilities which
turn to religious practices.
Way of life began in the Dreaming – languages, kinship groups, customs.
Framework for living – individuals connected through kinship, instructed about obligations, rights &
appropriate behaviours.
Basis for Aboriginal religion, law, everyday life and understanding of world.
About the past, present and future.
The law in the Dreaming outlines proper behaviours to maintain independence ensuring each person
knows connectedness to:
o Each other their kin.
o For country.
o Ongoing relationships with ancestor spirits themselves.
Spiritual view of life based in the Dreaming cannot be separated from the land.
The dreaming links the whole environment – all land is sacred because it’s alive with power and the
ancestors who live in it.
The Dreaming is inextricably connected to the land & Aboriginal people – the land is the physical
medium through which the Dreaming is communicated.
Living/holistic religion which touches everything whole creation linked and every action or event of
social significance has a spiritual significance.
Dreaming influence embedded into all aspects of Aboriginal life.
Aboriginal spirituality is expressed through the Dreaming, land and people, totems, values & kinship systems.
Kinship. Kinship: Describes biological and non-biological relationships & a system of rights and responsibilities
attached to that relationship.
Kinship: highly sophisticated relationship networks governing interactions between members of language
groups.
3 aspects:
o Physical structuring of Aboriginal nation in terms of numbers – language, families, etc.
o Humans/social structuring, the relationship between people – each person named in relation to
each other.
o Spiritual structuring based in Dreaming and Ancestral beings.
Kinship systems were created by ancestral beings who were active in the Dreaming.
Kinship ties assign responsibility to transmit Dreaming knowledge from elders to younger generation.
They determine how each person relates/behaves towards particular relatives & other group members.
Each kinship relationship has specific duties that must be fulfilled.
Strict rules/obligations assigned to each relationship – every person is bound to another.
Rules about respect giving a rich personal and social life for all members in a kinship group.
Each person belongs to a kinship relationship based on system of ‘skins’ – this relationship determines
person’s responsibilities within group according to Aboriginal law.
‘Skin’ name shows persons relationship & can affect whom they marry – cannot marry within same clan.
An aboriginal person belongs to a totem based on where born or conceived – permanent relationship
with others in same totem or clan.
Clan members are linked to each other & the Dreaming through their special relationship to an area of
land.
Obligations to the land and people. Aboriginal people believe related to natural world which provides advantages of survival and life, in turn
gives responsibilities of preservation and education – inseparable, inextricable link.
Link between land & people through totemism. Aboriginals linked to totem – spirit present in one’s
conception or birth – must promote safety and preservation of totem species.
Person connected to creative spiritual force of totem responsible for existence, therefore inextricably
intertwined. The land through its totemic link, owns the people. Each totem has sacred site. Land provides
identity.
Totemism formalised through ceremonialism – through dance, song and symbolism, aspects of creation
linked with creative life force.
Land is central to Dreaming.
In land, Aboriginals see evidence of the Dreaming creation process – land acts as physical medium
through which Dreaming lived & communicated.
Land provides foundation of Aboriginal beliefs, traditions, rituals and laws because Dreaming stories
embedded in land.
Artwork, songs, dances and ceremonies placed in context of natural environment.
See land as evidence of work & presence of Dreaming spirits.
Dreaming links person to land and objects within land – tells rights and responsibilities one has to land.
Responsibilities of living with land – Dreaming provides law to be obeyed protecting humanity & land.
Ancestral spirits provide living relationship with particular countryside feature.
Family groups linked to tract of land and ancestor spirit who first created it, providing continuing link
between present and Dreaming.
Regard land as ‘mother’.
Aboriginal people believe they are related to & custodians of natural world.
Spiritual significance of environment seen in adaption to it, rather than manipulation of it – e.g. rules
governing hunting-gathering.
2-fold relationship:
1. Land occupying and land using relationship: water, hunting, gathering materials.
2. When a particular area was a person’s country – RITUAL ESTATE – therefore the individual/clan had a
responsibility to maintain the rituals of the sacred sites:
o SACRED SITES:
o Spirituality from links to person’s country.
o Country is an area of land where a number of Aboriginal families have lived.
o CHILDREN:
o Taught about country through stories, songs, music, dances.
Ceremonial life. Conducted in story, dance, body art and costumes.
Ceremonial life, art and rituals are dependent on a connection to the land to flourish and continue.
Ceremonies ensure that laws governing the land and its creatures continue to be followed and that the
systems set in place by spirits remain intact. Ceremony maintains the Dreaming in the present reality.
Different regions, cultural groupings and genders have different ceremonies.
Ceremonies are reliving the creative activities of the ancestor spirits in the present moment. E.g.
smoking ceremony to cleanse and heal.
Stories explain how the dreaming shapes daily life of people and animals.
Ceremonies act out dreaming stories attached to a sacred site & the inhabiting spirit.
Special ceremonial dress, body decoration or sacred objects are worn to connect the person with the
ancestor spirit.
Ceremonies/rituals show respect for ancestral beings who were responsible for creating ceremonies and
providing necessary knowledge for life and social interaction.
Purpose of ceremonial life:
o Rites of passage.
o Social information passed from older generation to younger.
o Maintain link between real world and spiritual world.
o In ceremonies the creation of the tribe is being recreated & how life continued and beliefs are being
passed on.
Continuing effect of dispossession on Aboriginal spiritualties in relation to:
- Separation from land.
- Separation from kinship groups.
- Stolen Generations.
Effects of dispossession. Aboriginal spirituality is country – place-centred.
Effects from disrupting the inter-relationship between land, kinship groups and family.
Sacred ceremonies only have effect if performed in right place, right time and by right people.
Removing people from country interfered with ability to fulfil spiritual responsibilities defined in
Dreaming and Kinship.
1788 Colonisation removed Aboriginals from traditional lands, destroyed sacred sites and essential
resources + introduced diseases + made aboriginals dependent on European charity/hand-outs.
Colonisation institutionalised the systematic exploitation of Aboriginal people.
The church supported the policy of segregation claiming a “higher calling” misplaced morality.
1997 “Bringing Them Home” report outlined effects of separating children from their family.
No understanding of importance of land dispossession resulted from inhumanity.
Effects of dispossession are characteristics of poor underclass in society – caused by separation from
LAND, KINSHIP, FAMILY:
1. Reduced life expectance.
2. Increased infant mortality.
3. Higher use of alcohol & drugs.
Separation from land. Separation from land removes sense of belonging to life ∴ loss of spiritual identity ∴ loss of purpose in life.
Withdraws Aboriginal person from place in Dreaming and place of spirit after death.
Separated Aboriginals from culture and religion hoped to destroy identity and purpose.
Spirituality linked to land of language group and sacred sites separation destroys spirituality.
“Terra Nullius” – how white invaders rationalised taking land for the British Empire’s imperialism.
Inability of Aboriginals to practice spirituality on land severed link with land.
Links with land = basis for Native Title claims.
Destroyed traditional structures of ownership, management & inheritance.
Separation isolates elders from those needing instruction, compounding effects.
Effects of missions missions reinforced dispossession:
o Kinship suffered.
o Robbed of connection to land.
o Lost touch with spirituality – rituals and ceremonies not practiced.
o Native languages absorbed into western culture.
Separation from kinship groups. Separation from kinship removes sense of belonging to individuals ∴ removes understanding of place in life
with no law.
Separation denotes practices deliberately setting Aboriginals physically apart from white settlement.
Deliberate attempt to destroy spirituality and links to land.
Separation through kidnapping by officers of Crown.
Without kinship cannot navigate through life with no understanding of law, relationships and activities.
Belonging to kinship group gives purpose/responsibility to actions – laws of behaviour based on kinship.
Separation made it impossible for Aboriginal people to preserve language and rituals.
Prevented people from participating in Native Title claims.
Prevented people from acquiring traditional parenting skills.
Removal from kinship results in:
o Loss of human identity.
o Loss of direction in life.
Stolen Generations. Separation from family removes sense of belonging to life ∴ removes concept of what it means to be human
without family guiding who they are ∴ no sense of who one is.
Generations of families from whom Aboriginal children were removed and put into institutions.
Children were physically and sexually abused leading to psychological and emotional problems.
Lost contact with family ∴ loss contact with land & culture and difficult to participate in community life.
“Bringing Them Home Report” stated: “Whole communities lost their confidence in bringing up their
own children, denied one of the most important roles”.
Removal from family:
o Loss of self-identity.
o Loss of spirit in life.
Importance of Land Rights movements:
- Native Title.
- Mabo.
- Wik.
Land Rights Movements. Religio-political movement seeking to secure inherent rights of Aboriginals to land and ensuring that
spiritual and cultural integrity preserved.
Land Rights Movement part of the physical, mental and social struggle beginning in 1788 into C20th.
Returning to land is first step to finding sense of direction, purpose and spirit.
Mabo.
Mabo Judgement: Decision made by the high court in 1992. Land title of Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islanders was recognised under Common Law. Recognised traditional legal rights.
Eddie Mabo fought for 11 years for the Mer Island (Torres Strait) people to have rights to traditional land.
Ruling: Aboriginal’s land rights existed before European settlement & survived process of settlement.
Also stated that “Terra Nullius” was not appropriate in the case of Australian land.
Impact: Land could be claimed as originally owned by Indigenous groups & forced government to make
laws responding to Indigenous peoples claims.
Decision established concept in Australian law – “Native Title”.
Under Native Title they can have rights recognised in common law if satisfy:
1. Maintained connection of and occupancy to land.
2. Native Title not extinguished by the Crown.
Native Title claims limited to where no body lived.
Native Title Act 1993 extinguished native title on land legally bought or inherited.
Importance of Mabo decision and resulting Native Title Act:
o Gave legal certainty to individuals who has title over land.
o Provided Indigenous with legal mechanism to claim Native title due to involvement with land.
o Allowed Indigenous to regain some of lost connection with land, continue traditions and address
injustices.
Native Title. Native Title: exclusive ownership of land by Indigenous Australians.
According to forcefully imposed English law, Aboriginal people were not legal owners of the land.
1992: High Court recognised that Terra Nullius was not accurate description of the land – “land
belonging to no one”.
1993: Native Title Act introduced by Keating government following High Court decision:
o Recognised existence of Native Title in law.
o Validated land titles made since 1788.
o Legal mechanism for claims of Native Title through courts.
o Set guidelines for Aboriginals to pursue Native Title where traditional rights extinguished.
o Must show that they’ve maintained a traditional connection with particular land.
o Pre-existing rights must be maintained even if Native Title claim successful.
o Native Title Tribunal received 500 claims since formation.
Native Title Amendment Act of 1998:
o Represented government restricting rights of Indigenous people.
o Removed right of aboriginals to negotiate on pastoral leases, allowing leaseholders to use land
without negotiating with Aboriginals.
o Made claiming Native Title more difficult.
o Used “10 Point Plan” removed right to claim Native Title around urban areas and empowered
state gov to extinguish Native Title over crown land for matters of national interest.
Wik. Wik Decision 1996: stated that native title and pastoral lease could co-exist, however when there was
conflict, pastoral leases would prevail over native title. This decision gave Indigenous right of access to
traditional lands.
Wik people sought Native Title over traditional lands under pastoral leases.
Judgement determined that Aboriginal groups and leaseholders had used land without interference with
one another.
Decision gave Aboriginals right of access to traditional lands, provided they didn’t interfere with gazer
interests.
Clarified that native title could co-exist, however if interests of indigenous and pastoralists clashed,
pastoralists would win.
Impact: Land could be occupied by Indigenous for activities without disrupting economic processes of
leaseholders.
Diluted native title rights.
Analyse the importance of the Dreaming for the Land Rights movement.
Dreaming Importance to Land Rights Movement. Major aspects of struggle for land rights:
1. Efforts of Aboriginals to persuade white community of relationship between spiritual identity & land.
2. Desire to access traditional lands so Dreaming traditions renewed and passed on to new generations.
Land is basis for Dreaming and provides assurance needed for continuation of rituals and ceremonies.
The Dreaming explains how the world was formed and all aspects of the Dreaming relate to the land.
All relationships are determined through relationships to land.
Land must be made secure for Aboriginals so beliefs, tradition, languages and culture preserved.
Land Rights legislation gives Aboriginal people a way of returning to land, consistent with modern
Australian Law and process.
When Aboriginal people return to the land they find purpose.
Importance of the Dreaming:
1. Land Rights legislation, High Court decisions and Federal Government apology help support
spirituality and Dreaming for Aboriginal people.
2. Dreaming gives focus, strength and connection to land allowed Aboriginals to fight through
invasion/settlement, colonialism, paternalism and social ignorance.
Mabo and Wik decisions support what Aboriginals have understood as true – that people have a
connection with the land which is both and beyond spiritual.
High Court’s Mabo Decision acknowledged Native Title based on recognition of spiritual links between
people and land.
Aboriginal person is part of the land, not a user of it must have title and control over land.
Dreaming connects each person with sacred sites to which they have responsibilities to protect sites
access to sites is crucial for rituals/ceremonies so law taught to new generations.
Dreaming provides ethical and moral basis for Aboriginal people to live/relate to each other
Aboriginal Law – title and control over land fundamental to practicing Law.
Person linked to spirit ancestor who created land – this creates person’s identity.
RELIGIOUS EXPRESSION IN AUSTRALIA – 1945 TO PRESENT
Outline changing patterns of religious adherence from 1945 to the present using
census data.
Changing patterns of religious adherence from 1945 to present. 1945:
o Australia was monocultural, monoreligious, monoethinic and focused on England for its
international viewpoint.
o 1947 census:
o 7.6 million people.
o 88% Chrisitian.
o 0.5% other religion.
o 0.3% no religion.
o Christianity was a controlling factor in community ethics, government services and development of
laws – provided health, welfare and education services.
Immigration after war and ending of White Australia policy changed religious landscape.
Further changes occurred with formation of Uniting church in 1977, advent of Pentecostal churches and
ending of White Australia Policy in 1972 by Whitlam.
Increase in Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism.
Present – 2011 Census:
o Long-term decrease in affiliation to Christianity from 96% in 1911, 88% in 1947 to 61% in 2011.
o Christianity still dominant religion - Australia now sees impact from other religions too.
o Anglicanism has decreased from 39% in 1947 to 17.1% in 2011 represents largest decrease in
most common Christian religions (Anglican and Catholic).
o Increase for those identifying with Pentecostal from 1% in 2001 to 1.1% in 2011 younger
adherents.
o Increase in people reporting non-Christian faith between 2001 and 2011 from 4.9% to 7.2%.
o Most common non-religious traditions in 2011: Buddhism - 2.5% (↑0.4% from 2006), Islam - 2.2%
(↑0.5% from 2006), Hinduism - 1.3% (↑0.6%).
o Hinduism represents largest proportional growth in 3 most common non-Christian affiliations
0.7% in 2006 to 1.3% in 2011.
o Judaism increased from 0.4% in 1947 to 0.5% in 2011.
o No religion increased from 18.7% in 2006 to 22.3% in 2011 most evident in younger people – 28%
of people 15-24 reported no religious affiliation.
Account for the present religious landscape in Australia in relation to:
- Christianity as the major religious tradition.
- Immigration.
- Denominational switching.
- Rise of New Age religions.
- Secularism.
Present religious landscape in Australia.
Christianity as the major religious tradition.
Australia is becoming a multi-faith society but majority is Christian.
Society is multifaith, multiethnic, multiracial.
Why Christianity is the major religious tradition?
o Australia was invaded by Britain in 1788, all convicts/settlers were British & mainly adherents of
Christianity.
o Gold rushes brought people from Britian and other adherents of Christianity.
o After Federation in 1901, White Australia Policy kept non-Christian migration minimal.
o After WW1 migration from Britain encouraged by being sponsored by churches and Christian
organisations.
o After 1945 – transformation in Australia’s immigration policy but Christian adherents remained
majority.
o Moved beyond immigrants from Britain when agreed to accept 12000 refugees per year in 1947
people from eastern European countries – refugees belonged to unfamiliar Christian
denominations.
o There were more migrants from Britain than any other country until 1995 – mainly Christian.
o 1996: accepted more migrants from New Zealand than Britain – mostly Christian.
o Christian social infrastructure has allowed Christianity to perpetuate – schools, colleges.
o Secular services still expected to support “Christian” values.
o Christianity takes less obvious role in secular activities in society.
Events that diversified the religions in Australia, even though Christianity dominant:
o While Christianity is the After WW2 Jewish people couldn’t return to their lands = high supply of
immigrants which the government hoped the influx of migrants would boost economic
prosperity.
o More ethnically and religiously diverse from 1970s onwards.
o 1972 abolition of White Australia Policy allowed migrants from Asia.
Immigration.
Forced immigrants/convicts:
o Brought the Catholic and Anglican denominations to Australia.
Free migration from Britain started after 1788 and allowed population growth:
o Government encouraged British immigration after WW1 to preserve the character of the
country why Christianity is the dominant religion.
Post war European migration:
o Began accepting European refugees from shortfall of migrants from Britain after WW2.
o 12 000 refugees/displaced people from European countries entered Australia each year most
were Roman Catholic or Orthodox Christians.
o Many made homeless from destruction of communities and social and economic difficulties
experienced by the post-war European countries.
o Australia accepted post-war Jewish refugees to work in outback and rural areas.
o Judaism grew in 40-50s – Aus Jewish community is a distinctive Jewish community outside Israel.
o Refugees came from Baltic states and Eastern European countries under Soviet Union control
belonged to Orthodox churches.
o Eastern European migration changed character of Catholic Church & challenged Irish dominance.
o Post-war immigration disturbed old certainties and posed challenges to Anglo-Celtic religions.
1967 agreement signed with Turkey allowed non-European immigrants:
o Led to arrival of Muslims.
o 2008/9 – greatest source of refugees from Iraq.
o Muslims from war and social dislocation in Middle East caused them to flee and seek asylum in
Australia.
Removal of White Australia policy allows people to flee from wars and social dislocation in Asia:
o White Australia Policy: Immigration restriction was removed under Whitlam government in 1973
– embraced policy of multiculturalism which ensured a multi faith Australia.
o ↑ increased Asian refugees and immigrants after 1975 Vietnam War.
o Received 120 000 refugees and immigrants.
o Many Buddhist started trend to replace European immigration and produce multiculturalism.
2008/9 – UK provided greater % of migrants than any other country, followed by India and China.
Hinduism has grown with Indian students arriving largest non-Christian faith.
Trend of people coming to Australia to improve life and wellbeing.
Contemporary Australia diverse in religious composition – seen in synagogues, churches, Buddhist
temples.
Denominational switching.
Practice of Christians moving from one denomination to another – usually Protestants.
Past generations were loyal to denomination born into – historical attachment to church.
Reasons for denominational switching:
o Commitment to one’s family traditional denomination not as strong as past.
o ↑ mobility = denominational switching switch to denomination of local church when moving
areas.
o People (particularly Protestants) look for a church meeting needs of their family – look for an
active youth group.
o Many seek Pentecostal or charismatic churches to the detriment of older, traditional
congregations.
o People prepared to change from traditional denomination to find a caring and involved church.
o Growth in car ownership since 1945 contributed easier to travel to church they favour rather
than local parish – decline in smaller churches.
o Bad experiences cause individuals to switch denominations e.g. suffered judgement, child abuse.
Denominational switching feature of 20-39 y/o 15% see denomination loyalty as important.
Pentecostal and evangelical churches gained significantly as a result of denominational switching.
Factors proposed to explain trend in denominational switching:
1. Increased economic polarisation between rich and poor and association of conservation religion with
conservative politics.
2. Increased fear of terrorism and its association with extreme religious expressions.
3. Societal cycles of liberalism and conservatism.
Rise of New Age religions.
New age religious movement: loosely structured network of individuals and organisations holding new
visions of enlightenment and harmony while subscribing to a common worldview.
Began out of the 1960s counterculture movement – opened new ways of thinking and doing.
“New Age” refers to:
o Variety of practices & beliefs people participate in to find fulfilment, growth and happiness.
o Believe in the human potential with practices surrounding self-improvement and self-fulfilment.
o Desire to understand oneself and the universe.
Question the exclusive divine, preferring the inclusive with all reality being seen as interrelated and
interdependent.
Multifaceted – draw on Eastern meditation, altered states of consciousness, reincarnation, spiritualism.
Reasons for rise of New Age religions:
o A reaction against what is seen as failures of Christianity and other mainstream religions to
respond to needs of people today.
o Many disillusioned with institutionalised mainstream relations with dependence on religious
dogma enforcement or strict ethical/moral guidelines.
o Frustration with the slowness of change in traditional religion.
o Desire to seek personal fulfillment rather than identification with a group.
o New ways of seeking inner peace and health to cope with stresses of modern life.
o Individuals are encouraged to “shop” for beliefs/practices they feel most comfortable with.
Criticised for being exploitive, consumerist, self-centred.