renelle gronert masters thesis (2012)
TRANSCRIPT
SUSTAINABLE THERMAL RETROFIT
OF THE NEW ZEALAND
1930’s – 1950’s LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSE
Renelle Gronert
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Architecture – Sustainable, The University of Auckland, 2011.
(Edited version)
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ABSTRACT
Labour Party State Housing (LPSH) was introduced by New Zealand’s first Labour
Government, during a period in New Zealand history from 1937 - when the first house was
built - until 1949. It was the first and biggest scale of mass housing in New Zealand’s history,
which set the precedent for housing models that followed. After the demise of Labours
fourteen year term in government, the methodology of LPSH was adopted by private building
companies who continued to build suburbs of ‘group housing’ that had slight aesthetic
modification, but were built in the same way and of the same materials.
Most New Zealanders are familiar with the LPSH typology, as throughout the country there
are large neighbourhoods, and suburbs of these houses, standardised similarly enough to be
recognisable (although this was not the intention at their concept.) The various house
typologies that have evolved since, have added to their categorisation.
Up until 1978, New Zealand housing had no legislation for the provision of insulation, which
has left thousands of New Zealand houses suffering from cold temperatures, large amounts
of energy being wasted in heat loss; and contaminated indoor air quality (IAQ) causing ill
health of many occupants. A third of these are LPSH, which have unresolved problems since
they were built – they are cold, damp and mouldy.
The implications are that energy is being wasted due to heat loss that is transmitted through
the uninsulated building envelope, air gaps, passive ventilation and electrical heating, which is
wasteful of energy resources. These houses are problematic to occupant health, which
places a hefty burden on government funds for hospitalisation, and financial loss through lost
days at work and school.
Although improvements of insulation and ventilation have sometimes occurred, they are often
inadequate as they only address insulation to the ceiling and floor, omitting the walls and
windows. These building elements need to be adequately insulated to complete a thermal
envelope capable of retaining heat, maintaining indoor temperatures, as for the World Health
Organisation recommendation and healthy living conditions. Alternative technologies can
further improve comfort levels and indoor air quality of these houses, to the benefit of
occupant health, government expenditure, and carbon emissions to assist New Zealand in
meeting its commitments to the Kyoto Protocol.
As a holistic approach to energy retrofit of LPSH seem to be still lacking in New Zealand, this
thesis aims to identify correct and comprehensive intervention packages for this house type
and to verify their feasibility in the national building market, considering both, their affordability
and constructability.
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Practicing architects were interviewed to determine New Zealand common energy retrofitting
practice for LPSH. The interviews identified how budget constraints, or lack of consideration
limited the amount of intervention addressing higher levels of IAQ. Heat loss through air
movement and lacking thermal insulation had not been addressed, to ensure adequate
temperatures could be met, and maintained to the best possibility.
To rectify the problem of heat loss – i.e. energy efficiency and comfort - the use of a
continuous and airtight thermal envelope has been proposed in this thesis. The improved
thermal performance of the proposed solution has been then verified using Risk Matrix
evaluation and Homestar™ residential rating tool assessments.
In conclusion this research found that LPSH philosophy originally used in its establishment of
communities - sustainable neighbourhoods, blended communities, and houses that owners
are proud of - provided sustainable living by current definition. This confirmed that LPSH has
the potential to provide sustainable living in sustainable environments, thus substantiating the
case for its retrofitting.
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Dedicated to my daughters Jade and Georgia,
and to their children –
the future generation of New Zealand
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I would like to acknowledge and thank
Professor Paola Leardini, who been my supervisor,
for her academic knowledge, and guidance;
My professional colleagues who kindly gave of their time to be interviewed,
and shared their knowledge and experiences;
And to my family and friends for their help and support.
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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 2
1.1 METHODOLOGY .................................................................................. 7 CHAPTER 2: THE NEED FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION ......................... 9
2.1 NEW ZEALAND AND THE KYOTO PROTOCOL.................................. 9
2.2 CARBON EMISSIONS AND BUILDING .............................................. 14
2.3 THE NEED FOR ENERGY REDUCTION ........................................... 14
2.4 ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN NEW ZEALAND .................................. 16
2.4.1 FUEL POVERTY .......................................................................... 19
2.4.2 POPULATION GROWTH IN NEW ZEALAND .............................. 19
2.4.3 THE GROWTH OF THE AGING POPULATION IN NEW ZEALAND .............................................................................................................. 20
CHAPTER 3: HOUSING IN NEW ZEALAND ............................................... 21
3.1 NEW ZEALAND’S CLIMATE ............................................................... 21
3.2 NEW ZEALAND HOUSING ................................................................. 23
3.2.1 HOUSING QUALITY ..................................................................... 24
3.2.2 BRANZ HOUSING SURVEYS ...................................................... 25 CHAPTER 4: HOUSING AND HEALTH....................................................... 29
4.1 HEALTH COSTS ................................................................................. 32
4.3 INDOOR AIR QUALITY AND HEALTH IN LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSING ................................................................................................. 33
4.3.1 PENTACHLOROPHENOL: SOLUTION TO THE FIRST MOULD DISCOVERY IN LPSH........................................................................... 34
4.3.2 THE EXPERIMENTAL COTTAGE: TEST OF INSULATION, VENTILATION AND DAMPNESS .......................................................... 36
4.4 MOULD IN STATE HOUSES, POST 1990 .......................................... 39
4.5 THE HEALTHY HOUSING PROGRAMME ......................................... 40
4.6 INDOOR AIR QUALITY ....................................................................... 42
IAQ AND HEALTH ................................................................................. 42
4.6.1 CONTAMINANTS ......................................................................... 43
4.6.2 HEALTH RISKS RELATED TO MOULDS .................................... 46
4.6.3 MOISTURE AND DAMPNESS ..................................................... 47
4.7 THERMAL COMFORT ........................................................................ 50
4.8 AIRTIGHTNESS .................................................................................. 53
4.8.1 AIR TIGHTNESS TESTING – WUFI AND BLOWER DOOR ......... 55
4.9 VENTILATION..................................................................................... 57
4.9.1 PASSIVE VENTILATION .............................................................. 59
4.9.2 MECHANICAL VENTILATION SYSTEMS .................................... 60
4.10 IAQ GUIDELINES FOR NEW ZEALAND HOUSING ......................... 63
4.11 INSULATION .................................................................................... 64
4.11.1 THE HISTORY OF INSULATION IN NEW ZEALAND ................ 64
4.11.2 UNINSULATED NEW ZEALAND HOUSING .............................. 68
4.12 HEAT LOSS ...................................................................................... 71
4.13 INCENTIVES AND EDUCATION ...................................................... 74
4.14 THE NEED TO INSULATE ................................................................ 76
4.14.1 RESEARCH INTO THE BENEFITS OF INSULATION ................ 77
4.14.2 INSULATION IN NEW ZEALAND ............................................... 80
4.15 THE IMPORTANCE OF CORRECT INSULATION INSTALLATION .. 81
4.16 INSULATION PRODUCTS: ............................................................... 82
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4.17 WINDOWS ........................................................................................ 88 CHAPTER 5: THE HISTORY OF LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSING ...... 89
5.1 THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF STATE HOUSING ............................. 89
5.1.1 PRE-LABOUR GOVERNMENT FUNDED HOUSING ................... 89
5.1.2 THE FIRST LABOUR PARTY ....................................................... 92
5.2 THE COMMENCEMENT OF LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSING ..... 95
5.3 LPSH: SOLAR DESIGN .................................................................... 109
5.4 THE CONSTRUCTION OF LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSING ..... 111
5.4.1 LABOUR ..................................................................................... 111
5.4.2 THE IMPACT OF WORLD WAR 2 .............................................. 112
5.4.3 PREFABRICATION .................................................................... 113
5.4.4 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS OF LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSING............................................................................................ 113
5.4.5 THE STRUCTURE AND EXTERIOR MATERIALS ..................... 115
5.4.6 THE INTERIOR MATERIALS ..................................................... 117
5.4.7 SERVICES ................................................................................. 118
5.5 THE END OF LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSING .......................... 118
5.5.1 STATE HOUSING AND THE NATIONAL PARTY....................... 118
5.5.2 GROUP BUILDING SCHEME .................................................... 120
5.5.3 A REFLECTION ON LABOUR PARTY HOUSING ..................... 121 CHAPTER 6: THE FUTURE OF LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSING ...... 122
6.1 ARCHITECT INTERVIEWS............................................................... 122
6.1.1 THE SELECTION OF ARCHITECTS .......................................... 122
6.1.2 THE INTERVIEWS ..................................................................... 124
6.1.3 SUMMARY ................................................................................. 133
6.2 LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSING IN ITS CURRENT CONTEXT.. 138
6.3 SOCIETAL CHANGE IN OCCUPANT BEHAVIOUR ......................... 139
6.4 THE FUTURE OF LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSING ................... 140
6.5 SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENTS .................................................... 141 CHAPTER 7: PROPOSED RETROFIT PACKAGE .................................... 143
7.1 THE HOMESTAR RESIDENTIAL RATING TOOL ANALYSIS .......... 143
7.1.1 HOMESTAR™ RATINGS ........................................................... 145
7.1.2 OUTCOMES FROM THE HOMESTAR™ RATINGS .................. 149
7.1.3 CONCLUSION BASED ON THE HOMESTAR RATING ............. 150
7.2 RISK MATRIX APPLIED TO A LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSE .... 152
7.3 PROPOSED THERMAL INTERVENTION......................................... 155
7.3.1 REPLACING THE WALL LININGS ............................................. 156
7.3.2 INSULATION LEVELS ................................................................ 157
7.3.3 R-VALUES PROVIDED: ............................................................. 158
7.3.4 DRAWINGS OF THE PROPOSED SOLUTION .......................... 158 CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION ..................................................................... 162
APPENDIX: ................................................................................................ 165
APPENDIX A – Participant Information Sheet For Architect Interviews ... 165
APPENDIX B - Consent Forms For Participating Architects .................... 168
APPENDIX C - The Questionnaire - Guideline For Interviews ................ 169
APPENDIX D - Homestar Ratings .......................................................... 171
APPENDIX D - Design Navigator - R-Value Calculation Sheets ............. 177
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................... 190
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“It is our collective and individual responsibility
to protect and nurture the global family,
to support its weaker members
and to preserve and tend to
the environment
in which
we all live.”
– Dalai Lama
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Sustainability is about the capacity to endure; for humans it is the potential for long term
maintenance of well being, and responsibility for the use of natural resources (Oxford English
Dictionary, 2011).
The fuel crisis that has arisen as a result of the technological demands of increased human
development in the last century has prompted global awareness that recognises
improvements are needed to conserve energy. Respecting this, New Zealand has committed
to reduce carbon emissions in becoming a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, which came into
force in 2005. The Kyoto Protocol was established to address global warming by committing
developed countries to reduce their green house gas emissions. As New Zealand is a
signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, it is required to reduce the carbon emissions, including those
caused by solid fuel used in energy generation.
Building construction, heating and transportation are all fuel intensive. As there is a need to
reduce the energy required for building and heating, this thesis investigates the sustainable
regeneration of an existing mass-built house typology commonly known as Labour Party
State Housing (LPSH) in New Zealand. Thousands of LPSH are in sound condition, located
in neighbourhoods that were designed to be lived in sustainably, but they are wasting energy
through their thermal inefficiency. Collectively, there is significant potential for energy savings
by thermally retrofitting existing LPSH. Their reuse regenerates already committed energy,
minimises the energy and product required for new build, and provides warm and healthy,
energy efficient homes for future generations.
New Zealand’s first Labour government had a long term goal for New Zealand people and
housing, that provided thousands well built houses that have endured, and have the capacity
to continue to provide for the nation. Walter Nash, Finance minister for the Labour Party at
the commencement of LPSH stated:
“Planning for housing on any national scale means in effect, planning for the future of
the Nation”.
The vision Nash had of long term provision for future generations by providing durable and
well built housing, was an investment in sustainable resource that is worthy of preservation,
although there is a need for intervention of modern technology to improve their energy
consumption.
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LPSH was built from the late 1930’s with a unique and identifiable style that created the early
suburbs of New Zealand’s main cities and satellite towns. It was a historic venture for New
Zealand when the Labour Government committed to provide five thousand State owned
houses to provide affordable homes at fair rents to New Zealanders (Schrader 2005), and
many more were built throughout Labours governance. The mass dominance of LPSH in the
urban landscape is still recognisable more than eighty years later. They were of a simple
design, suited to the New Zealand climate and were built of quality materials intended to last
at least sixty years (Schrader, 2005).
The town planning for LPSH was designed to function ‘sustainably’. As privately owned
transport (cars) were not common at the time these neighbourhoods were planned, bicycles
and walking were the common modes of transport, with public transport linking home life to
employment in the city. They worked as sustainable communities, planned to function without
reliance on private vehicles by incorporating public amenities close by to service domestic
needs. Their heating does not fare as well sustainably. Electricity was a new, clean, easy to
use and inexpensive source of energy that was introduced into housing at the start of the
LPSH era. Although solid fuel burning open fire (and later fireboxes) was the primary heat
source designed into the living area of LPSH, electricity became more commonly used for
heating from the 1950’s.
Regrettably, LPSH had no insulation, and within two years of being built, they developed
mould as a result of them being cold and damp (District Inspector for Medical Officer of Health
1947). Mould has been recognised as one of the contaminants that are connected to poor
health, particularly asthma which is currently an expensive health problem for New Zealand.
The lack of insulation legislation in New Zealand prior to 1978 has left almost one million
houses in New Zealand with poor thermal performance, of which 45% have evidence of
mould, causing ill health of the occupants, and deterioration of the structure. Uninsulated
houses are cold, damp, draughty and mouldy, with poor indoor air quality that is detrimental to
the health and well being of its inhabitants. Their heating requirement is wasteful of valuable
fuel resources, and with increasing energy costs, will potentially become unaffordable for the
occupiers, who are often low-income earners. Improved environmental awareness and
education highlights the need to reduce the high heating requirements of these houses.
A third of these houses are LPSH, which are now averaging sixty years of age, having been
built through almost two decades that followed the opening of the first LPSH in 1937. This
house typology has endured time in its contextual situation. This thesis investigates the origin
of LPSH to understand its construction features improve indoor air quality and thermal
comfort of such houses, in a way that meets current international standards. This is done with
research to provide evidence for the need of a full thermally insulated envelope, and to
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introduce technologies that successfully address the three factors required for a warm and
damp-free healthy indoor environment - adequate ventilation, heating and insulation (British
Medical Association 2003). Collectively, this has the ability to assist in improving air quality
and occupants’ health, and in the reduction of wasted energy consumption - therefore
lowering New Zealand’s carbon emissions in accordance with national objectives.
Affordable and appropriate housing should protect people from hazards, and promote good
health and wellbeing (World Health Organisation 1989). Inadequate or poor housing has a
documented impact on the health of occupants, with older housing being known to increase
the risk of deaths in winter (Wilkinson et al. 2001). The most common environmental hazards
that are associated with poor housing are dampness and low indoor temperatures (Howden-
Chapman, Signal et al. 1999). Scientific evidence linking warm homes and good health was
recently established by University of Otago researchers, who investigated houses occupied
by low income earners, demonstrating that properly insulated homes lead to significant health
gains (Howden-Chapman 2007). This is substantiated in the research report ‘National value
case for sustainable housing innovations making the case for the national benefit to be gained
by transforming the New Zealand housing stock – both new and existing - to improve
sustainability’. In this report, prepared by one of New Zealand’s researchers established for
the betterment of energy consumption, Beacon Pathway, it is agreed that when upgrading
existing housing stock, anything less than a complete thermal upgrade is inadequate and will
not provide an adequate solution to improve thermal comfort and energy efficiency (Beacon
Pathway Ltd 2007).
Uninsulated house construction looses heat through the floors, ceilings, walls and windows,
and through draughts within the house. Demand for heating is high, and attempting to obtain,
and maintain comfortable temperature levels is wasteful of energy, which is now an expensive
commodity that is expected to further increase as fuel resources become scarce. A
standalone timber framed house looses 39 - 48% of heat through the uninsulated walls and
windows, and 6-9% through air leakage, which means 45 - 51%, which is close to half of the
heat, is unnecessarily lost through poor building performance. Ceilings and floors of LPSH are
elements that are typically positioned in a secondary position to the external climate, as they
are protected by a roof, or foundation walls. By comparison walls and windows are a direct
barrier between the interior and exterior environments of the house structure. In not
addressing the walls and windows, cold temperatures, consequential condensation and
mould, and drafts into the house interior, require considerable heat to improve the indoor air
temperature. Walls and windows are elements of the structure that require more effort and
expenditure to retrofit, but the savings made in energy and health costs make such
consideration and implementation worthy. The ability to reduce energy consumption has not
been adequately resolved by insulating floors and ceilings alone.
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In New Zealand, various organisations have been established to collect and process
information to provide solutions in which government and house owners / tenants can
ultimately reduce fuel consumption. Solutions that have evolved into practice focus on the
application of minimum levels of insulation to the ceiling and the floor of uninsulated older
houses, which government partially fund. Although ceilings and floors are easily accessed for
the installation of product, this solution merely addresses half of the heat leakage problem.
This is an inadequate solution as it does not reduce moisture, or create a thermal envelope
capable of sufficient heat retention to meet the World Health Organisation (WHO) minimum
recommended temperature of 18°C. A study on the efficacy of the energy efficient upgrade
programme in New Zealand undertaken by the University of Otago verifies that the simple
insulation upgrade involving only one aspect of the building envelope provides a low level of
thermal comfort. It comments that “if improving indoor thermal comfort, and at the same time
making energy efficiency of these homes was the goal, then more intensive housing
insulation measures, or better home energy efficiency technologies would need to be applied
to reach satisfactory health goals and promote energy efficiency in the residential area.’
(Lloyd, 2006).
To become familiar with, and to understand LPSH, the history of New Zealand politics that led
to the introduction of the State Housing scheme, established by the Labour Party of 1935 –
1949 is researched, enlightening on the political ideology that shaped the scheme. This
presents the political structure, philosophies and developmental departments that introduced
the new style of town planning and house design, construction methods and materials used.
The Labour Party philosophy encouraged the development and manufacture of New Zealand
made materials to be used for the construction of State Housing, leading to the establishment
of many companies that are still in existence today. The materials and construction
technology used to build the houses is researched as described in the methodology section of
this chapter. Research into the archival history of the LPSH discovered that moulds were
evident within two years of the houses being built. Issues related to insulation, ventilation and
moisture were recognised and investigated, but not implemented to the long term detriment of
thousands of houses, the health of their occupants and government expenditure in health
related costs.
A standalone Labour Party State House located in Auckland has been selected as a case
study to verify feasibility of identified retrofit solutions and application for some assessments.
This is because this type of house is very common in Auckland and is usually occupied by
lower income earners, typically the elderly, sick or young families who are vulnerable to poor
health, and have less available income to adequately heat the homes the State allocates to
them. By selecting this typology that is architecturally familiar, there is hope for their
preservation and heritage value, by sustainably recycling these well-built houses that embody
quality products. It is sustainably preferable to preserve, rather than discard, existing houses
6
of a good standard. The preservation of older houses minimises energy and product waste,
meanwhile providing for homes future generations. Improving the quality of the internal
environment maintains the health and well being of the occupants, and adds value to the
houses. In retaining existing LPSH, their neighbourhoods that were designed to function
sustainably can also be preserved, with their missing elements of infrastructure assessed for
worthwhile reinstatement.
To investigate the approach of New Zealand architects that have designed renovations for
state houses (of the era studied in this thesis), interviews of ten selected practicing architects
were conducted to research how they addressed State housing. A list of interview questions
enquired of the priorities set by the house owner and of the architect, and how they were
resolved. In particular the research was to understand the importance of thermal and indoor
air quality, if at all.
LPSH of the 1930’s through to the 1950’s are an important part of New Zealand’s history that
still remain as sturdy, existing housing stock of varying condition. The condition of some
interiors has deteriorated largely due to neglect, but refurbishment is uncomplicated. Their
native timber framing structure endures, although it is apparent that their neglect has changed
the way these houses are valued, evident in this comment by the well-known historian Ben
Schrader:
'In the 1930's securing a State House was viewed as a "step up", but by the 1970's it
had come to be seen as a step down' (Schrader 2005).
Research and investigation undertaken on LPSH for this thesis, finds them worthy of
preservation to provide warm comfortable homes that sit within communities that are worthy
of reactivation. The mass ownership of LPSH by the Government offers quantum, their quality
of construction is typically sound, and their size renders them easy to work on. The repetitive
design of State Housing uses standardised details, materials, components and size which
simplifies retrofit on mass, and has added potential for economy.
This thesis supports retrofitting existing uninsulated and inadequately insulated New Zealand
LPSH for thermal comfort, to preserve energy consumption and to assist in meeting New
Zealand’s commitment to the Kyoto Protocol. An effective retrofit strategy includes insulating
the entire envelope of the house and improving air-tightness and ventilation, to create warm
healthy home capable of retaining heat, with consequential health improvements and reduced
heating expenditure for the occupants of the house.
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1.1 METHODOLOGY
The documentation and data for this thesis has been collected from two main sources.
A literature review was undertaken of relevant publications on the history of LPSH. Books
and thesis provided historical records that included some interviews of State house tenants.
Research of many agencies engaged by, or provided by government to establish the direction
of sustainability; building codes; statistical and climatic records; housing related health
problems, and housing conditions provided information that related to New Zealand.
International research of reports and studies provided information that was for international
comparison. These sources of information were used in Chapter two in which commitments
and the need for energy consumption is presented; and Chapter four in which indoor air
quality (IAQ), is presented. In Chapter four, issues that effect IAQ and the associated health
problems are discussed. The technologies for improved IAQ are presented, which includes a
history of insulation in New Zealand, which has influenced the condition of housing and
impacted on occupant health for one and a half centuries.
The information presented in Chapter six on LPSH was researched through historical record
books, archived historical information and an interview with a historian.
New Zealand Archives in Auckland and Wellington (the information at Christchurch archives
was not accessible as a result of earthquake damage) were researched to find photographs
and records from the time they were built. Information found was in the form of original plans,
elevations, sections and a few details of hundreds of houses, which provided information on
how they were constructed. Photographs taken during construction also provided a visual
record of what was built in the structure. Archived Government memos and instruction for
tests that were applied to a model State house, and the conclusion to potentially resolve the
problems encountered provided valuable insight into the awareness of factors that impact on
IAQ. A historic researcher for a recent publication on Fletcher Construction was informative
on many aspects of the origins on LPSH as Fletcher’s were its largest builder. She also
provided clarification of some previously published inaccuracies, verified through historical
records.
Chapter three presents information on the climate of New Zealand, and its housing. This
includes information from the recent BRANZ surveys of 2005 and 2010, to include visual
record in the form of photographs that shows the poor condition of many New Zealand
houses.
8
The second source of information was personal interviews with a number of practicing
architects, and the information from these is presented in Chapter six. The interviews were
based on a series of prepared questions to extract information on each architects’
experience/s with working on LPSH. Information sought involved age of the house, the extent
and dates of the works undertaken, a summary of the requirements, the brief and budget to
meet, the resultant design, what interventions were adopted and applied, how they found the
structure to work with and a summary of post-construction follow-up where possible.
Practicing architects that have been involved in designing or altering LPSH were invited to
participate by being interviewed on their knowledge and experience relevant to the works they
had completed. The invitation was made through a website for architects (NZIA chat). The
interviews were conducted either in person by meeting at the architects offices where
possible, or by telephone conversation. The interviews were done to determine what
common practice was, and what thermal interventions were introduced into renovation design
of LPSH. From these interviews, it was apparent that budget constraints or lack of
consideration had limited the amount of intervention used to address higher levels of IAQ.
Although improvements were made to the insulation and ventilation levels, these could be
advanced further to improve comfort levels, IAQ and heat retention. The improvements
identified provide an eco-retrofit package for LPSH, which has been applied to a case study in
Auckland. A housing risk matrix (E2/AS1) used to assess how appropriate the weather
tightness of LPSH is, Design Navigator thermal calculations were used to evaluate thermal
performances, and the outcomes of the interventions selected in this thesis were verified
using Homestar™, the New Zealand residential rating tool for the assessment of comfort,
health and energy-efficiency. The outcome is presented within Chapter seven.
The final Chapter eight concludes that the research of this thesis finds LPSH worthy of
investment into their sustainable thermal retrofit.
9
CHAPTER 2: THE NEED FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION
2.1 NEW ZEALAND AND THE KYOTO PROTOCOL
A fuel crisis has arisen as a result of the technological demands of human development in the
last century; affecting climate change, resource availability, and population change (New
Zealand Ahead 2010). As building construction, heating, and transportation are all fuel
intensive, improvements to existing housing stock offers some resilience to these global
challenges.
The Kyoto Protocol, an international agreement that was established by the United Nations
aims to address global warming and delay climate change. The Kyoto Protocol treaty was
negotiated on December 11, 1997 in the city of Kyoto, Japan and came into force February
16, 2005. It legally binds thirty-seven industrialised countries and the European Community
to reduce collective emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) by 5% compared to the levels
they were in the year 1990. The emissions from six greenhouse gases are to be reduced,
being carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride, HFCs and PFCs.
As a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, New Zealand has made a commitment to reduce its
greenhouse gas emissions to the levels that were produced in 1990. In 1990 our gas
emissions were 61,912,947 tonnes CO² equivalent and since then average annual emissions
have grown by 1.3% per year (Ministry for the Environment 2010). Where the Kyoto Protocol
is a committed agreement between countries, the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) differs in that it is an international agreement for the
encouragement of industrialised countries, such as New Zealand, to stabilise GHG emissions.
For a country deemed to be clean and green, New Zealand in fact has one of the worst
carbon footprints in the world, as seen in its greenhouse gas emissions recorded by
UNFCCC.
10
Figure 2. 1 Total aggregate gas emissions of individual Annex I parties, 1990 – 2008
(Source: UNFCCC)
11
New Zealand gas emission performance is very poor by comparison to other countries of
similar population and GDP. Countries such as Denmark, Finland and Sweden have had a
similar economic growth to New Zealand over the Kyoto period, with emissions decreased by
3 – 7%, whereas New Zealand’s grew by 25% (Buckwell 2010).
Figure 2. 2 Greenhouse gas emissions for New Zealand
(Buckwell 2010)
GHG are a collection of carbon dioxide (CO²), methane and nitrous oxide, with CO² having
the highest volume emitted by human activity. These gases have increased with global
development, and continue to accumulate causing a warming effect once released into the
atmosphere. A 2°C increase in the average global temperature would impact on climate
change dangerously. For a 50% chance of preventing this, significant emission reductions are
needed. The average global emissions rate of 7 tonne per person in 2010, would need to
reduce to 4 tonne by 2030 to be effective (New Zealand Ahead 2010).
A warming trend is evident in New Zealand over the last few decades. Record collecting of
temperatures between 1930 and 2008 from the eleven climatic stations around the country
has shown an increase of 1°C in the average annual mean temperatures.
12
Figure 2. 3 1930 – 2008 Temperatures’ recoded for New Zealand
(National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research 2010)
The targeted rate to match 1990 GHG emissions of 61.9Mt, would equate to a distribution per
capita of 14.8 tonnes for the targeted period between 2008 and 2012 (New Zealand Ahead
2010). In September 2010, New Zealands CO² emissions per capita were 17.9kt, maintaining
a poor ranking amongst the other twenty eight OECD countries. Being twenty-fourth rated
New Zealand as maintaining ‘high emissions’ and ‘making little progress’ (New Zealand
Ahead 2010). New Zealand’s energy emissions have increased by 23% between 1990 and
2008, placing us with the fifth highest emissions rate per capita in the OECD (New Zealand
Ahead 2010). A reduction of between 10 and 20% is necessary to progress with meeting our
Kyoto Protocol commitments, therefore significant savings in energy need to be made to
avoid significant government expenditure. Although New Zealand has the ability to gain
emission credit transfers through carbon sinks, such as forestry, it is still probable that there
will be a cost of $820 million for the Kyoto period (to 2012) that will ultimately met by the
taxpayer (New Zealand Ahead 2010).
Figure 2. 4 New Zealand’s position by international comparison for greenhouse gas emissions for
2008. (New Zealand Ahead 2010)
13
Figure 2. 5 Performance vs. Kyoto targets based on 2008 emissions
(New Zealand Ahead 2010)
New Zealand is a high user of energy with consequent high levels of GHG emissions. The
country’s energy is supplied by imported oil, gas and coal, being fossil fuels; and renewable
energy sources used are hydro, wind and geothermal generated.
The generation of electricity, heat production and transportation are the main factors that
have increased GHG emissions, and it is clear this needs to reduce rather than increase. In
New Zealand, in 2008 the energy sector produced 34,017.77Gg carbon dioxide equivalent
(CO2-e), which is 69% of the country’s total GHG emissions (United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change 2008). Of this, a contribution of 10% (3.4 Mt) was from
energy used in housing (Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority, 2008). It is estimated
that a typical new Zealand house emits over three thousand kilograms of carbon monoxide
annually (Level). As energy related emissions in 1990 were 23,1974Gg (United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change 2008), there has been an increase of 43.8%, so
rather than decreasing to meet international commitments, New Zealand's energy
requirements increase by over 2% a year (Beacon Pathway Ltd 2005).
Transportation contributes to 40% of New Zealand's CO² emissions. Private car use
consumed 42% of energy consumption in 2003, and car use has increased since then at a
rate of 13,000 per year. Auckland has over 260,000 cars on its roads each day, costing an
average of about 18% of household expenditure (Beacon Pathway Ltd 2005).
As global energy resources become scarce, efficiency of the use of all energy is imperative.
14
Figure 2. 6 New Zealand’s energy emissions by category from 1990 to 2008
Note: Emissions from electricity generation are included in energy industries.
(Environment, 2010)
2.2 CARBON EMISSIONS AND BUILDING
Building construction emits a number of GHG, with CO² being the largest contributor.
Manufacturing and building contribute 17.7% of New Zealand’s carbon emissions created
through construction and its related processes of material manufacture, processing and
transportation (Level). Once occupied, a house emits more carbon, and at the end of its life,
demolition involves further carbon emissions.
Available technology has the ability to reduce energy consumption considerably by simple
changes to the building envelope, including solar heating, and other that could reduce carbon
emissions.
2.3 THE NEED FOR ENERGY REDUCTION
As the worlds population has grown, particularly in the last few decades urbanisation and
industrialisation has increased. The global population living in urban areas has expanded
from being 30% of the population in 1950, to 50% now (Wilkinson, Smith et al. 2007), and this
is forecast to grow over the coming decades. With such growth there is an increase in the
built environment which absorbs increasing quantity of materials and energy to meet human
demand. A challenge for the future is in providing the population with the provision of energy,
without increasing GHG emissions, reflecting the need for global energy efficiency.
Internationally, many houses are of an age that predated energy use and thermal comfort as
we know it. By comparison, New Zealand is a relatively new developed country and its
15
houses, although predominantly lacking thermally were designed within the era of available
energy sources.
The Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority (EECA) is a government agency working
for the betterment of energy efficiency. The Energy Efficiency and Conservation Act was
established in 2000 binding government to promote energy efficiency, energy conservation,
and renewable energy. Under this act strategies have been prepared outlining the required
objectives, and how they can be achieved. The New Zealand Energy Efficiency and
Conservation Strategy (NZEECS) was written in 2007 as part of governments response, with
a plan of action for meeting its energy, climate change, sustainability and economic
transformation goals (Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority 2007). EECA consults
with a number of researchers, universities, government research institutes, private
consultants and the energy industry both nationally and internationally (Europe, North
America and Australasia), seeking expertise on energy efficiency, energy conservation and
renewable energy. National research agencies it engages with include the National Energy
Research Institute (NERI); the Ministry of Research, Science and Technology; the Ministry of
Economic Development; and the Foundation for Research, Science and Technology Energy
Efficiency and Conservation Authority, 2011).
In attempting to kerb our increasing reliance on energy consumption, Beacon Pathway was
established in New Zealand in 2004, as a collaborative research consortium to find affordable
ways to make New Zealand homes more sustainable by researching building technologies;
construction industry practices; urban planning, policy and regulation; and also meeting and
understanding consumer needs. The consortium is comprised of members with residential
connections, being Fletcher Building, (the largest building company of Labour Party State
Housing), Waitakere Council, (known for their progressive sustainability initiative), NZ Steel,
Building Research, and Scion (New Zealand Forest Research Institute).
Their goal was to revise the standard of sustainability of houses throughout the country by
2012, and to ensure new and redeveloped subdivisions or neighbourhoods from 2008
onwards are created with reference to a nationally recognised sustainability framework that
acknowledges the importance of communal and infrastructure facilities that service
neighbourhoods (Beacon Pathway Ltd 2005). The goals were set to use diminishing
resources wisely to reduce fuel requirements for energy, addressing heating and
transportation fuels, as well as water conservation.
Government started campaigning to educate New Zealanders on climate change, and
measures that can be undertaken personally to assist in reducing our consumption, thereby
minimising our GHG emissions. The government established the Sustainable Development
Programme of Action in 2003, ensuring government lead by example on moves towards
becoming carbon neutral, and that government decision making ensured the ‘well-being of
16
current and future generations (Ministry for the Environment 2008). ‘Towards a Sustainable
New Zealand’ is directed at householders and businesses with the intention of making
enduring changes in behaviour that are favourable to rectifying the global climate change that
is currently active.
Targeting the residential market, government established the ‘Household Sustainability
Campaign’, which commenced in 2007, to increase sustainability into the everyday life of New
Zealanders, particularly relating to energy efficiency, water use, transportation, waste and
house construction. This campaign targeted and intertwined sustainably minded people,
regional and local government, and house owners seeking improvements in energy efficiency
both in homes and transportation. Guidance is given through this by way of practical tips, and
direction towards relevant home improvements.
2.4 ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN NEW ZEALAND
Historically in New Zealand, solid fuel heating has predominated. Until the mid 1900’s coal
ranges were commonly used as space heaters that also heated water and provided for
cooking. New energy technology was introduced about the same time as LPSH commenced,
which was clean, convenient, readily available, and able to be turned on with the flick of a
switch. Gas became available in the early 1900’s, and New Zealand’s hydro-electric
schemes and supply networks made electricity available as of the 1930’s. In the 1960’s the
supply of gas and electricity became more plentiful, reliable and affordable. There was
increased hydro-electric generation in NZ, and natural gas which was discovered in Taranaki
was reticulated through the North Island. Electricity prices fell over the 1950s and 1960s,
which encouraged its use (Ministry for the Environment 1998-2010).
Latterly there has been a change in the source of heating from other fuels to electricity
(Efficiency and Energy Conservation Authority 2009) as proven by the recent increased use
of heat pumps for space heating – from 16,000 in 1999 to 111,000 in 2007. Although
recognised as having ample ability to increase the room temperature, they work to cool as
well. This has introduced an additional load into New Zealand energy consumption,
extending the demand on energy to peak in summer and winter, as experienced in USA &
Australia (Mc Chesney, Cox-Smith et al. 2008). The growing use of heat pumps may have
influenced a 3% increase in electricity consumption between 2001 and 2007, as there is a
related decline in the use of gas and solid fuels (Efficiency and Energy Conservation Authority
2009).
Although prices have increased (Efficiency and Energy Conservation Authority 2009), New
Zealand residential electricity is still one of the lowest in the industrialised world, being
approximately 60% of the price paid by European consumers (Ministry for the Environment
17
1998-2010). Although technology is available to reduce energy consumption, while prices of
energy are low it will continue to be used. Regulatory requirements are necessary to ensure
corrective measures are implemented for energy conservation in new and existing buildings
(Lowe, 2000).
Figure 2. 7 International comparison of residential energy prices
Source: HEEP
Figure 2. 8 NZ residential energy consumption
Source: NZ Home Energy Web 2008
Residential energy use accounts for 12% of New Zealand’s energy consumption per year,
and 33% of the electricity consumed (Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority, 2009).
Although renewable sources such as hydro-generation provide about two-thirds of the
electricity consumed in New Zealand, the balance is generated using coal and gas. Coal and
18
gas, being fossil fuels, emit CO² which is one of the GHG targeted for global reduction
(Ministry for the Environment 1998-2010).
Beacon Pathway, estimates that to heat a home to temperatures that meet the minimum
WHO standards the average New Zealand household requires 12,300kw/h of energy per year
(Beacon Pathway Ltd 2007). That the average use recorded is 10,500kw/h, substantiates
that in New Zealand, we under heat our houses. This recorded level of consumption is
comparably less than other developed countries of a similar climate, (Isaacs, Camilleria et al.
2006) being 30% less than used in Australia, 50% less than used in the UK and 70% less
than is used in Canada (Efficiency and Energy Conservation Authority 2009). Residential
energy consumption in New Zealand is growing. Since 1995, New Zealand’s residential
energy use has increased by 19.4%, from 54PJ to 64.5 PJ in 2007. A growth of rate of 1.5%
annually between 2001 and 2007 increased consumption from 59PJ to 64.5PJ (Efficiency and
Energy Conservation Authority 2009).
The magnitude of energy committed to use for space heating depends on size of house and
external climate, and as house sizes have increased, so has the demand on energy. Space
heating uses 35% of the energy consumed in homes, which is estimated as being 23 PJ
(TE210 Beacon). This is 4% of New Zealand's energy. Currently, $1.1 billion is spent by
New Zealand households each year on space heating, water heating and appliances (Energy
Efficiency and Conservation Authority 2009). The most important fuel source for heating is
electricity, and solid fuel for space heating, (solid fuel being coal or wood) (Isaacs, Camilleria
et al. 2006), with solid fuel providing the better source of heat. Energy consumed in homes
for space heating, of which electricity accounts for 69% and solid fuel for 20%, are two areas
identified for finding energy efficiency savings within (Isaacs, Camilleria et al. 2006).
Figure 2. 9 Total energy use by fuel type - Total energy use by end-use
Source: Household Energy End-use Study (HEEP).
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2.4.1 FUEL POVERTY
Low temperatures are found in housing of various income levels, but ‘fuel poverty’ is defined
as ‘the requirement of spending more than 10% of income on energy’. The inaffordability of
fuel for heating impacts more severely on low income households and this is common in New
Zealand. The Household Energy End-use Study (HEEP) was a long term study undertaken
by BRANZ to collect data on energy use in New Zealand. The study conducted between
1995 and 2005; found that 28% of New Zealanders were in fuel poverty, with the inability to
adequately heat homes to create healthy living temperatures due to financial constraints
(Isaacs, Camilleri et al. 2005). This socio-economic group includes young families, those
already suffering from ill-health and the elderly, who as well as being on limited incomes, are
also the more vulnerable groups of the population. Heating is often unaffordable for
occupants, and certainly is not retainable without adequate thermal insulation. Fuel poverty
compels occupant confinement to a single heated room ‘zone’. ‘Zoned’ heating leaves the
remaining areas of the house cold and damp, which is a particular problem for bedrooms in
which occupants sleep in an unhealthy environment for almost a third of their 24 hour day
(WHO, 2009).
The elderly often live on their own, and typically have a very limited income (being in the
category that typifies fuel poverty), inaffordability of fuel for heating means they are forced to
endure very cold living conditions. Future increases in the cost of energy for heating,
antagonises this situation, with the likelihood that these houses will continue to be cold and
damp, potentially effecting the health and mortality of the vulnerable elderly, and adding to
national health expenditure.
With the predicted increases in energy costs, inaffordability will restrict adequate heating of
houses in winter, and puts lower income earners in a vulnerable position, that requires stable
and economical means to maintain warmth and health within their homes.
2.4.2 POPULATION GROWTH IN NEW ZEALAND
Population growth influences levels of consumerism and resource efficiency unsustainably, so
global population growth is of great concern, particularly as it is forecast to reach seven billion
by 2012, and over nine billion humans on the earth in 2050. This has a drastic impact on the
planet and its limited resources. The population growth of the developed world with its
expectation of high living standards is not sustainable. The growing population is not living
within the means of what the planet can provide forever, and typically it is the developed
countries higher standard of living that expends resources.
20
2.4.3 THE GROWTH OF THE AGING POPULATION IN NEW ZEALAND
New Zealand is one of the developed countries of the world, with an expected population
growth of the current population of 4.37 million, to increase to 5.09 million by 2031.
Population growth impacts on housing requirements expected to increase to 2.09 million
dwellings, which will also increase energy consumption.
The age of the population is also increasing, and by 2031 the estimated average age
expectancy is 82.5 years for males and 86.2 years for females. The growth rate of those over
50 years of age is expected to increase by 63% between 2006 and 2031, reflecting a global
trend of an increased aging population in the OECD. The current portion of New Zealand’s
population that is aged between 65 and 79 has grown by an average 2% per annum over the
last decade, and the older age group of eighty years and over grew by 3.4% in the same
period. Within the next decade, New Zealand’s post-war ‘baby-boom’ generation will start to
reach the retirement age of sixty-five, with an expected increase from 550,000 in 2009, to
about a million, over the next two decades (NZ, 2009). This is an anticipated growth rate from
the current approximately twelve percent of the population that are aged over sixty-five, to a
potion of twenty percent by 2031. Demographically, it is evident that the over sixty–five year
old age group has the most rapid population growth. The aged require higher temperature
levels, and without management, this will add to the energy demands for heating unless
adequate provision is made.
Figure 2. 10 New Zealand Population and projected growth 1951-2061
Source: Statistics New Zealand
21
CHAPTER 3: HOUSING IN NEW ZEALAND
3.1 NEW ZEALAND’S CLIMATE
New Zealand is a long thin country located between latitudes 34 deg and 48 deg south
(NIWA). The country’s length has coastal exposure, and the topography of the land varies
from mountainous ranges to flat plains. Located relatively remotely from other land masses in
the southern hemisphere, New Zealand is positioned between the tropics and the sub-polar
south, which exposes the country to atmospheric circulation that is affected by warm winds
and tropical storms from the north, and sub-polar westerly winds form the south (Ummenhofer
and England 2007). Consequently there is a wide range of temperatures and conditions that
housing needs to address, with regional differences influencing the regulatory insulation
requirements for housing into three zones. The map in figure 3.1 shows the average
temperatures of the colder areas of the South Island, and the mountainous central North
Island. The top of the North Island, where Auckland is situated, has warmer temperatures.
Figure 3. 1 New Zealand’s average daily temperatures 1971 - 2000.
(National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research)
22
The climatic conditions for the northern region of New Zealand is sub-tropic with maximum
summer temperatures that range between 22°C to 26°C, occasionally reaching temperatures
that are over 30°C, and winter maximum temperatures that range from 12°C to 17°C. The
prevailing wind is from the south-west, with coastal breezes through summer. It often rains
through winter, and tropical storms can cause high winds and heavy rainfall during summer
and autumn (National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research). As New Zealand’s
landscape comprises many coastal areas and river valleys, it can be expected that with the
predicted climate change (global warming) the increased storms, rain and flooding it brings
will mean such areas will be more exposed to dampness than the inland areas (WHO, 2009).
Auckland is within the northern region, and it is the largest city in New Zealand with over a
third of the population living there. National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research
(NIWA) records from between 1971 to 2000 for Auckland, show winter temperatures that
range from 7.1°C to 15.8°C, and in summer from 14.5°C to a maximum of 23.7°C. Mean
temperatures for Auckland range between 19.8 °C in February and 10.8 °C in July (National
Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research).
MEAN MONTHLY AIR TEMPERATURE FOR AUCKLAND (°C)
Data are mean monthly values for the 1971-2000 period for locations having at least 5 complete years of data
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC YEAR
19.3 19.8 18.5 16.2 13.7 11.6 10.8 11.3 12.6 14.1 15.8 17.8 15.1
Mean monthly air temperature for Auckland (National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research)
Rainfall ranges from a summer minimum of 70 mm in February to a winter maximum of 130
mm in July. Winds are predominantly southwest, with the north east being secondary.
Auckland is known for being humid, with an average RH level of over eighty percent.
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY FOR AUCKLAND (%)
Data are mean monthly values of 9am relative humidity for the 1971-2000 period
for locations having at least 5 complete years of data
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC YEAR
77.1 78.3 79.0 82.2 85.2 89.0 88.5 85.7 80.2 76.8 76.3 75.9 81.1
Mean relative humidity for Auckland (National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research)
23
3.2 NEW ZEALAND HOUSING
Housing represents the most significant single item owned for most New Zealanders.
Housing stock is estimated to consist of between 1.5 and 1.6 million dwellings, with a value of
about $178 billion (Clark, Jones et al. 2005), making it the largest portion of the New Zealand
built environment. Approximately 80% of dwellings are standalone houses, most of which
were built from the 1950's through to the 1970's as single storey buildings (Bengtsson,
Hargreaves et al. 2007).
There are currently between 700,000 and 900,000 homes that are not insulated to 1977
standards (Amitrano, Page et al. 2006), have poor thermal performance and consequently are
cold and damp. Of these houses, 45% of them have evidence of mould, which contributes to
the ill health of the occupants, and deterioration of the structure (Clark, Jones et al. 2005).
A third of these houses are Labour Party State Houses. Although many houses have been
upgraded, the inadequacy of the level of insulation product and fitment does not meet current
standards, and will be unable to meet the recommend temperatures aimed for to meet WHO
recommendations. Such housing requires copious amounts of energy to raise and maintain
temperatures to an adequate comfort level. As occupants spend up to 90% of their lives at
home, thermal comfort and a healthy indoor environment is important, largely for health
reasons, but there are additional benefits of having warm and healthy housing.
Almost a third of New Zealand homes fall below the World Health Organisation recommended
indoor temperature of 18°C. More than a quarter have unflued gas heaters, which result in
high levels of condensation inside houses. On average, New Zealand housing is 6°C below
the World Health Organization recommended minimum temperatures in winter. Almost half of
them are mouldy. They are cold, damp, draughty and hard to heat in winter, and
improvement of the indoor air environment is required to meet current international standards.
Little has been done in New Zealand to improve the situation with regards to old, thermally
inefficient houses, until recently. There are a number of organisations established in New
Zealand to educate, encourage and incentivise heating and thermal improvements to homes.
But, these focus on retrofitted insulation to the ceilings and under-floor, which accounts for
about half of the amount of heat loss, leaving the balance of the heat to escape from the
house interior through the walls, windows and air gaps. This is wastage of global energy
resources, and an unnecessary financial expense for the occupant. It also lacks in the
provision of adequate indoor air quality.
Improving the energy efficiency of existing houses has the potential to reduce the impact on
the environment by reducing fuel consumption and operational CO² emissions, while also
improving thermal comfort conditions. With peak oil predicted this decade, fuel costs are
24
expected to rise due to the scarcity of resources (Lloyd 2010); therefore it is practical to
explore retrofit options urgently. If 900,000 uninsulated, or insufficiently insulated houses
were insulated with complete thermal envelopes, substantial amounts of wasted energy could
be conserved that are currently consumed attempting to maintain interior temperatures
required for human comfort.
In thermally upgrading and increasing the sustainability of New Zealand’s housing stock,
improvements can be made in the quality of life for occupants, reduced demand from homes
on reticulated energy, with a consequential reduction of total energy requirements and related
costs. This can assist in reducing carbon dioxide emissions and assist New Zealand in
meeting our commitments to the Kyoto Protocol.
3.2.1 HOUSING QUALITY
‘Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well being
of himself and his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and
necessary social services and the right to security in the event of unemployment,
sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances
beyond his control’ (Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 25).
New Zealand law has no provision for a right to housing, but in its ratification to International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), Government has accepted an
undertaking to comply with these international human rights standards.
In April 2009, the New Zealand Government in its Universal Periodic Review report (Clause
3.2.8) outlines the rights to an adequate standard of living but, acknowledges that affordability
to provide adequate housing was a challenge. It did report that over $100 million was
planned to be spent on upgrading existing State houses to improve the habitability of over
18,000 homes. A large number of these houses are inhabited in crowded rental housing by
Maori and Pacific islanders and it was recognised that there are connections linking to “low
income, poor health and lower educational achievement in young people” (New Zealand
Ministry of Foriegn Affairs and Trade 2009).
HNZC’s energy efficiency retrofit programme has upgraded 17,300 of its less well-insulated
houses. Funding in the 2008 Budget has been allocated to retrofit the remaining 21,000 State
houses requiring insulation, by 2013 (Human Rights Commission 2010).
In June 2010 there were 10,434 people on HNZC’s waiting list, 27 per cent of whom were
current State tenants awaiting a transfer, arguably to seek warmer and typically newer house
option (Human Rights Commission 2010).
25
Government funding for insulation is being provided, albeit at low levels. Between 1996 and
2009, 57,000 people received government funding for insulation. The $323 million of ‘Wake
Up NZ Heat Smart’ funding introduced on 1 July 2009, extended insulation to all home
owners regardless of their income level. The aim was to insulate more than 188,500 New
Zealand homes built prior to 2000. In November 2009, it was announced that an additional
$24 million was being provided to insulate the homes of low-income households and some
iwi-specific initiatives.
A higher level of thermal protection and technology to best address future energy demands
improves this investment of national funds.
3.2.2 BRANZ HOUSING SURVEYS
BRANZ undertakes surveys of New Zealand housing to collect information on the type,
structure and condition of New Zealand’s housing stock. The data collected is used to
analyse connection between housing quality, condition and sustainability; as well as
dampness, insulation and heating which effect energy use, comfort and health of the
occupants. These surveys have been undertaken in 1994, 1999, 2005 and 2010.
The most recent survey has shown that the condition of housing has regressed from the 2005
survey, possibly influenced by fewer new houses, and an increased number of rental
properties. Whereas in 2005, fifty percent of housing was reported as being well maintained,
there was a ten percent decline in the 2010 results. Only forty percent of New Zealand
houses are in a good or excellent condition (Buckett, Marston et al. 2011).
The 2005, BRANZ survey of existing housing built between 1930 and 1959 found that only
fifteen percent of the houses would meet the 1996 standard for ceiling insulation of R1.9
(Clark, Jones et al. 2005). The most commonly used ceiling insulation was fibreglass wool,
and where insulation had been installed, there was evidence of it being poorly installed with
gaps, damaged and improper fitting product (e.g. removal of batts by tradespeople without
replacement). Where macerated paper had been used for ceiling insulation, it had settled
reducing its effectiveness to trap air and insulate properly. Typically, walls are left uninsulated
as the removal of the wall linings or claddings make it more difficult and disruptive to retrofit
wall insulation. Foil sisalation was the commonly used under-floor insulation.
Most houses suffered from inadequate interior ventilation, causing physical problems to
develop such as mildew, and damage to materials, linings and finishes. Bathrooms usually
had inadequate ventilation relying on opening windows which are not always opened. The
survey reported that a third of bathrooms surveyed were vented to the exterior, with 15%
venting moisture directly into the roof space.
Of the kitchens, which also contribute large amounts of vapour from cooking and hot water,
26
50% vented cooking fumes to the exterior and 20% either exhausted the fumes into the roof
space, or recirculate the air back into the interior, extracting odours rather than moisture. The
remaining 30% had no form of air extract, internalising moisture into the volume of air as
vapour (Clark, Jones et al. 2005).
Their condition shows deterioration caused by dampness; inadequate insulation; moulds and
rot, which are all recorded in this survey. From this survey a visual representation of the
condition of New Zealand Housing follows:
Figure 3. 2 - Ceiling insulation damage to a 1960s Auckland house
The Fibreglass batts are damaged and not put back correctly
after the installation of a fan in ceiling space.
Figure 3. 3 Insulation damage to a 1940’s Auckland house
The Fibreglass batts are damaged and not put back after
The installation of fan in ceiling space
27
Figure 3. 4 - Bathroom ceiling mildew and finish deterioration in a 1950s Auckland house
Figure 3. 5 - Bathroom mildew in a 1950s Auckland house
Figure 3. 6 - Water damage in a 1950s Auckland house
28
Figure 3. 7 - Bedroom mildew in a 1950s Auckland house
This photo of is of a bedroom showing extensive black mould found throughout the
house, moisture damage to linings and no insulation in walls or ceilings.
Figure 3. 8 - Wall finishes in a 1950s Auckland house
This photo of is of a bedroom in a house which has extensive mould in the bedrooms,
some in living areas, an open fire and LPG heater, and no insulation in the walls or
ceilings (Clark, Jones et al. 2005).
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CHAPTER 4: HOUSING AND HEALTH
A connection between health and housing has long been recognised. Florence Nightingale
(1820 – 1910) quoted that, “the connection between health and the dwellings of the
population is one of the most important that exists” (Lowry 1991; Lynch 1999). Lowry linked a
dwellings structure with physical health seen in the Victorian era in Britain, and similarly in
New Zealand. To avoid epidemics sanitation became a requirement, which became of more
importance than the condition of the house (Lowry 1989; Lynch 1999). Franklin Roosevelt
proposed to the nation in his annual speech of 1944, a second Bill of Rights to the existing
USA Constitution: “that every family had the right to a decent home” (Roosevelt, Samuel
1938[50).
In New Zealand the Public Health Commission in 1993 commented that “Housing should
provide shelter and warmth” with further reference to low quality housing as meaning either or
both of the following: poor ventilation and lacking basic insulation (Public Health Commission
1993). As New Zealand is a party to both the Universal Declaration of Rights in 1948, and its
reaffirmation in 1993, government is bound to work towards meeting these rights, which
incorporates the provision of a standard of living that includes housing for the health and well
being of everyone.
Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well being
of himself and his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and
necessary social services and the right to security in the event of unemployment,
sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances
beyond his control. (Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 25)
New Zealand law has no provision for a right to housing, but its ratification to International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), Government has accepted an
undertaking to comply with these international human rights standards.
And yet almost a third of New Zealand homes fall below the World Health Organisation
recommended indoor temperature of 18°C. More than a quarter have unflued gas heaters,
which result in high levels of condensation inside houses. Issues that affect the habitability of
both State and privately owned housing are dampness, coldness and crowding. That these
houses are cold and undesirable is reflected in the large numbers of HNZC tenants’ awaiting
a transfer, arguably to seek warmer and typically newer house options. In June 2010 there
were 10,434 people on HNZC’s waiting list, 27 per cent of whom were current State tenants
(Human Rights Commission 2010).
30
In recognition that New Zealand’s housing is in need of improvement, government funded
insulation for fifty-seven thousand people between 1996 and 2009. This was followed with a
commitment of $323 million under the ‘Wake Up NZ Heat Smart’ funding which was
introduced on 1 July 2009, to extend insulation to all home owners regardless of their income
level. Its aim being to insulate over 188,500 New Zealand homes built prior to 2000, which
equates to approximately a fifth of the 900,000 homes estimated to have inadequate
insulation. In November 2009, an additional $24 million was announced to insulate the
homes of low-income households and some iwi-specific initiatives.
Housing New Zealand Corporation (HNZC) provides affordable housing, also recognised as
Social Housing. They mange over 69,000 properties valued at approximately $15 billion, to
provide homes for those in need (Housing New Zealand Corporation). HNZC’s energy
efficiency retrofit programme has upgraded 17,300 of its less well-insulated houses. Funding
in their 2008 budget was allocated to retrofit the remaining 21,000 state houses requiring
insulation, by 201. (Human Rights Commission 2010). A level of thermal protection and
technology that best addresses future energy demands needs to be included in this
investment of national funds.
World Health Organisation (WHO) recognises and defines the term ‘exposure’ as ‘an event
during which people come into contact with a pollutant at a certain concentration during a
certain length of time’ (World Health Organisation 2009). Occupants of unhealthy housing are
exposed to cold temperatures and pollutants for a large percentage of their day, and
regardless of income or nation, unhealthy housing is a global epidemic.
During the cold season, when temperatures are below comfort conditions, houses are cold
due to lack of insulation, air leakage, and inadequate heating sources – often unaffordable for
low income groups. They are difficult to heat, and have a tendency to grow mould. Cold
houses are known to cause discomfort and ill health, mortality affecting the occupants,
confinement to a heated room, condensation on cold surfaces, and consequent mould growth
causing physical, emotional and psychological illnesses. This is evident by the high level of
seasonal mortality in NZ and possibly by other epidemiological evidence e.g. high asthma
rates (Howden-Chapman 2003; Isaacs, N., et al. 1993). Dampness and mould in buildings
has contributed to increasing cases of asthma and allergies throughout various climates of
many countries (WHO, 2009). To prevent walls from dampness they need maintain warm
surfaces to the interior of the house. This is achieved by insulating the complete building
envelope of the house, with as few minimal thermal bridges as is physically possible.
New Zealand has the second highest rate of asthma in the world effecting over 800,000 New
Zealanders of which 25% are children (The Asthma Foundation 2010). The economic cost of
asthma in New Zealand is conservatively estimated to be around $825 million per year, which
31
represents a large health and financial burden to New Zealand’s society. These costs consist
of about $125 million in direct medical costs and $700 million in indirect medical costs (which
includes days off work, premature disability and death from asthma) (Holt and Beasley 2001).
Asthma is the most common cause of hospital admission among New Zealand children. It
also causes 1 in 200 deaths of whom most are elderly, rating New Zealand highly in winter
mortality comparative to other OECD countries (Bierre, Howden-Chapman et al. 2007).
Studies conducted between the University of Auckland and the Auckland District Health
Board investigated the effects climate has on health in the Auckland area, with a focus on
respiratory infections. Over a six-year period, comparison was made between climate and
weather data, and hospital admission figures for the Auckland area. It was found that low
temperatures and high rainfall / humidity corresponded with increased hospital admissions for
respiratory, cardiovascular, and meningococcal diseases, worst effecting the children and
elderly. There was an approximate 40% increase of hospital admissions for respiratory
infections and inflammations during winter when temperatures are low (Gosai and Salinger
2006).
Figure 4. 1 Graph of minimum temperatures: number of admissions to Auckland hospitals
(Gosai and Salinger 2006)
32
4.1 HEALTH COSTS
Uninsulated housing affects New Zealand in health, energy and environmental costs. This
was demonstrated in an analysis of the reduced number of visits to GPs, hospitalisations,
days off school, days off work, energy savings and CO² savings found in a New Zealand
study undertaken in 2001 and 2002 called ‘The Housing, Insulation and Health Study’
(Chapman, Howden-Chapman et al. 2009). To achieve environmental, energy and health
benefits, the value for money of improving housing quality by retrofitting insulation is
convincing.
Philippa Howden-Chapman, a social scientist based in Wellington (NZ) has helped to inform
policy development in health, housing and energy policy. Her knowledge contributes to many
studies that involve housing, insulation, heating and health. From the ‘The Housing,
Insulation and Health Study’, Howden’s analysis ‘Retrofitting houses with insulation: a cost–
benefit analysis of a randomised community trial’, found that insulating housing was very cost
effective. The study found that the health benefits exceed the actual cost of fixing houses by
a ratio of almost 2:1 (Chapman, Howden-Chapman et al. 2009).
The cost of installing insulation above the ceiling, fixing foil beneath the floor, applying some
draught stopping and in some cases a polythene barrier over the exposed ground beneath
the house to prevent rising dampness, was twice as cost effective as the amount of health
related savings to be made. This study involved 1350 houses that were retrofitted with
insulation of levels meeting EECA standards of almost a decade ago. Insulation levels have
since improved, and heating costs have increased, which further substantiated that the cost of
retrofitting uninsulated housing is recoverable from current health related expenditure.
Current expenditure on housing related heath problems incurs costs for hospital stays for 50
people suffering from respiratory illness per day ($3,000 per night for hospitalisation), which
amounts to $54 million; $17 million in 180,000 lost workdays taken for illness; and $475
million in wasted residential energy consumption (NZBCSB, 2008). To correctly address
adequate insulation, by making improvements to provide a complete thermal envelope has
the potential to save an estimated $546 million per annum.
It was concluded in ‘Housing, Insulation and Health Study’ that energy and environmental
savings such as carbon emission savings, were modest but significant, with larger savings
being achieved from health benefits. Although Local Authorities are required by the Health
Act 1956 and the Building Act 1991 to monitor housing conditions and building standards
(Rankine 2004), this does not appear evident when observing clear link between poor
housing and health.
33
4.3 INDOOR AIR QUALITY AND HEALTH IN LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSING The link between cold, uninsulated houses with mould and ill health is not new to New
Zealand. Mould has been discovered in State housing since soon after they were first built.
Within the first two years – post construction, problems developed with the condition of
Labour Party State Housing (LPSH) that affected fifty-seven percent of the houses (Brien and
D.R. 1944). Discolorations were discovered, caused by black, blue-green and yellow moulds.
The black mould that resembled splattered soot was found on the distempered ceilings, and
the other moulds were found on the top areas of the wall-papered walls. The moulds
reappeared after the surfaces were repainted and re-wallpapered.
A test house was built and accommodated by staff members during a testing period in which
these moulds were investigated, and reported on in 1944 by the Department of Scientific and
Industrial research to Government (DSIR). The DSIR report ‘Investigations into causes and
controls of moulds in State Houses’, indentified the moulds as being Cladosporium herbarum,
Penescillium commune, Penescillium chrysogenum and Aspergillus versicolor (Brien and
D.R. 1944).
Cladosporium herbarum is the dark brown fungi found formed in colonies on the ceiling, which
when established forms a vegative body composed of thick-walled hyphae which penetrates
the distemper applied to the ceiling, rendering it unable to be cleaned off. Penescillium
commune, P.chrysogenum and Aspergillus versicolor grew on wallpapers, but not un-
wallpapered wallboard. They commonly occur on other hygroscopic items such as books,
papers, shoes and clothes stored with limited ventilation. These moulds grow superficially
without penetrating the surfaces so are easily cleaned off without staining.
Tests were done on sample pieces of plasterboard that were half coated with glue-size (the
common surface sealer prior to distemper or wallpaper application), casein (used as the
binding agent for distemper) and flour paste (used to glue the wallpaper to the plasterboard).
The remaining half of each sample was left untreated for comparison. The samples were
lightly sprayed with moisture containing Cladosporium herbarum spores, and then stored for
30 days in a warm humid environment of 22.8 °C with a relative humidity of 95%. The same
test was done replacing the plasterboard substrate with glass.
Mould grew on all samples that had the glue size, casein and flour-paste identifying that the
plasterboard was not causing the problem. As mould resistant substitutes for the glue-size,
casein and flour-paste were not available potential additives known to be toxic to fungi were
tested to prevent mould growth.
34
Commercial formalin, Zinc sulphate, Copper-sulphate, Borax (sodium borate), Sodium
salicilanylide (“Shirlan W.S.”), Sodium penta-chlor-phenate (“Santobrite”), Phenol and
Potassium alum were all chemical additives applied to water in varying concentrations and
applied to the new samples of plasterboard prior to application of the glue-size, casein and
flour-paste, and the same test conditions were applied, extended up to 45 days. The samples
using 1% concentration each of Sodium salicilanylide and Sodium penta-chlor-phenate
inhibited growth on the distemper.
4.3.1 PENTACHLOROPHENOL: SOLUTION TO THE FIRST MOULD DISCOVERY IN LPSH
The DSIR conducted tests to find a solution to prevent the mould growth. It was established
the mould was caused by the glue-size, casein and flour paste. To solve the problem, a
chemical was introduced. A two percent concentration of Sodium penta-chlor-phenate (PCP)
was added into the distempers, and the glues that adhered the wallpapers to the plaster
board walls, was concluded as a ‘treatment’ to deter the moulds. This solution was
recommended to government with a caution given as to the care required in the handling of
the chemical as “it was liable to cause skin injury if brought continuously in contact with the
hands or face” (Brien, 1944).
For reasons of practicality of the decorating procedure, PCP applied to a bucket of wallpaper
paste could have been applied to all walls of a room, not just the exterior walls that would be
the most affected by mould growth. State House plans typically were designed with small
bedrooms that often placed a bed along an exterior wall up against cold uninsulated
wallpapered walls. Therefore, should PCP have been used as an additive to wall paper
pastes and applied to the walls of LPSH, it implies there was toxicity within very close
proximity to sleeping occupants. A thickness of absorbent paper separated a sleeping child
from possible PCP contamination at close range, for a minimum period of eight to ten hours
daily.
Diluted as it was, PCP is known to be toxic, and if this practice was administered, tests of the
existing wall lining could advise that its removal should be considered for health reasons.
PCP was introduced in 1936 as a timber preservative fungicide and pesticide treatment to
prevent the growth of fungi, algae, mosses, and other micro-organisms. It was economical
and insoluble with water, so was used extensively in house construction and paper (Jorens
and Schepens 1993).
PCP in houses is an environmental pollutant that presents an unacceptable risk to human
health. In an enclosed space such as a closed bedroom, PCP can be transported through the
35
air. This is confirmed by findings of PCP contamination in house dust and absorbed within
untreated materials in close proximity of PCP (Jorens and Schepens 1993). In Germany,
PCP was banned for indoor use in 1978 and outdoor use in 1989. (Schulz, Conrad et al.
2007)
The use of PCP inside housing exposes occupants to the vapours it releases, which is
absorbed into the lungs, gastrointestinal tract and skin. High exposure to PCP has the ability
to affect the skin, metabolism (fever), the haematopoietic tissue, the respiratory and nervous
system, the kidney and the gastrointestinal tract. Although PCP is not classified as a human
carcinogen, research has suggested that it may contribute risk for some malignancies such as
nasal carcinoma and soft tissue sarcoma (Jorens and Schepens 1993). PCP has caused
acute poisoning of children exposed to its use as an additive to laundering wash powders
(Jorens and Schepens 1993; Schulz, Conrad et al. 2007).
It is not known if the solution of PCP was introduced on the DSIR recommendation, as
records could not be found confirming either way. Tests on the effected houses may provide
confirmation if residue is possible after more than 50 years having passed since its potential
application.
Figure 4. 2 Recommendation for the use of Pentachlorophenol to treat mould in LPSH
(Brien and D.R. 1944)
36
4.3.2 THE EXPERIMENTAL COTTAGE: TEST OF INSULATION, VENTILATION AND DAMPNESS
In 1946 an experimental cottage was set up to provide a vehicle for tests to address the
“trouble with certain State houses”, which recognised the relevance of dampness and
inadequate thermal insulation (Marsden 1946). The house was lived in through the tests.
Different methods of insulation were to be tested with various temperatures, ventilation and
humidity being recorded to provide observations for the future improvements of LPSH
construction (Cooper 1948). Heating ranges were also tested to find an option that improved
comfort, was more economical, and that required less coal and effort to light (Furkert 1946;
Cooper 1948).
In 1948 the DSIR made a written recommendation to Walter Nash (Labour Party Finance
Minister) to investigate the moisture content of timber framed walls; the thermal transmittance
of walls and windows; the heating costs comparing the efficiency of open fires and heat
pumps; ventilation of rooms, and the interior climate and comfort measurements of the
experimental cottage (Cooper 1948). Heat loss was assumed as being a third through the
wall, a third through the windows and a third through air leakage around the doors and
windows. Various insulating materials were tested such as ‘Vermiculite’, (vermiculite),
‘Perlite’ and ‘Rock wool’, all natural mineral-based products.
The suggested programme of investigations for the ‘experimental cottage’ is transcribed as
follows:
Moisture content of stud timbers
(a) Insert prongs into stud timbers and wire to a central point: check resistance
between prongs at least once weekly.
(b) Insert test samples of stud timbers loosely in cavities behind removable
panels. Weight samples regularly.
Arrange for one room (say Bedroom No.2) to have a minimum of stud ventilation, and
another room (say Living Room), to have a maximum of stud ventilation. Measure
rates of ventilation in these cavities under varying outdoor conditions.
Thermal transmittance of walls, etc.
Measure transmittance values of various wall sections, external and internal,
ventilated and unventilated, insulated and uninsulated.
Measure transmittance values of ceiling and floor, before and after insulating in
various ways.
Try effect of various types of insulation: building paper on rafters; insulwool;
vermiculite; thermax; ardor, etc.
37
Thermal transmittance of windows
Determine heat losses through casement and sash windows, open and closed, bare
and curtained, and with blinds
Heating Costs
Determine overall heating costs by continuous heating, under various insulation
conditions and with ventilators open and closed.
Ventilation of rooms
Measure ventilation rates in all rooms under various outside conditions.
Comfort Measurements
Make eupatheoscope and katathermometer measurements in all rooms under
various conditions.
Efficiency of open hearth fires
Certain aspects of this problem may be capable of investigation in the living room of
the cottage.
Heat pump
Utilise the cottage to investigate the efficiency of the heat pump as a possible means
of domestic heating.
Interior climate
Investigate changes in R.H. (room heat) and temperature throughout the year when
the cottage is inhabited. (Cooper 1948)
It is regrettable that although there was knowledge of temperature, moisture and ventilation,
which are important factors that contribute towards good indoor air quality and create a
healthy and thermally comfortable environment to live in, these houses were left un-insulated.
The lack of insulation being installed during construction has incurred significant long-term
costs in wasted energy and poor health for New Zealand.
38
Figure 4. 3 Government memorandum regarding the investigation of insulation and air movement
(Furkert 1946)
Common complaints developed regarding the dampness and mildew that became part of
LPSH. A comment frequently made in a survey of State house tenants undertaken prior to
1944 was that the houses had “dampness caused by faults in construction”. “Although the
houses were constructed well, they were indeed cold and damp. Mildew was found on walls,
ceilings and in cupboards.” These defects were reported to authorities and “remedies were to
be undertaken”. There were also complaints of draughty windows, where ‘unseasoned’
timber joinery had shrunk as it fully dried, leaving gaps. Rooms were cold and draughty due
to fireplaces, vents that were in some ceilings, and “lack of sarking” or other preventative
device under the draughty tiled roofs (Wells 1944).
39
4.4 MOULD IN STATE HOUSES, POST 1990
In the mid 1990’s research was undertaken by Kate Lynch for her thesis ‘Healthful Housing’.
She investigated State rental housing and related health issues interviewing a number of
tenants from nine households. Damp and mouldy rooms were still common complaints of the
families interviewed, with mould present in their Housing New Zealand houses.
Overcrowding was a major problem, often caused by cold temperatures, and lack of
affordability to heat the uninsulated house. It was suggested in Lynch’s thesis that the
“primary causes or risk factors of the current meningococcal epidemic may relate to over
crowding and high household size”. In addition there are many diseases, especially
respiratory, that are droplet-borne. The added volume of moisture caused by human
breathing intensifies with overcrowding, which increases the chance of disease spreading
(Lynch 1999). International studies show overcrowding to be a risk factor in the developing of
meningitis. Indeed Stuart et al. (1989) states that “the carriage rates are high in young adults,
in people who live in conditions of severe overcrowding”
Interview extracts from ‘Healthful Houses’ depict the damp conditions experienced:
“Damp mouldy houses are common. Condensation can be seen visibly running down
walls. Three or more adults sleep in the same room without adequate ventilation.
The windows are kept shut because of the cold and the inability to afford heating”.
(Tui)
“It wasn’t that clean when we moved in. They, (Housing New Zealand), were
supposed to do the cleaning but they never. I had it all done myself. Like the
mould’s black marks on the wall, in the bedrooms and that, cos it smells. That’s what
normally makes my children sick cos the air’s not fresh in the house. Me and my
husband cleaned everything out, the walls, the bedrooms ... Mould all over the walls,
bedrooms, smelly too. So I spent everyday cleaning it bit by bit until it was all done,
and the ceiling too. I finally had it all done “(Ani).
“It was a three bedroomed house and there were two bedrooms that got the sun, and
then there was the spare bedroom. That bedroom was just so damp that it was
actually mouldy. And the other lady, she didn’t use her . . . that same bedroom
either” (Bob)
Heating is one thing you really notice in winter. But if they have the luxury of
one family living in a house, often they will all be living in one room of the
house, just cos it’s the only way they can afford to heat the house (Carol).
40
“I’d just had Charlotte at the time. I was going back and forward to the doctor’s
because of her bronchitis, and it was the coldness that caused that.”
The cold and damp conditions caused many to sleep in the same room to conserve electricity
and warmth in the house. The heating required to raise indoor temperature to 18°C
throughout the winter months would require a level of finance beyond the means of families in
serious housing need. Market level rents contribute further health risks as households cannot
afford the cost of heating from their post-rent residual incomes (Lynch 1999).
The reported comments are from a decade ago. Since then fuel costs for heating have
risen, and will continue to increase.
4.5 THE HEALTHY HOUSING PROGRAMME
Auckland Regional Public Health Service commissioned a report with an interest in housing
and health issues in Auckland. It was established that the cost of affordable housing was
beyond the financial means of over a quarter of Auckland households, in meeting the defined
percentage of housing cost based at 25% of income. In 2001, 23% of Auckland households
were paying upwards of 40% of their net income on housing (Rankine 2005). Issues of
concern were that unaffordable housing costs cause overcrowding (to share the cost),
substandard quality of housing, houses that are cold, damp and mouldy which create
unhealthy living environments for its residents who are exposed to both mental and physical
stresses.
Diseases such as asthma and meningococcal meningitis, which are strongly linked with
substandard or overcrowded housing, are those to which children are also highly susceptible.
Inadequate housing may affect the life chances of another generation through poor health,
missed schooling and the lack of formal educational qualifications. (Lynch 1999)
Between 1991 and 1998, there was an epidemic of meningococcal disease that reached its
peak in 1997. The highest rates were found in Auckland, with Maori and Pacific communities
being the worst affected. Seventy percent of the 1097 notifications were made in winter and
spring when temperatures were low and humidity levels were high (Lindsay, Hope et al.
2002). Rates of incidence increased with high humidity levels and cooler temperatures
(Lindsay, Hope et al. 2002). Overcrowding of housing drastically increases dampness in
housing, which spreads infection, and increases contaminants such as mould and dust mites
known to cause and antagonise respiratory health problems. Health issues recognised were
meningococcal disease, tuberculosis, rheumatic fever, cellulitis and respiratory diseases
41
In response, the Government activated the Healthy Housing Programme (HHP), which was
established in 2001 as a response to the outbreak of meningococcal disease that was found
to be connected to tenants in overcrowded HNZC State housing. Most State housing had
been built for ‘nuclear families’, and therefore was not meeting the needs of larger families,
extended and multi-family use (Housing New Zealand Corporation 2000). Housing New
Zealand Corporation (HNZC) recognised that there was a need for healthier housing to
reduce the ill health of its tenants, particularly children. The programme was co-jointly
managed between HNZC and District Health Boards (DHB), who engaged the architectural
services of the New Zealand Institute of Architects (NZIA) for housing renovation design input.
The Department of Building and Housing (DBH) and the New Zealand Institute of Architects
(NZIA) teamed together to address the problem with the ‘Healthy Housing scheme’. A
number of architects in conjunction with NZIA created designs to improve State housing
under the Healthy Housing Programme. A number of architects were engaged to improve the
houses by alterations that upgraded bathrooms and kitchens, and increased the size of the
homes to better accommodate large families. Insulation, ventilation and heating systems
were to be included.
At the commencement of the Healthy Homes programme, HNZC owned 19% of the New
Zealand’s rental properties at the time, which accommodated between 160,000 and 170,000
tenants. Two thirds of the 59,000 properties owned are standalone houses, and 74% of these
are located in Auckland. In Auckland, Glen Innes and the southern suburbs of Otara and
Mangere, and in Wellington Hutt Valley were recognised as being deprived areas that had a
high incidence of infectious disease, therefore were selected for this programme. A survey
undertaken in Glen Innes for the HHP found that 90% of the dwellings had excess
condensation, mould, dampness and cold draughts (Housing New Zealand Corporation
2000).
By the middle of 2009, this programme had completed 11,979 interventions with an outcome
that showed the retrofits did improve the health and wellbeing of the occupants. The risk and
rate of house related disease, specifically meningitis, rheumatic fever, cellulitis, and
respiratory diseases that include asthma had minimised, which effectively reduced the need
for doctor and hospital visitations, as well as increased school attendance. Even with minimal
interventions that included heating, ventilation and insulation – the three essentials for quality
indoor air – the occupants found their homes to be more comfortable and pleasant to be in,
and found that asthma and respiratory problems improved. The final evaluation provided
evidence of a wider social impact that was enriched by improved housing. Families were
happier and healthier (Housing New Zealand Corporation 2007).
42
From interviewing one of the architects involved in the HHP, post intervention observation
was “that people were now living in and around them [houses] in a different way. Gardens
were around where previously they had not been. These families are taking pride in their
homes” (Cook 2010).
4.6 INDOOR AIR QUALITY
IAQ AND HEALTH
The enclosed indoor environment directly affects the health, quality of life, and productivity of
its occupants. Deteriorating health problems impact on a large sector of the global
population, which has raised the concern of the World Health Organisation (WHO), who have
recognised that poor indoor air quality (IAQ) caused by microbial pollution is indeed a global
problem. International research has provided epidemiological evidence that demonstrates the
connection between damp and mouldy homes, with the increased risk of respiratory problems
that include asthma, hypersensitivity, pneumonitus, allergic alveolitus, chronic rhinosinitus,
and allergic fungal sinitus (WHO, 2009). House related health problems are common to all
countries where people spend a lot of time within their homes.
Consequently, in 2009 WHO published 'Guidelines for IAQ' based on a comprehensive review
and evaluation of the scientific evidence that pertained to health related problems, and
contributing factors of microbial growth indoors.
Having identified the health risks and probable causation, WHO developed guidelines for
world wide use to improve IAQ and occupant health, which are summarised as follows:
1. Persistent dampness and microbial growth on interior surfaces and in building
structures should be avoided or minimised as they lead to adverse health effects.
2. Condensation on or in structures, visible mould, and mouldy odour are indicators of
dampness and microbial growth.
3. Dampness and mould related problems are recommended to be prevented, and when
they occur, they should be remedied because of the increased risk of hazardous
exposure to microbes and chemicals.
4. Well-designed, well-constructed, well maintained building envelopes are critical to the
prevention and control of excess moisture and microbial growth, as they prevent
thermal bridges and entry of liquid or vapour-phase water. Moisture management
requires the proper control of temperatures and ventilation to avoid excess humidity,
43
condensation on surfaces and excess moisture in materials. Effective distribution of
ventilation and avoidance of stagnant air spaces is required.
5. Proper building construction and maintenance for a healthy house is the responsibility
of the building owner, and the occupants are responsible for heating and ventilation
adequate to avoid dampness and mould growth.
6. Remediation of poorly maintained houses with mould and damp that accommodates
low income earners should be prioritised to prevent increased poor health to those
already suffering from ill health.
In New Zealand, housing and national health has deteriorated as the result of the moulds and
dustmites that thrive in home climates we cohabitate. Given a situation with a high level of
relative humidity, mould growth and dust mites thrive, both of which produce allergens. The
moist, damp environment found in homes provides the ideal environment for biological
microbes to propagate, as there is water, dust and dirt - all of which feed such contaminants.
By following the WHO guidelines, and with the help of government strategies that act
appropriately and encourage implementation, effective health objectives can be gained by
using a holistic design that is inclusive of adequate ventilation, insulation to create a complete
thermal envelope, and a source of heating and cooling. Combined with the correct selection
of appropriate healthy building materials and technologies, along with appropriate occupant
use, quality indoor air can be achieved and maintained. This has consequential health
benefits of value to both the occupant, and health related government expenditure.
As humans breathe approximately 11,000 litres of air each day, with 50-90% of this being in
homes, it is important for health reasons to create healthy air to live within. To achieve quality
indoor air, technologies that address internal sources of humidity, thermal comfort and
controlled air infiltration rates are necessary. Ventilation, heating and insulation are the three
critical elements that are all required for a successful outcome that will provide quality indoor
air (Lloyd and Callau 2006).
4.6.1 CONTAMINANTS
A wide range of contaminants found in the indoor air of housing can arise from pollutants
within the house, or they can be transported into the indoor confines from the outdoor
environment through the air. Biological and chemical contaminants pollute indoor air, which
deteriorates IAQ and contributes to, or causes ill health of the occupant/s by affecting the
mucous membranes, eyes and breathing of the occupants, and can cause a number of other
health problems to include headaches, depression and anxiety, respiratory difficulty, asthma
and allergies. There are a few more serious disorders that involve damage to cellular growth,
44
which can be linked to cancer growth (Greig). Without adequate ventilation to release the
contaminants, they accumulate in the air, intensifying indoor air pollution.
CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS
Chemical contaminants are commonly found in building materials, and are also introduced
though occupant use. Ten percent of the New Zealand population have a heightened
chemical sensitivity, Multiple Chemical Sensitive, meaning they cannot handle the same
exposure limits that others can.
Of the range of pollutants that can be introduced into the indoor air, outdoor pollution such as
traffic gas emissions, or other chemicals in the area can be transferred in the natural air used
for ventilation. Within the house, indoor air can be contaminated by airborne particles from
open fireplaces and wood stoves; noxious gases such as carbon monoxide and nitrogen
monoxide that is emitted from unflued gas heaters; building materials that emit volatile
organic compounds (VOC’s) and occupant used chemical such as household cleaners and
sprays . VOC’s chemicals are commonly found in composite materials such as plywood,
fibreboards, laminates, glues and timber treatments. A common toxic example is
formaldehyde which can be released from all of these products. Some chemicals reduce with
time, but others can continuously off-gas.
Human breathing creates increased levels of carbon dioxide that accumulate which can
cause headaches and lethargy without adequate ventilation. Fresh air contains 20.9%
oxygen and 0.2% Carbon dioxide (CO²), whereas expired air changes these rates to 16% and
4% respectively. CO² levels of 0.1% compromise the comfort of occupants, at 0.35% there
can be long term health implications and levels higher than 5% acutely affect human health
Lead is a common contaminant found particularly in older houses as it was commonly used
as a pigment and drying agent in "alkyd" oil based paint prior to 1979 (when white lead was
banned from use) in New Zealand (Level 2010). Lead toxicity released from old lead based
paints as paint flakes or dust is a problem that can arise from paint deterioration and during
the renovation of older houses. Ingress into the body can occur upon swallowing the residues
from lead paint or by inhaling its fumes. Exposure to lead is cumulative if left untreated and
can cause human poisoning. It is known medically to cause haematological, gastrointestinal,
and neurological dysfunction (Lockitch 1993), causing high blood pressure and hypertension;
nerve disorders; lowered levels of memory and concentration; infertility; and joint and
muscular pain in adults. Children are the more vulnerable to whom the effect of lead can
cause damage to the brain and nervous system; hyperactivity and learning problems; growth
limitations; hearing problems and headaches (EPA, 2010).
45
There are many other chemicals that have the ability to contaminate indoor air, one of which
is Pentachlorophenol that may have impacted on LPSH.
BIOLOGICAL CONTAMINANTS
Dampness and inadequate ventilation cause the growth of biological contaminants. Moulds,
fungi, and bacteria, release spores, cells, fragments and volatile organic compounds into the
air, and combined with other biological contaminants such as dust mites and their faeces;
contribute to the high rates of asthma, perennial allergic rhinitis and eczema, that affects over
800,000 people in New Zealand (The Asthma Foundation 2010).
DUST MITES
Dust mites are part of the arachnid family of insects having a spider-like appearance. As they
are light in colour and blend well amongst dust particles, and are minuscule, about 200μm in
length as an adult, they are difficult to see (Leardini and Van Raamsdonk 2010), and yet are
very common in New Zealand housing.
Dust mites survive on water absorbed from the air and feed on human skin scales. Clearly, a
damp house in a mild and temperate climate is ideal to encourage the presence and
procreation of dust mites (WHO, 2009; Leardini, 2010). For their survival, dust mites require
a level of relative humidity (RH) which is higher than 45% (WHO, 2009), and they will multiply
rapidly as the humidity levels increase. The ideal environment for dust mites has humidity
levels of between 52% and 75% RH, and an indoor temperature within the range of between
15°C to 30°C (Leardini and Van Raamsdonk 2010).
MOULDS
Mould spores arise as a result of dampness and inadequate ventilation and contribute to the
contamination the indoor air environment. Indoor fungi have similar requirements to dust
mites in that they also require moisture, nutrients and a temperature of 10-35°C to survive
and grow. Mould fungi are ubiquitous in damp housing as these elements are found in
materials such as wall paper and textiles, as well as household dust to provide sufficient
nutrition for sustenance and growth. Provided with a high relative indoor humidity, the growth
of mould and fungi on damp surfaces of building interiors is evident, and where there is a
humidity level achieved of 70% or more, mould will grow on a surface of many substrates
within seven days (WHO, 2009). Along with the many negative health implications, mould
has the ability to deteriorate the building fabric, furnishings, interior decorations, clothes, toys
and household equipment. It causes irritation and discomfort, and its pungent and unpleasant
smell, and visual unattractiveness can cause social deprivation (Hunt, 1994). Visually mould
fungi have a woolly or powdery appearance in colours of green, blue, black, pink and orange
(Hedley and Wakeling 2002).
46
Moulds can be caused in buildings arising from two different situations:
1. Poor internal moisture management caused by insufficient heating, poor insulation, poor
use of vapour barriers and inadequate ventilation that leads to damp surfaces conducive
to mould growth.
2. Weather tightness failure which leads to the ingress of external moisture that causes wall
sheathing and associated materials and fittings to become wet, which leads to mould
growth. (Hedley and Wakeling 2002)
4.6.2 HEALTH RISKS RELATED TO MOULDS
New Zealand housing is known to accommodate at least 60 varieties of moulds that can
cause serious health problems (Leardini and Van Raamsdonk 2010). Asthma has historically
been the dominant mould-related health issue in New Zealand, but more recently, health risks
related to toxigenic moulds connected to the ‘leaky house’ syndrome, have been prevalent
(Hedley and Wakeling 2002).
Asthma symptoms are linked to inhalation of mould spores and mycelium fragments, which
can affect those individuals prone to asthma and other respiratory health complications, but
anyone can be put at risk if they are exposed to high spore concentrations over a prolonged
period (several days or weeks). Mycotoxicosis, is poisoning caused by prolonged inhalation,
ingestion or absorption of Mycotoxins produced by toxigenic fungi (mainly moulds but other
fungi and actinomycetes or filamentous bacteria also). The seriousness of a mycotoxicosis
relates to the dose or concentration of mycotoxin to which an individual is exposed.
Mycotoxins (fungal toxins) produced by fungi have been known to interfere with DNA
synthesis and may cause DNA damage, although it is not clear whether the levels of airborne
Mycotoxins found in damp buildings is high enough to cause health effects.
Penicillium, Aspergillus and Cladosporium are all moulds that are strongly related to allergic
respiratory disease, especially asthma. Penicillium and Aspergillus are commonly found in
most houses. Cladosporium herbarum has been known to produce various allergens, often
linked epidemiologically to asthma as a main aeroallergen in many health studies.
Aspergillus versicolor is an internationally recognised fungus commonly found in temperate
and colder areas, and is frequently found in buildings with humidity and ventilation problems.
Aspergillus versicolor and Cladosporium herbarum both require intermediate levels of
moisture to grow, (ERH 80-90%), while Penicillium chrysogenum and Penicillium commune
will grow with low levels of moisture (<80%). Aspergillus versicolor is a mycotoxin that along
with Stachybotrys Chartarum are producers of macrocyclic trichothecenes, trichodermin,
sterigmatocystin and satratoxin G, which could be present in most materials and dusts in
buildings with current or historical water damage. Stachybotrys chartarum is a toxigenic
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mould commonly known as ‘black mould’ (Leardini and Van Raamsdonk 2010), which is
found in New Zealand houses. It prefers materials that contain wood fibres, building paper;
fibre cement boards and paper coated gypsum plasterboard (Hedley and Wakeling 2002) and
grows in a wide range of temperatures, (between 2°C and 40°C with its ideal situation being
where the RH is higher than 70% (Zhang 2009). With its ability to grow in such low
temperatures, it is often found in cold and damp housing, most commonly in moist bathrooms.
The two significant categories of housing in New Zealand that are highly conducive to the
growth of Stachybotrys are pre-1978 uninsulated houses, which have an average RH of
between 65% and 85% (Zhang 2009); and the recent crisis in New Zealand of ‘leaky’ housing
that been built over the last two decades (Hedley and Wakeling 2002).
The moulds discovered in LPSH within the first two years post-construction, were indentified
as being Cladosporium herbarum, Penescillium commune, P.chrysogenum and Aspergillus
versicolor (Brien and D.R. 1944).
An evaluation could be surmised that houses built in the period from post- 1978, up until the
early 1990’s when the leaking house crisis commenced, may provide adequate, mould-free,
healthy housing. This suggests that there are thousands of houses with problems that
continue to affect the health and comfort levels of millions of New Zealanders. The ‘leaky
house’ crisis is being addressed litigiously, to rectify the problematic design, construction and
technology of these houses, leaving uninsulated housing to find alternative drivers to instigate
and encourage intervention for their improvement.
4.6.3 MOISTURE AND DAMPNESS
As well as a range of contaminants that are contained in the air, water vapour is another
pollutant (Clark, Jones et al. 2005; Pollard and McNeil 2010). Indoor dampness seems to be
the key. Indoor dampness is estimated by WHO to affect 10 to 50% of buildings that include
homes, schools, and offices, with the highest incidence of dampness found in deprived
communities. As New Zealand’s relative indoor RH is usually above 65% in winter this
provides ideal conditions for mould growth. In New Zealand, dampness in housing
contributes to approximately 15% of the population being affected by allergies such as
asthma, headaches, eczema and sneezing related to the moulds, spores and household
toxicity (SmarterHomes 2008). The 2010 BRANZ House Survey found that dampness affects
over a third in New Zealand’s houses (Buckett, Marston et al. 2011), and according to the
Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority (EECA), about 45% of our homes suffer from
moisture related problems. In Auckland, where the climate is more humid, the rate of
dampness in homes increases to 72% (Easton 2010). An ideal RH is between 40 and 60%.
A lower level of RH is too dry for the human mucus system and a higher RH presents the risk
of mould developing.
To stabilise humidity levels, the use of technology and correct material selection can assist.
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Despite being a nationally and internationally recognised problem, building standards and
regulations typically do not regulate or set minimum requirements for preventing and
controlling excessive moisture and dampness.
There are a number of reasons that cause high moisture levels as well as condensation.
Dampness that enters the house from the outside, which has the potential to increase due to
changing climatic conditions altering weather patterns that bring increased storms, heavy
rainfall and flooding (World Health Organisation 2009). Water vapour caused within the
house interior and water vapour from unflued gas heating. In new construction, moisture can
be introduced through damp building materials that are used. Dampness in old and new
housing is also affected by high levels of indoor humidity, lacking insulation causing cold
surfaces and inadequate ventilation. The quantum of moisture that is gathered in homes is
from a number of sources created by human behaviour are outlined in the chart below:
MOISTURE CREATED BY COMMON HOUSEHOLD ACTIVITIES
Activity Litres
Cooking 3.0 per day
Clothes washing 0.5 per day
Showers and baths 1.5 per day (per person)
Dishes 1.0 per day
Clothes drying (unvented) 5.0 per load
Gas heater (unflued) Up to 1.0 per hour
Breathing, active 0.2 per hour (per person)
Breathing, asleep 0.02 per hour (per person)
Perspiration 0.03 per hour
Pot plants as much as you give them
Moisture created by human activity within housing
(Consumerbuild)
The ability of warm air to hold moisture increases as temperatures rise, with the level of
moisture held yielding the level of relative humidity. Condensation appears when the indoor
air in a room cannot hold the level of moisture in relation to its temperature, therefore when
temperatures are low the moisture (vapour) in the air liquefies to form condensation wherever
the temperature change occurs. This is known as dew point. Such condensation causes
dampness on porous surfaces, such as walls, and will grow mould within seven days. (WHO,
2009). Without adequate ventilation the moisture re-circulates into the air, continually adding
to the moisture content within the enclosed environment.
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Forces that are exerted on material surfaces attract water vapour molecules to stick to their
surface. The thickness of film they form and the amount of water held in equilibrium with the
surrounding atmosphere is roughly proportional to the relative humidity of the atmosphere.
Therefore where humidity is low, a water film thickness of one molecule occurs. As the
humidity rises, so does the vapour thickness until at 100% relative humidity, it reaches
saturation point and condensation occurs. The effect of moisture on building materials
increases the risk of attack by moulds, fungi or insects, which leads to the deterioration of the
material.
Glass is a great collector of condensed air vapour as it represents a thin layer that separates
temperature differential between a house interior and exterior. In most single glazed
buildings, the window glazing has the lowest interior surface temperature, which leads to
condensation. The condensate increases in the form of tiny water droplets that collect into
drips, giving the term 'crying windows'.
INTERSTITIAL CONDENSATION
Interstitial condensation is concealed, as it occurs within the building fabric. It happens when
warm, moist air is sucked by diffusion or air leakage, within the layers of the building envelope
where lower temperatures can cause condensation to occur. Where the air temperature of
the interior is higher than the exterior, the pressure differential will cause the heat and vapour
within the air to migrate from the interior through the building envelope, attempting to escape
to the cold ambient external temperature. Where there is no insulation to provide thermal
retention, heat flows out of the interior envelope with resultant heat loss, requiring a constant
additional heat source to maintain a comfortable room temperature. Vapour and
condensation flow with the air movement to settle on cold materials, either hygroscopic or
non-permeable. If the dew- point is found within the wall, this is where the condensation will
occur. Moisture absorbed into insulation or any hygroscopic material will be detrimental and
will affect the thermal conductivity of insulation material.
HYGROSCOPIC WALLS
Transfusive walls made of vapour permeable and highly hygroscopic materials, can enhance
IAQ when used in conjunction with other strategies, to eliminate fungal growth by moderating
humidity variations. Hygroscopic materials have an ability to react quickly, absorbing
moisture in humid situations or releasing it in dry conditions, therefore stabilising the humidity
level of the air. Materials such as timber, plaster, aerated concrete, lime render, clay, wood-
fibre boards, wood-fibre cement, earth and textiles have good hygroscopic properties. They
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have an ability to hold moisture without risk of biological activity or degradation. Impervious
coating such as paint or varnish negates the hygroscopicity and should be avoided.
4.7 THERMAL COMFORT
Due to long exposure to indoor thermal environment (people spend 90% of their time
indoors), indoor temperatures are very important as they can affect human comfort and thus
health. World Health Organisation (WHO) recommendations for indoor temperatures have
minimum standards of 16°C for bedrooms and 18°C for living areas. Temperatures of 20°C
for living areas and 18°C for bedrooms are the optimums. The minimum temperatures of 16 -
18°C is extended to increase up to 24°C for living spaces that are inhabited by the weaker
members of the population, which is usually the sick, immobile or elderly (World Health
Organisation 2009). Temperatures that are less than the minimum 18°C introduce health
problems. Room temperatures that are lower than 16°C can impair the respiratory system
(which can be further exasperated by high or low humidity). Temperatures below 12°C place
stress on the cardiovascular system, and there is a risk of hypothermia if temperatures are
below 6°C (Collins 1986).
By international comparison, New Zealand’s indoor temperatures are low; approximately 6°C
lower than international recommendation. A study carried out by the Building Research
Association of New Zealand (BRANZ) confirmed very low indoor temperatures in winter, as
New Zealand houses were found having an average temperature in the living rooms of
15.8°C, and 14.1°C in the bedrooms (Isaacs, Camilleria et al. 2006).
BRANZ established a project to collect and update data on the residential use of energy for
heating in New Zealand. The Household Energy End-Use Project (HEEP) collected energy
and temperature data from 400 randomly selected houses that represented typical housing
throughout New Zealand. The project ran for a ten year period, which commenced in 1995.
HEEP found that in non-insulated houses during the winter months of June, July and August,
the typically warmest room was the living room which had an average temperature of 17.8°C
(French, Camilleria et al. 2007). The mean temperatures recorded between 5pm and 11pm
ranged from 10°C to 23.8°C, with temperatures below WHO's optimum of 20ºC for 83% of the
time. Bedroom median temperatures ranged from 13.42°C to 15.38°C, which do not meet the
WHO and even not Beacon’s High Standard of Sustainability (HSS™), New Zealand’s IAQ
optimum guideline minimum temperature of 16°C. The lower temperatures in the range could
be attributed to older, non-insulated houses. HEEP records that the summer months of
December, January and February had a stable range of internal temperatures between
20.5°C and 21.5°C (Isaacs, Camilleri et al. 2005). Indeed it was found that large eaves that
were common in pre-1978 houses protected the house interior from the solar heat gain from
the summer sun.
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WINTER LIVING ROOM TEMPERATURES
Period Minimum Mean Median
Morning 8.78°C 13.98°C 13.88°C
Day 9.85°C 15.91°C 15.87°C
Evening 11.86°C 17.79°C 17.85°C
Night 10.63°C 16.01°C 16.07°C
Internal house temperature national averages for New Zealand living rooms
(French, Camilleri et al. 2006)
WINTER BEDROOM TEMPERATURES
Period Minimum Mean Median
Morning 7.98°C 13.1°C 13.42°C
Day 8.13°C 14.57°C 14.64°C
Evening 8.45°C 15.18°C 15.38°C
Night 8.24°C 14.43°C 14.61°C
Internal house temperature national averages for New Zealand bedrooms
(French, Camilleri et al. 2006)
ROOM Mean winter temperatures (°C)
Morning
7 – 9 a.m.
Day
9 a.m. – 5 p.m.
Evening
5 – 11p.m
Night
11 p.m. – 7 a.m.
Living room 13.5 15.8 17.8 14.8
Bedroom 12.6 14.2 15.0 13.6
Ambient
(Outside)
7.8 12.0 9.4 7.6
Table of national average temperatures for a New Zealand house.
(French, Camilleria et al. 2007)
Comparing the mean winter temperatures for the four different periods during the day for the
living room, bedroom and outside ambient temperature, it was found that during the day the
bedroom was only 2.2 C warmer than outside. The living room was not much better, being an
average 3.8 C warmer. The mean temperature of the living room increases from the morning
to the evening, which indicates the use of heating in the morning, solar benefits during the
day, and heating in the evening. New Zealand homes are known to have a tendency to zone
heat one room, which is usually the living room, rather than the whole house. This is reflected
in the higher temperatures found in the living rooms. It was found that 18% of houses
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maintain a heating source through the night, and this is reflected in the lowered temperatures
of the living areas overnight. (11 p.m. – 7 a.m.) (French, Camilleria et al. 2007).
In Auckland, 87.5% of living rooms and 90.6% of bedrooms were below the WHO
recommended temperatures. Bedrooms that aren’t used in the day become subject to a
sudden increase in moisture load when people go to bed. The impact of this moisture is
problematic as typically the bedroom is unheated, poorly ventilated and uninsulated, leading
to condensation, which is then followed by mould growth.
The problem of cold housing has been a long term problem for New Zealand housing, as
historical evidence shows. Prior to HEEP research in 1994/5, national data had not been
recorded since the 1971 Household Electrical survey. Mean temperatures recorded in this
survey show the temperatures of houses were approximately 1°C lower than houses that
were insulated to meet the requirements of the first level of mandatory insulation in New
Zealand. In 1971 temperatures averaged at 15°C in Living areas and 14.4°C in bedrooms.
Average Living room temperatures in 2000 for Hamilton recorded 16.7°C, and in 2001/2
Auckland recorded 16.5°C. In the northern area of New Zealand, pre and post 1978
insulation demonstrated a variance of 1°C (Household Energy End-use Project 2003),
confirming that mandatory insulation at low levels, applicable to the floors and ceiling only,
provided insignificant thermal improvement.
Figure 4. 4
HEEP and 1971 historical Living Room temperatures
(Household Energy End-use Project 2003)
Auckland, which has a mixed climate, typically has house interiors that are warmer than the
external temperatures, although minimally when insulation isn’t installed. Evidence recorded
from non-insulated houses demonstrates interior temperatures are 1-2 degrees higher than
the ambient temperature (Lloyd, Bishop et al. 2007). Auckland houses with solar
considerations such as eaves have reduced solar gain in summer, therefore interior and
ambient temperatures are closely matched.
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Uninsulated New Zealand homes are known for having cold, damp and uncomfortable
interiors and that consequently, they are wasteful of energy contributing almost a third of New
Zealand’s total energy use, which is consumed by 20% of households (NZBCSB, 2008).
EECA have found that a major cause of wasted energy and health issues is the lack of
insulation in New Zealand homes (Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority 2009).
Clearly, New Zealand housing is drastically lacking in warmth. Unfortunately for the
occupants of almost two thirds of New Zealand’s homes, a warm and comfortable indoor
temperature is not achievable due to heat escaping through the draughty and uninsulated
building envelope.
4.8 AIRTIGHTNESS
Air tightness or air permeability, is the effectiveness of a building to restrict uncontrolled
leakage of air through the building envelope. Air leakage through uncontrolled air movement
within a building envelope causes damage and reduced performance of insulation materials,
transports air pollutants, is detrimental to human health, causes unnecessary waste of energy
and reduces thermal comfort. Air leakage, can occur through gaps in the building envelope
typically found around window sashes, doors, and through the building structure and linings,
and open fireplaces.
Internationally, air leakage has become recognised as one of the major causes of energy
consumption and discomfort in the buildings of many European countries. WHO has
commented affirming that for the conservation of energy, adequate measures need to be
undertaken to tighten building envelopes as well as to rectify ventilation deficits and
inadequate or improper insulation (WHO, 2009). The importance of airtightness for energy
efficiency and IAQ is seen in the recent implementation of many national and international
standards, in particular the European Directive on Energy Performance of Buildings (EPBD).
There is a variety of International performance levels for airtightness, but countries such as
Czech Republic, Germany, Denmark, Spain, The Netherland, and Norway define the
minimum requirements on airtightness in their regulations (Leardini and Van Raamsdonk
2010).
New Zealand has no national regulation for the provision of airtightness in residential
buildings, and yet it is evident that uncontrolled moisture can be transported into the structural
components of a building, at the risk of building degeneration. Consequently a number of risk
factors for mould and indoor pollutant levels can be found in different housing types, both old
and new, of the New Zealand building stock.
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Airtightness is important for the effectiveness of thermal insulation and ventilation, and even
more particularly in exposed coastal areas in high wind zones, as air infiltration is normally
driven by wind, and air pressure differences between the indoor and outdoor air.
Air pressure within a building is affected by differential air temperatures on the inside and
outside faces of the building envelope, which is impacted on by climatic seasonal change.
Temperature differential between a house interior and exterior changes the pressures around
and within a building structure, so as that with an exterior temperature that is lower that the
interior temperature, the air flows from the inside of a structure towards the outside,
transporting heat with it. Not only does this incur heat loss that increases the demand on
heating, differential pressure that causes the airflow that transports heat also transports water
vapour and contaminants causing migration from the interior through the building envelope,
attempting to escape to the cold, external environment.
Evidence of New Zealand’s cold housing history can be seen in figure 4.4, which shows little
difference between the indoor and outdoor temperatures. As these temperatures are so
similar, there hasn’t been a problem with condensation in housing. The introduction of higher
insulation levels to meet the requirements of NZS4218:2007 will lead to higher indoor
temperatures that will increase the temperature differential between indoor and outdoor
environments. Consequently the outside face of the insulation material can have a
temperature that is close to the dew point, therefore without the correct technology, warm air
that transmits through the wall condensates when it reaches cold exterior material. Within
timber framed cavities such as walls, air-transported moisture that permeates the building
fabric causes dampness, mould and degradation of the timbers, metals, insulation and linings
within.
Strategies can be implemented to minimise the risk of moisture damage by controlling
moisture entry into the building envelope. Impermeable ‘vapour barriers’ such as polyethylene
vapour barriers, foil-faced fibreglass-wool insulation and reflective radiant barrier foil
insulation on the interior of air-conditioned assemblies were used in the past but were soon
linked with mouldy buildings. Such a solution is clearly unsuitable as in preventing moisture
from entering the building envelope it can also prevent moisture from leaving it, and
conversely a system that is successful at eliminating moisture may also allow moisture to
enter. A balance between entry and removal is required.
Airtightness is required to prevent the leakage of humid indoor air to the colder side of the
thermal insulation layer, therefore a permeable vapour membrane installed on the higher
pressured side of the building, retards vapour movement without preventing vapour
transmission. Where vapour barriers and vapour permeable membranes differ is that a
vapour barrier prevents water, whereas a vapour permeable (check) membrane allows water
55
to penetrate through, in a controlled manner. Vapour permeable membranes need to be able
to breathe, and require the following properties: vapour permeance, mechanical strength in
tension, shear, impact and flexure, adhesion, elasticity, thermal stability, ease of fabrication,
application and sealing (WHO, 2009). The vapour permeance characteristic is defined by the
effective ‘wet cup’ permeance of both the cladding and vapour check combined, which is
categorised as follows:
• Vapour impermeable is less than or equal to 0.1 perm
• Vapour semi-impermeable is less than, or equal to 1 perm and greater than 0.1
perm
• Vapour permeable is greater than 1 perm (Lstiburek 2004)
The New Zealand climate has moderate seasonal change over most of the country. The
northern region, is often wet, particularly Auckland which has high levels of relative humidity
(RH). The temperature differences between summer and winter have opposing effects on the
envelope of a structure. In summer the inside face of the external layer (e.g. weatherboards
on a wall) is cold, but in winter with heat from the house interior, it becomes the warm surface.
To correctly accommodate moisture transmission, a breathable membrane is needed on both
faces of an element (e.g. a wall) to provide low diffusion permeability in winter and high
diffusion permeability in summer (Goldau and Roth 2007). Vapour checks are humidity-
variable, diffusion permeable membranes that provide airtightness to prevent air movement
from reducing the thermal capacity of insulation material. They allow moisture to escape
according to the humidity level the vapour check is exposed to, ensuring that interstitial
condensation does not occur. Low diffusion permeability protects the building structure from
dampness, mould and rot; and high diffusive permeability allows moisture to dry out of the
structure (Goldau and Roth 2007). Therefore the integrity of the building element is protected,
and the thermal insulant is able to perform to its best ability.
4.8.1 AIR TIGHTNESS TESTING – WUFI AND BLOWER DOOR
To evaluate a building for airtightness an air pressure test is applied to check for air leakage.
A blower door test (as described in the European Standard EN 13829:2000) can be used to
diagnose the amount of air leakage a building has. A Blower-Door test consists of a
calibrated fan for measuring an airflow rate, and a pressure-sensing device to measure the air
pressure created by the fan flow. The combination of pressure and fan-flow measurements is
used to determine the building airtightness. Measurements performed in pressurised or
depressurised buildings, where climatic or other external influences are minimized due to high
pressure difference created by means of a fan, allow a reliable prediction of ventilation rates
in buildings (Leardini and Van Raamsdonk 2010).
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Typical results relevant to New Zealand housing typology testing airtightness ac/h at 50 Pa
are as follows:
Airtight 5 ac/h Post 1960 houses with a simple rectangular single story floor plan of
less than 120m2 and airtight joinery (windows with airtight seals)
Average 10 ac/h Post 1960 houses of larger simple designs with airtight joinery
Leaky 15 ac/h Post 1960 houses of more complex building shapes and with
unsealed windows
Draughty 20 ac/h All pre 1960’s houses with strip flooring and timber windows
(Bassett 2001)
The BRANZ database of over 100 residential building airtightness measurements (Basset,
2001) was used to develop the above mentioned classification of New Zealand house
airtightness in four type categories, each characterized by a “base level infiltration rate”.
One of these categories was LPSH, built before 1960 without insulation or building paper
within the building envelope which were described as leaky and draughty buildings. With an
airtightness level of 20ac/h LPSH perform very poorly. This is four times New Zealand’s
required rate of air exchange of 5 ac/h (New Zealand Government 2007), which falls short of
international comparison. The rate of ventilation in Germany for passively ventilated houses
is 3 ac/h at n50 (Leardini and Van Raamsdonk 2010). The updated version of NZBC H1 is
somewhat lackadaisical in addressing airtightness as it is ‘a requirement to consider’, but it
does not provide limitations to be met. However airtightness is extremely important in NZ due
to high RH and risk of condensation as explained before. Moisture control is necessary when
designing construction solution.
There are new tools for predicting hygrothermal performance of building components such as
WUFI (Wärme und Feuchte instationär). WUFI is a software programme that calculates the
hygrothermal performance of the layers of a building envelope that is exposed to natural
climatic conditions. WUFI calculations that have been done on standard timber framed
housing with and without intelligent vapour checks indicated that the greater the temperature
differential between the internal and external temperatures of a building, the more important
the internal moisture control became in winter time as well as in summer time. New
Zealand’s unique climate of cold winter temperatures and warm summer temperatures
provide a challenge for the performance of vapour barriers. Vapour barriers are required on
the outside face, beneath the cladding, in summer; and on the inside face beneath the wall
lining in winter to prevent air exfiltration.
57
Using WUFI simulation, DeGroot (DeGroot 2009) assessed State Housing that had been
specifically retrofitted with insulation to meet the requirements of NZS 4218:2004 (to achieve
a minimum level of thermal ;performance of the envelope), which requires insulation levels of
R2.9 for the ceiling, R1.9 for the walls and R1.3 for the floor. For the simulation WHO
recommended air temperature and humidity levels for the house interior were used and the
ambient temperature was that of Auckland’s climate. Results showed that ‘interstitial
condensation occurred and the moisture content of the insulation layer remains always very
high, with relative humidity over 80%’ (DeGroot 2009; Leardini and Van Raamsdonk 2010).
When WUFI testing was applied to standard timber framed construction that had vapour
checks (vapour transmission resistance: 1.275 MNs/g – 53 MNs/g, humidity variable) it was
found that the vapour check was important to control moisture dissipation through the building
envelope, most particularly as the temperature differential increased between the inside and
outside of the building envelope, applicable to both summer and winter climates (DeGroot
2009; Leardini and Van Raamsdonk 2010).
4.9 VENTILATION
Fresh air is not only important to an occupants perception of a space and their productivity, it
is essential for their health & well-being. For healthy human respiration, occupied buildings
require adequate ventilation to remove contaminants that exist in the air, as well as moisture
& odours that can be unpleasant or hazardous. To be protected from the adverse effects of
allergens produced from mould growth and dust mites, adequate ventilation rates are
essential. Without ventilation, moisture accumulates and leads to increased condensation,
and where low ventilation meets cold surfaces, such as external walls, and in low ventilated
areas, the risk of mould growth increases, as cold surfaces without air movement will grow
mould (WHO, 2009). Wardrobes and cupboards, especially when they adjoin external walls,
will often have mould due to their lacking ventilation. Easily detected by human senses,
indicators of inadequate ventilation are condensation, stale air, musty odour, mildew and
moulds.
The New Zealand Building Code (NZBC) requires that houses are ventilated with outdoor air
to maintain air purity. The New Zealand Department of Building and Housing (NZDBH)
requirements for ventilation and moisture management is the provision of good ventilation, a
warm and dry house, heating, extraction fans to areas exposed to excess steam i.e. the
kitchen and bathroom, and good insulation to keep the home warm and to reduce
condensation and mould growth. As with heating, the magnitude of ventilation required
depends on the building size and the external climate. International ventilation rates of an air
change every two or three hours, which is 0.35 – 0.5 air changes per hour (ac/h) is commonly
accepted to provide fresh air and remove contaminants.
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Clause G4 of the NZBC relates to ventilation, providing the requirements for ventilation to
supply and remove air to a space by either natural or mechanical means, to ensure that
adequate fresh air is supplied to ‘safeguard people from illness or loss of amenity due to lack
of fresh air’. Ideally the air in a home should be ‘renewed’ every two hours, even when the
house is unoccupied, either by using passive air vents by leaving windows secured in an ajar
position, or by a mechanical ventilation system such as heat recovery ventilation (New
Zealand Government 2008). NZS4303:1990 ‘Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality’,
stipulates an air change with fresh out door air to be distributed throughout the home every 3
hours, which is 0.35 ac/h (Mc Chesney 2009).
In a UK typical dwelling the graph below shows the effect of ventilation rates on the internal
relative humidity and the energy consumed to maintain heating levels. It can be seen that the
fuel rich households are more capable of maintaining ventilation to reduce the RH, but the
energy consumption for space heating is high (Wilkinson, Smith et al. 2007).
Figure 4. 5 Hypothetical relation between ventilation rates and indoor relative humidity for fuel-
poor and fuel-rich households and energy to heat ventilation air. (Wilkinson, Smith et al. 2007)
Ventilation can be provided passively, by opening windows, or actively by mechanically
provided ventilation to maintain a constant comfortable and healthy interior climate throughout
the year. The challenge with ventilation is to maintain room temperatures without heat loss.
That there can be considerable heat loss could be argued as a reason for occupants’ to not
ventilate housing.
It was recognised in New England that uncomfortable homes can make people take action
that makes a home unhealthy. A lack of comfort can lead to a lack of ventilation and over-
humidification. If people are cold, they won’t ventilate their home. If people can’t afford to
heat their home they will not ventilate their home (Lstiburek and Brennan 2001).
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It is apparent that to avoid the loss of valuable heat to cold exterior temperatures, windows
remain closed for human comfort. A solution to this is heat recovery ventilation systems
which require airtightness, but are the most reliable technology available for cost effective
heat retention as well as providing adequate, controllable ventilation. It is necessary to have
controlled air movement to avoid unnecessary heat loss.
4.9.1 PASSIVE VENTILATION
Passive (natural) ventilation is the most common form of ventilation used in New Zealand,
provided by manually using windows, doors and vents. Passive ventilation relies on wind
pressure and stack effect. Stack ventilation relies upon the pressure difference between the
indoor and outdoor environments. As warm air rises it is replaced with cold air. The problem
with passive ventilation is that ventilation rates are uncontrolled causing draughts, and the air
intake brings with it pollutants from outdoors. Natural ventilation can be used in combination
with mechanical ventilation to increase cooling.
Ventilation rates for occupied spaces of New Zealand household units is given in Clause G4
of the NZBC, in which clause 1.2.1 states that ‘an area of at least 5% of the floor area is to
have windows that open to the outside air’ (New Zealand Government 2008).
Natural ventilation can be used in combination with mechanical ventilation to increase cooling.
Opening windows for natural ventilation in summer provides effective passive cooling, but in
winter it causes heat to escape from the warm house interior. As the capacity of ventilation
within a building is affected by the climate, and prevailing wind the building is located within.
Wind is affected by topography, house location, the built form, vegetation and surface
pressures around the house. Therefore the amount of opening windows needs to be a design
consideration to correctly size and locate opening windows. Window placement and
ventilation openings positioned to activate through-ventilation allows cross ventilation to assist
in drawing air through the room / area interior. Ventilation can be taken from different aspects
to introduce cool or warm breezes. Larger windows that open to the breeze and smaller,
higher windows on the walls on the opposite side of the house will encourage air flow through
the building. The New Zealand breezes from the south or east will provide a cool breeze from
the start of the day, which is advantageous in summer but will undesirably cool the house in
winter. Ventilation from the north and west, positioned higher up on the wall encourages air
movement. LPSH positioned the larger windows to the north, lesser windows to the east and
west, and smaller utility windows to the south; therefore they have good passive cooling
ability through ventilation.
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4.9.2 MECHANICAL VENTILATION SYSTEMS
New Zealand is not amongst the countries that have a mandate to provide mechanical
ventilation, but NZS4303 does set a requirement for air changes when natural ventilation
requirements can not be met, which therefore requires mechanical assistance.
The most well used mechanical ventilation in New Zealand has been mechanical extraction
such as fans, extracts, rangehoods. Positive pressure and heat recovery ventilation systems
rely on electricity of varying capacity to extract or supply air, and rates of air removal is
dependant on correct sizing of the extract and motor capability. Mechanical extraction is
beneficial to housing as it removes excess moisture from rooms that are heavily exposed,
typically steam in bathrooms, laundries and kitchens. As isolated extractor fans remove the
moist air by extraction only, there remains a requirement for the provision an air intake, which
is usually provided by an opening window. Opening a window causes heat loss, which in a
cold climate is undesirable to human comfort levels for warmth.
Mechanical ventilation systems that are used to provide controlled ventilation and heat in
housing are either positive pressure roof cavity ventilation (heat transfer), or balanced
pressure heat recovery ventilation systems (HRV).
Figure 4. 6 Positive pressure roof cavity ventilation system (forced) and
Balanced air heat recovery ventilation systems.
(Image from Heatpumps NZ)
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POSITIVE PRESSURE / ROOF CAVITY HEAT TRANSFER VENTILATION
New Zealand appears to have welcomed the use of mechanical ventilation systems in
housing, with an increased use from 1% in 1999, to 6% of houses surveyed in 2005 (Clark,
Jones et al. 2005). They have been used successfully in the UK since the 1970’s to rectify
condensation problems (Stephen, 1998). They have also been beneficial to many of New
Zealand’s damp houses (Smith et al., 2008). New Zealand preference has been for the
heavily marketed, positive pressure roof cavity ventilation systems (Clark, Jones et al. 2005).
Such systems rely on using warm air found in the roof cavity between the ceiling and roofing,
to fan supply ducted warm air into the house interior, on an assumption that the roof space air
is warmer than the exterior. The air from the roof enters the house through ceiling vents,
relying on pressure to force the air out through air gaps. Along with the air that is forced out
through gaps, heat is lost.
Positive pressure roof cavity systems rely on assumed solar collected heat from the roof
space being gathered and transmitted through ducts into the house interior. Given that
heating of the house interior is needed in winter, when sun hours are reduced, this is an
ineffective system, as verified by studies undertaken by the University of Otago. The
University of Otago and BRANZ studied an older style typical New Zealand weather board
house with a metal roof, and ceiling insulation, to predict the heat transfer from the roof space
to the living area. The model was located in Dunedin, with National Institute of Water and
Atmospheric Research, (NIWA) data applied for other cities that include Auckland. Tests
applied to the roof space in all four seasons found the highest heating potential was 0.52kW,
which is comparable to five 100W light bulbs. It concluded that the roof space would not
reach a sufficiently high temperature to be able to increase the living area temperature during
the cold external temperatures experienced in winter (Fitzgerald, Smith et al. 2011).
To prevent the transfer of contaminants from vermin mould and dust that are commonly found
in roof spaces being transferred to the house interior with the air supply, filters are relied
upon. Human intervention is required for their regular replacement. EECA recommendation
is that supply air for home ventilation systems should be sourced from the outside, not from
the roof cavity. Forced air systems do not comply with NZS4303:1990.
BALANCED PRESSURE HEAT RECOVERY VENTILATION SYSTEMS (HRV)
Heat Recovery Ventilation (HRV) ventilates the entire house with pre-warmed fresh air. The
heat exchange transfers the heat reclaimed from the already heated air it has extracted, and
transfers this to the fresh air intake. Heat is added to maintain the temperature required, but
the additional energy required is minimal. With adequate air intake, balanced pressure air
systems comply with NZS4303:1990.
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HRV is a balanced pressure mechanical system that allows filtered air to be introduced at
controlled ventilation rates to supply an adequate amount of fresh air required for occupant
health, with minimum heat loss. They require a heat exchange unit, as defined by the
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), which
enables heat to be transferred from one air flow into another air flow, retaining and re-using
the recovered heat. HRV systems provide constant and secure ventilation and fresh air
supply. Of the two types of mechanical ventilation systems available, HRV is better suited to
providing IAQ as it can control relative humidity and remove airborne irritants by stale air
extraction, as well as providing a reliable, and less contaminated ventilation at a controllable
rate to suit the requirements of the space it services.
In an airtight house, with a suitable source of heat, a HRV system allows the heat to be
retained and circulated throughout the entire house. A HRV system balances the air pressure
between the house interior and exterior, which reduces pressure related air flow, and allows
ventilation to be controlled. As seasonal change requires, additional ventilation and cooling
can be provided by manually opening windows. The air intake vents that are typically located
in a dry situation such as beneath the protection of an eave enable continuous air movement
in all weather conditions. By controlling ventilation, the heat loss associated with ventilation is
minimised, which reduces the demand on energy consumption to maintain room
temperatures. This system of maintained heat and continuous ventilation is particularly
suitable for cold climates. Where heat is to be retained for warmth, HRV provides efficient
energy use by using a heat exchanger that requires minimal equipment to retain existing heat,
introduce warm fresh air and to extract moisture. Up to 90% of the heat energy that would
otherwise be wasted through passive ventilation can be reclaimed for reuse within the entire
house interior, to be reticulated through ducts back to all areas of the house.
HRV systems operate using two fans for two separate air streams and a heater unit, which is
usually located in the roof cavity. One fan supplies fresh outdoor air into the house through
several ceiling vents supplying each room, while the exhaust fan extracts an equal volume of
air from inside the house and discharges it to the outside. The exhaust air stream transfers
some of its heat energy into the incoming air in a heat exchange unit for redistribution into the
house interior. HRV extracts air from areas of greatest contamination within a house, filters,
and replaces it with an equivalent volume of pre-warmed fresh air. An airtight house is
required to control ventilation losses through air movement, and to ensure all air is transferred
through the heat exchanger (Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority 2010).
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Figure 4. 7 Heat Recovery Ventilation heat exchanger
Source: mikegigi.com
In Canada, Inuit housing is known to be lacking in ventilation, with consequential respiratory
disease, more dominantly caused by mould than dust mites. A Canadian study over six
months, in which Inuit houses equipped with heat exchange ventilation units were compared
with placebo houses. This study found a significant decrease of CO² level and relative
humidity (RH), of 33% and 17% respectively (Kovesi, Zaloum et al. 2009). The indoor air
quality of those houses with HRV improved, with reduced respiratory symptoms for the
occupants.
4.10 IAQ GUIDELINES FOR NEW ZEALAND HOUSING
In New Zealand, guidelines to improve the quality of indoor air have been established by
Beacon Pathway, but they are not mandatory. Beacon Pathway was founded to work with
government agencies to research areas where residential energy savings could be found.
Their aim was that 90% of New Zealand housing would be sustainable by 2012. In setting
gaols for housing to meet, Beacon Pathway established high standard of sustainability
(HSS™) benchmarks for New Zealand housing. The temperatures are as per WHO
recommendations, with the additional criteria that house interiors have adequate ventilation
without excessive draughts; a mean relative humidity of 40-70%; mechanical ventilation to
extract moisture from the kitchen, bathroom and laundry; and that there are no unflued gas
heaters or air conditioning. The benchmarks to be met to achieve energy savings, and also
improve indoor environment quality (IEQ, referred to in this thesis as IAQ), has the following
criteria:
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Temperature Living room evening in winter mean minimum temperature of 18°C;
Bedroom overnight in winter minimum mean temperature of 16°C.
Relative Humidity Living room evening in winter 40 – 70%; preferably 40 - 60%
Bedroom overnight in winter 40 – 70%; preferably 40 - 60%
Surface relative humidity < 80% all year.
Ventilation rate 0.0 – 0.75 ac/h for existing houses.
0.4 – 0.6 ac/h for new houses.
Biological Visible mould or mould odour to be less than 0.5m² in entire house.
Check list Mechanical extractor ventilation of kitchen, bathroom and laundry;
Means to passively ventilate dwelling;
No unflued gas heaters;
No indoor clothes drying.
HSS™ Indoor environment quality key criteria for IES
4.11 INSULATION
4.11.1 THE HISTORY OF INSULATION IN NEW ZEALAND
New Zealand’s first houses were made of available natural materials, such as Raupo reeds
walls and Nikau roofs which had good thermal performance (estimated as an R-value of 2.1
(Household Energy End-use Project 2003), and earth construction which gave protection from
the rain and wind. The insulation values these houses had were not again matched in New
Zealand until 2000, to meet the energy efficiency requirements of the new building code
(Household Energy End-use Project 2003). The colonisation of European immigrants that
arrived in New Zealand in the mid 1800’s introduced houses that were constructed using
lightweight timber framed construction. An estimated ninety percent of houses built between
1890 and 1910 were well built with enclosed air cavities formed by 4” x 2” dry timber
framework, externally clad with timber weatherboards, and internally lined with thin horizontal
boards of timber covered with scrim and paper. Roofs and ceilings were also timber framed,
with corrugated iron roofing over. Open fires that heated the house interior, also provided
ventilation. The English styled double hung windows used, leaked air which provided air flow
(draughts). The houses kept the rain and wind out and were dry, warm and well ventilated.
(Isaacs 2007) As New Zealand’s climate would have been mildly temperate to the new
immigrants who had arrived from the colder European climate, this poor thermal protection,
estimated to be R0.6 (Household Energy End-use Project 2003), may have been acceptable.
In the 1930s, green (wet) timber was used for house framing which needed ventilated wall
cavities for drying. Poor quality workmanship and tiled roofs allowed air infiltration to the roof
space. Casement windows were designed and made with weather-grooves for weather
protection, such grooves being sizeable enough to prevent capillarity water transmission from
65
the house exterior to the house interior (i.e. rain) (NZCIDE, 1965). An open fire in the living
room only, left other areas of the house cold, and air infiltration from the fire place, leaking
windows and roof, caused draughts. The R-value of these houses dropped even further to an
estimated R0.3 (Bastings and Benseman 1950; Household Energy End-use Project 2003).
By the 1940’s it was reported that fifty percent of all new houses had evidence of mould
growth. This impacted on a number of the newly built State Houses. In 1944, State Advance
Corporation commissioned DSIR to investigate the sudden increase in moulds found on
ceilings and walls. It took three years to investigate, and Lyndon Bastings, a scientist for the
Dominion Physical laboratory of DSIR, concluded the solution was to increase thermal
insulation and ventilation, and look into more efficient home heating (Isaacs, 2007; NZCIDE,
1965; McLintock, 1966). Government investigated insulation options, although they were not
implemented, possibly as a result of its high cost as insulation was an imported building
product at the time.
The first set of recommended R-values was published in 1950 by Bastings and Benseman. It
showed a range of forty-two wall types who’s R-values ranged from a low value of R 0.27 for
a concrete veneer with a 50mm ventilated cavity and plaster and pumice sandwich board, up
to R1.35 for lightweight timber framing with 100mm mineral wool insulation and asbestos
cement sheet cladding. A following publication on how to keep warm in winter and reduce
mould problems was written by Bastings in 1954, called ‘Handbook on the insulation and
heating of buildings with special reference to dwellings’. The book demonstrated a fifty
percent drop in thermal performance between traditional 1920’s weatherboard walls with
cavities, compared to 1950’s walls of brick veneer with lath and plaster. It found that R values
were less for the newer construction having a value of R 0.3, as opposed to the older
construction being R 0.6, concluding that “it was changes to the houses, not to the occupants
behaviour which were causing mould growth” (Isaacs 2007)
Local manufacture of glass fibre began in New Zealand in the 1960’s, making it more
affordable to use, but it wasn’t until 1971 that it was first introduced as a bylaw requirement
for house construction. Waimairi County, near Christchurch in the South Island, was the first
local authority to introduce a thermal insulation bylaw as a response to clean its air and ban
fires as a means of home heating. This was followed by the Christchurch City council in 1972
(Greenaway 2004). Air pollution was a problem as wood and coal fires were commonly used
for residential heating, and by introducing thermal insulation, houses would be kept warmer.
In 1972 Christchurch City Council introduce R-values based on the proportion of windows in a
wall area, which was the first time this was factored into thermal design in New Zealand
(Isaacs 2007). Also in 1972, BRANZ presented a proposal for minimum levels of house
insulation which was based on the calculation of optimum expenditure on thermal insulation
66
(H.Trethowen and E.Hubbard 1972). Their analysis supported the first NZS insulation
regulation introduced in 1977.
Following the world oil crisis and low hydro lake storage in New Zealand of 1973 to 1974,
government introduced an interest-free loan scheme in 1975 for insulating houses to
minimum levels to conserve energy. At the same time requirements were also established for
all new houses built by or for HNZC.
It wasn’t until 1977 that New Zealand had its first building legislation that made insulation a
compulsory part of New Zealand housing, with the introduction of NZS 4218P:1977 (minimum
thermal insulation requirements for residential buildings) All new housing built from 1978
when the code was activated were insulated. This code was used as an acceptable solution
under the current Building Code (H1/AS1). In 1992, the Verification Method (H1/VM1) was
added to the NZBC based on the Building Performance Index , and in 1996 thermal standards
were further updated to NZS 4218:1996 Energy Efficiency – housing and small building
envelope. In 2000 the mandatory New Zealand Building Code was implemented which
included Clause H1/AS1 that specifically relates to provision for energy efficiency used for
modifying temperature and or humidity, and water heating (Building Industry Authority 2000).
In 2004, NZS 4218 was updated in to include limitations for window areas and introduced a
higher thermal requirement for that increased the use of double glazing. The third edition of
the NZ Building Code Clause H1 came into effect in October 2007, setting even higher
thermal performance requirements for housing.
The latest revisions to the building code is NZS 4218:2009 (Thermal Insulation Housing and
small buildings), which replaces the 2004 edition of this code. It clarifies the use of the three
options of determining R-values, which are Schedule method, Calculation method and
Modelling method). The intention of the revision is to reduce energy consumption by 30%
meanwhile still achieving comfortable temperatures within new homes. This code, as with its
predecessors, does not address compulsory insulation to the existing structure when a house
is being altered.
The table below shows the gradual improvements of insulation into New Zealand housing with
very low R-values for most of the country’s housing.
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Historical Development of Insulation Levels’ in New Zealand Housing
Table 1: Schedule method component R-values (mandatory levels in bold).
Year Source and date Roof
M²˚C/W
Wall
M² ˚C/W
Floor
M² ˚C/W
Glazing
M² ˚C/W
1950 Bastings and Benseman 0.6 0.7 0.7 –
1964 Bastings 0.6 0.7 0.7 –
1971 Waimairi County 1.2 0.7 0.9 –
1972 Christchurch City 1.0 1.0 1.1 –
1972 BRANZ 1.6 1.1 0.9 –
1975 Government loan scheme min. 1.6 1.6 – –
1975 NZ Housing Corporation 1.6 0.9 0.8 –
1978 NZS 4218P: 1977 1.9 1.5 0.9 –
1987 DZ4218 (review draft) 2.6 2.0 0.9 –
1990 DZ4218 (draft) 3.0 2.0 0.9 –
1989 Ministry of Energy (recom-
mended)
3.2 2.0 1.3 –
1991 ECNZ Medallion Award 3.0 1.5 2.0 –
1992 NZBC Clause H1/AS1 1.9 1.5 0.9 –
1996 NZS 4218: 1996 * 1.9 1.5 1.3 –
2000 NZBC Clause H1/AS1 1.9 1.5 1.3 –
2003 PAS 4244: 2003 (Best) 3.3 2.6 3.1 0.43
2004 NZS 4218: 2004 1.9 1.5 1.3 0.15
2007 NZBC Clause H1/AS1 2.9 1.9 1.3 0.26
BUILDING CODE THERMAL PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS - 1978 TO CURRENT
YEAR
STANDARD
COVERAGE
R-VALUES (m² °C/W)
CEILING WALL FLOOR WINDOW
GLAZING
1978 NZS4218P:1978 New Zealand 1.9 1.5 0.9 -
1996 NZS4218:1996 Zones 1 and 2
Zone 3
1.9
2.5
1.5
1.9
1.3
1.3
-
-
2009 NZS4218:2009 Zone 1 and 2
Zone 3
2.9
3.3
1.9
2.0
1.3
1.3
0.26
0.26
Changes in the R-values required by New Zealand building regulations
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4.11.2 UNINSULATED NEW ZEALAND HOUSING
Up until 1978 in New Zealand, insulation was an option used by either the wealthy or the well-
informed. Prior to this insulation was an option usually not afforded. In the era of that time,
electricity was cheap, supplied on demand, and was used to heat with little consequence of
the environmental consequence.
Uninsulated houses had problems that grew like the moulds within them. The New Zealand
public was not well informed of health issues related to the well utilised homes generations
were growing up in. New Zealand was a hardened outdoor type of nation who toughed up to
our climate, both indoors and out! Rather than thermally address the building, we thermally
addressed ourselves, wrapping up in hand knitted woollen garments as typical of that era as
insulation wasn’t. That the cold air breathed was well below what was internationally
recognised as healthy, was not common knowledge. What became discovered were
increased health problems such as allergies and asthma, to reach a current scenario where
New Zealand now has the second highest incidence of asthma in the world. The wonderful
clean, green image and the outdoor climate and environment New Zealand is internationally
recognised for, is veiled beyond the exterior of most of our homes.
The majority of New Zealand housing does not perform well in providing comfortable internal
environment in either air quality or energy efficiency, falling well short of what has been
established as a global guide established by WHO. New Zealand is no exception to current
global housing problems, and currently is exposed to many consequential health problems
that are related to cold and damp housing. Houses are cold due to physical conditions which
include cold external temperatures, lacking insulation, uncontrolled air leakage, and
inadequate heating sources.
New Zealand housing is relatively poor in terms of thermal comfort, particularly houses built
before 1978 due to the lacking legislation for compulsory insulation in new houses. Even with
the introduction of NZS 4218P:1977 – ‘Minimum thermal insulation requirements for
residential buildings’ insulation was inadequate by comparison to current requirements.
Consequently most houses, particularly those built prior to 1978, are difficult and unaffordable
to maintain at a comfortable temperature as they do not retain heat.
Since 1978, levels of insulation have gradually improved, particularly with the most recently
introduced legislation, NZS4218:2009 in which there are upgrades of R-values, and
importantly, it includes thermal glazing requirements for the first time in New Zealand.
Unfortunately though, this code is applicable only to new housing and to areas of house
alteration work, but it is not applied to the entire existing house where alterations are being
undertaken. As there is no requirement for retrofitted insulation, areas of altered houses will
69
remain cold and wasteful of the energy that is required to maintain a comfortable indoor
temperature. New Zealand research has confirmed that insulation is associated to reduced
energy use, as report in by HEEP (Isaacs, Camilleria et al. 2006). To have made insulation
mandatory to all building works encompassing the entire house provides an opportunity
beneficial to energy efficiency. Given that housing is affected by the climate it is built in,
climate can and should influence the design requirements accordingly.
In addition to legislation that specifies the quantum of insulation requirement, to assist in
improving the quality of insulation installation, NZS4218 was introduced to provide better
performance levels for insulation in providing guidance for the correct installation of insulation.
The historical and current levels of insulation applicable to new NZ housing is identified in the
following chart, and map of the designated climatic zones 1, 2 and 3:
Figure 4. 8 Map of climate zones
Source: Department of Building and Housing
New Zealand’s total housing stock of 1.6 million has about 1.04 million houses that were built
prior to 1978 when mandatory insulation regulations for housing were introduction in New
Zealand. This is about 65% of the current housing stock, and in is estimated that 900,000
houses are still inadequately insulated (Amitrano, 2006). Some have partial insulation. Aged
insulation has slumped or been blown about ceiling spaces to sit at variable depths, which
reduces the thermal properties to become inefficient. Of the existing houses that have
insulation it was found that 64% have no underfloor insulation, 29% have inadequate or no
ceiling insulation and 71% have no wall insulation. Unfortunately for the occupants of almost
two thirds of New Zealand’s homes, a warm and comfortable indoor temperature is not
achievable due to heat escaping through the draughty and uninsulated building envelope.
EECA has found that a major cause of energy and health issues is the lack of insulation in
New Zealand homes.
70
Figure 4. 9
Ceiling standards in existing New Zealand housing
(NZHCS, 2005)
Beacon Pathway estimated that New Zealand will have 1.7 million homes in 2012, of which
ninety percent are existing houses (Easton 2010). The level of insulation in at least half a
million houses was either non-existent, partial or sub-standard, with higher numbers lacking
wall and floor insulation (Ministry for the Environment 1998-2010). Of the two-thirds of the
existing housing stock that was built before 1978, an estimated forty percent of houses have
had some retrofitted insulation installed. Insulation was most commonly found in the ceiling
where there is easy access for installation through the roof space. The 2005 BRANZ house
survey verifies the inadequacy of insulation levels. Since this survey, insulation R values
levels have been raised, therefore more houses than are represented require thermal
improvement.
Beacon Pathway has a goal to meet before 2012, that 90% of New Zealand homes will reach
a higher level of sustainability, which includes a high standard of insulation capable of
maintaining a minimum temperature of 18ºC. To achieve this, insulation is required for
housing built prior to 1978. Although the BRANZ house survey shows that 69% of houses
have ceiling insulation, in reality the level provided is insufficient as aged insulation poorly
installed or movement of insulation compromises its thermal ability.
It has become critical to upgrade not only the condition of New Zealand existing housing
stock, but to improve their performance to higher levels of sustainability, for social, economic
and environmental reasons (Easton 2010).
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Figure 4. 10 Representation of the amount of New Zealand housing that requires renovation work
(Easton 2010)
4.12 HEAT LOSS
Heat loss is determined by the sum of accumulated heat loss from each element of a building
structure (Mc Chesney, Cox-Smith et al. 2008). Without insulation to resist heat loss in light
weight timber housing, there is a significant amount of heat lost through the building
envelope. The rates of heat loss are variable between houses, but approximately 21-31% of
heat escapes through the walls, 18-25% through the windows, 12 -14% through floors, 30-
35% through ceilings / roofs and 6-9% through air gaps.
For houses to retain heat a complete envelope is needed, therefore ceilings, walls, windows
and floors all require thermal protection. Heat loss through any element of building structure
is proportionate to the area of such an element, therefore to increase the resistance value of
one element of a structure (e.g. ceilings), does not adequately compensate for heat loss
though other elements (e.g. walls). Uninsulated walls are common in pre 1979 housing and it
is estimated that this affect 700,000 New Zealand houses (Mc Chesney and Amitrano 2006).
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Figure 4. 11 Heat losses through uninsulated and insulated housing.
73
The heat loss through walls is dramatically reduced by even a simple level of insulation
application. R1.0 Insulation applied to an uninsulated wall assumed to have a value of R 0.4
restricts the amount of heat loss to 700W, which is a reduction of 70% (with an assumed heat
flow of 1000W). Upgrading the level of insulation to R2.0 further reduces heat flow by an
additional 12% (Mc Chesney, Cox-Smith et al. 2008). R-values beyond this level provide
minimal reductions of 3%; therefore it can be assumed that the optimum R-value for insulated
timber framed walls is R2.4.
Figure 4. 12
Diminishing returns effects by adding increments of insulation to walls (Mc Chesney, Cox-Smith et al. 2008)
Insulating homes to the minimum level in the NZBC, it is estimated that annual savings in
home energy usage of approximately 30% can be expected. This equates to about a $760
annual saving for the energy expenditure for a home in Auckland, and up to $1,800 for a
home in Dunedin (Department of Building Construction 2008). Greater savings can be
achieved by upgrading the thermal performance level beyond what is required by the NZBC.
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A better and best practice for R-values that are beyond the building code requirements for
timber framed housing in the warmer two zones of New Zealand are portrayed in the following
chart:
R VALUES FOR LIGHT TIMBER FRAMED HOUSING
Zones 1 and 2
(North Island excluding the
Central Plateau)
Building code
minimum
Better practice Best practice
Roof R2.9 (Outdated) R3.3
Walls R1.9 R2.1 R2.6
Floor R1.3 R1.9 R3.1
Preferred insulation levels for timber framed housing
(Source NZS 4218:2009 and 4244:2003) (Department of Building and Housing, Ministry for
the Environment et al. 2007)
4.13 INCENTIVES AND EDUCATION A number of agencies have been established in New Zealand to encourage house owners to
improve the energy efficiency of their houses, for the benefit of energy conservation, and to
reduce energy related greenhouse gas emissions.
The Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority (EECA) is a government agency
established under the Energy Conservation and Efficiency Act of 2000. It recognised that the
energy conservation in the residential arena can make a difference to energy consumption.
With the expert assistance of Building Research Association (BRANZ) and the Centre for
Building Performance Research (CBPR), research has been undertaken with the intention of
educating New Zealand residential dwellers in how to use energy efficiently. EECA works to
promote practices and technologies to further energy efficiency, energy conservation, and the
use of renewable sources of energy by raising the public awareness of New Zealanders its
importance. The established a goal for 2008 through to 2011, is to create warmer and drier
housing that is healthier to live in, with improved air quality and lower energy costs (Energy
Efficiency and Conservation Authority, 2008). EECA has used information campaigns
providing information via media outlets that include television, radio, and print advertising,
events, websites, sponsorship and speaking opportunities, and proactive media
communications (Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority, 2008).
Energywise is associated with EECA to provide the subsidies and grants to help low and
modest income homeowners insulate and heat their homes where they have been built prior
to 2000 (Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority, 2008). The amount of the subsidy
varies, but generally a $1300 grant is available if both the ceiling and floor is insulated to
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NZBC standards. The government meets the full cost of insulation those with community
services cards – typically low income earners such as the elderly (pensioners), sickness
beneficiaries and young families. There is also is funding of $500 available for an approved
source of heat. Under the umbrella of EECA, the Energywise Home Grant programme has
insulated more than 300,000 houses by 2007, and this programme still continues. The
'whole-house' retrofitting under this programme included ceiling and underfloor insulation,
draught-proofing, underfloor ground sheets, hot water cylinder wraps and pipe insulation, low-
flow shower heads and low energy light bulbs (Beacon Pathway Ltd). Although the intention
is valid, the retrofits were often inadequately done. The intended scope of works to achieve
the 'whole-house' solution was not always complete, and workmanship skills in the installation
were found to be inadequate in many situations. The level of insulation provided was low.
The Ministry for the Environment established the Warm Homes project to find ways to
encourage New Zealand households to use cleaner heating sources and increase household
energy efficiency to achieve warmer and healthier homes. With energy conservation the goal,
an investigation was done to find the social drivers that would influence home owner’s
decisions on insulation and heating, and what financial or other incentives were necessary for
their home, to achieve behaviour change (Ministry for the Environment 1998-2010).
New Zealand Business Council for Sustainable Development (NZBCSD) recently undertook a
two year research project that sought improvements for the 433,000 homes that were causing
occupants illness. The study discovered that 59% of owners could not afford to improve the
warmth and energy efficiency of their homes (New Zealand Business Council for Sustainable
Development 2009). Current government subsidies of $1,300 for insulation, and $500
towards a heat source are a small potion of the actual costs. There is a need for home
improvement packages whereby grants or loans are made available from local councils,
power providers and banks, to provide the stimulus and affordability for many to activate
retrofit options.
The NZBCSD study also found that most people surveyed wanted a performance rating on
houses to demonstrate the value of its upgrade. Overseas evidence shows that there is a
perceived increase in the property value of between 5 and 10%, with an added advantage
being such properties rent out quicker and with a higher rental return to the owner (Murdoch
2008). Performance rating for housing is now available in New Zealand, called Homestar™.
Funding for insulation provides for the ceilings and floors only. Although almost half of a
houses heat is lost through walls and windows, there is no incentive to encourage or assist
insulating this large area of the building envelope. That these areas are more difficult to
access costly of retrofitting insulation means that a large amount of New Zealand’s energy is
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lost, and wasted. This costs the owner in increased energy expenditure, and health risk; and
it cost the country in health expenditure and carbon credits.
4.14 THE NEED TO INSULATE
The greater the temperature differential between outdoors and indoors, the more beneficial
insulation becomes for human comfort. Now, there is also a need for energy conservation.
Insulation works by trapping air, limiting heat loss from passing through it. Heat is transferred
by conduction, convection or radiation, or by a combination of all three, and it moves from
warmer to colder areas. If the exterior is colder than the inside air, heat is drawn the outside.
The greater the temperature difference, the faster the heat will flows to the colder
temperature. Insulation is an effective way of improving the energy performance of a building,
by reducing heat losses in winter and minimises heat gains in summer. Bulk insulation traps
air, and as air is a poor conductor of heat, it slows heat transfer. The ability of an insulating
material to resist heat transfer gives an R-value, with a higher number indicating a higher
performance level of the insulator. Connectors in the building fabric often create thermal
bridges such as timber framing that connects the exterior to the interior, which influence the
overall R value of the building fabric.
The installation of product with high R - values, avoidance of thermal bridges in the envelope
and correct detailing is required to achieve sustainable buildings with excellent energy
efficiency. Insulation also needs to be kept dry to avoid it loosing its thermal properties and to
avoid mould growth.
Figure 4. 13 Heat transfer
Source: Image from Saint-Gobain Isover
An insulating product is measured by its thermal conductivity in watts per kelvin per meter
(W/mK), with the other elements of the built fabric of the structure being factored in to
establish the R value of an element. Multiplied by a temperature difference (in kelvins, K) and
an area (in square metres, m2), and divided by a thickness (in metres, m) the thermal
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conductivity predicts the rate of energy loss (in watts, W) through a piece of material
(Wikipedia, 2010). The R-value is the reciprocal of this.
The interior surface of an insulated element of structure is warm to touch. Although the
element of a building that the majority of heat dissipates through is the ceiling, the human
body is in physical contact with the floor surface, and passes by or rests against walls and
windows, which if left uninsulated are uncomfortable for humans to touch or be near.
Therefore, along with the fact that walls are usually the largest areas in the building fabric,
insulating the walls will provide human comfort as well as have a major impact in reducing
energy requirements. Walls and windows are also a single element between the inside and
outside, as opposed to ceilings and floors which are often secondary to the external element,
being sheltered by roofing and foundation walls.
4.14.1 RESEARCH INTO THE BENEFITS OF INSULATION
PAPAKOWHAI STUDY
Beacon Pathway undertook a three year study investigating the performance of nine, pre-
1978 houses on the perimeter of Wellington, in Papakowhai. This study demonstrated that as
well as ceiling and floor insulation, wall and window insulation needs to be included to retain
heat to be able to achieve adequate comfort levels in winter.
For the Papakowhai study, a range of simple interventions were examined to demonstrate the
significant difference that can be made to the sustainability of the housing stock, particularly
when implemented in combination. Houses had nine retrofit alternatives applied to them,
which involved practical application which was regarded as being ‘straightforward for a
competent and suitably qualified tradesman’. The installations into the existing structures
were to fit insulation into the ceiling cavities and underfloor, and to replace the internal wall
linings to allow for the fitment of wall insulation. A specialised installer was required for the
more difficult task of replacing the windows with double glazed IGUs and frames.
The retrofit interventions at Papakowhai were of three different thermal insulation levels:
1). Increased ceiling insulation and installation of underfloor insulation, providing
a basic intervention.
2). Heavy ceiling and underfloor insulation was fitted to achieve a standard level
of intervention.
3). A high level was applied by fitting ceiling, floor and wall insulation, double
glazing and an efficient space heater.
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All levels were higher than the minimum New Zealand standards require, as these minimum
R-values have been proven to not provide adequate improved indoor air temperatures, or
energy savings.
The houses in which windows, walls, ceiling and floors were insulated and efficient heating
installed saved the most electricity and had the biggest temperature gains. Energy costs were
reduced, with savings of 23-33% (2,480kwh - 930kwh), meanwhile achieving temperature
increases that ranged from 2.5°C to 5.5°C.
Partial insulation upgrades did not make significant improvements to the indoor air
temperatures and comfort, or provide reduced heating costs. Confirming “it is important
therefore to insulate the full thermal envelope if good reticulated energy savings and
temperature improvements to HSS® -2006 standards are to be made’ (Easton 2009).
MONITORING EFFICIENCY UPGRADES IN STATE HOUSES IN SOUTHERN NEW ZEALAND A research project was undertaken by the University of Otago on the effectiveness of
upgrading uninsulated or partially insulated houses. The study included 1940-50’s
weatherboard State houses in the southern South Island investigating how to make them
warmer by reducing heat loss through improved thermal insulation. Physical improvements
were made to provide warmer indoor temperatures, lower energy usage, drier living
conditions, more air tight building envelopes, and non-energy benefits such as occupant
health benefits, subjective improvements (such as more contented householders) and other
societal benefits.’
Minimal increases to the indoor temperature were found. Temperatures required for
comfortable or healthy living were unable to be met due to inadequate heating and heat
losses through the uninsulated light timber-framed walls, leaky windows, single glazing and
large gaps in the external building fabric, in particular the suspended timber floor. The report
established that insulation is a cost effective way to retain heat, suggesting that upgraded
insulation needs to extend beyond the basic ceiling and floor upgrades. The entire building
envelope needs to be insulated as well as reducing air movement to achieve a minimum of
0.75 ACH. Additional comments for improvements were that insulating the underfloor with
fibreglass batts would be of greater benefit than the under floor foil insulation used.
RETROFITTING HOUSES WITH INSULATION TO REDUCE HEALTH INEQUALITIES: A COMMUNITY-BASED RANDOMISED TRIAL
This was a research study undertaken on 1350 mixed types of housing, although largely
single-storey, standalone, pre-1978 uninsulated houses across a range of areas throughout
New Zealand in which at least one person had symptoms of respiratory disease. These
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houses were selected to be retrofitted with insulation. Although It was not possible to install
all of the package into all of the houses due to access limitations, the model insulation
package installed for this study was the standard New Zealand Energy Efficiency and
Conservation Authority package, which consisted of ceiling insulation, draught-stopping
around the windows and doors, sisalation (insulated foil) strapped to the underside of the floor
joists and a polyethylene covering was laid over the ground (Howden-Chapman 2005). The
study was done through the three winter months of 2001. It needs to be noted that recent
legislation has improved the levels of insulation since this study, arguably providing higher
energy savings than was discovered (Chapman, Howden-Chapman et al. 2009).
Having expended an average $1800 per dwelling on the retrofit installation, total savings
shown in the study (monetary value of benefits discounted back to the point at which the
costs are incurred) amount to NZ$3374 per household, netting benefits of $1574 per
household. More than half the total benefits (61%) were health sector gains related to
hospitalisation, but this is an achievable national cost saving. The health gains and energy
savings that will arise from the investment will accumulate over time as costs increase
(Chapman, Howden-Chapman et al. 2009). The overall result of a benefit–cost ratio
approaching two (and an NPV of around NZ$1570 at a discount rate of 5%) means that the
benefits accruing over time, in terms of health gains and energy savings, are a comfortable
margin in excess of the costs of installing insulation in the houses in the study (Chapman,
Howden-Chapman et al. 2009).
This study found that the costs of installing insulation suggested beneficial health gains, and
energy and CO² emissions savings one and a half to two times the cost of retrofitting
insulation. The benefits of insulating homes able to have an ‘actual’ value assigned were
improved health, savings in energy and associated greenhouse emissions. Additional
benefits were the everyday improvement of physical and emotional wellbeing from living in a
warmer and more comfortable home, and avoidance of premature mortality (Chapman,
Howden-Chapman et al. 2009).
Indeed the most effective way of retaining heat is by applying adequate insulation, and as the
London Economist reports, house insulation improvements represent the lowest cost way of
achieving carbon emission reductions (London Economist, 2007).
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Figure 4. 14 Comparison of costs for different ways of cutting carbon emissions’
A national priority on sustainable development, and the national-scale benefits that would
accrue from an improved housing stock, provides strong reason to be made for incentivising
retrofitting existing uninsulated housing. This is needed to achieve the Government’s vision
of being a sustainable nation, carbon neutral, and to meet our commitments to the Kyoto
Protocol.
4.14.2 INSULATION IN NEW ZEALAND
Historically insulation in New Zealand has been minimal and poorly fitted. There are many
products that settle, and their initial performance factor is reduced accordingly. The New
Zealand Standard, NZS 4246:2006, Energy Efficiency –Installing Insulation in Residential
Buildings provides installation guidance to ensure insulation is correctly installed to achieve
the best thermal performance and thermal durability of the building element. This code
recognises a number of important factors that are applicable to all new buildings, and parts of
new construction in renovations .It states that although vapour barriers are not methods of
insulation, they are included as a means of protecting and enhancing the performance of
insulation materials.
The acceptable solution to NZBC Clause E3 Internal Moisture requires that the exterior walls
and ceilings of habitable spaces, and the exterior walls and ceilings of wet area rooms of
housing are insulated. It is explained that this is to ensure internal surface temperatures can
be maintained at levels that reduce the likelihood of condensation and consequent fungal
growth on building elements.
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NZBC Clause B2 Durability requires that building materials continue to provide compliance
with the other clauses of the NZBC for lengths of time, varied depending on their function,
accessibility, ease of replacement and detection of failure. The ingress of moisture,
settlement, air movement, and slight movement of materials encasing the insulation are some
of the causes of deterioration of insulation materials or their installation. As insulation is a
product hidden within the building envelope it is difficult to measure its failure, therefore it is
required to have a durability of not less than 50 years.
There is a large range of international product available for installation in light timber framed
construction. These include: Aerogel, cellulose fibre flakes, flax, hemp, lambs wool,
strawbales, wood shavings, glass wool, rock wool and polystyrene. These products can be in
various forms to suit different locations - Rigid panel, mat blankets, roll blankets and blown to
name a few. Their performance is limited by the thickness available .i.e. strawbales need
great thickness to achieve adequate thermal performance, and would not be suited to LPSH.
Breathing walls, using timber frames, wood fibre boards and natural insulations are quite
common overseas. Hygroscopic insulation absorbs and releases moisture in its vapour form,
allowing it to pass through the wall without affecting the insulating properties of products
used. Natural hygroscopic insulates such as cellulose, sheepswool, hemp, and flax are
preferable to synthetic insulation such as glass and mineral fibres, and polystyrene foams
which do not perform hygroscopically. Natural insulation products are a preferred sustainable
option having lower embodied energy than mineral fibre options, and along with wood fibre,
they are biodegradable helping to achieve a zero waste building solution (Morgan 2008).
4.15 THE IMPORTANCE OF CORRECT INSULATION INSTALLATION
The total resistance-value (R-value) of a building element is the sum of the surface
resistances on each side of a building element and the thermal resistances of each
component of the building. This includes any cavities and the representative structure of the
building element, less the effects of any thermal bridging. Poor installation of insulation
allows air movement around the product, which has the ability to halve the insulation value of
the building element. Incorrect installation that causes folds, tucking in, and gaps as small as
2mm will be detrimental to the performance of the insulation. Also, if insulation becomes wet,
the thermal resistance and the durability of insulation will be reduced.
The correct conditions for insulation need to be evaluated prior to installation to ensure it is
dry. Adequate space needs to be available to prevent compaction, with product selected to
suit the thickness and performance of the situation the insulation is being retrofitted into. It is
important to ensure that the insulation has room to remain at its designed thickness as
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compression of the insulation into a cavity smaller than the design thickness will reduce its
actual delivered R-value, e.g. compressing a material that delivers R2.0 at 100mm down to
80mm will result in an R-value of approximately 80% of R2.0, or R1.6 (Standards Council
2006).
When retrofitting wall insulation that has no vapour barrier (building paper), a new vapour
barrier needs to be provided to the exterior before the insulation is fitted to help protect
insulation from being damaged by condensation. The figure below shows how to retrofit into
existing cavities within the timber framing, wrapping and fixing the membrane to the existing
framing.
Figure 4. 15 Retrofitting building paper into an existing wall cavity
Source: NZS 4246:2006
4.16 INSULATION PRODUCTS:
Insulation products are produced from a range of products, and in a number of forms to suit
differing requirements. Typically blanket and segment products are used, although blown
products are useful for existing situations that can be difficult to access for manual installation.
The following is a summary of the various forms of insulation, which is followed by a range of
products available, or that have been available in New Zealand.
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WOOL AND WOOL BLENDS
Approximately R1.8 for 100 mm thickness.
Figure 4. 16 - Wool insulation
Wool is an ecological natural product. It often has a small percentage (aprox 5%) of polyester
added as a support and bonding fibre and is treated to discourage mould and pests. Being
hygroscopic, wool insulation allows the structure to breathe, balancing the moisture content in
the air by absorbing moisture and releasing it later. It is a comfortable product to use, and is
easy to install. Wool products have lower R-values than fibreglass of the same thickness, and
are more expensive. Wool will burn if it comes into direct contact with a flame, but will not
ignite through heat or help a fire to spread. Wool products can be sprayed with a resin to bind
the fibres and provide strength, or blended with polyester for binding to hold its structure.
Wool will re-loft should it become wet.
WOOD FIBRE BOARD
35mm board: W/mK = .049
Figure 4. 17 - Wood fibre board insulation
Tongue and grooved wood fibre board provides insulation properties and has the ability to
form an airtightness layer. It is hygroscopic, ecological, environmentally-friendly and
recyclable. It is flexible for installing, fixes over the framing, and one of its benefits is that it
avoids thermal bridging.
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WOOD FIBRE FLEXIBLE INSULATION BOARD
Figure 4. 18 – Wood fibre insulation
Wood fibre is a non-irritant, hygroscopic, flexible insulation that fits into cavities within timber
framing. It is semi rigid for ease of installation and can be installed to reduce thermal
bridging. It is ecologically and environmentally certified and recyclable.
MACERATED PAPER
Approximately R2.0 for 100mm loose fill
Figure 4. 19 – Macerated paper insulation
Recycled paper treated with a fire retardant can be used as loose fill insulation in ceilings. It
uses PVA glue to reduce settlement. Its performance depends on the quality of the
installation, ensuring that all levels are even. This product is commonly used internationally,
particularly in the UK, but is not used in New Zealand.
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FIBRE GLASS WOOL
Approximately R2.0 for 100mm thickness.
Figure 4. 20 - Fibreglass wool insulation
This is the most commonly used insulation material in New Zealand, and it tends to be
cheaper than alternative options. Its technical performance is well proven and it outperforms
most other materials of the same thickness in R-value, but it has many detriments. Most
fibreglass insulation is made from recycled glass with formaldehyde resins. Glass fibres can
break away easily to become airborne, raising concerns about health impacts on installers
and occupants from the small fibres invading breathing passages. Fibreglass is not
comfortable to handle and can cause irritation of the skin and respiratory tract. It can
compress, becomes brittle with age and is susceptible to sag. It does not perform when it is
wet, and once wet it will not reloft. Fibreglass does not burn, but it can melt in the intense heat
of a house fire. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), part of the World
Health Organisation, lists glass wool insulation as “not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to
humans”.
POLYESTER
Approximately R2.0 for 100mm blanket or segment.
Figure 4. 21 – Polyester insulation
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Polyester insulation is a non-renewable resource made from petroleum that has good thermal
performance. The performance of polyester is similar to wool in that it is non-irritant and
retains its loft, and is effective even if wet, but it is not hygroscopic. The health concerns
raised about fibreglass do not apply to polyester. Polyester will not burn easily, but it will give
off dense smoke.
POLYSTYRENE
Approximately R1.4 for a 50mm thick sheet
Figure 4. 22 - Rigid polystyrene board
Closed or open cell polystyrene is a product of the petrochemical industry and therefore a
non-renewable resource, but it is recyclable. Its insulation properties are excellent. It must
not be in contact with electrical cables insulated with plasticised PVC. It is waterproof, but is
not hygroscopic. It can provide airtightness, but it is difficult to get a tight fit into existing
framing. Most commonly it is used beneath timber floors being inserted between floor joists.
BLOWN FOAM
R value varies
Figure 4. 23 – Blown polystyrene foam insulation
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Polyurethane foams have higher R-values than most other materials. They are non
hygroscopic, and condensation can form as a result of dewpoint on the product. The foam
product is injected into cavities as a liquid which then expands and sets, leaving considerable
moisture within the structure as it dries. Installation requires an expert applicator. Foams
such as urea formaldehyde and polyurethane can release harmful gases such as
formaldehyde (a known carcinogen) over a long period, contributing to indoor air pollution.
FOIL SISALATION
R value dependent on air gap
Figure 4. 24 – Foil sisalation
Foil sisalation consists of paper coated in bitumen and aluminium foil. Rather than being bulk
insulation, foil works on its reflective quality to reflect heat back to its source, and that it traps
air within a cavity. Sisalation needs airtightness to function, therefore it needs to be well
installed. It does not provide a satisfactory level of insulation. Sisalation and polythene
ground sheets laid to prevent ground dampness rising beneath housing, in combination with
heated house interiors have caused floor boards to dry out. The air gaps release the trapped
air beneath the flooring, which negates the effect of the sisalation. Corrosion or dust that
disrupts its reflective ability can reduce its effectiveness over time. Typically it is staple fixed,
so extreme care is required when stapling around electrical wiring. It is easily damaged and
its conductive ability with electricity has seen this product banned from many markets,
including New Zealand’s. Foil by itself is no longer accepted as complying with the Building
Code for underfloor insulation.
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4.17 WINDOWS
Windows are the coldest portion of a building envelope as a pane of glass provides a very
thin layer between differential temperatures. Single–glazed windows conduct heat at ten
times the rate of insulated walls (Department of Building and Housing, Ministry for the
Environment et al. 2007), allowing heat to escape at ten times the rate that it will through an
insulated wall. External cold temperatures are transferred directly through the glass, making
them an uncomfortable element of a house structure for humans to be near. Windows are
often a large component area of a wall, so require solar control to prevent overheating of a
space.
Single glazing has an R value of approx. 0.19, which is very low. The Housing Insulation
Standard (NZS4218:2S04) recommends double glazing, which has an R-value of 2.6, where
the window area is greater than 30% of the wall it is within. Double glazing traps air between
layers of glass, providing an insulation layer that separates the air temperatures between the
exterior and interior, which keeps the internal layer of glass at a temperature that is
comfortable to be near. It also prevents condensation from forming on the glass surface.
In situations where windows are single glazed, heavy weight curtains can minimise the cold
from entering, but this option is effective only at night. Unless the curtains have containment
by e.g. pelmets and the floor, cold air is able to circulate from behind the curtain to cause cold
draughts. A common occurrence in New Zealand is to find black mould spots on the back of
curtains where they sit against condensated glazing. It is indeed a preferable option to
double glaze, and in the case of LPSH this requires retrofitted double glazing into the timber
window frame.
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CHAPTER 5: THE HISTORY OF LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSING
Labour Party State Housing (LPSH) is a significant part of New Zealand’s architectural and
social history. Established by New Zealand’s first Labour Party in 1935, LPSH became the
country's largest, government funded, mass housing scheme. LPSH was socially motivated
to give hope, and the opportunity for many New Zealanders to live comfortably (Oliver). They
linked many New Zealanders who have lived in, and made a LPSH their home at some stage
during their lives, some of whom have resided in their State home for their entire lives.
LPSH was built throughout the fourteen year term that Labour governed, a period that
spanned from the end of the Great depression, through six years of World War 2 as well as
New Zealand’s post-war recovery. Labour lost the 1949 election to the National party, and
from then there was a redirection of the philosophy of LPSH. The provision of housing
continued for a number of years under both National and Labour governments.
LPSH provided homes for nearly 280,000 people (15% of the New Zealand population). By
August 1959, over 620,000 dwellings had been built (which included 822 flats) which, on
average, accommodated 4.5 people per dwelling (Weston and Jones 1959). This was a
unique housing programme and social undertaking initiated by the political Labour Party and
funded by the Governments of New Zealand, never seen before or since in the history of New
Zealand.
The LPSH typology that evolved set a pattern for ensuing private development housing
schemes (Group Housing). These mass-produced, privately developed housing schemes
followed the construction methodology and planning philosophy that was used for LPSH,
often replicating the same plans. Minor aesthetic changes were made; the obvious
differences being the inclusion of lower pitched corrugated iron roofs, and modified window
elevations simplified by the deletion of glazing bars.
5.1 THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF STATE HOUSING
5.1.1 PRE-LABOUR GOVERNMENT FUNDED HOUSING
Governments (Reform and Nationalist) prior to the Labour Party being elected into power had
been interested in, and provided lesser versions of State house building schemes.
In 1894 the Government Advance to Settlers Act 1984 was introduced to accelerate the
development of New Zealand, by lending money at affordable rates for urban and rural land
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development. It was modified by following governments, however the policy of government
funding for resources benefited the productive and social development of New Zealand. This
was the basis of what later became the State Advances Corporation (SAC), an important
factor in LPSH.
In the early 1900’s, Workers Dwelling Houses were established under the Liberal
administration of Richard Seddon and his 1905 Workers Dwelling Act. This, and the
Advances to Workers Act 1906, provided the mechanism for the construction of several
hundred of the first State house rental properties. The intention of the Liberal Party was to
provide inner city workers with a higher standard of living than what was available at the time.
Throughout the life of this scheme, the production of houses was on average about 77
houses a year (Wells 1944). High rents set under the scheme led to the end of the
programme in 1919.
The Reform government then introduced The Housing Act 1919, with an intention to supply
funds for low income workers to buy homes. Lending was easily obtained, providing low
equity mortgages (funding up to 95% of the costs). Mortgages were capped at £1250. The
onset of the Depression years that followed in the 1920’s – 1930’s caused defaults of
payments on loans, bringing about the collapse of the scheme and leaving the Government
as the largest mortgagee. The 1919 Housing Act was later used for LPSH. State Advances
was replaced by ‘The Mortgage Corporation’. Where State Advances had been known as the
‘financial bulwark and friend of the people’, the Mortgage Corporation was by contrast known
as ‘a soul-less business concern, and an instrument of private finance’ (Oliver).
Neither of the housing schemes of the first part of the century provided enough houses to
meet the required demand. Building activity declined in New Zealand as a result of the
1930’s Depression, which added to the shortage of housing already caused by the increased
populations that had developed in Auckland and Wellington in search of employment.
THE EARLY 1900 HOUSING
The standard of housing was not good. Houses at the time were poorly built, as the average
builder knew little about sound building practice. House ownership at this time became
increasingly unaffordable due to the lack of money, confidence, and unemployment that the
Depression had brought, and rental property became the favoured housing option. Typically
working class families lived in overcrowded and sub-standard conditions, often forced for
reasons of affordability to share rental accommodation, sometimes two or three families to a
house. Collectively, the deterioration of housing developed inner city slums.
The acute shortage of housing was recognised by the governing Coalition (Reform and
United Parties), and the new Labour Party, a political rival in the upcoming election in 1935.
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In 1934 the New Zealand Prime Minister, Joseph Gordon Coates, travelled to the UK where
he was inspired by the housing schemes, slum removal and rebuilding that he saw there. His
preference was to improve the existing housing by upgrading the unsatisfactory houses.
Secondary to this was his intention to initiate the building of new houses to provide for future
needs. Immediately prior to the 1935 government elections, and possibly for political gain, he
published a pamphlet titled ‘Housing in New Zealand: an outline of Policy’ explaining the
objectives of the Reform Party. They intended to conduct a national survey of building
conditions, and then to address New Zealand’s housing problems, subject to the findings of
survey. The Housing Survey Act 1935 was placed before Parliament in October 1935.
THE HOUSING SURVEY ACT 1935
Coates directed his Housing Committee to conduct a survey under the Housing Survey Act
1935, extracting data on the existing houses on which to base a housing rectification
programme. He also set up the Mortgage Corporation to provide low interest loans for
funding the proposed works.
The housing survey was undertaken in 119 New Zealand towns that had a population greater
than 1,000 inhabitants. It obtained information on houses to establish the number of rooms;
the physical condition of the dwelling; age, sex and number of occupants; owners and
occupiers; rental costs; extent of overcrowding; population densities of residential areas;
construction; facilities (food storage, cooking, washing, sanitary); light and ventilation; outdoor
yard and air space (1936). Occupancy per dwelling and per room was sought to confirm the
extent of overcrowding.
The survey investigated 225,363 houses, populated by 901,353 occupants. Of these, 27,214
houses were found to be sub-standard, and 9,835 overcrowded. This confirmed there was a
shortage of adequate housing, estimated as being about 20,000 (Firth 1949).
Labour had also recognised the need for housing, but addressed it with a different approach.
The problem of affordable housing had been recognised and needed to be solved. When
they were elected, they took the data and quickly progressed with their plans for building new
houses away from the slum areas of the inner city.
The Survey Act became a common link between the outgoing and incoming political parties,
as it was passed on to be administered by the newly elected Labour Party.
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5.1.2 THE FIRST LABOUR PARTY
At the 1934 Labour Party pre-election conference, a goal had been set to provide reasonable
housing for all classes, with fixed rents relative to earnings, thus reducing the existing high
rents (Oliver).
Labour was first elected into power in 1935, with Michael Joseph Savage as Prime Minister.
Other politicians that were influential in LPSH were Walter Nash, John A. Lee and Peter
Fraser. Nash had a ministerial portfolio that included Finance, State Advances, and Land and
Income tax. Lee was Parliamentary Under Secretary to the Minister of Finance (for Housing).
Following the death of Savage in 1940, Peter Fraser was promoted to Prime Minister.
Once elected, Savage commenced the LPSH programme, which set a pattern for the future of
New Zealand housing. Suburbs of State Houses of similar design were built during this
programme, to become an iconic vernacular throughout the country. The Labour Party used
government funding to provide quality homes for New Zealanders that they would be proud to
live within, as is reflected in the following comment Savage made in 1936:
“I think we can have smiling homes in New Zealand; that we can use the public credit
for the purpose of building homes worth living in” (Metge 1972).
In 1937, Savage, in Mirimar Wellington, ceremoniously opened New Zealand's first Labour
State House. This was followed later in the same year, when he also opened Auckland’s first
State House in Orakei, with similar ceremony. From then, an average of 2,198 ‘bright and
attractive’ houses were built per year, a vast amount more than what the two preceding
government housing schemes had achieved (Wells 1944).
THE HOUSING AIM OF THE LABOUR PARTY
The newly elected Labour Party wanted to provide new suburban homes for working-class
people who were living in rundown inner-city districts. Savage had intended that there would
be no more slums, and that “only the best houses are good enough for New Zealand” (Metge
1972). The inherited problem of acute overcrowding was too urgent to wait for the outcome of
the Housing Survey commissioned by the previous government. A manually computed
estimation of the housing shortage established that between 12,000 and 20,000 houses were
needed. 16,000 houses was the average set as a goal to be achieved.
As part of the 1936 Budget, Labour Finance Minister Walter Nash announced that 5,000 State
rental houses would be erected under the Housing Act of 1919, at a cost of £3 million
(Schrader 2005). These houses were to be owned by the State and let to New Zealanders at
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‘fair rents’ which were aimed at being less than 20% of the tenant’s income (Metge 1972). In
Walter Nash’s vision, ‘planning for housing on any national scale meant in effect, planning for
the future of the Nation’ (Wells 1944).
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FIRST LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSE SUBURBS
Government purchased hundreds of hectares of suburban land throughout the country, upon
which private builders, engaged by government, erected thousands of high-quality, modern,
State houses to provide homes for New Zealanders. This revitalised the building industry and
helped restore a deflated economy that was still recovering from the Great Depression.
The Ministry of Housing Department was set up in 1936, headed by John A. Lee. It was
administered and financed by State Advanced Corporation (SAC), for the purpose of building
new State houses, with SAC also responsible for letting the completed houses.
Lee travelled overseas to research international examples of large scale, low-cost housing
schemes and related legislation, to prepare a report that directed a scheme for mass housing
in New Zealand (Oliver). The Row housing and Tenement blocks seen overseas were not
suited or desirable for use in New Zealand. He was eager to follow a Swedish scheme used
to rebuild Stockholm, using factory-built, pre-fabricated, mass-produced housing, but this did
not eventuate as time demanded that housing construction get underway promptly Although
many aspects of his report were rendered redundant (1936), Lee’s determination that houses
were varied visually, so no two houses in one street looked the same was adopted. He also
considered it necessary to have a balanced cross-section of people in every street, mixing
old-age pensioners with young families, avoiding streets of equal income earners.
Figure 5. 1 A street of mixed aesthetics used to individualise LPSH
Photo taken by the Author in 2010
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Figure 5. 2 Street view of new LPSH
Photo from NZ National Archives – Wellington (AALF 6112 Box 1)
Government needed to address the urgency and physical practicality of constructing
hundreds of new houses. The Railways Department registered their interest, suggesting they
be involved in the building of the proposed house building scheme as they had built 1,595
five-roomed, standardised cottages between 1923 and 1928. Savage had little confidence in
the existing Public Works Department’s ability to achieve the £3 million housing scheme. He
chose to respond to written correspondence he had received prior to Labour being elected,
from James Fletcher, head of the Fletcher Construction Company.
Fletcher was a prominent self-made industrialist and builder who was skilled in dealing with
politicians. His company, Fletcher Construction, had been established since 1917 and had
expanded into manufacture and distribution of New Zealand made materials. Fletcher
favoured Labour’s policy of stimulating business and industry over the Coates led (Reform)
government focus on farming. His recognition of the post-depression need for employment
for nearly 80,000 men had prompted him to write to the current Coalition Government Minister
of Employment in 1934. The letter expressed a suggestion that provided employment, and
new housing to replace the existing slum areas in the cities of Auckland and Wellington. He
had also copied the letter to the opposition party, being the Labour Party. As well as practical
measures for recovery from the depression, Fletcher’s proposal was to a degree self
interested, needing to generate work for his construction related companies.
Following the election, Fletcher again wrote to parliament offering his Construction company’s
expertise and services to assist with the proposed building scheme which led to meetings
between Fletcher, Savage and Nash. Fletcher was recognised as having a reputable
company, being reliable, of good reputation and having a wealth of experience. Savage
accepted his offer to get the project underway with an early start (Metge 1972).
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5.2 THE COMMENCEMENT OF LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSING
Fletcher’s enthusiasm was an important part of the physical realism of State House building.
As well as being an established building company, Fletcher had a plentiful supply of local
materials, owning timber mills and forests, and companies Consolidated Brick and Pipe, and
less well known was ownership of 50% of Certified Concrete. Prior to Labour being elected
Fletcher had planned his own development of a group housing scheme, and had paid ₤1,500
to have 400 plans prepared by a number of architects, each with two or thee options of
elevations for the same plan, to suit the position of the sun (Cheer, 2010). James Fletcher
prepared a State Housing scheme for the government, based on the latest planning and
manufacturing techniques, that started with land in Orakei (Auckland) and Mirimar
(Wellington). Subdivisions and new houses needed to be planned. By 1936, private
architects throughout New Zealand had designed and drawn nearly 400 sets of plans.
Fletcher Construction became the major contractor meeting the governments’ needs (Metge
1972). Between 1937 and 1942, 5,149 standalone houses were erected in Auckland, of
which 44% were built by Fletchers. Fletchers Construction Company was the largest of 78
building companies involved constructing LPS houses.
THE FINANCIAL STRUCTURE
In 1936, Labour returned the semi-privately owned Mortgage Corporation of New Zealand
that had been established in 1934-35, to become fully Government owned, renaming it State
Advances Corporation (SAC) (Branch, 1940). SAC had two branches, one of which was to
provide funding for rental LPSH, and the other was to finance private housing. Private
lending was more conservative than it was at the beginning of the century, financing the
lesser amount of up to two-thirds of the cost. This was capped at £1250, with an interest rate
of 3% (Oliver).
The function of SAC for LPSH was to purchase land and construct houses. Land purchase,
design and contracts were run by the State who owned the houses and let them to approved
tenants under The Housing Act of 1919. The houses were erected under the Ministry of
Housing department, and upon completion the houses were handed to the State Advance
Corporation who effectively was the landlord. The rentals for State Housing were intended to
generate enough revenue to provide adequate reserves for depreciation, maintenance,
insurance, losses, vacant tenancies, interest and management expenses, with a surplus kept
in reserve.
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The houses were rented out to moderate income earners. A requirement for eligibility to rent
a State house was that the tenants were to have a stable job and income. It is often
misconceived that these houses were for needy or low-income earners (Weston and Jones
1959). Rental varied depending on the number of bedrooms the house had, with an
additional cost if there was a porch.
The LPSH Conditions of Tenancy had a clause under the Maintenance and Repairs section of
the contract that encouraged tidiness of the property and street appearance. If rents were
paid up to date, there was a concession of two shillings and six pence from the weekly rents if
the tenant maintained the section, the verge between the section and the street kerb, and any
adjacent pedestrian right-of-way. In addition, all gates and fences were to be kept in good
repair. The sum was adequate enough that most houses were well maintained.
THE BRIEF
LPSH were to meet a number of criteria:
Primarily, they were built for rental, not for sale. Contributing reasons the State wanted to
retain ownership was that the Housing Survey had shown that that those most in need were
either unable or unwilling to finance the purchase of the house, and New Zealanders were a
mobile population. New Zealanders occupied several houses in a lifetime. Civil servants of
the State were transferred about the country, so State rental houses simplified the process by
removing the need to sell before moving, and provided accommodation at the destination.
They were to be built of high quality construction that where possible, used New Zealand
produced or manufactured materials to revitalise and build New Zealand resources and to
generate employment opportunity. At the initiation of the LPS housing, potential industries
were consulted for the selection of materials that could be produced in New Zealand that
could be used profitably to create an ‘all New Zealand’ house.
Brick veneer, roof tiles and concrete foundations were preferred as they could be locally
provided, and required little maintenance.
They were to have individual designs with differing elevations when viewed from the street.
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THE DEPARTMENT OF HOUSING
The Housing Construction Branch (HCB) was established under Walter Nash, with Arthur
Tyndall as its director, R.B. Hammond as town planner, and Gordon Wilson as Chief Architect
(Ferguson 1994). HCB was set up within the SAC in 1936, and was separated to become a
division of the Ministry of Works (MOW) with its own planners, engineers and architects in
1940 (Oliver).
F. Gordon Wilson, then aged 36, had trained as an architect at Auckland University College.
Previously he had worked for Gummer and Ford, architects who had some significant
commissions, amongst them being Auckland’s monumental Railway Station (Alington and
Knight 1966). He had a long-term role as government architect, being responsible for the
architectural organisation and development of LPSH.
Cedric Firth was another architect, employed by the HCB in 1939. He had been an
apprenticed builder and later trained as an architect at Auckland University College. He then
travelled Europe, visiting new housing schemes built through the depression. His knowledge
of social housing contributed to the design of the town planning and social housing of LPSH.
In 1949, Firth published a book ‘State Housing in New Zealand’ which is an informative record
of State Housing.
Other young architects to undertake designs were R.C. Muston, F. Steward and l. Walker.
(Firth 1949) whose early rendered drawings of the proposed LPSH were reminiscent of an
English street.
Figure 5. 3 An image of the English Street aesthetic presentation for LPSH –
published in Building Today, April / June, 1957
(Smith 2009)
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When material selections for use in LPSH were confirmed, the information was forwarded to
the NZ Institute of Architects, who for a very reasonable cost assisted in preparing the initial
plans. The architectural documentation for construction was done by the HCB. Wilson and
his staff compiled a document titled ‘Designs for Houses: Particulars as to Accommodation,
Design, Construction and Equipment’ to assist with the production of the large number of
houses required (Smith 2009). Standardisation of the design and detailing, and a repetitious
system of documentation was required to be able to advance the mass building programme
speedily and economically.
A Master Specification and Master Schedule of Materials for the materials and construction
were implemented, applicable to all houses. Individual house schedules of materials were
provided specific to each individual house. These documents could be revised for reasons of
economy of floor space or construction, or for further standardisation of units and fittings,
without varying the house design. Also as LPSH were built through an era of advancing
scientific and technological advancement, new materials were being developed. As materials
became available locally, the documents could be extended to accommodate them.
The simplified and standard detailing created the familiarity of LPSH, recognised for its
rectangular box shape, with a regularly pitched tiled roof and its identifiable timber window
configuration.
PLANNING THE COMMUNITY
The goal for the living environment to be created by LPSH was:
“To provide suburban homes for families, a place where children could grow up in
safe and spacious surroundings, away from the dangers of the inner city” (Schrader
2008).
LPSH wanted to create housing of a high standard for every New Zealand family, to provide
homes that they would be proud of, within wholesome suburban communities in which
neighbours would become friends and look out for each other. Living out in the suburbs was
recognised as a healthy way to live, and in LPSH it was important that housing, health and
happiness were connected. “We had a marvellous life for the kids” was a comment made by
a LPSH resident of 1940 (Schrader, 2008) which reflects the Labour Party’s success in this
area.
To meet Labours aim of creating new healthy suburbs away from the slums of the inner city,
large areas of land were bought. Areas close to the city such as Orakei and Mt Roskill in
Auckland, and Mirimar in Wellington were the first LPSH suburbs, and these were
progressively extended to outer suburbs.
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The new ‘Garden suburb’ urban planning seen overseas in Britain and America had an
influence on the New Zealand planners of LPSH. ‘Garden City’ town planning was founded in
Britain by Ebenezer Howard in 1898. Its philosophy was to create self-contained
communities that could effectively be defined as a ‘cluster’ also recognised as a suburb.
When a set population for that ‘cluster’ was met, another was set up with the ‘clusters’ being
connected to the city by roads and rail.
The “Garden City’ also had an influence in America, where a smaller scale ‘Garden suburb’
was used by town planners Clarence Stein and Henry Wright in the early 1900’s. In response
to the introduction of motor vehicles, ‘a town for the motor age’ was designed where
pedestrian and vehicle pathways were separated, and cul-de-sacs were introduced. Radburn
in New Jersey (USA) is an example of their design that uses the garden suburb philosophy.
A typical subdivision plan for State housing was well planned, using the overseas research to
provide safe, self-sufficient communities that were well connected to outer services by public
transport and roads to the city. LPSH was to relate well to neighbours, industry, transport,
community buildings and park space (Firth 1949).
The typical grid formation of road networks wasn’t adopted in the new subdivisions. Planners
introduced loop-roads and curving streets, which created a more interesting view of the
unfolding streetscape. Roads were stratified into three levels, with separate routes for
pedestrians. Primary roads were the main routes that were utilised for traffic commuting
between suburbs or cities. Existing roads were used for this if they were in existence;
otherwise new roads were built to suit. Secondary roads were used as circulating routes for
localised traffic. The third level of road was cul-de-sacs or recessed courts for destination
users, minimising through traffic on residential streets.
This methodology reduced the traffic to local users and kept those roads safer, minimised
traffic noise and traffic-related grime. It also provided economy, as the roads could be
narrower, and their construction was to suit the capacity of use, i.e. heavier duty road
construction was used for the main roads, and a lighter road construction could be used on
the cul-de-sac roads. Maintenance was more economical due to reduced wear and tear of
the lesser used roads.
Pedestrian’s safety was accommodated. As well the way traffic reduction was managed, the
pedestrian routes provided safety by using walkways that minimised the need for pedestrians
to cross roads.
All subdivisions, even smaller ones of a few acres, had provision of approximately 10 to 15%
of the land area developed to be assigned for recreational use. This land was used to provide
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public amenities that included reserves, local shops, community centres, schools, sports
grounds and churches that were within walking distance of home. These were vested to local
authorities to control, and the State owned shops were leased out to proprietors. A group of
shops provided for the everyday needs of families, and typically comprised of a green grocer,
butcher, grocer, dairy and often a chemist.
The reserves incorporated existing trees where possible, and provided safe and child-friendly
access to local amenities. In addition to the reserves, right-of-ways were used to make
efficient pedestrian connections to public amenities.
Figure 5.4
Walkway connection through reserves linking streets for pedestrian access.
Figure 5.5
Walkway connection through pathways Photos by the Author
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A transcript of a news report of 1946 that describes the planning of a LPSH community (used
in Trentham) is as follows:
“Self-contained communities are being built on the outskirts of our cities. This project
at Trentham is designed so that the houses will surround a park in which will be
sports grounds and schools and shops and theatres. Paths will link them altogether –
where the path meets the road there will be an overbridge. When the children go to
school or we go shopping we won't be dodging cars and in our shopping areas we
will find a series of courts free of traffic, planned to group shops and offices and
recreation. Our quiet streets will be close to the city through fast transport systems,
but we will live with space about us and order and room for the sun to get in.”
(Unknown, 1946)
(Source: Archives New Zealand - Housing in New Zealand-(1946)
The following plan is of a community showing the pedestrian and road linkages, reserves,
recreational areas, and amenities:
Figure 5.6 Pureora Village Plan
(Illustration from National Archives, Mangere)
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Figure 5. 7 A typical plan showing the subdivision layout for about 600 sites.
(Firth 1949)
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THE STREET
In a street, houses were symmetrically set back from the road grouped around a feature or in
a staggered saw-tooth arrangement to avoid a monotonous streetscape (Firth 1949).
Cul-de-sacs created a full stop to the street, with a fan of houses about them and ‘contained’
neighbours. The street verges were designed to be wide enough to accommodate tree
planting to add to the attractiveness of the development.
The streets were visually impaired by rows of power poles supporting cables that were slung
through the air between them to supply electricity and telephone cables to each house. This
resulted as the consequence of avoiding the expense of underground reticulation.
A few streets escaped this visual blight by either having underground servicing, or that the
over-ground servicing was slung above back yards, still visual, but in a less obvious location.
Decades of age and irregular repair added to the unsightliness of this mode of wired service
provision.
THE SITE - A QUARTER ACRE SECTION
For the first time in New Zealand, the houses were positioned on the site to allow maximum
sun penetration into the living areas of the house (solar design). Space was allowed around
the houses accordingly and trees were removed if they restricted sun to access the house.
Large blocks of land were subdivided to provide a density of four houses per acre,
accommodating a mixture of single housing and combined housing.
The front boundary width of the site was commonly fifty-five feet. The house was positioned
on the site twenty-five to sixty feet from the street boundary, in a staggered formation. On flat
sites they were symmetrically set back from the street. Where the land was hilly, they were
positioned to suit the land contour running along the contour so minimal excavation was
required. Side yards were created between the house and side boundaries of five on one
side, with a greater width of nine feet from the other side boundary to allow for car access to
future garaging which was preferred to be located behind the house.
Private car ownership was not common at the start of LPSH, and for reasons of economy and
building material shortages, garages was not provided for on the site. Occasional communal
garages were built in the earlier period of LPSH. In 1944 it is recorded that only 19% of the
households owned a private vehicle, (Wells 1944) which made community amenities within
walking distance valuable to most families.
The garden and house were to work together harmoniously (Firth 1949). The large section
each house was built on provided plenty of space for gardens and landscaping. Health and
cost benefits of vegetable gardening were encouraged as part of the idealised healthy living
lifestyle. Boundaries of the site were defined by using trees and gardens in preference to
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fencing, to create a feeling of community garden. Chain mesh fencing was used to create
secluded and safe play areas for children (Firth 1949). Windows and porches that over-
looked another property were avoided, to provide privacy between houses.
A reduced rental cost for maintaining the grounds and gardens to the standards required by
the Housing Inspectors was an effective way to maintain a tidy streetscape (Wells 1944).
THE STATE HOUSE
The design of the typical stand-alone State house was based on the English Cottage,
possibly an adaptation of the English Arts and Crafts concept seen in Architect Binney’s
cottages, or the Californian bungalow. There was also a public preference for the Georgian
style which may have also been influential (Oliver). The houses of the late 1930’s were like
miniature versions of the brick mansions built for the rich. Their design progressively evolved
to become more standardised for economy and speed of construction. Consequently many of
the details seen in the first LPSH were lost to the process of simplification.
The house plan was rectangular, conservative and standardised, easily recognised by its
external aesthetics of tiled roofs of a constant pitch and unique windows divided into
simplified regular pane sizes with timber beading. Their typology of weatherboard or common
brick, with tiled hip roofs dominated the populated areas of the New Zealand landscape for
over two decades. The repetitive pitch or the roofs was criticised for creating a sense of
sameness between houses. The use of New Zealand made concrete roof tiles promoted
local industry and saved overseas funds (Taylor 1986), and Labour accordingly deemed such
criticism an acceptable price to pay (History online, 2010).
Each house had a living room, kitchen, two to four bedrooms, bathroom, laundry and usually
a dining alcove off the kitchen. Typically, a hallway separated the lounge, kitchen and dining
recess from the bedrooms. Two or three bedroom configurations were the most common,
with each bedroom designed to accommodate two single beds (Firth 1949).
By comparison to earlier housing, these modern new houses had many changes. Windows
were larger, and let in more sunlight and ventilation. The era of LPSH followed an outbreak of
Tuberculosis and Diphtheria, and ventilation was recognised as being important for health
reasons. Window areas were sized to be 15% of the floor area of the room it serviced, with
half of the windows being able to be opened for ventilation (Firth 1949).
The living room was larger than in the past and was a warm and well lit social space, with an
open fire that was the main heating source for the house.. Utilities such as the bathroom,
toilet, and often the laundry were brought into the house. Fitted joinery and wardrobes were
incorporated. ‘Modern’ services were introduced into State housing. Electricity was a new,
clean and easy to use service that was used for cooking and water heating.
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HOUSE SIZE
There was a variety of house plans to accommodate a range of house requirements.
The Standardisation of LPSH produced the following guidelines for house and room areas:
TYPICAL HOUSE SIZES:
Number of bedrooms Area in square feet Aprox. Area in square meters
2 882 82
3 1055 98
TYPICAL ROOM SIZES
Room Area in square feet Aprox. Area in square meters
Lounge minimum 180 16.7
Main Bedroom 120 11.1
Other Bedrooms 100 9.3
Single Bedroom 63 5.8
Kitchen and Meals 143 13.3
Kitchen (single space) 94 8.7
Bathroom 36 3.3
Laundry 40 3.7
The first LPSH displayed English influences in their detailing. The brick arches, colonial
timber window beading and panelled timber doors can be seen in some of the early LPSH in
Orakei. This detailing was discontinued with the process of standardisation.
Figure 5. 8 Brick archway entry to a LPSH in Orakei
Photo by the Author
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Figure 5. 9 Timber panelled doors of the early English influence in Orakei State Housing
Photo by the Author
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Figure 5. 10 Early English cottage style LPSH Plan and elevations
Source: NZ National Archives, Wellington
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The following drawings show differing elevations for the same plan. (Quality limited by the
condition of the document.) The difference is in the roof shape, being a hipped roof or a
gable end roof:
Figure 5. 11 LPSH 6H/1180 - Hip-roof, two-bedroom standalone house
Source: National Archives, Wellington
Figure 5. 12 LPSH 6H/1206 – gable-end roof, two-bedroom standalone house
(Drawing from National Archives, Wellington)
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5.3 LPSH: SOLAR DESIGN
In LPSH, New Zealand saw its first solar design considerations adopted. They were designed
for sun, light and air as the result of a growing awareness of the health and heating benefits
that could be obtained from sunlight. The previously designed Villa and Bungalow houses
were dark and cold, having been designed with their front to the street regardless of any
connection between the plan and sun orientation. By comparison, LPSH were filled with light
and sun.
Figure 5.13 Sun penetration diagrams based on Cedric Firths sunlight analysis
(The number represents the number of hours the floor has sunlight on it.) (Firth 1949)
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These houses were designed for maximum sun penetration into the interior in mid winter, with
adequate protection from the summer heat. The sunlight analysis illustrated shows the
amount of sun that enters the room during the day. The penetration of sunlight is controlled
by the eave, which shadows the higher angle of the summer sun from entering the room. In
winter, when the angle of the sun is lower, the sun can penetrate deep into the room. (The
number represents the number of hours the floor has sunlight on it.)
LPSH were orientated to the north to maximise the use of the sun. The plan positioned the
most commonly used Living areas to the north to receive all day sun, with the kitchen
positioned to the east of the house plan to receive the morning sun, and to avoid the evening
heat of the westerly sun. Bedrooms were positioned on the east and west of the house plan
to receive morning or evening sun leaving the utility rooms such as the bathroom and laundry
to be positioned along the cold south wall.
Solar sensitivity is demonstrated by the allocations of glazing, being 15% of the floor area.
Larger windows were positioned on the north wall, with smaller windows on the east and
west. Windows with minimal areas of glazing serviced the utility rooms on the south wall.
The lesser amount of window area on the south wall reduced the amount of cold glass, and
cold southerly draughts.
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5.4 THE CONSTRUCTION OF LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSING
Figure 5.14 Building LPSH
Source: NZ Archives
5.4.1 LABOUR
LPSH were built to a high standard by artisans, using quality materials for an intended life of
60 years, double the expectation for houses at the time. Thousands of LPSH were built by
private building contractors under contract to the Housing Division. These houses were built
under 669 contracts, which were awarded in groups of between one and twenty houses, to
economise and speed up the construction process. Auckland had seventy-eight different
contractors (Squires, 2010), one of which was Fletcher Construction who built 44% of the
5,149 standalone houses in Auckland during the period from 1937 – 42.
Not long after LPSH started there was shortage of builders. The building trade
apprenticeships that trained boys and youth had dwindled through the depression, to leave an
estimated shortage of 500 craftsmen by the time the war started, which the war further
reduced. To meet the demand of the huge increase in building, Labour repealed the previous
restrictions that had limited the growth of apprenticeships and imported building related
workers from Australia and England.
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Following the war, the gross shortage of labour was addressed by the introduction of a new
training scheme for mature men returning from war, which differed from apprentice training.
Returning ex-servicemen were offered rehabilitation training in carpentry, joinery, painting,
plastering and bricklaying, which was established by the Rehabilitation Department. The
training period was up to two years, most of which was spent building LPSH, with much of the
labour cost being met by the Rehabilitation Department, which effectively reduced the labour
costs of building. By 1948 about 2,670 men were trained per year and the result was that
30% of the trained men were building houses on-site, while the others were engaged in
building related industry and manufacture (Firth 1949). Reducing numbers caused the
eventual closure of the training centres in 1953.
5.4.2 THE IMPACT OF WORLD WAR 2
War prioritisation absorbed enormous amounts of timber, metal and labour. Steel, copper,
zinc, electric cable and conduit and some paint ingredients imported from overseas were
committed to the requirements of war and consequently become unavailable for building use
in New Zealand. The effect of lacking materials meant houses could not be completed. In
1941 LPSH construction ground to a halt and houses under construction were boarded up
until the end of the war when the housing needs of returning soldiers reactivated construction.
Auckland’s population grew with the migration of factory workers supporting the war, and
wives moving to be nearer their husbands who were based in the city. In addition, soldiers
returning from war coincided with an influx of Maori post-war urbanisation. This placed
demand on all housing, particularly State housing, which was expected by and required for
the returning servicemen. The resultant shortage of housing increased rents and initiated a
building boom that started in 1941. As there was a shortage of artisans due to the war, there
was work beyond what the available building labour could meet. Consequently, building
contractors inflated their prices, and continued to do so for government work as the building
market and confidence improved.
The restart of State house building after the war was slower than needed due to a lack of
skilled labour and diminished material supplies drained by the war. The amount of timber
consumed by the requirements of war equated to 20,450 houses, which closely matched the
number of houses needed at the end of the war. By 1944 there were over 30,000 applicants
waiting for a LPSH, many of whom were already well accommodated, but sought the cheaper
rental. The low rents charged for new and quality housing made LPSH very attractive by
comparison to private rental. By 1947, there were 52,759 names of which 15,278 were ex-
servicemen, on the waiting list for a LPSH. This created a problem for the Labour
government.
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5.4.3 PREFABRICATION
Pre-fabrication had been used for farm buildings and in the war to erect buildings for the army
and airforce. Prefabrication was beneficial as productivity could be increased by using less
skilled labour, and in conditions that were unaffected by weather. To assist with the housing
shortage and to speed up the construction process, pre-fabricated timber framed wall panels
were introduced for use on-site. Also, to meet the post-war housing shortage, the
Department of Housing designed a smaller and cheaper timber framed house that, that could
be built using pre-fabrication at a cost of ₤800 (Taylor 1986). The first pre-fabricated example
was built in Mt Albert (Auckland) in 1944, and pre-fabricated, portable housing started
production in 1946.
5.4.4 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS OF LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSING
LOCAL MATERIALS
The standalone LPSH were built on-site, using native timber framed floors, wall and roofs,
with various claddings. Most commonly used was rimu bevel-back weatherboard, finished
with oil paint to protect the timber from the weather. Prefabrication was later developed and
introduced into LPSH. Doors, windows, timber, sheet materials and detailing throughout were
standardised, and used New Zealand products such as timber, clay and cement roof tiles,
and fibrous plaster ceilings and plasterboard wall linings. New Zealand made gas and electric
stoves, electric lights and light shades were also used. Many New Zealand manufacturing
companies were established and expanded by LPSH.
At times when material shortages were encountered, government did need to import some
materials, such as timber, fibrous plaster and roof tiles to continue the building programme.
TIMBER:
LPSH preferred to use native timbers for quality and durability. Timbers used were to be
graded according to The Dominion Federated Association standard grading rules
(Department of Housing Construction Pre 1941), and only those timbers listed on the NZSI
grading rules were allowed to be used (Timber Association, 1951).
Rimu was the most common timber for framing and weatherboards, using 188,500,000 lineal
feet of board in 1938. From the late 1930’s, supplies of quality durable native timber became
more scarce and expensive. The war's impact on timber supply was significant from the need
for war related buildings to the demand for war related shipping crates that were typically built
out of Radiata Pine. The great demand for these crates exhausted the available Radiata
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Pine, so the Rimu and Matai used for housing became its substitute. As access to native
forests became more remote and difficult due to the heavy demand for supply, alternatives
needed to be found. This introduced a variety of native timbers such as Tawa (which was kiln
dried, treated with pentachlorophenol (PCP) and used for interior fitments); Beech, Totara and
later Radiata Pine. Kiln dried and treated (PCP) Radiata pine had grown in use in New
Zealand construction from 1938, as it was a cheaper and more available source of timber. It
became the most readily available timber by 1947, but it wasn’t introduced into LPSH until
1946. Untreated Radiata pine was allowed to be used for internal walls, ceiling joists, nogs
and trimmers, but it was not allowed for use in the external framing walls, or for roof framing
(Department of Housing 1947). From 1951, the use of pine was extended. Both treated and
untreated pine were able be used, but only above the floor level and not for the bottom plates.
Untreated pine was not to be used adjacent to brick veneer walls, exterior banks or other
damp positions. Where asbestos cement sheet cladding was used, it was to be installed over
‘Malthoid’, a bitumen impregnated felt damp-proofing membrane. As roof spaces were
deemed to be dry and well ventilated, untreated pine was approved for use there, but the
battens directly supporting the roofing were to be treated (Timber Association, 1951). To
accommodate the recognised softness of pine, nails were required to be 25% longer than
used for native timbers, or coated or to have a mechanism to provided additional grip.
The quantities of timbers (board length measured in lineal feet) that were used on LPSH in its
intense building period of 1945 -46 are represented as follows:
Rimu: 175,000,000 (a decrease from 1938)
Matai: 19,000,000
Beech: 12,000,000
Totara: 11,000,000
Tawa: 5,327,046
(Taylor 1986)
0
20,000,000
40,000,000
60,000,000
80,000,000
100,000,000
120,000,000
140,000,000
160,000,000
180,000,000
lineal foot of board used for
LPSH
Rimu
Matai
Beech
Totara
Tawa
Figure 5. 15 Footage of native timbers used in LPSH
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Of New Zealand’s native timbers, Rimu and Matai are classified as being native softwoods
and Tawa and the southern Beeches (red, hard, silver, mountain) are commercial hardwoods
(Hedley 2010).
TIMBER PRESERVATION
In the late thirties, SAC became concerned about the amount of borer-susceptible sapwood of
native timbers and Radiata Pine being used for building use. As SAC was the principal
financier and owner of LPSH and mortgagor for privately owned properties, it wanted to
ensure the houses were adequately protected. This led to the Timber Protection Research
Committee being established in 1938 by the Department of Industrial and Scientific Research
(DSIR) for the purpose of testing and approving wood preservatives. A simple dip treatment
based on dilute zinc naphthenate was developed to become the only insecticide treatment for
building timber that was approved by SAC. It is understood that its effectiveness was not
known at the time. After the war, further timber treatment was developed to become known as
Tanalith® U, a fluor-chrome-arsenate-phenol formulation which SAC accepted to become its
only approved preservative treatment (Hedley 1996).
Borates were developed to protect timber against insect borer attack. The DSIR tested and
confirmed that a dip/diffusion treatment effectively protected native timber and Radiata pine
from borer attack. They were approved for use in New Zealand in the mid-1950s. Typically
the green diffusion process was used in which newly sawn timber was immersed momentarily
in strong solutions of boric acid/borax and was then stored under tarpaulins for six to eight
weeks to allow the preservative to diffuse deeply into the timber. As well as protecting timber
from insect attack, boron-based preservatives also work as a fungicide (Hedley 1996).
5.4.5 THE STRUCTURE AND EXTERIOR MATERIALS
LPSH were framed using native timbers, most commonly Rimu. Prior to the introduction of
Radiata pine, all of the framing above floor level was BA Rimu or medium Kauri. The timber
used for the framing below floor level was dressing A rimu (Timber Association, 1951).
Typical framing was rough sawn 4” x 2” (102mm x 51mm), with larger sized framing used as
necessary for the suspended timber floor and subfloor. Hip and gable-end roofs were built
using 4” x 2” (102mm x 51mm) rafters and ceiling joists. Diagonal struts transferred the
heavy roof load of the tiles back to an internal load-bearing wall. Ceiling runners and
underpurlins spread loads to minimise the spans, and consequent size of the timber framing
member required. External timber was dressed A-grade heart Rimu, Matai or Totara. (Timber
Association, 1951).
Foundations were comprised of poured concrete (insitu) foundation walls at the house
corners, with pre-cast concrete piles for the mid-floor area. Horizontal timber boards ran
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between the foundation walls, which were adequately spaced to provide ventilation to the
subfloor. Where the house was built of brick veneer, the brick would be supported on a
continuous concrete footing with ventilation grilles installed in the brick wall, subfloor. A crawl
space of ideally 3’ (910mm) was provided between the ground and the floor framing. The
chimney foundation, flue and hearth were formed of insitu concrete.
Building paper was not always used. The New Zealand building code of 1949 (Clause 945b)
had a requirement for building paper or other approved weatherproof material to be fixed to
the outer face of timber framed exterior walls of buildings for human inhabitation. From then,
building paper was introduced into most LPSH, although not always in the upper North Island,
as the DBH didn’t specify it’s use, deeming it unnecessary because of the higher
temperatures in that area (Hammond 1949). The many houses built without building paper
relied on construction detail, roof and cladding materials and enamel paint to deter water
ingress. Insulation was not used, although there was an awareness of its benefits.
Roofs were constructed using timber framing and later, timber trusses. The roofs were
battened and covered with clay or concrete tiles in the 1930’s and Marseille style concrete
tiles in the 1940’s and 50’s. The roof was pitched at 32° to support the tiles, and to provide
water run-off.
Corrugated asbestos cement sheet and 24 gauge corrugated iron were lesser used roof
coverings and from the 1950’s a new Malthoid product was used for flat roofs (Cheer, 2010).
By 1951, pitches of the roofs lowered for timber economy, which raised the concern of a
waterproofing risk for some Councils (Clist, 1951).
Soffits were timber lined initially, but later this was replaced by the more economical asbestos
cement sheet when it became available.
Claddings were varied, with over half of the houses receiving timber bevel-back weather
board, which was economical. As native timber used for weatherboarding became in short
supply, the manufacture of a new product - asbestos cement sheet or tiles - provided an
economical option.that along with concrete, eventually replaced weatherboard in almost
three-quarters of the houses built in 1946-7. Brick was also used, favoured for its longevity,
performance and low maintenance, Rendered pumice was another occasionally used
cladding.
The timber window joinery was constructed using standard details, out of native timbers,
being heart Rimu, Matai or Totara. Windows were of a standard height, with the window head
positioned beneath the soffit. Craftsmanship and detail provided good waterproofing,
although technology for airtightness was not available.
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The desire to recreate the English Cottage, by use of leadlight glazing bars as seen in the
windows of the Arts and Crafts style proved too expensive, and the constraints of using
timber meant the complexity of similar window glazing detailing be simplified. The solution
adopted was a very simplified use of timber glazing bars. Horizontal timber glazing bars of
the same elevation heights divided the sashes into three panes of glass. Casement windows
were used, being either fixed, side-hung or top-hung for ventilation. Top-hung fan lights
provided a more secure form of ventilation as it was accessed at a higher level. Side-hung
sash sizes were standardised as being four feet, six inches high (1.37m) by two feet wide
(610mm) or three feet high (990mm) x two feet (610mm) wide (Firth 1949).
Windows were detailed with anti-capillary weather-grooves around the edges of the sashes,
and the frames they sat within to prevent the ingress of external rain. These gaps were often
increased with timber shrinkage.
Exterior doors were made of Heart Totara, Matai or Kauri, and were protected from wind and
rain by outdoor porches.
5.4.6 THE INTERIOR MATERIALS
Room ceiling heights (stud heights) were nine feet high (2.74m) until 1943, when they were
reduced to eight feet high (2.44m) to economise on materials.
The floors throughout the house were made of four inch by one inch (102mm x 25mm) tongue
and groove, heart native timber boards laid directly over, and perpendicular to the timber floor
framing. They were usually Rimu or Matai, finished with a coating of a mixture of linseed oil
and turpentine (the turpentine aided absorption). Floors closer than four feet (1.2m) to the
ground in the North Island were to be Dressing A heart Rimu, or Dressing A heart Matai,
pressure treated, kiln dried and dipped (Clist 1951; Rogers 1951; Timber Association 1951).
The living area, halls and bedrooms were lined with plasterboard that had wallpaper applied
as a finish. Walls to the utility areas were lined with hardboard, with half-round timber beads
applied over the sheet joins. Utility rooms were finished with enamel paint. Ceilings were
lined with either Pinex softboard with battens over the sheet joins, or fibrous plaster. Sheet
linings were fixed to the timber framing with tolerance gaps of approximately a quarter of an
inch (6mm) at the top and bottom of the sheets. These gaps were covered by a ventilating
cornice or native timber shirting boards. One inch (25mm) quarter-round moulds or one and a
half inch (32mm) scotia moulds were used where required.
Internal doors were panelled native timber in the first LPSH’s, but for economical reasons
they became a flush finish, dressed A-grade heart Rimu or Kauri veneer. All interior finishing
timber was Dressing A Rimu.
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5.4.7 SERVICES
Hot water was stored in thirty gallon (113.5 litres) cylinders that were electrically heated.
They were low-pressured systems that were fed via a header watertank in the ceiling space.
Quality copper piping was used in preference to standard metal for the plumbing throughout
the house.
Each room was electrically lit with a centrally placed, ceiling-mounted lamp-holder light fitting
using 60 watt or 100 watt incandescent light bulbs (Department of Housing Construction).
Electric power outlets were scheduled frugally to provide two outlets in the lounge and one in
each of the main bedroom, kitchen, dining recess, laundry and kitchen (Department of
Housing Construction). Often the lounge had a radio aerial outlet. The electrical wiring was
fed through metal conduits.
Although the houses were better designed for solar heat gain, there was less heating
provided in LPSH than previous housing, with only one open fire located in the living room.
The open fire was later revised to be replaced by the use of fire-boxes.
5.5 THE END OF LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSING
There is little doubt that the LPSH of the 1930’s and 1940’s raised the standard of housing in
New Zealand. Unfortunately following the war price increases raised the costs of the two
greatest commodities of LPSH building - timber and labour. The ‘yard’ cost (excluding
cartage to sites) of timber increased by 13.52% between 1945 and 1946, and increased a
further 20.52% by 1949 which had a significant impact. By 1949, the demand for State
housing grew to require the production of 12,000 houses annually (Firth 1949), which the
Labour Party struggled to cope with leaving a lot of people frustrated and disappointed with
Labours’ lack of performance.
Problems that developed at the end of the 1940’s with the LPSH programme, and its
economic losses, led to the demise of Labour. The National party, with a new and more
credible leader, Sid Holland, attacked the Labour Party, pointing to its failings. National
promised to provide a new era of freedom and prosperity, while retaining Labours social
welfare policies. This turned opinions enough for National to be voted into government in the
1949 elections, which saw the end of the immense era of LPSH. During their fourteen year
period of leadership, the Labour Party had constructed 61,000 houses.
5.5.1 STATE HOUSING AND THE NATIONAL PARTY
The National Party had no intention of continuing the rate of building of State housing, or to
continue the LPSH building policy (Minister of Industries and Commerce 1953). National
modified the direction and structure of State housing by initiating privatisation to allow tenants
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to buy their State house. Generous lending terms offered 95% of the purchase price, at 3%
interest over a period of up to forty years. There was a high number of sales when the option
was first introduced in 1950, which settled through the mid 1950’s, and declined when Labour
was re-elected in 1957. Sales increased once again with the re-election of National in 1960.
National introduced capitalisation of the family benefit (a government subsidy paid to families
per child under the age of sixteen), which was used as a vehicle to provide families with their
own first home, either private or State built. It provided funding to the value of ₤1,000 for use
as a deposit, with the balance mortgaged at 3% interest. Funding was provided by SAC.
From 1939 through to 1952, the cost of timber for a standard three bedroom house had
increased by over a hundred percent. International demand on metals such as copper, brass,
steel, tin and lead used for house building had increased costs. Using lead (used for
flashings) as an example, costs increased from ₤55 per ton in 1945 to ₤232 per ton by 1953.
In the 1950s, the demand for State housing grew, but the capability of the government to build
at a rate to meet demand couldn’t be achieved. The escalating building costs experienced in
the 1950’s eventually lowered the standard of housing.
Figure 5.16 Document requesting revised design proposals to reduce costs for State Housing
(Wilson 1953)
The repetitively designed, poor quality and underserviced rows of housing built to provide for
the poor, created ghetto communities which was the opposite of the Labour Party philosophy
for LPSH. Since the 1960s State housing has targeted the poor, and those who face
discrimination in the private rental market, including Maori, Pacific Islanders and solo mothers
(Schrader).
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5.5.2 GROUP BUILDING SCHEME
Group housing was a privatised extension of the State house model. It was introduced by
National to accelerate house building to meet the housing demand, but with reduced
government expenditure or ownership. Crown land that Labour had previously purchased for
LPSH was made available to substantially established builders for development under
contract with the Housing Construction Division of the Ministry of Works. Government still
had some control, as there were requirements of SAC and Rehabilitation lending that needed
to be met. The expenditure involved in the land subdivision, site and house plans,
specifications and buy-back costs were to be approved by SAC in writing. The houses were
to be sold at prices reflecting ‘fair value’, with a maximum price for a 3-bedroom house in
metropolitan Auckland or Wellington being ₤2,900, (reduced in lower cost areas). Sections
were not to cost more than ₤750.
Private builders funded and constructed groups of houses, with the security of a government
guaranteed buy-back of any houses unsold within two months of completion. This ensured
the continuity of building without the financial burden of holding costs, allowing the builder to
meet his costs of staff, sub-contractors’ and materials. It also provided houses for the New
Zealanders in need.
LPSH helped establish many Group housing construction companies in New Zealand, some
of which are still in existence today. The house picture below has used the same design and
construction methodology of LPSH. It was built in 1965, and is built using the same materials:
concrete tiled 32° pitch roof, weatherboard, brick base, native timber framing and no building
paper.
Figure 5.17 An example of a Group house following LPSH methodology
Photo by the Author
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5.5.3 A REFLECTION ON LABOUR PARTY HOUSING
The following quote from a Thesis written in 1944, almost halfway through the Labour House
scheme, portrays the high regard in which State Housing was held:
“‘In any case, the faults of the scheme are insignificant when compared with the
comfort and happiness that it has bestowed on thousands of people. Let the
doubters and detractors inspect the closely packed tumble-down shacks of a slum
area where rusting iron roofs , leaking spouting, rotting wooden fences and piles of
rubbish form a fitting background to the sordid drama that such conditions inevitably
produce.
Let them then by way of contrast walk along a street made up entirely of state
Houses where closely cut lawns, neat frontages, trim pathways and modern buildings
create an environment that can not help improving the lives of the people morally and
spiritually, as well as materially.” (Wells 1944)
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CHAPTER 6: THE FUTURE OF LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSING
6.1 ARCHITECT INTERVIEWS
6.1.1 THE SELECTION OF ARCHITECTS
Practicing architects that met the criteria of having designed alterations to existing State
housing were sought to be interviewed on their experience and solutions that were
implemented. Those that responded were interviewed either by telephone if they were
located outside of Auckland, (or was more convenient for them), or in person. When
interviews were undertaken in the offices of local architects, some files on various projects
were made available for viewing. Otherwise graphic material was provided form architects by
email or post.
A questionnaire for the purpose of interviewing was developed to obtain information about the
practice and the overall experience with retrofitting. Information was gathered on each house
as it was prior to the renovation works, such as its location and the age of the house/s were
obtained to establish that they were of the typology studied in this thesis. An understanding
of the driver for the renovation was sought to understand what priorities were placed on the
various requirements that contributed to the brief. Health issues of the occupants were
checked, and if present, their influence on requirements was identified. Information was
obtained on the existing structure, construction and materials, to determine whether the
original composition was matched, or were alternatives introduced e.g. thermal mass or
increased solar gain.
Ownership was verified to understand different approaches that may occur between privately
owned, rented, or State owned housing. Information was sought on the priorities of retrofit
requirements such as the levels of thermal comfort, insulation, ventilation, air tightness,
moisture and thermal gain. During construction with the house structure exposed, contingent
problems with the condition of the structure such as rotting timber, unstable structure,
moulds, water ingress and other unknown problems could be identified. Such problems
impact on the budget, and information is sought to assess how realistic and affordable these
houses are to work on.
Where post-construction monitoring was available, this would enable an evaluation of the
building performance to assess if an adequate level of IAQ had been achieved. In conclusion
it was asked if the architect was satisfied with the outcome and, where it was possible to
know what the occupant’s comments were, to reflect the success of the interventions. The
questionnaire is available in the appendix to this document.
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Figure 6. 1 Healthy Housing Programme sketch proposal
Image courtesy of Marshall Cook
The sketch above shows the existing house on the left and a new addition to the right with
indoor to out door connection and new decking for outdoor living.
Figure 6. 2 Map of State housing in central Auckland
Source: HNZC
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6.1.2 THE INTERVIEWS
The interviews presented that typically the condition of the State housing worked upon was of
a similar condition, with a couple having had some prior improvements made. Overcrowding
and excessive moisture in the indoor air had contributed to ill health, and this needed
rectification.
HNZC established written generic briefs outlining the minimum requirements for the various
types of housing to be upgraded, which were issued to the involved architects. A number of
items in the brief are the same as they were when the houses were built, although many
improvements were made. Improvements to the brief for a stand alone house that address
IAQ better addressed ventilation by installing passive vents into the new and existing exterior
joinery. The living area, where possible was to be cross-ventilated by providing windows into
two external walls. Bedrooms were to have adequate natural light and ventilation. The
kitchen and bathroom was to have ‘adequate’ passive or mechanical ventilation, with the
bathroom preferably having an external window.
Exterior joinery was to have condensation channels and was to be ‘robust’, without reference
to specification of the materials to be used.
Items that addressed heating was that an adequate, fixed heat source was to be installed in
the living space; window coverings were to be provided in the lounge, dining bedrooms and
kitchen areas and it was preferable that an airlock be designed into the plan where the house
was located in cold or exposed situations.
There was nothing specific to insulation other than compliance with the New Zealand Building
Code, and the HNZC Housing Specification. The extent of the latter document relative to
insulation is as follows:
“MATERIALS
THERMAL BLANKET – WOOL FIBRE: Long fine wool fibres bonded with a polymer
fibre to form a 600mm blanket.”
INSTALLATION – Install as per manufacturers’ instructions.”
(HNZC, 2004-2005)
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INTERVIEWS ON GOVERNMENT OWNED STATE HOUSING
ARCHITECT 01
The first architect interviewed is Auckland architect who directed the establishment of the
Healthy Housing Programme (HHP) to modernise and upgrade State homes, and was one of
the two architects that ‘mentored’ the many architectural practices that were involved in the
scheme. His practice upgraded a large number of houses in Auckland between 2001 and
2005. The budget given per house, within a range of $40,000 and $140,000, was tight for all
that was required to be achieved. Where an investment beyond $150,000 was needed, this
was committed to rebuilding for reasons of economy.
EXISTING CONDITION
Many of the large families that were crammed into smaller houses than was suitable were
from the more affectionate cultures where human contact, particularly cuddling and nursing
babies is common. This exacerbated the spread of Meningococcal disease. In overcrowded
situations it was not uncommon for bedrooms to have four teenagers sharing one bedroom in
an observed situation. An unsanitary situation that arose from too many people sharing
minimal facilities was recognised in absence of hand washing facilities in the toilet rooms.
Basins were located in a separate bathroom, often occupied by other family members.
Massive amounts of cooking were done by boiling, which produced copious amounts of
steam.
INTERVENTIONS
Interventions undertaken were to increase the size of the houses by enlarging living areas,
adding bedrooms and improving the connection between indoors and outdoors by adding
decks. Bathrooms were added, and basins put into the existing toilet rooms. Kitchens and
existing bathrooms were upgraded to include mechanical extract fans, with permanent
passive vents in the glazing. If windows were in need of refurbishment, they were replaced
with single glazed timber joinery. Otherwise they remained as they were, passively ventilating.
Insulation was fitted into the ceilings and beneath the floor throughout, but due to cost
limitations, the walls were only insulated if there was renovation work that involved relining
them. Typically the existing walls remained uninsulated, and the timber windows with single
glazing were left without seals. Adjustable passive vents were fitted into most windows, and
permanent passive vents were fitted into the windows of the kitchens and bathrooms. The air
leakage was seen to provide balanced pressure between the house interior and exterior.
Electric panel heaters were installed for heating.
POST EVALUATION
A post evaluation showed that the windows were not always opened, and boiling food was
still supplying the air with copious amounts of steam, often as the extract was not activated.
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However the programme had managed to create a feeling of worth, and connection within the
community.
ARCHITECT 02
The second Auckland architect interviewed was engaged within the HHP to work on
individually targeted houses and the larger ‘Star’ flats. His company upgraded eighteen triple
units, fifteen blocks of twelve units ‘Star’ flats, an atrium block of 36 units and twenty
standalone houses, in Onehunga, Mangere and Otara, in the southern area of Auckland. His
philosophy was to meet the expectation of a clean dry house to live in, without middle class
aspirations that added unnecessary expense.
EXISTING CONDITION
State housing did not have good building performance, and tenants were not happy. The way
many occupants lived varied with differing cultures, which affected sleeping patterns and
cooking. Cooking was done by boiling in large pots, which produced huge quantities of steam
and created problems as the windows were not opened for ventilation due to security issues.
(At the time of this programme, there had been a number of rapes in south Auckland.)
INTERVENTIONS
Interventions used to improve the housing were to add pods to the existing houses, which
were designed to improve the connection between indoor and outdoor living. New aluminium
sliding doors were used to facilitate the connection. Insulation was used in the floors, walls
and ceilings throughout the new areas, but only the floors and ceilings in the existing parts of
the house. Polyester ‘Greenstuf’ insulation was used in the walls and ceilings. Drawings were
provided of retrofitted solutions to insulate the existing walls by installing polyester insulation
pads, with either new grooved plywood, or prefinished ‘Climateline’. ‘Climateline’ is a
propriety product that is a plasterboard sheet lining product which is prefinished with a
powder-coated surface that is finished with jointers therefore eliminating the need for plaster,
sanding dust and paint that standard plasterboard requires. Although detailed in the drawn
documentation, these details were not implemented by HNZC. The original walls were left
uninsulated.
Hard wired smoke alarms were required to comply with NZBC.
Mechanical fan extracts were used in the kitchen and bathroom/s, and permanent passive
vents were installed into the glazing at the top of the bedroom windows. Air tightness was not
considered. Although there was some water damage from failed plumbing, the timber used
was in good condition. Clothes' drying typically was not done outdoors due to theft.
This architect felt that durability and sustainability was challenged by the HNZC brief as the
solid timber kitchen joinery (which had often endured fifty years of use) required melamine
replacements which by comparison, had a life of approximately ten years. The formaldehyde
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and VOC’s emitted from such product would add to the contaminants in the air. This architect
was not in favour of this decision, as part of the character architectural heritage of these
building was being discarded for a lesser replacement. He also commented unfavourably at
the use of formaldehyde glues, when low emission VOC adhesives were available.
Operation manuals were supplied to HNZC at practical completion, although these weren’t
passed on to the tenants. HNZC had people to assist tenants but some basic things like the
operation of passive ventilation devices in windows were not explained.
POST EVALUATION
Post evaluation it was found that a lack of knowledge as to how the vent worked meant the
passive vents were not used. The programme was effective as the tenants who had
previously spoken negatively about their housing, had raised self esteem post renovation
which impacted in that the properties were cared for and image became important.
He commented that the HHP ended for architects as they were deemed to add expense
beyond what could be achieved using a design and build methodology.
ARCHITECT 03
The third Auckland architect interviewed had worked on the HHP in 2003, and privately
owned State housing. HHP houses he worked on were built during the 1960’s.
EXISTING CONDITION
His experience confirmed the overcrowding, having worked on three bedroom housing that
accommodated 8 -10 people.
INTERVENTIONS
The houses he worked on were completely renovated with additional space added. Ceilings,
walls and floors were insulated in the additional built spaces, and to the ceilings and floors of
the existing house. Existing walls were insulated of they were affected by the additions.
Bathrooms and kitchens were refitted with new fixtures, joinery, wall linings and mechanical
extraction fans. Heated towel rails were fitted to the bathrooms to dry towels.
Typically, tenants did not open windows, so permanent passive vents were installed in the
existing window glazing to ensure the house was ventilated without relying on windows being
opened.
ARCHITECT 04
The fourth Auckland architect interviewed had worked on contract to a larger company to
upgrade twenty-six houses in 2005 under the HHP. These were 1950’s State housing located
in Bayswater on Auckland's North Shore.
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EXISTING CONDITION
The condition of many of these houses was adequate, with some of them having had very
long term tenants. Overcrowding was not such problem in this area. Some mechanical
extract fans had been installed in a previous upgrade, and many houses had existing floor
and ceiling insulation, and yet the ceiling linings were mouldy.
INTERVENTIONS
Emphasis for the upgrade was to open up the living and kitchen areas (open plan) with
connection to the back yards and new decks. He commented that the decks were over
designed, being for a floor load of 3KPa when 2Kpa was required under the building code of
the time. This involved additional and wasted expenditure that could have been dedicated
elsewhere. Kitchens and bathrooms were upgraded with new bathroom linings, fittings and
joinery. The bathroom walls were lined with ‘Aqualine’ (a water resistant plasterboard sheet
lining), with ‘Hardiglaze’ (a water resistant, prefinished, polyurethane-coated fibrous cement
sheet) fixed over plasterboard to replace the ceiling linings. Some houses already had
mechanical extractor fans, but those that didn’t had new ones installed to the bathroom and
kitchens. Passive vents (‘Easy air’) were installed into new and existing windows, with the
adjustable slides removed for permanent ventilation to the laundry and bathroom. Hot water
cylinders were replaced. The new additions had aluminium window joinery installed. If walls
were affected by the renovation works, they were fitted with R1.8 insulation (polyester or wool
being specified) before relining. The subfloors of the new extensions were insulated with
double-sided perforated foil draped 100mm between the floor joists. R2.2 insulation (polyester
or wool being specified) was fitted to the new ceilings in the bathrooms, toilet and other
selected areas designated on individual plans.
Open fires had been closed off, and the houses had no fixed source of heating.
INTERVIEWS ON PRIVATELY OWNED LPSH
ARCHITECT 05
The fifth Auckland architect interviewed worked on privately owned State housing and HHP.
Privately owned houses he has designed renovations for are typically in Onehunga and the
affluent eastern suburbs of Auckland. His clients include young families and professional
young couples who can manage to afford a simple State house, and work towards improving
them by updating the layout and fixtures.
INTERVENTIONS
Renovation has involved adding an upper storey, extensions, opening up the plan and
improving indoor-outdoor connections with provision for decks for outdoor living.
One of his projects included interventions that were client driven as the owner had specific
requirements having an asthmatic child. Their house was brick veneer. They specifically
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requested that a polythene membrane be applied across the natural ground beneath the
house, that the ceilings and floor be insulated, and that they had a good heat source, being
an efficient solid burner inserted into the existing fireplace. There was also to be a heat
transfer system from the heated living area to transfer heat to the bedrooms. The windows
remained as existing, so the R-value of ceiling insulation was substantially increased.
POST EVALUATION
The polythene membrane was noted for making quite a difference, and it was considered this
was possibly due to the subfloor of a State brick house not being as well-ventilated as that of
a weatherboard State house. Although the outcome was not monitored, the client was
satisfied.
In his experience with State housing, other than this client, he has never had a request for
polythene on the ground, heat transfer systems, double glazing or sealing around windows.
He has specified single pane low-e glazing in a recent renovation.
ARCHITECT 06
The sixth Auckland architect interviewed lives and works from his State house. He has
worked on many State houses in the more affluent areas of Auckland - St Heliers, Parnell,
Remuera as well as Sandringham and his own neighbourhood of Orakei. His neighbour has
been a government owned State house tenant in the same house for over 30 years.
EXISTING CONDITION
His experience of State housing is that they are well built solid houses that breathe and
benefit by having large suburban sites. In some of the affluent areas, the houses are often
demolished, or transported away for relocation, and replaced with large modern housing.
He has never encountered any mould within the structure, although he has found an
occasional bit of borer.
INTERVENTION
Renovation work he has undertaken typically involves improving the indoor outdoor
connections, with the addition of decks for outdoor living. Old kitchens, bathrooms and
laundries are stripped out and replaced to suit twenty-first century living. Living areas are
increased in size, and in his own home he added an upper storey with a preference to visually
match materials. The renovations to his home started twenty years ago. The new areas have
been insulated with polystyrene beneath the floor, and R2.2 fibreglass to the ceiling and walls.
Windows remained as is, and new windows and French doors were single glazed timber
joinery.
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He designed a renovation for a client who owns one of the early LPSH in Orakei. The house
has the same footprint, but the fireplace has been removed which enabled the living areas to
be opened up. This client’s brief was that she liked the house cold, so although he did install
an electric heat pump, it may not be used. He relied on increasing the insulation levels
beyond the legal requirement of the time. R3.2 ceiling insulation was used and R1.3
polystyrene was inserted between the floor joists. The external walls were not altered and
were not insulated. The house relies on natural passive ventilation, by opening windows.
Mechanical extract fans were installed in the kitchen and bathroom. He was not a fan of heat
recovery systems, as if the house was designed properly they were not needed, although he
had used heat transfer systems to move heat from living areas to bedrooms.
The renovation of this house recognised the charm and fenestration of its style which
reflected the English cottage influence of the very early LPSH, which could also be seen
internally in the panelled doors, hardware, high skirting’s and a higher stud height.
POST EVALUATION
The architect was satisfied with the outcome and the owner was very happy with her home,
and its performance.
ARCHITECT 07
The seventh Auckland architect interviewed has worked with his father, and in over twenty-
four years of architectural practice has worked on at least one State house renovation a year,
in locations all over Auckland. These houses have all been privately owned.
INTERVENTIONS
Renovations undertaken have involved a range of alteration work to include opening up the
existing plan, adding rooms or extending living space, an upper storey, garaging, new
kitchens, laundries and bathrooms.
Health was never an issue discussed; the alterations were singularly for space requirement.
Old is kept as old and new is insulated according to the current building code. Ceilings and
floors may be insulated, and walls are only if they are opened up as part of the renovation. If
the renovation is separate from the existing external walls, they are left uninsulated.
POST EVALUATION
He has found the houses to be well built, with no contingent items and has happy clients at
the end of the project.
ARCHITECT 08
The eighth Architect interviewed lives in Wellington. He has completed a number of houses
over a forty year period, for a variety of clients that include a Judge, Head of Treasury, and
other high level earners. The value of the soundness of State housing outdoes any stigma
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that may be attached to them. The houses he has worked on are located in various socio-
economic areas, from the high value suburbs with views in the northern and eastern suburbs
of Wellington such as Wilton, to the lower valued suburbs of Wainuiamata, NaeNae and Taita.
He comments that State houses are favoured for the size of the site they are located on, with
generous set backs from the boundaries. The advantage of being located close to public
transport, schools, shops, amenities and reserves is recognised too. Their structure, size and
simple plan makes them straightforward to work with, being easily extendible.
EXISTING CONDITION
State housing he has worked on have been well built on solid foundations and are made of
excellent raw materials, usually rimu. On occasion he has found borer damage, but never
mould other than on some deteriorated linings to wet areas. They have had well installed
weatherboards and timber joinery, good drainage but typically they need the electrical wiring
and plumbing upgraded. Contingent items are extremely rare. Insulation, when it has been
found, is typically in the ceiling, usually collapsed or displaced as a result of wind driven air
movement in the roof space.
INTERVENTIONS
Ceiling insulation is replaced during the renovation work to the level required by the current
building regulation of the time (usually 100mm thick fibreglass). The floor is insulated to
Building Code standards. Existing walls are not insulated unless they are part of the alteration
work, and timber window joinery remains single glazed. Where sashes have moved (often as
a result of being twisted in the winds) or badly eased to rectify layers of old paint, they are
refitted if possible or replaced, but done properly which may require staging for budgetary
reasons. He comments favourably on the construction of the original window joinery used as
it is well detailed with a decent slope to the sill to prevent water ingress, has good head
flashings and decent facing boards to the jambs. If rust is found in the flashings, these are
replaced in the alteration process. The windows provide passive ventilation, and he
encourages this be done regularly, and if it gets cool ‘wear a warm jersey!’
POST EVALUATION
He thinks State housing is wonderful, is satisfied with the homes they become and has never
had an unhappy client, which reflects they are happy with the outcome.
ARCHITECT 09
The ninth architect interviewed lives in a State house in Christchurch that she has renovated
in two stages. It is timber framed, with a hip and gable concrete tiled roof with walls clad in
painted timber weatherboard. The location of the house is in Bryndwr, a mixed area of almost
fifty percent privately owned and fifty percent government owned State housing that has had
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some intensification by subdivision of lots (typically into two). The house was built in 1952,
and was altered in 1994 and 2000, being staged for budgetary reasons.
EXISTING CONDITION
Her house was cold, but in sound condition. The native timber wall framing was in good
condition, although the bathroom hardboard wall linings were rotten.
She commented that the house was good value and sound as, by comparison, a privately
built (as opposed to State built) house of the same age in the area is smaller, less well fitted
out with joinery, and has rotting windows.
INTERVENTIONS
The first stage addressed the requirement for improved heating, to open up the living area
and to reline the bathrooms. By removing the fireplace and chimney, the size of living room
was increased and was better connected to the kitchen and dining spaces. Air lost up the
chimney ceased, and electric heating was used as a replacement for the open solid fuel fire.
A heat pump was installed in the lounge, and oil heaters were used at times in secondary
areas, which were found to provide adequate heat to meet their requirements. The heat pump
was not found to be intrusive, and its noise level was similar to that of a fridge. New linings
replaced the existing hardboard wall linings around the shower-bath area, which had rotted as
a result of water damage from use. Although an occupant had asthmatic symptoms, this was
not a driver for the renovation works. The second stage addressed the poor indoor to outdoor
connection, by adding single- glazed French doors and a new covered deck to the north. This
improved sunlight into the house, and the layout and flow of the adjacent indoor areas.
Insulation was not added to the walls, unless they required lining as part of the alteration
work. The ceilings were insulated with fibreglass batts of an unknown R-value, and the floor
framing received ‘Cosy floor’ insulation in which an R-value of 1.8 is achieved. “Cosy floor’ is
a product that has perforated foil attached to fibreglass batts. It is a product that is no longer
available. 80/20 wool blend carpet was laid on the timber floor boards for additional warmth.
The windows remained as single glazed timber joinery, and these were used for passive
ventilation to remove condensation. Heavy weight floor to ceiling curtains were fitted to
separate the cold air from the glazing and the warm interior air. An attempt was made to fit
foam tape to seal the air gaps around the opening ashes of the windows, but this proved too
difficult to be practical as the gap sizes varied.
POST EVALUATION
Temperatures achieved were unconfirmed, but found to be adequate. She was satisfied with
the outcome for her home.
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ARCHITECT 10
The tenth Architect interviewed is lives in Christchurch. He grew up in a new State house his
parents had lived in since 1953, for twenty-one years, and now owns a State house in which
he has lived for the last ten years. His house was built in 1950 for Sid Holland (National Party
Prime Minister 1949 – 1956) in Fendalton. It was later used as a manse for the Presbyterian
Church.
EXISTING CONDITION
The house is weatherboard clad and has a concrete tiled roof, with two-storeys that
accommodate living downstairs and bedrooms upstairs. Living areas and bedrooms are
orientated to the north, which makes the house very warm from solar gain. There was no
insulation or building paper in the house when he bought it. The structure was sound with no
rot, although a small amount of borer damage. (It faired well in the recent earthquakes, with
some cracks to the plaster board linings being the only apparent damage.)
INTERVENTIONS
He has renovated his house, removing walls to open up the living areas. Indoor to outdoor
connection has been made with French doors and decking for outdoor living. Insulation was
added insulation to the ceilings, floor and walls, with building paper being fitted into each
cavity against the weatherboard, with edges fitted to the studs and nogs that form the cavity
to be filled within the wall framing. Heat is provided by an electric heat pump in the living area
and electric panel heaters in the hall downstairs. This provides heat that rises to heat the
upstairs level of the house. Mechanical extract fans have been installed in the bathrooms and
kitchen.
POST EVALUATION
The house is a sound, well built house that is warm and well connected to outdoor living
areas. Temperatures are unmonitored, but the heat pump is set between 16°C and 21°C.
He does not find the house to be draughty, other than what is caused by the heat pump.
As an Architect and occupant, he is satisfied and happy with his home.
6.1.3 SUMMARY
The interviews exposed that either budget constraints or lack of consideration restricted the
amount of intervention available to address higher levels of IAQ. Insulation was improved,
but not always in areas that were not effected by the new building works. Existing windows
and walls were commonly left devoid of thermal improvement. The timber windows remained
single glazed, whether replaced or existing, and provided passive ventilation. Some
permanent ventilation was retrofitted, which combined with the opening windows left the
ventilation being uncontrolled, causing heat loss and allowing cold draughts to infiltrate the
indoor air. Mechanical ventilation was only used for extract fans to remove moisture from
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areas exposed to heavy loads of steam. Heat recovery ventilation systems were not used.
Heating sources, when provided typically relied on electricity as its energy source. Heat loss
through air movement and lacking thermal intervention had not been addressed, to ensure
adequate temperatures could be met, and retained as best possible.
The implications are that energy is wasted through heat loss transmission through air gaps,
passive ventilation and electrical heating. Although the improvements of insulation and
ventilation levels are apparent, consideration of alternative technologies provides for further
improvement of the comfort levels and IAQ of such houses.
There were minor differences of thermal and IAQ intervention between privately and
government owned housing. It would be fair to say that there was additional expenditure
dedicated to the quality of fixtures and finish applied to the privately owned houses. The
houses in the private sector were less densely occupied as they tended to accommodate
smaller families, whereas the rental properties tended to be occupied by more people,
housing larger families.
The renovation work of both government and privately owned State housing, presented
similar briefs. Spatially, the houses were improved in all cases by the removal of walls to
open up the plan to create larger areas, often with an addition built to extend the floor area.
Improved connection between indoors and outdoors was typically accommodated via new
door joinery to new deck areas. Bathrooms and kitchens were upgraded to provide modern
fittings and fixtures. Commonly the bathroom linings were replaced, often required as the
hardboard originally used had suffered from mould and water damage.
Indoor air quality and thermal comfort is not particularly well addressed. Insulation was
commonly retrofitted to ceilings and floors, at levels that met legal requirements of the time.
Walls and windows were typically left uninsulated. Existing opening windows theoretically
provided adequate provision for passive ventilation, but relied on occupant activation, which in
many cases was not effective. Opening windows presented security problems, evident more
so in low socio-economic areas, e.g. the Mangere rapist. Permanently opened passive vents
were installed into most government-owned rental properties to address continuous
ventilation. Where adjustable passive vent units were installed they were not used due to lack
of knowledge of how they operated. Fitted passive vents were not used in privately owned
housing. Background ventilation caused by draughts through air gaps was seldom
addressed, as either it was not seen to be necessary, it allowed balanced air pressure or it
was too difficult to apply (e.g. seals around window sashes.) The provision of mechanical
extract fans installed into the bathrooms and kitchens of all houses assisted in reducing
moisture. Heat transfer to move heat from the heated living areas through ducting connected
to bedrooms was not common. Alternative mechanical ventilation systems such as positive
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pressure with roof cavity heat transfer or balanced pressure heat recovery ventilation were
not considered. It would appear in some cases, that there was a lack of knowledge of their
theory, advantages, and functionality. Heating was not well addressed with few permanent
heat sources being provided. Commonly used electrical or portable gas heating appliances
could be assumed to heat where affordable.
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SUMMARY OF DISCOVERY AND INTERVENTIONS APPLIED TO EXISTING STATE HOUSES RENOVATED BY TEN SELECTED PRACTICING ARCHITECTS
INTERVENTIONS ARCHITECT
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
House ownership: Government Y Y Y Y
Private Y Y Y Y Y Y
Known occupant health problems Y Y Y Y Y N U N Y N
Existing windows
(single-glazed timber
joinery):
Remains as is Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Retrofit double glaze N N N N N N N N N N
Air seals applied N N N N N N N N N N
New window joinery:
* new aluminium
joinery installed
Single glazed Y Y* Y Y* Y Y Y Y Y Y
Double glazed N N N N N N N N N N
Air seals fitted N N N N N N N N N N
Airtightness was considered N N N N N N N N N N
Permanent passive vents to windows Y Y Y Y N N N N N
Mechanical extract
fan installed to:
Bathroom/s Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Kitchen Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Positive pressure roof heat transfer system N N N N N N N N N N
Balanced pressure HRV system N N N N N N N N N N
Ducted heat transfer between rooms N N Y N Y N N N N N
Existing insulation (found in ceilings only) N N N Y N N N Y N N
Insulation to new
build:
Ceiling Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Walls Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Floor Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Retrofitted insulation
applied to the
existing:
Ceiling Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Walls N N N N N N N N N N
Floor Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Heat source
provided:
Existing open fire
New elec. heat pump Y Y Y
New efficient solid
fuel burner
Y
Electric heater Y
Other Y
Thermal mass added N N N N N N N N N N
Solar gain added Y Y N N N N N Y Y Y
Mould in the existing house Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Significant mould or rot in existing structure N N N N N N N N N N
Significant structural degradation N N N N N N N N N N
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Existing To new additions To existing
during
renovations
Ceiling Walls Floor
Figure 6. 3
INSULATION INTERVENTIONS IN RENOVATED STATE HOUSING
(From architect interviews)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Single glazed Double glazed Passive vents
Existing windows New windows
Figure 6. 4 WINDOW INTERVENTIONS IN RENOVATED STATE HOUSING
(From Architect Interviews)
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Exis
ting
passiv
e
ventila
tion
(openin
g
win
dow
s)
Perm
anently
ventila
tiin
g
passiv
e v
ents
Positiv
e
pre
ssure
roof
heat tr
ansfe
r
syste
m
Bala
nced
pre
ssure
HR
V
Mechanic
al
extr
act fa
ns to
bath
room
s
and k
itchens
In existing house Retrofitted into existing house Installed into new additions
Figure 6. 5
VENTILATION INTERVENTIONS
(From Architect Interviews)
6.2 LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSING IN ITS CURRENT CONTEXT
Observation of renovations to State housing show that improvements are made to alter living
configurations to provide improved connection between indoor and outdoor living, to suit New
Zealand’s lifestyle. Often walls are removed to enlarge living spaces. Many houses have
minor insulation improvements to prevent heat loss, and some propriety type, standard
mechanical extraction from bathrooms. There are some houses that have replaced timber
window joinery with aluminium joinery, which requires less maintenance and has improved
airtightness. Open fires are often removed as part of the process in enlarging living areas.
Space heating in recent times has commonly become heat pumps installed on the walls of
living areas, with its mechanical extract box located in an adjacent position on the house
exterior.
Renovation work varies between privately owned and government owned housing, quite
possibly due to financial investment. As HNZC owns approximately sixty-nine thousand
houses, their maintenance demands large financial investment. Balanced against health
expenditure, the financial investment for betterment of the house IAQ also improves the
health of tenants, which reduces personal and national government expenditure on health
care. It appears that some improvements are being made to insulation, ventilation and
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heating evident in some insulation having been retrofitted, permanent passive vents to
provide regular ventilation, and heat pumps are being installed to provide an economical
source of heat, albeit to the living areas only.
6.3 SOCIETAL CHANGE IN OCCUPANT BEHAVIOUR
Societal change over the last few decades has altered how we live in houses, and occupant
behaviour affects and influences the quality of indoor air in housing. As time has progressed,
many household ‘skills’ have changed, possibly through modifications that absorb time in
alternative ways. In the era LPSH commenced, the house was typically occupied throughout
the day by women / mothers. This gave opportunity for the house to be well ventilated as
windows were opened daily. Household chores were a routinely undertaken that included
dusting (removal of dust accumulation); laundering bed linen and clothing that and hung
outside to dry. Consequently, dust and mould were minimised by the thoroughness of
cleaning and ventilating.
A standard house size was an average of one thousand square feet (approximately one
hundred square metres), which is about half the size of new houses today. As houses were
small, so were the rooms' sizes. Children often shared bedrooms, with beds often placed up
against external walls to fit into the room. As these houses were cold, bedding and the
clothing stored in bedrooms, and any other absorbent materials, were vulnerable to mould. A
bed placed up against an external wall lacks ventilation between the wall and bed, and allows
condensation from the cold wall to be absorbed into the bedding, causing dampness.
Clothing, bags and shoes stored in small wardrobes, an enclosed space without ventilation,
were also exposed to mould growth.
During winter a warm bath or shower is a great way to heat up. The considerable amount of
steam produced requires adequate ventilation for its removal, but the steam is warm, and
ventilation by window opening allows the heat to escape and cold air enter. This would cause
human discomfort, and steam from the bathroom would be more likely to escape through the
door when it is opened into the house interior (passage), than to escape to the house exterior
via the window.
Although many factors that cause mould growth were evident, the vigorous cleaning and
ventilating which was part of the routine of home life, quite likely minimised its invasion.
By comparison to that era, houses now are left unoccupied for long periods of time. Vacant
houses lack ventilation due to the security problems that restrict windows being left open.
Laundry is more likely to be dried indoors using mechanical dryers, some of which are not
externally ventilated. Bedding is still cold, wardrobes and their contents still grow mould,
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showers and baths are still regular daily events. Electricity is dearer, and possibly restricts a
healthy level of heating.
6.4 THE FUTURE OF LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSING
It is regrettable that although there was an awareness of the need insulation, ventilation and
heating these important requirements for healthy IAQ were not implemented into the
construction of LPSH (and similar housing), to the detriment of the houses and the health of
many generations of occupants that resided within such homes.
There are many reasons to consider LPSH for thermal retrofit capable of transforming existing
cold, damp, mouldy, internal environments into healthy, comfortable, warm homes that are
capable of retaining heat.
1. They were not insulated, and are difficult to heat;
2. Their cold, damp and mouldy interiors have been associated with health problems;
3. Mass production means there are a lot of them that collectively could make a
significant difference to energy consumption;
4. Sustainable retention for future provision of homes;
5. Sustainable value in preserving the dedicated materials and energy already
committed;
6. Their neighbourhoods designed are designed for sustainable community living;
7. They are built of quality materials, using sound construction practices that have
endured.
Existing LPSH remain as sturdy housing stock of varying condition, despite being almost
three-quarters of a century old. They are designed for, and suited to the New Zealand climate
with the benefits of solar design to provide shade in summer and sun penetration in winter.
Where once LPSH were homes that residents were proud of, decades of neglect and lacking
maintenance has rendered many LPSH houses as being no longer desirable. Their structure
of native timber framing has endured, and although the condition of some interiors has
deteriorated largely due to neglect, their refurbishment is uncomplicated. They suffer from
superficial problems typically affecting the interior linings, and yet are structurally sound and
constructed in a well built manner made of stable, dry, and relatively chemical free materials
such as VOC’s and MVOC’s. That the houses are as small as they are, usually single storey
and being built of simple construction methodology, renovation is not onerous.
LPSH are existing buildings that have significant dedicated national resources committed to
use. To remove them, either as a whole or dismantled, requires the commitment of additional
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energy. Sustainability infers reuse, and these houses and the communities are sustainably
valuable recourses the country has in its housing stock. There is a need to ensure they
function well, to provide the requirements for an “adequate standard of living’, as well as
respecting the requirement for energy efficiency.
6.5 SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENTS
Part of LPSH was the design of the neighbourhoods they sat within, which meets the criteria
sought now for sustainable living communities. At the sustainable building conference SB10
in 2010, Nils Larson (International Initiative for a Sustainable Built Environment) commended
minimising taxation on energy-efficient renovation, undertaking redevelopment of existing
urban areas and launching major training programmes to increase the pool of skilled
renovators, which would offer great incentive and affordability to energy efficiently restore
LPSH. Part of his suggested triage programme evaluates existing building stock in urban
areas for redevelopment. The functions of a neighbourhood as described by Duany and
Plater-Zybork is a combination of dwelling, shopping, working, schools worshipping and
recreating (Duany and Plater-Zybork 1994; Hargreaves, Howell et al. 2004).
Beacon Pathway has presented ten principles’ that a sustainable neighbourhood requires of
which LPSH planning and infrastructure provides a significant number of (Hargreaves, Howell
et al. 2004).
1 Walkability – that most things are within a ten minute walk from home, with a pedestrian
friendly street design.
2 Connectivity – an interconnected street network that disperses traffic and eases walking,
with a hierarchy of narrow streets and alleys with high quality pedestrian networks. There are
existing walkways and reserves that provide connectivity for pedestrians away from vehicular
traffic.
3 Mixed use and diversity – mixed use within neighbourhoods exists, and can be extended.
4 Mixed housing – a range of types, sizes and prices can be provided by including some infill
development.
5 Quality architecture and urban design – aesthetics’, beauty comfort and creating a sense of
place with special places for civic uses and site within the community, is all provided but the
housing in many cases need upgrading. Well restored LPSH make beautiful homes, it is
when they are neglected that they become less desirable.
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6 Traditional neighbourhood structure – LPSH is as traditional as you would find in New
Zealand. They provide the public spaces, and can provide for a range of density with
additional urban planning.
7 Increased density – to provide for more housing, shops, and services close together for
easy pedestrian access for efficient use of services and resources is required. Most of this
exists in areas of LPSH, and there is room to facilitate further provision.
8 Smart transportation – a network of trains to connect neighbourhoods, towns the city, with
pedestrian friendly design that encourages alternative modes of transportation such as
cycles, scooters and rollerblades. The LPSH suburbs and neighbourhoods were designed to
be serviced by trains to connect housing to the city. Bicycles and pedestrian were common
forms of transportation when these areas were designed.
9 Sustainability – Minimal environmental impact on development and its operations, local
production, eco-friendly technology, are all possible by retaining LPSH in their current
environments.
10 Sustainability where it requires energy efficiency is a factor that is not currently met.
These houses require adequate thermal intervention.
The outcome of Beacon Pathway research on neighbourhoods found that people like living in
neighbourhoods that have good quality housing with little dilapidation, safe streets, low noise
disturbance and offer opportunity for social interaction. Minimised travel costs were also
favoured. (Beacon Pathway Ltd 2008). The communities that State houses are built in have
an existing structure that can be restored to provide sustainable living and reduced
transportation fuel costs, to the benefit of the occupant, neighbourhood, country and the
world.
By applying the Homestar™ residential rating tool to LPSH, it can be seen that it has the
potential to provide for sustainable living.
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CHAPTER 7: PROPOSED RETROFIT PACKAGE
7.1 THE HOMESTAR RESIDENTIAL RATING TOOL ANALYSIS
Following international developments used in countries such as the UK, US and Australia,
New Zealand now has its own residential rating tool, ‘Homestar™’, which has been developed
for local conditions. Homestar™, launched in 2010, has been developed in a partnership that
joins BRANZ, Beacon Pathway and the New Zealand Green Building Council to improve the
performance of housing energy efficiently. It provides house owners with an awareness of
the quality, health, comfort and energy efficiency of their houses. The ten-star rated tool
informs both the current house owner, and future owners, of the sustainable improvements
made to a property and it is hoped this is recognised as adding value to house. (New Zealand
Green Building Council, Beacon Pathway et al. 2010)
The Homestar™ evaluation appraises the house, site and location for its sustainability and
energy conservation, which is divided into six areas: energy, health and comfort, water,
waste, home management and site.
To complete the appraisals some assumptions been made and which were based on
research of the State house history, literary and visual research, or the interviews.
The Homestar™ reports can be viewed in the appendix of this document.
SITE, ENERGY WATER AND WASTE
Transportation is rated in this component, affected by its proximity to public transport and
local amenities. Locality reveals how well connected the house is to public transport, as this
effects privately owned, vehicular related fuel consumption. How rainwater collection and
recycled water options are managed impacts on the water component, as do water
consumables within the home, such as the shower (flow rate) and appliances. Waste
addresses how recyclable materials and compost are managed. Home management impacts
on indoor air contamination caused by condensation, mould, LPG heating and toxicity. Areas
of waste such as leaking taps and downlights are part of this component, as is accessibility,
safety, security and knowledge of how things operate. On-site stormwater management,
areas of native and fruit producing planting and vegetable gardening are all factored into the
site appraisal.
HOME DETAILS
The analysis starts with a collection of information on the house typology, floor plan area, the
number of stories and bedrooms. The house typology impacts on the ease of applying
insulation, whether it is suited to solar heating and the materials used effect the VOC’s
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emissions within the house as well as the environmental impact of their production. The
details entered are common to all of the six assessments presented.
ENERGY, HEALTH AND COMFORT
The energy component of the assessment considers what is used to provide space heating
(solid burners, gas heaters, electric heaters and solar); water heating, insulation and lighting.
Appliance age and energy ratings are assessed and what, if any onsite energy generation is
provided.
Health and comfort investigates the windows, walls, floors, ceilings and dampness.
Information required covers the following:
The levels of insulation to the walls, floors and ceilings, the standard of fitment, and
whether there are penetrations that risk heat loss, such as downlights;
If there are any changes within an element (e.g. changes in a wall or ceiling).
Wall and floor materials such as their material composition, and if they receive any
sun;
Window to wall ratios, window orientation to the sun, materials used for the window
frame and the type of glazing, and curtain treatment;
Causes of draughts in the house such as floor boards, doors, windows and fireplaces;
Items that affect dampness such as whether polythene has been laid across the
ground beneath the house to prevent rising damp; fan extraction to the bathroom/s
and kitchen; and if there is a clothesline to dry clothing outside.
THE HOME STAR RATING APPLIED TO VARIOUS STATE HOUSE INTERVENTIONS
The Homestar™ rating tool has been applied to an original LPSH to presenting six different
scenarios. The first of these is the original house as it functioned when it was built. The
second application is of the same house, but in its current condition without having had any
intervention. The third application for the house adds the previously used standard,
government subsidised insulation improvements and the fourth applies the HHP interventions.
The fifth application retrofits the house with a full thermal envelope and minor recycling
improvements, the house being in its current environment. The sixth option uses all of the
interventions applied to the fifth scenario, with the addition of as many available energy
efficient applications as are realistically possible for the site.
The LPSH used as the example to be applied to the Homestar™ rating tool is a single storey,
stand-alone house, built between 1930 and 1949. It is of timber framed construction with a
hip shaped concrete tiled roof, clad with weatherboard and has a suspended timber floor.
The window area is 15% of the wall area, located with the largest areas of window facing
north. The windows allow the sun to penetrate into the rooms in winter. Eaves provide solar
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shade in summer. The house is of a rectangular plan shape that is 7.3 meters wide and 10
meters long, giving a plan area of seventy-three square meters.
Figure 7. 1 - Plan 6H/1180: The house example applied to the Homestar™ rating tool and the Risk Matrix
(Picture courtesy of NZ Archives)
7.1.1 HOMESTAR™ RATINGS
RATING 01: THE STATE HOUSE IN THE ERA IT WAS BUILT
SITE, ENERGY WATER AND WASTE
Part of the LPSH philosophy was that the houses were built on large sites (sections) that
could be gardened and grow fruit trees. Therefore it is assumed that these were in place on
well maintained sites. In the era these were built, domestic recycling was managed by either
exchange of bottles when purchase was made (i.e. milk and beer bottles) or by returning
glass bottles to a retailer (i.e. soft drink bottles), a small monetary refund was paid. Paper
packaging was used more commonly than plastic. Therefore it is assumed that recycling (as
such) was possible on site. Reticulated services were very ‘modern’ at this time, (having
recently replaced water storage tanks and septic tanks) and so stormwater was piped directly
into the council system. There was neither grey water nor stormwater collection on site.
Facilities in the area within a ten minute walk include the following:
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Public transport; takeaway; chemist or medical centre; dairy; an educational institute (school);
a supermarket (known then as a Grocer); a place of worship (local church) and a sports field.
A fitness centre, library or marae are variables, therefore have not been included in this
assessment.
ENERGY HEALTH AND COMFORT
Being solar designed; the house was sited to the sun. The house was clearly identifiable and
able to be viewed from the road. The front entrance had secure locks. Automated security
lighting and smoke detectors were not available at the time these houses were built, so a
manually switched outdoor light was the only light available and not considered to be ‘security
lighting’ in the assessment. Internal doors were less than 810mm wide.
The primary space heating source for the house was an open fire in the living area. The
structure had no insulation, unsealed window and door joinery, and draughty floor boards.
The timber floor boards were left uncarpeted, and there was some curtaining in the house,
25% has been assumed (as it was more common at this time to have metal slat venetian
blinds, and sheer privacy netting.)
The ground beneath the house was natural damp earth. It would be assumed there was
moisture in the form of condensation on the inside of the bedroom windows in winter, and
there would be black mould on the walls or ceilings. There were no mechanical extract fans to
the bathroom or kitchen. The taps did not leak as they were new and as the HWC was low
pressure, the flow from the shower was less than nine litres per minute. Washing was dried
on an outdoor clothes line. There was neither a clothes drier nor dishwasher. It is assumed
that there was no home operation maintenance manual.
RATING 02: THE STATE HOUSE IN ITS CURRENT CONDITION
SITE, ENERGY WATER AND WASTE
This assessment was based on the existing State house, but in its current, aged condition.
It is assumed that it is in its original form, still uninsulated with deterioration that has caused
taps to leak, and neglect of the garden. Therefore trees, vegetable gardens and compost
facilities have not been included. Increased availability and use of motor vehicles modified
the distribution of amenities, with local suppliers being replaced by larger facilities such as
supermarkets (that replaced grocers, butchers, stationers and greengrocers) now located
further from ‘home’. It has been assumed that the public transport; a café / restaurant /
takeaway; dairy / service station; an educational institute (school); a place of worship (local
church) and a sports field still remain in use.
RATING 03: THE STATE HOUSE WITH GOVERNMENT SUBSIDISED INSULATION
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The criteria as described for Rating 02 are applicable to this rating, but the previous
government insulation intervention has been included. Previous government subsidised
insulation installations to the ceiling and floor of houses provided R1.8 insulation into the
ceilings and R1.3 insulation beneath the floor.
RATING 04: THE STATE HOUSE WITH THE HHP UPGRADE
Some of the criteria used in Rating 02 also apply to Rating 04, but there have been many
improvements introduced through the HHP brief.
SITE, ENERGY WATER AND WASTE
Visual connection and recognition from the street was reinstated, two fruit trees were planted,
and a clothesline was provided. On-site stormwater disposal was mentioned in the HNZC
brief for the HHP, but it didn’t appear to have been implemented (from Architect interviews),
so the stormwater remained reticulated into the existing public stormwater drain.
ENERGY HEALTH AND COMFORT
These houses had new additions built; bathrooms and kitchens upgraded; and insulation with
higher R-values applied to the ceilings, walls and floors. (Insulation was only applied to the
new areas of built structure.) Mechanical extract fans were fitted to the bathroom and kitchen.
Smoke alarms were installed. There appears to have been no operation manual issued to the
tenants. Although permanent passive vents were fitted to all rooms this is not a rated item in
Homestar™.
RATING 05:
THE STATE HOUSE THERMALLY RETROFITTED IN ITS CURRENT ENVIRONMENT
This is the first of two proposals that provide the house with a full thermal envelope. The
house is in the same external environment as the previous three examples, but the thermal
interventions have been improved to meet the current building regulation for insulation, (that
would be used for a new house) have been applied to the entire house.
SITE, ENERGY WATER AND WASTE
Waste recycling and composting are possible on site, and have been included in the
assessment. The stormwater remains piped into the council system. So, there is no storm
water or grey water collection applied to this study, but there is opportunity for its provision.
Improved water conservation has not been applied in this assessment with the exception of
appliances that would have been upgraded.
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The native planting remains the same as used in the first assessment, being less than 50% of
the site area. There are no pest plants on the property and at least two food producing trees
or vines, and a vegetable garden are on the property.
The same facilities within a ten minute walking distance are applicable as with the previous
existing analysis.
ENERGY, HEALTH AND COMFORT
To improve the thermal performance of the house, new double glazing has been retrofitted
into the existing windows improving the r-value from R0.19 to R0.36. (Design Navigator Ltd)
The Living Room and Bedrooms have thick curtains assumed as being to three-quarters of
the house. A double layer of wool insulation that is 190mm thick with an R-value of 4.34
(Terralana TLDBL3.8 wool) (Terra Lana Products Ltd 2011) is fitted between the ceiling joists,
with a second layer across the entire ceiling area, laid over the top of the ceiling joists. The
existing timber framed walls have been insulated with 90mm thick R2.2 wool insulation slabs
fitted into the wall cavities, with a vapour permeable (vapour check) airtight barrier and
battens that create a 20mm air cavity to the inside face of the wall. This is deemed to provide
‘extra thick insulation’ for rating purposes. New 10mm plasterboard wall lining is tightly fitted
with taped edges. The timber sub-floor is insulated with 100mm R1.8 wool insulation
between the joists, with a 4.5mm layer of fibrous cement sheet lining with sealed joints is
fitted to the underside of the floor joists for airtightness.
Polythene has been laid over the ground to prevent rising dampness entering the house. The
kitchen and bathroom have mechanical extract fans and clothes are dried on an outdoor
clothesline, or in a drier that is externally vented.
Air movement around the doors and windows is eliminated by the use of silicone compression
air-seals. The fireplace is sealed and replaced with a pellet burner as its main source of heat,
with a wet back to supplement the hot water heating. The sun shines on a third of the
exposed timber floor boards.
The existing hot water cylinder has been replaced with an insulated low pressure HWC that is
‘newer than 2004’, with insulated pipes and a wet back connected from the pellet burner. The
shower flow rate is less than 9L/sec, and the WC has been replaced with a new dual flush
cistern. The dishwasher and washing machine are assumed to be the most efficient 5 or 6
Star WELS (Water Efficient Labelling Scheme) rated, and there is one fridge that is less than
ten years old.
Surface mounted compact fluorescent lights that to not penetrate the ceiling lining have
replaced the existing incandescent light bulbs.
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The house and entrance door is clearly viewed from the street. Outdoor security lighting,
secure locks, smoke detection, a fire extinguisher and secure medicine storage are all
included for safety. A home operation maintenance manual is provided. The doors remain,
and are less than 810mm wide.
Environmental choice products were selected for the insulation, replacement wall linings and
paints.
RATING 06:
THE STATE HOUSE, THERMALLY RETROFITTED, IN ITS ORIGINAL ENVIRONMENT
ENERGY, HEALTH AND COMFORT
In this proposal, all of the interventions used in the previous rating are duplicated, but the
house is located in an environment that replicates the original neighbourhood amenities (as
noted in Rating 01). As many of the sustainable options available on its site have been
introduced, such as the installation of photovoltaic’s onto the 32° pitched roof, to convert
solar energy into electricity to provide between 25% and 50% of the electricity demanded by
the house.
SITE, ENERGY WATER AND WASTE
The added improvements for energy efficient living include on-site stormwater management.
A small (1000 - 2000 litre) rainwater collecting tank is installed to provide water for the laundry
and the garden. A greywater system has been introduced to service the WC and to
supplement summer water usage for the garden.
Facilities in the area that were historically within a ten minute walk have been reinstated.
(Refer to rating 01).
7.1.2 OUTCOMES FROM THE HOMESTAR™ RATINGS
RATINGS 01, 02, 03 AND 04 Out of a rating of ten stars (ten being the most sustainable) the outcomes allocate two-star
ratings for the first four options. Ratings 01 and 02 received the same outcome with values of
8% for energy and 16% for health and comfort.
Two-star ratings are assessed by Homestar™ as not having reached a minimum core
performance level in warmth and comfort, and that winter temperatures are not achievable
without expending excessive energy. (New Zealand Green Building Council, Beacon Pathway
et al. 2010)
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RATINGS 05 AND 06
When the house was fully thermally retrofitted, Ratings 05 showed improvement to seven
stars and 06 improved further to an eight star rating. Rating 06 increased its values to 46%
for energy, and 84% for health and comfort. This is an increase of 38% and 68%
respectively.
The outcome for components that were required to complete the assessment, but are not
relevant to this thesis gave values of 68% for water, 100% for waste, 67% for home
management and 62% for the site.
7.1.3 CONCLUSION BASED ON THE HOMESTAR RATING
This assessment verifies that with adequate thermal intervention to LPSH to create a full
thermal envelope, there is considerable improvement possible for the levels of health and
comfort, and energy efficiency.
Figure 6.6 presents the outcome for the Homestar™ ratings, representing the various
outcomes applied to LPSH comparing its original built situation to what it has become, either
being left without intervention or with previous and proposed interventions applied. Figure 6.7
clearly demonstrates the potential sustainable opportunity achievable by introducing energy
efficient interventions that are practically applicable. These houses are capable of achieving
high levels of sustainability.
LPSH houses can be restored to rectify current problems so as to provide good IAQ and
thermal comfort. Their neighbourhoods have the ability to function without the need for
vehicles for everyday needs. The sites (sections) provide enough land for sustainable living,
and even with possible housing intensification, there can be provision included for communal
green areas that can be utilised for food producing planting.
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Figure 7. 2 BAR CHART PRESENTATION OF SUSTAINABILITY RATING OPTIONS
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Figure 7. 3 POTENTIAL IMPROVEMENTS IN THE SUSTAINABILITY OF LPSH
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7.2 RISK MATRIX APPLIED TO A LABOUR PARTY STATE HOUSE
A primary function of a building is to provide shelter from the weather, and yet the last two
decades have seen increased complexity of building design, systems and construction
practices in New Zealand, with resultant problems of inadequate watertightness due to
lacking and misused technology. From early 2000 there was recognition of problematic
design features such as flat roofs, complex building shapes and junctions, parapets, narrow
or no eaves, monolithic claddings, untreated framing, sealed decks, built-in balconies and
inadequate flashings around windows and doors.
Acceptable Solution E2/AS1 provides an assessment tool to assess potential external
weathertightness risks and ways to manage them. The design of this tool was based on a
simple concept developed by two Canadians, Don Hazelden and Paul Morris called ‘the 4Ds’,
to describe the basic principles of water management in buildings DBH, 2010).
Figure 7. 4 Weathertightness - Deflection, Drying Drainage and Durability
Image from the Department of Building and housing
The risk matrix assesses the weathertightness and durability of various nominated cladding
types, either directly fixed, or fixed over a cavity system. As the building complexity develops,
the risk assessment increases and leads to permissible cladding options that will suit the
house design.
Applying the a typical LPSH, using example 6H/1180 for assessment using this tool produced
a result that the design and materials are of low risk to water penetration from the exterior
design. There is a variable factor applicable to the house being the wind zone the house
could be located in. Both Low and Very high wind zones have been applied, presenting the
best and worst scenarios. The lower the number on the scale, the less risk there is
associated with the building.
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Figure 7. 5 Risk assessment of a LPSH in a low wind zone
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Figure 7. 6 Risk assessment of a LPSH in a very high wind zone
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The risk assessment rates LPSH as having a very low risk of water penetration. The house is
not complex in its form or material use, it does not have complex junctions, it has a generous
eaves width to deflect water and shelter the window heads. With the current New Zealand
housing crisis of monolithic clad ‘leaking’ housing, these reliable and durable houses that
have performed well in terms of weather tightness are of value.
7.3 PROPOSED THERMAL INTERVENTION
New Zealand research has confirmed that insulation improves the quality of the indoor air,
and thermal environment, with the best results found being when insulation is applied at
higher resistant values than the minimum levels required by the building code, and insulation
is applied to the entire building envelope.
An adequate heat source that will provide temperatures throughout the house to achieve
temperatures of 18 – 20°C, with controlled ventilation rates of between 0.35 and 0.5ac/h can
be achieved by installing a balanced pressure heat recovery ventilation system that extracts
moisture loads, and reuses heat recovered from the house interior. This provides adequate
ventilation without compromising home security when the house is vacated. Balanced
pressure systems require airtightness that can be addressed by sealing air movement.
Airtightness cane be provided beneath the floor to prevent draughts from being transmitted
through the floor boards, air tightness can be installed into the walls and ceiling also. Air gaps
around the windows and doors can be rectified with proprietary silicone seals.
Bulk insulation is easily applied over the ceiling by access through the roof space, and bulk
insulation can be applied beneath the flooring as typically there is a 600mm minimum space
beneath these houses.
It is more difficult to rectify the thermal properties of the walls and windows. These involve
more mess, higher expenditure to retrofit (largely due to the amount of labour required), and
there is no government subsidy for their thermal rectification. It could be argued that as
government contributed to the problem with knowledge of there being ‘a problem’ that they
have an obligation to rectify the situation, or contribute to its rectification. Should there have
been PCP introduced into the wallboard, there may be an environmental safety obligation to
for its remediation.
But, the aim of this thesis is to present a solution to thermally retrofit uninsulated LPSH to
create a complete thermal envelope.
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7.3.1 REPLACING THE WALL LININGS
Aged interior wall linings suffer damage over time. Bathroom and kitchen linings typically
have mould damage, as seen in the BRANZ House surveys. Plasterboard wall linings are
often physically damaged, and as they are absorbent, they are great collectors of
contaminants. Investigation may need to be undertaken should there be residual PCP
absorbed into the linings, but regardless, they have the potential to harbour mould growth on
the cavity side of the linings, as well as possibly on the interior faces as was exposed in the
DSIR investigations of 1944 and evident from the occupant surveys.
To fit insulation into walls access is required, either from the exterior or the interior. The
removal of the interior linings is preferred in this proposal for the following reasons:
The exterior skin of the house is left in place; therefore flashings and weather board do not
need to be replaced. Aged weatherboard can become brittle, and may suffer damage in its
removal. Timber is also an expensive product that is also a valuable dedicated resource.
Practically, it is easier, and more economical to install insulation from the inside of a house.
This provides all weather climatic control, allowing work to progress without interruption,
ensuring that all materials remain dry, and easy access is possible without the need for
scaffolding. It also allows for the provision of internal moisture control by application of a
vapour permeable (vapour check) airtight barrier; and at the end of the refurbishment, the
interior walls have a superior condition.
When retrofitting insulation, if building paper is either non-existent, or of poor quality, new
building paper can be applied within each cavity as per the diagram provided in NZS4246,
and as shown in Chapter 4 of this thesis.
The timber framing will provide thermal bridging that can be rectified by the application of
horizontal battens to the inner face of the framing, positioned not to coincide with nogs. The
application of a vapour check between the existing wall framing and the new battens which is
sealed to the floor, cornice, window reveals and any penetrations, will seal the exterior air
movement from entering thus providing air tightness to the interior.
Plasterboard is an inexpensive product that is relatively quick to install (particularly when
compared to fixing weatherboard). Plasterboard is made of gypsum plaster and paper, so
redundant product is recyclable.
The Design Navigator insulation selection tool has been used to make selections for the
insulation materials that are suitable and meet the of HSS™ guidelines, as best possible
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given the constraints of space i.e. the wall cavity, and construction. These were entered into
the Homestar™ ratings.
7.3.2 INSULATION LEVELS
New Zealand made products have been selected to minimise transportation related carbon
emissions. Supporting locally manufactured product also supports the original philosophy
LPSH was built from.
CEILING:
Wool bulk insulation has been selected for its resilience and hygroscopic capacity.
The product is applied between the timber framed ceiling joists, to fit firmly without any gaps.
The blanket is 90mm thick, which matches the typical depth of the timber framed ceiling joists
that were used. In its blanket form, the insulation is able to be laid with even coverage. Run
in a perpendicular direction across the top of the first layer of insulation and across the top of
the joists a second layer of wool insulation is laid. This top layer prevents the transfer of the
roof space temperature and moisture through thermal bridging through the ceiling joists into
the house interior. The double layer of wool insulation is 190mm thick and has an R-value of
3.8m²/K/W (Terra Lana Products Ltd 2011). When it is installed in the timber framed and
plasterboard lined ceiling, it provides an R-value of 3.95m²/K/W.
WALLS:
The existing timber framed walls have a cavity depth of about 95mm, which allows 90mm
thick wool insulation slabs with an R-value of 2.2m²/K/W to be fitted into the building paper
lined wall cavities. The vapour permeable (vapour check) airtight barrier is applied over the
inside face of the wall framing, with joins in its sheets sealed with tape. Air seal tape is
required to seal the edges of the membrane along the junction between the wall and the
ceiling; the walls to the floor; and around any openings such as windows and doors; and
service outlets that penetrate the membrane. Over the top of this membrane horizontal
battens are installed to suit the wall lining being applied. The plasterboard, or other selected
wall board can then be applied. In this case, 10mm plasterboard with taped joins is being
applied, finished with breathable paint or wall paper.
WINDOWS:
Retrofitted double glazing has the ability to increase the R-value of the window to 3.6m²/K/W.
Silicone compression air seals applied to the reveal of the opening window sash, or rebated
into the frame to close the air gap will prevent air infiltration through the window joinery.
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FLOORS:
The timber sub-floor is insulated with 75mm R1.8 wool insulation installed between the floor
joists. It is preferable to run battens in a perpendicular direction to the floor joists, prior to the
installation of the fibrous cement sheet lining to minimise thermal bridging. A 4.5mm layer of
fibrous cement sheet lining with sealed joints is fitted to the underside of the floor joists.
Which combined with the insulation provides an R-value of 2.13 - 2.28m²/K/W, dependant on
whether the site is sheltered or exposed. It is assumed that the floor is 600mm above ground
level, and polythene is laid over the ground to prevent rising dampness entering the house.
7.3.3 R-VALUES PROVIDED:
The following table identifies the R-values for the original, uninsulated house; the previous
government provided insulation to the ceiling and sisalation to the subfloor; the HHP
insulation and the proposed intervention to insulate the entire building envelope.
COMPARISON OF LPSH R-VALUES THROUGH VARIOUS INTERVENTIONS (M²K/W)
EXISTING PREVIOUS
GOVT.
SUBSIDISED
HHP PROPOSED
ROOF 0.28 1.87 2.14 3.95
WALLS 0.3 0.3 1.69 - new walls
0.3 - existing
2.23
WINDOWS 0.2 0.2 0.2 2.6
FLOOR 0.4 * & 0.55** 1.23 * & 1.38** 1.23 * & 1.38** 2.28* - 3.15**
* Exposed site
** Sheltered site
7.3.4 DRAWINGS OF THE PROPOSED SOLUTION
Drawings follow showing isometric views of the intersections between the walls and the floor
and ceiling. Cross-sections show detail of the junctions where the wall meets the ceiling, floor
window head and sill. The head detail is similarly applicable to the jamb of the window.
In all situations the airtightness layer must be securely taped to any surface in the building
envelope it adjoins e.g. windows, doors, floor and ceiling.
The airtightness layer is marked in red.
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Figure 7. 7 Isometric sketch of ceiling to wall and wall to floor junctions
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Figure 7. 8 Cross-section through wall to ceiling and wall to floor junctions
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Figure 7. 9 Cross-section through wall at the window head and sill
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CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION
Climate change is a recent concern and there is still little confidence in climate change
implication by the general public (Bengtsson, Hargreaves et al. 2007). Concern is minor
suggesting a slow and inconsistent response to a problem of considerable magnitude, as
stated by the American economist Milton Friedman:
"Only a crisis, actual or perceived, produces real change when crisis occurs. The
actions that are taken depend on the ideas that are lying around"
Clearly there has been evidence of a looming energy problem that has lacked recognition by
the Global populous. New Zealand’s reliance on fossil fuels has increased, and with peak oil,
climate change and related increased costs, as well as commitments to the Kyoto Protocol to
be met, New Zealand needs to address its preservation of fossil fuels. Although progress has
been made with the various government organisations established to encourage energy
efficiency, stronger and speedier measures are needed to meet to the urgency the global
energy crisis has presented.
Milton Friedman also made this comment, decades ago:
"Preparation and action is required attempting to combat superfluous energy wasted
in heating and non-insulated or poorly insulated homes."
In New Zealand the majority of the current housing stock is made up of poorly performing
homes. Retrofit represents an efficient approach to provide comfortable and healthy living
conditions as well preserving our architectural heritage where structurally sound, older
housing is retained. As there are thousands of existing houses that require thermal
improvement, and as these houses have existing embodied energy retainable in existing
neighbourhoods, this current situation presents a current plethora of opportunity to make
improvements to reduce energy consumption without the added greenhouse gas emissions
that new building creates. As well as reducing unnecessary landfill, wasted energy in
dismantling the structure is avoided, and probable transportation to land fill or recycling
depots. Improvements to existing housing stock offers some resilience to global challenges
faced such as climate change, resource availability, and population change (Specialists,
2007).
It is regrettable that important requirements for healthy IAQ were recognised and investigated
by government in the 1940’s, but not implemented, to the detriment of the houses and the
health of many generations of occupants that resided within such homes. Had ventilation
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rates, insulation and improved heating sources been implemented while LPSH were being
built, national expenditure could have been reduced in health, energy consumption and post-
construction retrofitting.
Decades of lacking maintenance has rendered LPSH undesirable, and their neglect en mass
has created many unsavoury ghetto neighbourhoods. It is known that poor quality housing is
often the only affordable option for low-income earners and beneficiaries, and yet it seems
unethical to accommodate those suffering from ill health, in unhealthy homes.
Prior to the introduction of legislation setting a reasonable degree of thermal insulation in
1978, thousands of New Zealanders grew up in these cold, damp and draughty houses.
There are many who may develop health problems as a result of living within such unhealthy
homes, and as health deteriorates, earning ability has the possibility to diminish. By
comparison, creating warm, healthy homes raises the self-esteem of its occupants, who then
take pride in their homes. Privately owned LPSH's have often been restored, reinstating them
to homes owners can be proud of.
Records show that over the last thirty years New Zealand houses change ownership on
average every 7.2 years, with almost 25% of these being owned for between two and five
years (Quotable Value 2010). This high turnover may reflect a dissatisfaction of comfort
within the home, and on selling is a solution in seeking an improvement, but as there is such
a high number of inadequate housing in New Zealand, the same problem is recurrent.
The newly released Homestar™ residential rating tool for energy efficiency is an asset to the
future value of any housing, and as seen in its application to the existing LPSH, demonstrates
LPSH as being a sustainable resource when thermally retrofitted to a level that provides a
complete thermal envelope, particularly in their original environment. The initial LPSH
philosophy of provision for community living with amenities and close link to public transport
provides for long term energy savings in transportation fuels. This tool offers an operating
cost savings analysis for invested costs related to sustainable interventions dedicated to
existing housing stock (Donn, 2008).
Surely this represents sustainability as a capacity to endure, enabling these houses to be
productive over time, meanwhile providing long-term maintenance of occupant well being,
looking after the world situation and acting responsibly with natural resources. In this
scenario the natural resources are the material already used, as well as preservation of future
fossil fuels consumed in energy generation.
The sustainable retrofit of LPS housing (and other uninsulated housing), has the ability to
retain and rejuvenate existing housing stock. This will reduce energy consumption and
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improve the health of its occupants, which is collectively beneficial to the nation, as well as
the global benefits of green house gas emission savings. The typology of housing commonly
built in the 1940 – 1960’s, either by the State, or the private builders who followed the same
methodology during that time, are the largest mass-housing group in the country (Page and
Verney 2010). Their plan is simple and energy efficient in shape, having the minimum
amount of wall area possible. Their characteristics, favourable for retrofitted energy efficient
interventions of retrofitting are determined by BRANZ and Beacon Pathway as being
beneficial to fiscal and private expenditure, efficiency of resource use, and providing
environmental benefits.
Acting on the reuse of existing neighbourhoods as units of action, using energy efficient
building systems to achieve retrofits that decrease demand on energy needs to become a
national priority for sustainable development. The national-scale benefits that would accrue
from an improved housing stock, provides strong reason for incentivising retrofitting existing
uninsulated housing. This is needed to achieve the Government’s vision of being a
sustainable nation, carbon neutral, and to meet our commitments to the Kyoto Protocol.
Sustainable neighbourhoods, blended communities, and houses that owners are proud of
reflects the origin of LPSH housing and philosophy. The theory that established the
communities of our past has the ability to provide sustainable living for our future.
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APPENDIX:
APPENDIX A – Participant Information Sheet For Architect Interviews
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APPENDIX B - Consent Forms For Participating Architects
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APPENDIX C - The Questionnaire - Guideline For Interviews
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. Name of Architectural practice:
2. Project Architect:
3. Architects profile and experience with retrofitting
4. The address of project (suburb only if address is confidential):
5. What year (approximately) was the house built?
6. What year were the alterations done?
7. Ownership by: private / HNZC, owner occupied / tenant.
8. Was there a set budget?
9. Was this met?
10. Is their an awareness of health problems of the occupants e.g. asthma, allergy?
11. Could you give a summary of the ‘brief’
12. What were the problems to be rectified?
13. What were the requirements to be achieved?
14. What was rated highly in the brief?
15. Was there a budget priority list when retrofitting?
16. What were the claddings, roofing, linings, and windows?
17. What materials were reused?
18. What materials were introduced as replacements / additions?
linings, claddings, finishes (carpet), etc
19. How were the windows addressed :
replacement and if so what with or
Were air seals added?
What if any change to the glazing?
What insulation was used and to what extent i.e. walls / ceilings / floor?
What requirement was aimed for - temperature to be met / R-values
specified?
20. What ventilation does the house have?
21. Was air-tightness considered?
22. What methods of removing moisture / vapour were used?
23. What benchmark was set addressing Thermal comfort and no condensation
24. Was solar gain improved?
25. Was thermal mass added?
26. Was the Client receptive to improvement of thermal comfort and the costs involved?
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27. Were their many / any contingent items discovered?
28. Were there any contingent problems identified when house was “opened” (e.g. mould
in walls, no insulation, insulation settled....)
29. As the Architect, were you happy with the outcome, and that all possible
improvements were achieved?
30. Was there any post-renovation monitoring?
31. Have you received any feedback from the Owner / Occupier following the
renovations
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APPENDIX D - Homestar Ratings
Rating 01 – The existing LPSH in its original condition in the era it was built
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Rating 02 - LPSH in its current condition without intervention
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Rating 02 – LPSH with the previous government-subsidised insulation intervention
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Rating 04 – LPSH with the Healthy Housing Programme insulation intervention
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Rating 05 – LPSH with proposed thermal envelope
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LPSH with the proposed thermal envelope, located in its original sustainable
environment
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APPENDIX D - Design Navigator - R-Value Calculation Sheets
R-value of the original uninsulated roof
178
R-value for the original uninsulated walls; previous level of government insulation
intervention and Healthy Housing Programme walls not affected by new construction works.
179
R-value for the original uninsulated floor (Exposed situation)
180
R-value for the original uninsulated floor (Sheltered situation)
181
R-value for the ceiling insulation used by the previous government insulation
intervention
182
R-value for the floor insulation used by the previous government insulation
intervention, and Healthy Housing Programme floors of the new areas of construction (exposed situation).
183
R-value for the floor insulation used by the previous government insulation
intervention, and Healthy Housing Programme floors of the new areas of construction (sheltered situation).
184
R-value for the ceiling insulation to the new areas of construction under the Healthy
Housing Programme
185
R-values for the new walls built under the Healthy Housing Programme
186
R-values for ceiling as proposed in this thesis
187
R-values for the walls as proposed in this thesis
188
R-values for floor (exposed situation) as proposed in this thesis
189
R-values for floor (sheltered situation) as proposed in this thesis
190
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