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Page 1: Renewable Energy in Ireland - SEAI...4.5 Solar thermal 24 5 Renewable energy in electricity 25 5.1 Progress towards renewable electricity target 25 5.2 Wind energy 26 5.2.1 Installed

RENEW

ABLE EN

ERGY IN

IRELAN

D 2019 Report

RENEWABLE ENERGY IN IRELAND2019 Report

RENEWABLE ENERGY

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RENEWABLE ENERGY IN IRELAND 2019 Report

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RENEWABLE ENERGY IN IRELAND 2019 Report

January 2019

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Sustainable Energy Authority of IrelandThe Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI) is Ireland’s national energy authority, investing in and delivering appropriate, effective and sustainable solutions to help Ireland’s transition to a clean energy future. We work with Government, homeowners, businesses and communities to achieve this, through expertise, funding, educational programmes, policy advice, research and the development of new technologies. SEAI is funded by the Government of Ireland through the Department of Communications, Climate Action and Environment.

SEAI is the official source of energy data for Ireland. We develop and maintain comprehensive national and sectoral statistics for energy production, transformation and end-use. These data are a vital input in meeting international reporting obligations, advising policymakers and informing investment decisions. SEAI’s core statistics functions are to:

• Collect, process and publish energy statistics to support policy analysis and development in line with national needs and international obligations

• Conduct statistical and economic analyses of energy services sectors and sustainable energy options

• Contribute to the development and promulgation of appropriate sustainability indicators.

AcknowledgementsSEAI gratefully acknowledges the cooperation of all the organisations, agencies, energy suppliers and distributors that provided data and responded to questionnaires throughout the year.

© Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland

Reproduction of the contents is permissible provided that the source is acknowledged.

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Highlights

Progress towards targets, 2017

• Overall renewable energy supply was 10.6% of gross final consumption. Ireland has a binding EU target of 16% by 2020.

• The share of renewable transport energy (RES-T), including adjustments, was 7.4%. Ireland has a binding EU target of 10% by 2020.

• The share of renewable electricity (RES-E) was 30.1%. Ireland has a national target of 40% by 2020.

• The share of renewable heat (RES-H) was 6.9%. Ireland has a national target of 12% by 2020.

• Ireland is not on track to meet 2020 renewable energy targets.

Benefits of renewable energy

• Renewable energy displaced 1.8 Mtoe of fossil fuel consumption and avoided 4.2 MtCO2 of greenhouse gas emissions in 2017. This was equivalent to 11% of total energy-related CO2 emissions.

• 80% of CO2 emissions avoided from the use of renewable energy in 2017 were from electricity generation. Reducing the carbon intensity of electricity is critical for meeting Ireland’s climate change objectives.

Renewable transport

• More than 99% of RES-T in 2017 was from bioenergy, almost 90% was from biodiesel and 10% was from biogasoline.

• 84% of liquid biofuels used in transport in 2017 were imported.

• Less than 1% of renewable transport energy is from electricity. Most electricity used for transport is used by DART and Luas, but EVs are growing quickly from a low base.

Renewable heat

• The amount of renewable energy used for heat increased by 67% between 2005 and 2017, but the portion of total energy used for heat that was from renewable energy increased by 100%. This is because the total amount of energy used for heat decreased.

• The greatest increase in renewable heat energy has been from the use of renewable wastes in cement manufacture.

• Renewable ambient energy captured by heat-pumps increased over two-and-a-half times between 2010 and 2017. There has been a large increase in the use of air-source heat-pumps in the residential sector.

Renewable electricity

• 62% of renewable energy in 2017 was renewable electricity.

• Wind generated 25% of all electricity in 2017, second only to natural gas.

• A record high of 532 MW of wind-generation capacity was installed in 2017.

EU comparison, 2016

• Ireland was 22nd out of the EU-28 for overall renewable energy share.

• Ireland was 26th out of the EU-28 for progress towards overall 2020 renewable energy target.

• Ireland was 27th out of the EU-28 for RES-H.

• Ireland was 13th out of the EU-28 for RES-E.

• Ireland was 18th out of the EU-28 for RES-T.

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Key Figures for Renewable EnergyData from 2017

Progress towards targets

Overall Renewable Energy 10.6% 16.0%

2020 TARGETS

Renewable Transport 7.4% 10.0%

Renewable Heat 6.9% 12.0%

Renewable Electricity 30.1% 40.0%

in avoided CO2 emissions from renewable energy which is equivalent to removing

of private cars off the road70%

MtCO24.2Almost

90%of our renewable energy comes from:

LIQUID BIOFUELS

SOLID BIOMASS

WIND

* The latest data from Europe is from 2016. All other data is 2017.

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Renewable Transport

Transport has the

biggestshare of energy use but smallest share of renewables

of renewable energy in transport was from bioenergy, including biodiesel and biogasoline

99%over

Renewable Heat

Almost 80% of renewable energy for heat is solid biomass

28%increase in renewable heat from heat pumps

Renewable Electricity

…but was 13th

in overall renewable electricity

Renewable electricity displaced

of fossil fuel imports€278m

Almostof electricity comes from renewables

Ireland had the

third highest share of wind generated electricity out of the 28 EU countries in 2016*…

Ireland was

27thout of the 28 EU countries for renewable heat in 2016*

The number of electric cars increased

64% in 2017 to 2,718

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Table of ContentsHighlights 3

1 Overall renewable energy 81.1 Progress towards renewable energy targets 8

1.2 Renewables in the context of overall energy use 12

2 Displacement of fossil fuels and CO2 emissions 132.1 Avoided CO2 emissions 13

2.2 Contribution to indigenous energy 14

3 Renewable energy in transport 163.1 Progress towards renewable transport target 16

3.2 Biofuels 18

3.3 Renewable electricity in transport 19

4 Renewable energy in heat 204.1 Progress towards renewable heat target 20

4.2 Solid biomass and renewable wastes 22

4.3 Biogas 23

4.4 Ambient energy from heat pumps 23

4.5 Solar thermal 24

5 Renewable energy in electricity 255.1 Progress towards renewable electricity target 25

5.2 Wind energy 265.2.1 Installed wind capacity 265.2.2 Capacity factors 275.2.3 Normalisation of wind energy 28

5.3 Hydro energy 295.3.1 Installed hydro capacity 295.3.2 Normalisation of hydro energy 295.3.3 Pumped hydro storage 29

5.4 Solid biomass 30

5.5 Renewable wastes 30

5.6 Landfill gas 30

5.7 Biogas 30

5.8 Solar photovoltaic 30

6 EU comparison 326.1 Gross final consumption in EU by heat, transport and electricity 32

6.2 Overall RES 32

6.3 Renewable heat 34

6.4 Renewable electricity 35

6.5 Renewable transport 36

Glossary of abbreviations 37

Glossary of terms 38

Sources 40

Appendix 1: Methodology for calculating renewable energy shares 41

Appendix 2: Displacement of fossil fuels by renewable energy 44

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Table of FiguresFigure 1: Renewable energy (normalised) by mode, 2000 to 2017 9

Figure 2: Renewable and fossil GFC by mode, 2017 10

Figure 3: Renewable energy use, 2000 to 2017 11

Figure 4: Renewable energy status in Ireland, 2017 12

Figure 5: Avoided CO2 from renewable energy, 2005 to 2017 13

Figure 6: Indigenous energy production by source, 1990 to 2017 14

Figure 7: Progress towards renewable transport energy target, 2005 to 2017 16

Figure 8: Renewable transport energy (without weightings), 2005 to 2017 17

Figure 9: Biofuels production, imports and usage, 2005 to 2017 18

Figure 10: Electricity used in transport, 2000 to 2017 19

Figure 11: Percentage RES-H by source, 2005 to 2017 20

Figure 12: Renewable heat energy by sector, 2005 to 2017 21

Figure 13: Solid biomass used for heat by sector, 2005 to 2017 22

Figure 14: Normalised share of RES-E by source, 2005 to 2017 25

Figure 15: Installed wind-generation capacity, 2000 to 2017 26

Figure 16: Monthly wind-generation capacity factors, 2017 27

Figure 17: Annual wind capacity factors, 2005 to 2017 28

Figure 18: Normalised wind-powered electricity generation, 2005 to 2017 28

Figure 19: Normalised hydro-powered electricity generation, 2000 to 2017 29

Figure 20: Gross final consumption in EU by heat, transport and electricity, 2016 32

Figure 21: Overall renewable energy share in 2016 for EU member states 33

Figure 22: Percentage of 2020 renewable energy target achieved in 2016 for EU member states 33

Figure 23: Renewable heat share in 2016 for EU member states 34

Figure 24: Renewable electricity share in 2016 for EU member states 35

Figure 25: Renewable transport share in 2016 for EU member states 36

Table of TablesTable 1: Progress towards renewable energy targets, 2000 to 2017 8

Table 2: Renewable energy (normalised) by mode, 2000 to 2017 9

Table 3: Renewable energy use by source, 2000 to 2017 11

Table 4: Progress towards renewable transport target, 2005 to 2017 16

Table 5: Renewable transport energy (without weightings) by source, 2010 to 2017 17

Table 6: Renewable transport energy (with weightings) by source, 2010 to 2017 17

Table 7: Proportion of liquid biofuels used in transport with double certificates, 2011 to 2017 18

Table 8: Renewable heat energy by source, 2005 to 2017 21

Table 9: Renewable heat energy by source, 2005 to 2017 22

Table 10: Solid biomass used for heat by sector, 2005 to 2017 23

Table 11: Normalised renewable electricity by source, 2005 to 2017 26

Table 12: Installed wind-generation capacity, 2005 to 2017 27

Table 13: Wind-generation capacity factors, 2005 to 2017 28

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1 Overall renewable energy

This section shows overall renewable energy use from 2000 to 2017. It examines Ireland’s progress towards our 2020 renewable energy targets. It presents data on overall renewable energy use split by electricity, heat, and transport, and also by energy source.

1.1 Progress towards renewable energy targetsThe Renewable Energy Directive (RED)1 is the most important legislation influencing the growth of renewables in the European Union (EU) and Ireland.2 The RED sets out two mandatory targets for renewable energy in Ireland to be met by 2020.

The first relates to overall renewable energy share (RES), and is commonly referred to as the overall RES target. For Ireland, the overall RES target is for at least 16% of Ireland’s gross final energy consumption (GFC)3 to come from renewable sources in 2020.

The second mandatory target set by the RED relates to the renewable energy used for transport. This is commonly referred to as the RES-T target. The RES-T target is for at least 10% of energy consumed in road and rail transport to come from renewable sources.4

In addition to these EU mandatory targets, Ireland has two further national renewable energy targets for 2020 . These are for the electricity and heat sectors and are designed to help Ireland meet the overall RES target.

The renewable electricity target is commonly referred to as the RES-E target. The RES-E target is for 40% of gross electricity consumption to come from renewable sources in 2020.5

The renewable heat target is commonly referred to as the RES-H target. The RES-H target is for 12% of energy used for heating and cooling to come from renewable sources in 2020.

Table 1 shows progress towards the individual modal targets and towards the overall RES target for select years between 2000 and 2017.6 The last column shows the targets for 2020.

Ireland is not on track to meet its 2020 renewable energy targets.

Table 1: Progress towards renewable energy targets7, 2000 to 2017

Target 2000 2005 2010 2015 2016 2017 2020 target

RES-T (with weighting factors) 0.0% 0.0% 2.5% 5.9% 5.2% 7.4% 10.0%RES-H 2.4% 3.4% 4.3% 6.2% 6.3% 6.9% 12.0%RES-E (normalised) 4.8% 7.2% 15.6% 25.5% 26.8% 30.1% 40.0%Overall RES 1.9% 2.8% 5.7% 9.1% 9.2% 10.6% 16.0%

Source: SEAI

With three years remaining to reach the target, Ireland is not on track to meet any of its 2020 renewable energy targets. Projections of Ireland’s renewable energy use in 2020 are covered by a separate SEAI report titled “National Energy Projections to 2030”.8 The projections report discusses in more detail possible future trajectories for renewable energy, while this report focuses on the current levels of renewable energy use, presenting the most recent data for 2017 and the trend since 2000.

1 Directive 2009/28/EC on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources. Available from: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=celex%3A32009L00282 Statutory Instrument (SI) 147 gives effect to the RED in Irish law.3 Total primary energy requirement (TPER) is a measure of all energy inputs, including energy that is lost during transformation before it is used by the final

customer. Total final consumption (TFC) is a measure of the energy used by final customers only, i.e. excluding the losses from transformation. Gross final consumption (GFC) of energy is an alternative to TFC and is the denominator used by the EU to track progress towards the targets in the EU renewable energy directive (RED).

4 Weighting factors specified in the RED for electricity and advanced biofuels are used in the calculation of the RES-T target. However, these weightings do not apply to the transport contribution to the overall RES target.

5 For the calculation of RES-E, the energy produced from hydro and wind is normalised to even out the effects of high or low wind or rainfall. 6 Note that the individual targets cannot be added to get the overall renewables contribution.7 Note that individual target percentages are not additive.8 Available from: https://www.seai.ie/resources/publications/National-Energy-Projections-to-2030.pdf

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Figure 1 shows the annual percentage of renewable energy as calculated for the overall RES target.9 This is split into the three modes: electricity, transport and heat energy. Table 2 provides further data on the quantities and growth rates of each of these modes. Renewable electricity has been responsible for most of the overall growth in renewable energy since 2000. It was the largest source of renewable energy in 2017, accounting for 62% of total renewable energy. Renewable transport continued to make the smallest contribution, at 13% of renewable energy.

62% of renewable energy in 2017 was renewable electricity.

Figure 1: Renewable energy (normalised) by mode, 2000 to 2017

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Ove

rall

RES

(%)

RES-H RES-T RES-E

Source: SEAI

Table 2: Renewable energy (normalised) by mode, 2000 to 2017

Quantity (ktoe) Shares (%) Growth (%) Average annual growth rates (%)

2000 2010 2017 2000 2010 2017 ‘00-’17 ‘10-’17 ‘00-’10 ‘10-’17 2017RES-H 118 218 310 54% 31% 25% 164% 42% 6.4% 5.2% 10.0%RES-T 0 93 161 0% 13% 13% - 73% - 8.2% 35.6%RES-E 99 385 776 46% 55% 62% 686% 101% 14.6% 10.5% 14.0%Overall RES 216 696 1,247 - - - 476% 79% 12.4% 8.7% 15.3%

Source: SEAI

9 Wind and hydro energy are normalised; weighting factors for renewable transport energy are not applied.

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Figure 2 illustrates the total GFC in each mode according to the RED calculation, and the portion of each mode that comes from renewable sources. Significant progress has been made in increasing the share of renewable electricity, but electricity only accounted for 21% of GFC in 2017.

Transport was the mode with the largest share of GFC10, accounting for 40% of total GFC in 2017. Just 3.4% of this transport GFC was from renewable sources.11

Heat accounted for 39% of GFC and 6.9% of this was from renewable sources.

In 2017, 3.4% of transport GFC was from renewable energy. Including the multipliers and other adjustments allowed in the RES-T calculation, RES-T was 7.4%.

Figure 2: Renewable and fossil GFC by mode, 2017

0.0%

5.0%

10.0%

15.0%

20.0%

25.0%

30.0%

35.0%

40.0%

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

4,500

5,000

Heat Transport ElectricitySh

are

of G

FC (%

)

GFC

(kto

e)

Fossil Renewable

Source: SEAI

10 This graph shows the quantity of GFC for each mode according to the calculation of the denominator for the overall RES target. According to this methodology: aviation is limited to 6.18% of TFC; marine bunkers are excluded; and calorific values for gasoline and diesel as specified in the Directive are applied (these are different to those used in the national energy balance).

11 The RES-T share was 7.4% in 2017. There are two main differences between the calculation of the RES-T target and the overall RES target. Firstly, the RES-T calculation includes the use of multipliers or weighting factors specified in the RED for electricity and advanced biofuels in the numerator, but not the overall RES calculation. Secondly, the RES-T calculation does not include any aviation in the denominator, but the overall RES calculation includes aviation, limited to 6.18% of TFC.

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Figure 3 and Table 3 show the actual amount of renewable energy used each year, split by source.12 Wind and hydro have not been normalised, so the actual variation in production from year to year can be seen.

Most of the growth in renewable energy has come from wind. Wind provided 52% of all renewable energy in 2017. Solid biomass and bioliquids were the next largest sources of growth. Bioenergy, including biomass, landfill gas, biogas and bioliquids, collectively accounted for 39% of renewable energy in 2017.

52% of all renewable energy in 2017 was from wind; 39% was from bioenergy.

Figure 3: Renewable energy use, 2000 to 2017

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

ktoe

Biomass Landfill Gas Biogas Liquid Biofuels Solar Ambient Hydro Wind

Source: SEAI

Table 3: Renewable energy use by source, 2000 to 2017

Quantity (ktoe) Shares (%) Growth (%) Average annual growth rates (%)

2000 2010 2017 2000 2010 2017 ‘00-’17 ‘10-’17 ‘00-’10 ‘10-’17 2017Biomass 113 196 292 52% 31% 24% 158% 49% 5.6% 5.9% 8.7%Landfill gas 8 16 13 4% 2% 1% 63% -15% 6.7% -2.3% -3.6%Biogas 4 10 13 2% 2% 1% 212% 30% 9.1% 3.8% 2.3%Liquid biofuels 0 93 161 0% 15% 13% - 73% - 8.2% 35.6%Total bioenergy 126 315 480 57% 50% 39% 282% 52% 9.6% 6.2% 15.8%Hydro 73 52 59 33% 8% 5% -18% 15% -3.4% 2.1% 1.6%Wind 21 242 640 10% 38% 52% 2951% 164% 27.7% 14.9% 21.1%Solar 0 8 14 0% 1% 1% - 80% 51.4% 8.8% 7.5%Ambient 0 16 41 0% 2% 3% - 163% 78.5% 14.8% 27.9%Total 220 631 1,236 100% 100% 100% 463% 96% 11.1% 10.1% 17.9%

Source: SEAI

12 Ambient energy is the energy that heat pumps use to provide useful heat. It typically comes from freely available but low-grade energy from the outside environment: from air, water, or ground. It can also come from waste energy streams such as exhaust gases or waste water.

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1.2 Renewables in the context of overall energy useThe Sankey diagram in Figure 4 illustrates where the various renewable targets fit within overall energy use in Ireland and the progress towards those targets in 2017. Towards the left of Figure 4 the overall contribution of renewable energy to TPER is shown at 9.3%. While there is no specific target for this measure it does help to illustrate the position of renewables in Ireland’s overall energy. Towards the right of Figure 4 the current percentages for renewables in transport, heat and electricity with respect to GFC are shown, as well as the percentage of overall renewables. The formulae set out in the RED to calculate these percentages are explained in Appendix 1. Each of the three modes is discussed in more detail in the sections 3, 4 and 5.

Figure 4: Renewable energy status in Ireland, 2017

Oil (6,948 ktoe)

Hydro (59 ktoe)

Wind (640 ktoe)Biomass, other renewables,and wastes(774 ktoe)

Electricity exports (net) (58 ktoe)

Peat Briquetting(14 ktoe) Natural gas own

use/loss (50 ktoe) Oil refining (91 ktoe)

Electricity transformation (2,387 ktoe)

Transport (excl. aviation)(4,024 ktoe)

Aviation (1,022 ktoe)

Heat (4,535 ktoe)

Peat (695 ktoe)

Coal (1,099 ktoe)

Natural gas (4,315 ktoe)

Note: some statistical di�erences exist between inputs and outputs.RES-E normalised wind and hydro.RES-T adjusted to account for double certi�cates.

RE = 9.3% of TPER

RE Directive= 10.6% of GFC

RES-T7.4%

RES-H6.9%RES-E

30.1%Gross electricity (2,579 ktoe)

Tota

l Prim

ary

Ene

rgy

Requ

irem

ent

14,4

73 k

toe

Total Final Consumption 11,821 ktoe

Source: SEAI

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2 Displacement of fossil fuels and CO2 emissions

This section shows how the use of renewable energy displaces the use of fossil fuels. This avoids CO2 emissions, reduces Ireland’s fossil fuel imports and improves energy security.

2.1 Avoided CO2 emissionsFigure 5 shows the annual CO2 emissions that were avoided from the use of renewable energy13, across all sectors, from 2005 to 2017.

We estimate that renewable energy displaced 1.8 Mtoe of fossil fuel consumption and avoided 4.2 million tonnes of CO2 (MtCO2) in 2017. This was equivalent to 11% of total energy-related CO2 emissions in 2017. We estimate that in 2017 wind energy displaced 1.1 Mtoe of fossil fuel and avoided 2.7 MtCO2, or 65% of the total CO2 avoided by renewables. 80% of the CO2 emissions avoided by renewable energy were from renewable electricity.

Electricity generation is covered by the EU emissions trading system (ETS), therefore CO2 emissions savings achieved in electricity generation do not count directly towards Ireland’s EU targets to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions outside of the ETS (non-ETS). However, decarbonising the electricity system combined with increased electrification of heat and transport through the use of electric vehicles (EV) and heat pumps is an important part of the strategy for decarbonising the energy system as a whole. The use of renewable electricity at current levels helps ensure that switching to EVs and heat pumps does not result in greater CO2 emissions than the fossil fuel alternative. Electrification of heat and transport also reduces direct fossil fuel use in the non-ETS sector, thereby contributing to meeting the non-ETS GHG emissions reduction target.

Figure 5: Avoided CO2 from renewable energy, 2005 to 2017

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Aba

ted

carb

on d

ioxi

de e

mis

sion

s (M

tCO

2)

Solid Biomass (H) Biogas (H) Ambient (H) Solar Thermal (H) Liquid Biofuels (T)

Hydro (E) Landfill Gas (E) Solid Biomass (E) Renewable Wastes (E) Wind (E)

Source: SEAI

Renewable energy avoided 4.2 million tonnes of CO2 emissions in 2017. 80% of this was in electricity generation. Reducing the carbon intensity of electricity is critical for meeting Ireland’s climate change objectives.

13 This only considers CO2 emissions that result directly from combustion of fossil fuels, and does not consider for non-CO2 GHG emissions such as NOX or CH4.

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The methodology used to calculate the fossil fuels displaced by renewable energy is described in Appendix 2. The main assumptions are as follows:

• Renewable hydro and wind electricity generation displace electricity production from natural gas, which is assumed to be the marginal fossil fuel generator. We further assume that wind-generation results in a 5% increase in the energy intensity of the remaining fossil fuel electricity generation mix, due to cycling and ramping effects.14

• Biomass used for electricity generation in combined heat and power plants (CHP) is assumed to displace electricity production from gas, as the marginal generator.

• Biomass used for heat generation in CHP is assumed to displace heat from oil-fired boilers.

• Biomass used for co-firing with peat was assumed to displace peat up until 2015. From 2016 onwards biomass co-fired with peat is not assumed to achieve CO2 savings, due to the ending of the Public Service Obligation (PSO) support for peat.15

• Renewable heat energy is assumed to displace heat energy from oil-fired boilers. The exception is the use of solid biomass in the wood processing industry. In this case we assume that the biomass used does not displace fossil fuel, as biomass has traditionally been used for heat in this sector. This is significant because solid biomass used in the wood processing industry accounted for 58% of all renewable heat energy in 2017.

• Renewable liquid biofuels used for transport (biodiesel and biogasoline) displace diesel and petrol.

• For combustible renewables, such as solid biomass and liquid biofuels, we use the standard carbon dioxide accounting rules that are used to calculate Ireland’s GHG emissions targets. Therefore, as long as a biofuel meets the minimum sustainability requirements set out in the RED, it is counted as zero carbon at the point of combustion.

2.2 Contribution to indigenous energyMost of the renewable energy used in Ireland is produced or harnessed directly in Ireland. This indigenous energy does not need to be imported from other countries. The main exceptions are liquid biofuels, most of which are imported, along with some solid biomass. Increasing the deployment of indigenous renewable energy reduces the need for energy imports and improves energy security.

Figure 6 shows Ireland’s indigenous energy production by source from 1990 to 2017. Historically, peat was the main indigenous energy source in Ireland. Peat production fluctuates significantly from year to year, partly due to the fact that the harvesting of peat can be adversely affected by poor weather and so peat tends to be stockpiled in years with good weather.

Figure 6: Indigenous energy production by source, 1990 to 2017

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

Indi

geno

us e

nerg

y pr

oduc

tion

(kto

e)

Renewables Peat Gas Waste (Non-Renewable)

Source: SEAI

Production of natural gas from the Kinsale gas field began in the late 1970s, peaked in 1995, and declined sharply from then on. In 2016, gas from the Corrib gas field was first brought on stream, and gas regained its position as the largest source of indigenous energy. Production from the Corrib gas field is expected to peak before 2020 and to decline thereafter.

14 See Appendix 2 for further information on the rationale for this. 15 Ibid.

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Indigenous renewable energy has grown steadily since the 1990s. By 2015 it had surpassed peat and accounted for over half of all indigenous energy that year, but was overtaken by gas from the Corrib gas field in 2016.

In 2015 renewable energy was Ireland’s largest source of indigenous energy production, before being surpassed by natural gas from the Corrib gas field in 2016.

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3 Renewable energy in transport

This section shows Ireland’s progress towards the renewable transport target and gives information on the sources of renewable transport energy.

Transport has by far the highest fossil fuel dependency, lowest degree of electrification and lowest share of renewable energy compared with the other major economic sectors (residential, industry, services), or compared with the other modes (heat, electricity). In 2017, 97% of transport energy was from oil-based products. It is also the sector with the largest energy demand, accounting for 42% of final energy demand in 2017 or 40% of GFC as per the RED.

3.1 Progress towards renewable transport targetThe RED established a mandatory minimum target of 10% for the share of all petrol, diesel, biofuels and electricity consumed in road and rail transport to come from renewable energy by 2020. The RED also specifies a number of weightings or multipliers that can be applied to certain fuels. These weightings help to incentivise these fuels, and also make it easier to meet the RES-T target. A weighting factor of 2 is applied to advanced biofuels and biofuels from waste. A weighting of 2.5 is applied to electricity from renewable energy sources consumed by electric rail transport, and a weighting of 5 is applied to electricity from renewable sources consumed by electric cars. The share of electricity that comes from renewable sources in a particular year is taken to be the share that was measured two years before the year in question.16

Figure 7 and Table 4 below show the progress towards the RES-T target, with and without the weightings applied.17 In 2017 RES-T stood at 7.4%, compared to the 2020 target of 10%. To understand the year-to-year variations in RES-T, we must look in more detail at policies in place for the different fuel types.

RES-T was 7.4% in 2017; the 2020 target is 10%.

Figure 7: Progress towards renewable transport energy target, 2005 to 2017

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Source: SEAI

Table 4: Progress towards renewable transport target, 2005 to 2017

Share of renewabletransport 2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

RES-T with weightings 0.0% 2.5% 3.8% 4.0% 4.9% 5.2% 5.9% 5.2% 7.4%RES-T without weightings 0.0% 2.4% 2.7% 2.4% 2.8% 3.1% 3.3% 3.0% 4.1%

Source: SEAI

16 These weightings only apply to the RES-T target, not to the transport contribution to the overall RES target.17 Aviation is not included in the denominator for either of these. For the overall RES target, aviation is included in the denominator, limited to 6.18% of TFC.

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Figure 8 and Table 5 show renewable transport energy in absolute energy terms without weightings applied. More than 99% of renewable transport energy was from biofuels in 2017, 81% was from biodiesel and 18% was from biogasoline. The remainder was from renewable electricity. There were noticeable drops in biofuel use in 2012 and 2016; these are explained in Section 3.2.

More than 99% of RES-T in 2017 was from bioenergy, and almost 90% was from biodiesel.

Table 6 shows the equivalent amounts of renewable energy with the weightings applied. With weightings, biodiesel made up almost 90% of the contribution towards RES-T in 2017.

Figure 8: Renewable transport energy (without weightings), 2005 to 2017

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Table 5: Renewable transport energy (without weightings) by source, 2010 to 2017

Quantity (ktoe) Shares (%) Growth (%) Average annual growth rates (%)

2010 2015 2017 2010 2015 2017 ‘10-’17 ‘15-’17 ‘10-’15 ‘15-’17 2017Biodiesel 60 98 131 65% 76% 81% 118% 33% 10.3% 15.5% 53%Biogasoline 30 30 30 32% 23% 18% -2% -1% -0.2% -0.4% -10%Pure plant oil 2 0 0 2% 0% 0% -100% - -100.0% - -Renewable electricity 0 1 1 0% 1% 1% 170% 43% 13.5% 19.7% 15%Total renewable transport 93 129 162 100% 100% 100% 74% 25% 6.7% 12.0% 35%

Source: SEAI

Table 6: Renewable transport energy (with weightings) by source, 2010 to 2017

Quantity (ktoe) Shares % Growth % Average annual growth rates %

2010 2015 2017 2010 2015 2017 ‘10-’15 ‘15-’17 ‘10-’15 ‘15-’17 2017Biodiesel 60 196 262 64% 86% 89% 336% 34% 26.6% 15.7% 52%Biogasoline 30 30 30 32% 13% 10% -2% -1% -0.2% -0.4% -10%Pure Plant Oil 2 0 0 2% 0% 0% -100% - -100.0% - -Renewable Electricity 1 2 3 1% 1% 1% 206% 54% 14.8% 24.0% 20%Total renewable transport (weighted) 94 228 295 100% 100% 100% 215% 30% 19.4% 13.8% 42%

RES-T (%) 2.5% 5.9% 7.4%

Source: SEAI

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3.2 BiofuelsSince 2010, suppliers of oil products as road transport fuels in Ireland are required to blend biofuels with the fossil fuel they sell. This scheme is known as the Biofuels Obligation Scheme (BOS) and is administered by the National Oil Reserves Agency (NORA).18 Fuel suppliers are granted certificates for each litre of biofuel blended that meets the minimum sustainability requirements laid out in the RED and in the indirect land-use change (ILUC) Directive.19 First-generation biofuels that meet the sustainability requirements are awarded one certificate per litre. Two certificates are supplied for each litre advanced biofuels and biofuels from waste, in line with the weightings specified in the RED. Virtually all biodiesel used in Ireland has qualified for double certificates since 2012, with 100% qualifying in 2016 and 2017, as shown in Table 7. In contrast, no bio-gasoline qualifies for double certificates. SEAI uses the NORA data for the amounts of biofuels used in Ireland.

Table 7: Proportion of liquid biofuels used in transport with double certificates, 2011 to 2017

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017Bioethanol 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%Biodiesel 58.0% 98.7% 99.6% 85.9% 99.1% 100.0% 100.0%

Source: NORA

The obligation was set at 4.167% in volume terms in 2010, 6.383% from 2013 and 8.696% from 2017. This meant that in 2017, each supplier had to submit eight certificates for every 92 litres of fossil fuel sold. The obligation increased further to 11.111% in January 2019 and it is expected that the obligation will increase further to 12.360% in January 2020.20 There was a noticeable drop in the use of biofuels in 2016. This was as a result of the carry forward of certificates to meet the biofuel obligation in 2016 from previous years. 20% of the required certificates for 2016 were carried forward from 2014 and 2015 as allowed for under the BOS. There was also a drop in the use of biofuels in 2012. The amount of biodiesel which was eligible for double certification increased from 58% in 2011 to 99% in that year. This substantially reduced the actual amount of biodiesel required to be placed on the market in order to satisfy the biofuel obligation.

100% of biodiesel in 2016 and 2017 qualified for double certificates.

Figure 9 shows the amount of liquid biofuels used in transport that are imported and produced indigenously.21 Indigenous liquid biofuel production has remained relatively constant since 2008, at between 20 and 30 ktoe per annum. This is in spite of increasing demand for liquid biofuels due to the BOS. All indigenous liquid biofuel used in transport has been in the form of biodiesel since 2009. 20% of biodiesel supply in 2017 was from indigenous production. This meant that 16% of all liquid biofuels used in transport in 2017 were produced indigenously, with 84% imported.

Figure 9: Biofuels production, imports and usage, 2005 to 2017

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18 Prior to 2010, transport bioenergy was incentivised through the Mineral Oil Tax Relief Scheme.19 Directive (EU) 2015/151320 Department of Communications, Climate Action and Environment Biofuels Obligation Scheme Policy Statement. Available from: https://www.dccae.gov.ie/

en-ie/energy/publications/Pages/Biofuel-Obligation-Scheme-Policy-Statement.aspx [Accessed 10 January 2019]. 21 The sum of indigenous production and imports does not always equal the primary energy use in a given year due to stock changes.

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3.3 Renewable electricity in transportThe traditional users of electricity for transport in Ireland have been urban rail services, first the DART and from 2004 onwards the Luas, as shown in Figure 10.

The numbers of electric vehicles (EVs), and their electricity use, remains small, but is growing fast. In 2017 there were 2,718 EVs licensed, up from 1,659 in 2016.

SEAI receives data on the electricity use of the DART and Luas from Irish Rail and Transdev. SEAI estimates the energy consumption of electric vehicles based on the numbers of EVs, an estimate of the annual km driven per EV based on data from the NCT database, and an estimate of the average energy consumption per km of EVs.22

Rail transport consumed 44.9 GWh (3.9 ktoe) of electricity in 2017 and SEAI estimate that EVs consumed 7.0 GWh (0.6 ktoe). Only the renewable portion of electricity (as measured two years before the year in question) used in rail and road counts towards the RES-T. In 2017 this was 1.0 ktoe for electric rail and 0.2 ktoe from EVs.23

Most electricity used for transport is by DART and LUAS, but EVs are growing quickly from a low base.

Figure 10: Electricity used in transport, 2000 to 2017

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22 To improve this estimate, more data is needed on annual average kilometres driven for EVs less than four years old before they have their first NCT and on the real-world electricity consumption per kilometre driven.

23 Note that as this renewable electricity is already counted under RES-E, it does not count towards the overall RES target, to avoid double counting.

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4 Renewable energy in heatThis section presents the latest data on the share of renewable heat energy, the sectors where it is used and the energy sources used.

In the context of renewable energy, the terms "heat energy" and "thermal energy" are often used interchangeably and they refer to energy used for heating and cooling. Examples include energy used for space and water heating in homes and businesses, cooking, air conditioning, high-temperature process heat in industry, etc.24

Thermal/heat energy is the second largest of the three modes of energy. It accounted for 37% of the final energy demand in 2017. The residential sector has the largest demand for heat energy, accounting for 42% of final heat energy in 2017, followed by industry, which accounted for 36%. Heat energy was once dominated by oil, accounting for 60% in 2000, followed by gas at 24%. Since 2005, oil use has fallen and gas has continued to increase so that in 2017, oil accounted for 43% and gas accounted for 40%.

4.1 Progress towards renewable heat targetAlthough there is no mandatory target for RES-H set in the RED, Ireland has set a target of 12% RES-H to help deliver the overall mandatory target of 16% renewable energy by 2020. Figure 11 and Table 8 show the trend for RES-H25 between 2005 and 2017, divided by source.

Unlike RES-T, the calculation of RES-H excludes renewable electricity used for heating and cooling.

Renewable heat energy is dominated by solid biomass use, in particular in industry. The use of ambient energy (ground-source and air-source) has grown ten-fold between 2005 and 2017 and is now a significant source of renewable heat energy, accounting for approximately 13% of renewable heat energy in 2017.

RES-H was 6.9% in 2017; the target for 2020 is 12%.

RES-H as a share of heat GFC increased from 3.4% in 2005 to 6.9% in 2017. This was a doubling in the share, or an increase of 100%. The absolute increase in the use of renewable heat energy over the same period was 67%, in terms of energy. The difference was due to the reduction in overall heat energy demand between 2005 and 2017. This highlights that greater energy efficiency in buildings helps Ireland to meet the national renewable heat target, as well as the binding overall RES target.

Figure 11: Percentage RES-H by source, 2005 to 2017

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Biomass Biogas Solar Thermal Ambient

Source: SEAI

24 It is calculated as the residual energy requirement when energy use from transport and electricity generation are subtracted from the total final energy consumption.

25 As per the RED calculation; see Appendix 2

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Table 8: Renewable heat energy by source, 2005 to 2017

Quantity (ktoe) Shares (%) Growth (%) Average annual growth rates (%)

2005 2010 2017 2005 2010 2017 ‘05-’17 ‘10-’17 ‘05-’10 ‘10-’17 2017Biomass 176 187 247 94% 86% 79% 40% 32% 1.2% 4.1% 7.9%Biogas 7 8 10 4% 4% 3% 41% 16% 3.9% 2.2% 4.7%Solar thermal 0 7 14 0% 3% 5% - 91% 74.7% 9.7% 4.6%Ambient 4 16 41 2% 7% 13% 875% 163% 29.9% 14.8% 27.9%Total renewable heat 187 218 312 100% 100% 100% 67% 43% 3.1% 5.2% 10.0%RES-H (%) 3.4% 4.3% 6.9% - - - - - - - -

Source: SEAI

Figure 12 and Table 9 show renewable heat energy by sector and industrial sub-sector. In 2017, most renewable heat energy was still used in industry; between 2005 and 2017, most of the growth was in the residential and commercial sectors, along with cement production (non-metallic minerals sector).

Renewable heat use in the residential sector declined by more than half between 1990 and 2005 due to decreased use of wood in open fires, but increased by 229% between 2005 and 2017.26 This increase has been due to increased use of wood, including wood chips and wood pellets; solar thermal for water heating; and, increasingly, ambient energy from heat pumps.

Renewable heat increased by a factor of 10 in the services sector between 2005 and 2017. This growth occurred mostly in biomass and ambient energy from heat pumps.27

Increased use of renewable waste in cement manufacture was the largest contributor to renewable thermal energy growth.

In industry, most renewable heat energy is in the form of wood waste used in board and saw mills. The food processing industry mostly uses tallow, but this declined by 57% between 2005 and 2017. A significant new source of renewable heat energy that has emerged since 2005 is the use of renewable waste in cement manufacture.

Figure 12: Renewable heat energy by sector, 2005 to 2017

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Source: SEAI

26 Renewable heat in the residential sector is supported by the Building Regulations Part L for dwellings. It was also supported by the Greener Homes Scheme up until 2010.

27 Renewable heat in the commercial sector was previously supported by the Renewable Heat Deployment Programme (ReHeat) up until 2011. From 2019, the Support Scheme for Renewable Heat (SSRH) will support heat pumps, biogas and biomass used for heat in the commercial, public services, industrial and agricultural sectors. For more information about the SSRH see https://www.seai.ie/sustainable-solutions/support-scheme-renewable-/

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Table 9: Renewable heat energy by source, 2005 to 2017

Quantity (ktoe) Shares (%) Growth (%) Average annual growth rates (%)

2005 2010 2017 2005 2010 2017 ‘05-’17 ‘10-’17 ‘05-’10 ‘10-’17 2017Industry - food and beverage 54 40 23 29% 19% 7% -57% -43% -5.7% -7.7% 6.9%

Industry - wood & wood products 109 100 126 58% 46% 40% 15% 26% -1.8% 3.4% 11.5%

Industry - non-metallic minerals 0 12 52 0% 5% 17% - 338% - 23.5% 30.8%

Industry total 163 152 201 87% 70% 64% 23% 32% -1.4% 4.0% 15.3%Residential 20 44 65 11% 20% 21% 229% 46% 17.6% 5.6% -0.8%Commercial and public services 4 21 46 2% 10% 15% 1045% 116% 39.6% 11.6% 4.6%

Total 187 218 312 100% 100% 100% 67% 43% 3.1% 5.3% 10.0%Source: SEAI

4.2 Solid biomass and renewable wastesSolid biomass, including renewable wastes, is the largest fuel category in renewable heat. Solid biomass covers organic, non-fossil material of biological origin that may be used as fuel for heat production. It includes wood, wood wastes (firewood, wood chips, barks, sawdust, shavings, chips, black liquor,28 etc.), other solid wastes (straw, oat hulls, nut shells, tallow, meat and bone meal, etc.) and the renewable portion of industrial and municipal wastes.

Most of the solid biomass used in Ireland is for heat energy purposes, where higher efficiencies, relative to electricity generation, make the best use of this valuable resource.

Data on wood and wood waste is based on surveys of wood suppliers, data on tallow is provided by the Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, and data on other industrial energy use, including renewable wastes, is sourced from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) ETS database.

The breakdown of solid biomass by type and sector is shown in Figure 13 and Table 10. Most of the growth since 2005 has been from the use of renewable waste in industry.

Figure 13: Solid biomass used for heat by sector, 2005 to 2017

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Source: SEAI

28 This is a recycled byproduct formed during the pulping of wood in the paper-making industry.

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Table 10: Solid biomass used for heat by sector, 2005 to 2017

Quantity (ktoe) Shares (%) Growth (%) Average annual growth rates (%)

2005 2010 2017 2005 2010 2017 ‘05-’17 ‘10-’17 ‘05-’10 ‘10-’17 2017Wood - Industry 109 100 126 62% 54% 51% 15% 26% -1.8% 3.4% 11.5%Tallow - Industry 50 36 21 29% 19% 9% -58% -41% -6.5% -7.4% 8.9%Renewable waste - Industry 0 12 52 0% 6% 21% - 338% - 23.5% 30.8%

Wood - Residential 16 27 27 9% 14% 11% 68% 0% 10.9% 0.1% -15.8%Wood - Services 0 12 21 0% 6% 9% - 75% 133.7% 8.4% -14.9%Total 176 186 247 100% 100% 100% 40% 32% 1.2% 4.1% 7.9%

Source: SEAI

4.3 BiogasBiogas is produced from the anaerobic digestion (AD) of sewage, animal slurries and wastes in abattoirs, breweries and other agri-food industries. Biogas can be used directly in boilers to provide heat only, in CHP units to provide both heat and electricity, or can be upgraded to biomethane.

Data on biogas use is obtained from surveys of industry including Irish Water for waste-water treatment plants.

In 2017, 10 ktoe of biogas was used for heat, 2 ktoe was used in industry in the agri-food sector and 8 ktoe was used in the public-service sector in waste-water treatment plants.

4.4 Ambient energy from heat pumpsAmbient energy is the energy that heat pumps use to provide useful heat. In households, heat pumps typically use freely available but low-grade energy from the outside environment: from air, water, or ground. Ambient energy from the ground is often referred to as geothermal energy but for international energy statistics is more correctly known as ground-source ambient energy.29 The use of ambient energy from the air, or air-source energy, has increased rapidly since 2012. In 2017, the Heat Pump Association of Ireland (HPA) estimates that over 90% of all heat pumps sold in Ireland were air-source heat pumps.

There has been a large increase in the use of air-source heat pumps in the residential sector.

Heat pumps require energy to “pump” the ambient energy from the cooler external environment into the warmer internal environment to provide useful heat. For heat pumps to be effective they need to deliver more energy as useful heat than they themselves consume. The ratio of the energy output from a heat pump to its energy consumption is known as the coefficient of performance (COP). If the COP is 3, then for every 1 unit of energy the heat pump uses, it delivers 3 units of energy as useful heat.

Not all of the energy that is output from a heat pump is considered as renewable ambient energy. To calculate the renewable portion, the final energy demand of the heat pump itself is subtracted from the total output of the heat pump. In the above example of a heat pump with a COP of 3, for every 3 units of heat delivered by the heat pump, 2 units are counted as renewable ambient energy. The COP would typically range from 2.5 to 5.6.

Most heat pumps are run on electricity, though some run on natural gas. For electric heat pumps, it is the final energy of the electricity input to the heat pump that is subtracted from the total heat pump output to get the ambient portion, as per the RED methodology.30

The amount of ambient energy used in Ireland is based on an estimate of the total number of heat pumps. This is based on an estimate by HPA of annual sales of heat pumps. For the commercial sector the heat total heat output is based on an assumed typical capacity and COP for each unit installed. For the residential sector, the estimate of heat output per

29 In international energy statistics geothermal refers to harnessing of energy originating from the earths core, for example from high temperature geothermal vents. The low temperature energy in the surface of the earth that is used by heat pumps comes from solar radiation on the earths surface and can be referred to as ground-source ambient energy.

30 A previous version of this report, “Renewable Energy in Ireland 2013”, incorrectly stated that the renewable portion of heat pump output was calculated by subtracting the primary energy of the electricity consumption of the heatpump.

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unit was revised downwards in 2018 based on data from the BER database. This resulted in a revision of the estimated renewable ambient energy use from 2002 to 2017.

SEAI estimates that 41 ktoe of renewable ambient energy was used in 2017 in Ireland. This was an increase of 163% on the amount in 2010 and made up 13% of all renewable heat energy in 2017.

4.5 Solar thermalSolar energy can be captured by solar photovoltaic (solar PV) panels to produce electricity or solar thermal panels to produce hot water. Solar PV contributes to the RES-E target and solar thermal contributes to the RES-H target. In this section we look at solar thermal.

The amount of solar thermal energy used in Ireland is estimated based on an estimate of the surface area of panels installed each year, combined with an assumed annual energy production per square metre. The amount of solar thermal panels installed each year is based on data from SEAI-administered grant schemes and from the BER database.

SEAI estimates that 14 ktoe of thermal energy from solar thermal panels was produced in Ireland in 2017, all in the residential sector. This made up 5% of all renewable heat energy.

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5 Renewable energy in electricity

Electricity generation has been the most successful of the three modes for the development of energy from renewable sources. Renewable energy sources are now the second largest source of electricity after natural gas. Ireland has no mandatory target for RES-E for 2020 but has set an ambitious national target of 40%. RES-E forms the backbone of Ireland’s strategy to achieve the overall 16% renewable energy target for 2020.

Wind energy is the main source of renewable electricity generated in Ireland. Electricity generated from wind is variable and non-synchronous.31 Incorporating such a large share of wind energy on the Irish electricity network has required the Irish grid operator, EirGrid, to become a world leader in this area through the DS3 programme.

5.1 Progress towards renewable electricity targetNormalised renewable electricity production by source is shown in Figure 14 and Table 11.

Normalisation is used to smooth out the natural variation in wind speeds and rainfall from year to year. Wind normalisation also adjusts for the effect of large increases in installed capacity midway through a year. Normalisation is discussed more in sections 5.2.3 and 5.3.2.

RES-E was 30.1% in 2017, up from 26.8% in 2016. The target for 2020 is 40%.

The relatively large share of renewables in electricity generation contrasts with that in heat and transport, reaching 30% in 2017. Renewable electricity is dominated by the growth in wind energy since the early 2000s. Wind accounted for 84% of normalised renewable electricity in 2017. Hydro remained the second largest source of renewable electricity in 2017 at 8%, followed by biomass at 6%. There was large percentage growth in energy from solar PV in 2017 but from a very low base.

Figure 14: Normalised share of RES-E by source, 2005 to 2017

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Source: SEAI

31 In a synchronous AC power system, such as that of the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, all of the conventional generating units are synchronised (that is, the waveform of the generated voltages at each generating plant are synchronised), producing electricity at a nominal frequency of 50 Hz. This synchronisation comes from the physical rotation of the large rotors in the electricity generation plant. The physical inertia of these large rotating units also gives the electricity system ‘inertia’; that is, a resistance to changes in frequency over very short time periods. This system inertia is an important characteristic in terms of the overall system stability of the electricity grid. Electricity from sources such as wind turbines, and the high voltage direct current (HVDC) electricity from interconnectors, is described as non-synchronous and, crucially, does not provide the same inertia as traditional synchronous plants. A power system with a high penetration of variable non-synchronous wind-generation poses significant challenges for frequency control over multiple time frames.

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Table 11: Normalised renewable electricity by source, 2005 to 2017

Quantity (ktoe) Shares (%) Growth (%) Average annual growth rates (%)

2005 2010 2017 2005 2010 2017 ‘05-’17 ‘10-’17 ‘05-’10 ‘10-’17 2017Hydro 65 65 62 38% 17% 8% -6% -5% -0.2% -0.7% -1.9%Wind 95 293 651 55% 76% 84% 587% 122% 25.4% 12.0% 16.3%Biomass & Renewable Waste 1 9 46 0% 2% 6% 6643% 385% 69.3% 25.3% 12.9%

Landfill Gas 9 16 13 5% 4% 2% 46% -15% 11.4% -2.3% -3.6%Biogas 1 2 4 1% 1% 0% 166% 90% 7.0% 9.6% -3.5%Solar PV 0 0 1 0% 0% 0% - 2165% - 56.2% 75.3%Total renewable electricity 171 385 776 100% 100% 100% 353% 101% 17.6% 10.5% 14.0%

RES-E (%) 7% 16% 30%Source: SEAI

5.2 Wind energyTotal electrical output from wind in 2017, not normalised, was 7,44532 GWh. This was an increase of 21% on 2016. Wind generated 25% of gross electrical consumption in 2017, second only to natural gas.

Wind generated 25% of all electricity in 2017, second only to natural gas.

5.2.1 Installed wind capacityFigure 15 and Table 12 show the annual growth in installed wind-generation capacity and overall cumulative capacity since 2000. During 2017, 532 MW of wind capacity was installed. This was a record high level, ahead of the previous peak installed capacity of 335 MW achieved in 2016. The average annual installed capacity between 2008 and 2016 was 227 MW.

By the end of 2017, the installed capacity of wind-generation reached 3,318 MW. The peak recorded wind-power output in 2017 was 2,444 MW, delivered on 17 February. It represented 66% of the instantaneous system demand at that point. At the time of writing, the historic peak recorded wind-power output33 was 3,080 MW, delivered on 12 December 2018, at which time wind accounted for 63% of electricity generated and 69% of the instantaneous system demand.

Figure 15: Installed wind-generation capacity, 2000 to 2017

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32 Output from both grid-connected wind farms and large auto-producer turbines.33 System records are updated on the EirGrid website, as well as 15-minute average data on wind-power; see http://www.eirgridgroup.com/how-the-grid-

works/system-information/

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Table 12: Installed wind-generation capacity, 2005 to 2017

MW installed wind capacity 2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Annual increase in installed wind capacity 157 139 194 120 304 275 168 335 532Total installed wind capacity 493 1,390 1,585 1,704 2,008 2,283 2,451 2,786 3,318Two-year average installed wind capacity 415 1,321 1,488 1,644 1,856 2,146 2,367 2,619 3,052

Source: EirGrid

A record high of 532 MW of wind-generation capacity was installed in 2017.

Successfully integrating these levels of non-synchronous generation is unprecedented and presents significant challenges for the real-time operation of the network. In response to these challenges EirGrid began a multi-year programme, ‘Delivering a Secure, Sustainable Electricity System’, (DS3). The aim of the DS3 programme is to enable the operation of the electricity system in a secure manner while achieving the 2020 renewable electricity targets.34

5.2.2 Capacity factorsThe capacity factor of wind-power is the ratio of average delivered power over a particular time period to the theoretical maximum power. It can be computed for a single turbine, a wind farm or at the national level. It can be calculated across a range of time frames, from days to months to years. Figure 16 shows the capacity factors for each month in 2017 compared to the long-term average profile. Average wind-generation capacity factors are higher in the winter months and lower in the summer months. February was the windiest month in 2017.

Figure 16: Monthly wind-generation capacity factors, 2017

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Source: EirGrid & SEAI

At the national level, the profile of newly installed capacity over the course of the year can significantly impact on the annual average capacity factor. If a significant amount of capacity is installed in the last months of the year then the capacity factor for the year will appear low, as this additional capacity will only have generated electricity or a small fraction of the year. For this reason, the RED specifies that the two-year average installed capacity is used, as shown in Table 12.

The capacity factor also varies from year to year depending on how windy each year was. For example 2010 was an exceptionally calm year with low wind speeds resulting in a low capacity factor. The annual average capacity factor for wind-power in Ireland from 2005 to 2017 based on two year average installed capacity is shown in Figure 17 and Table 13.

The 5 year average wind-generation capacity factor for 2017 was 28.3%.

34 For more information on EirGrid’s DS3 programme, see http://www.eirgridgroup.com/how-the-grid-works/ds3-programme/

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Figure 17: Annual wind capacity factors, 2005 to 2017

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Source: EirGrid & SEAI

Table 13: Wind-generation capacity factors, 2005 to 2017

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Annual wind capacity factor based on 2 year average installed capacity 30.6% 24.3% 33.6% 27.8% 27.9% 27.3% 31.7% 26.8% 27.8%

5 year average wind capacity factor based on Renewable Energy Directive 30.3% 29.5% 30.4% 29.6% 28.8% 28.2% 29.6% 28.4% 28.3%

Source: EirGrid

5.2.3 Normalisation of wind energyThe RED allows for the effects of high- or low-wind years to be smoothed out by using an average capacity over five years. This is called normalisation. The average installed capacity over the previous two years and the average capacity factor over the previous five years are used in the calculation. Appendix 1 provides a detailed description of the methodology. Figure 17 and Table 13 also show the five-year average capacity factor as per the RED methodology. Figure 18 shows the actual and normalised annual wind-powered electricity generation from 2005 to 2017.

Figure 18: Normalised wind-powered electricity generation, 2005 to 2017

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5.3 Hydro energy

5.3.1 Installed hydro capacityThere are 15 hydroelectric35 generators connected to the electricity transmission system, 14 of which have a maximum export capacity (MEC) of more than 4 MW. The total hydro connected to the transmission system is 212 MW. There are a further 5936 hydroelectric generators connected to the electricity distribution system, with a total installed capacity of 26 MW.

5.3.2 Normalisation of hydro energyThe normalisation rule for hydro uses the average capacity factor of the previous 15 years and the installed capacity of the reporting year to calculate the normalised hydro contribution towards the renewable energy targets. Figure 19 shows the actual and normalised data from 2000 to 2017.

In 2017 hydropower generated 692 GWh of electricity (2.3% of gross electricity). Normalised hydro electricity generation was 717 GWh (2.4% of gross electricity).

Figure 19: Normalised hydro-powered electricity generation, 2000 to 2017

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5.3.3 Pumped hydro storageElectricity produced by pumped storage from water that has previously been pumped uphill is not classified as being from a renewable energy source and is not included in either the numerator or the denominator of the RES-E or overall RES calculations. There is one pumped hydro station in Ireland, at Turlough Hill, with a total capacity of 292 MW. As all of the electricity produced from this station is from water that has previously been pumped uphill, it is not classed as renewable. Although it is not a renewable electricity source, pumped hydro storage has attributes which are beneficial for integrating variable non-synchronous electricity generation onto the electricity system.

35 EirGrid, Connected TSO (Non Wind) Generators [Internet]. Available from: http://www.eirgridgroup.com/customer-and-industry/general-customer-information/connected-and-contracted-generators/ [Accessed December 2018].

36 ESB Networks, Distribution Energised Connected Non-Wind [Internet]. Available from: https://www.esbnetworks.ie/new-connections/generator-connections/generator-connection-statistics [Accessed December 2018].

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5.4 Solid biomassSolid biomass covers organic, non-fossil material of biological origin which may be used as fuel. It is primarily wood, wood wastes (firewood, wood chips, barks, sawdust, shavings, chips, black liquor, etc.)37 and other solid wastes (straw, oat hulls, nut shells, tallow, meat and bone meal).

In electricity generation, biomass is primarily used in co-firing with peat in existing power plants, with a small amount also used in combined heat and power (CHP) plants.

Edenderry Power Station is currently the only peat-fired power station that co-fires with biomass. In 2017, 369 GWh of electricity was produced from the biomass, or 42% of the electricity generated from Edenderry Power Station over the year. Two further peat-powered electricity-generating stations, West Offaly and Lough Ree power stations, have plans to begin co-firing with biomass with peat from 2019, subject to planning permission.

In 2017, 16 GWh of electricity was produced from biomass CHP.

5.5 Renewable wastesThere are currently two municipal waste-to-energy plants in Ireland, in Meath and Dublin, with capacities of 17 MW and 60 MW, respectively.

Part of the municipal solid waste (MSW) used by these plants is biodegradable and is considered to be renewable biomass.38 When this is combusted, the heat and electricity produced is considered renewable. For each facility, if the renewable portion of the MSW is not known, then a default value of 50% is used. In 2017, 151 GWh of electricity was produced from the combustion of renewable wastes. This was a 99% increase on the previous year, due to the opening of the Dublin Waste to Energy facility in late 2017.

5.6 Landfill gasLandfill gas is regarded as a renewable or sustainable energy source for the purposes of meeting targets set down under EU renewable energy targets. Landfill gas in Ireland is only used for electricity generation or is flared directly to the atmosphere. There are 24 landfill gas generators connected to the distribution grid with a total maximum export capacity (MEC) of 49 MW.

In 2017, 155 GWh of electricity was produced from landfill gas, representing 0.5% of the gross electricity generated. Electricity generated from landfill gas peaked in 2010 at 182 GWh. It is expected that this resource will gradually decline over time as the organic material in the existing landfills fully decomposes.

5.7 BiogasBiogas is produced by the anaerobic digestion of biological materials such as animal slurries, agri-food wastes, and sewage sludges. Once biogas is produced, it can be burned in a boiler to produce heat, used in CHP plants to produce heat and electricity, or upgraded further to biomethane. In 2017, a total of 43 GWh of electricity was generated from biogas CHP in industry and waste-water treatment plants.

Sewage sludge produced in the waste-water treatment plants can be anaerobically digested to produce biogas. This biogas is used on-site in the waste-water treatment plants in CHP units to provide heat and electricity for the plants' own use. In 2017, approximately 28 GWh of electricity was produced from sewage sludge gas.

Biogas is also produced from the anaerobic digestion of animal slurries, wastes in abattoirs, breweries, and other agri-food industries. In 2017, approximately 14 GWh of electricity was generated from biogas CHP in industry.

5.8 Solar photovoltaic Solar photovoltaic (PV) panels can be installed in residential, commercial or industrial settings, or as a stand-alone electricity-generating plant feeding electricity directly to the national grid. We estimate that there were 15.7 MW of installed solar PV capacity in Ireland in 2017: 11.9 MW in the residential sector and 3.8 MW in the commercial/industrial sector.

In the residential sector, solar PV is mostly installed on new homes to meet the requirements of the building regulations for use of energy from renewable sources. SEAI estimates the installed capacity of solar PV on new dwellings based on the

37 This is a recycled by-product formed during the pulping of wood in the paper-making industry.38 Article 2 (e) of Directive 2009/28/EC.

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BER database. A single electricity supplier, Electric Ireland, voluntarily offered a domestic microgeneration rate39 of €0.09 per kWh for micro-generation exported to the grid, including domestic solar PV. This rate continued to be paid to existing participants until the end of 2018, but the scheme has been closed to new entrants since the end of 2014. There was 1.0 MW of installed residential solar PV connected to the grid at the end of 2017, though there were no additions in 2016 or 2017.

SEAI estimates the installed capacity of solar PV in the commercial/industrial sector using data from SEAI grant programmes such as Better Energy Communities and from regional energy agencies such as the Tipperary energy agency, and on a continuous ad hoc basis based on public announcements by businesses and suppliers.

In 2017, we estimate that 11 GWh of electricity was generated from solar PV, representing 0.1% of renewable electricity or 0.04% of electricity GFC.

In spite of its small contribution in 2017, solar PV is already growing rapidly. As of mid-2018 there were 245 MW of installed capacity contracted for connection to the transmission grid.40 There is also likely to be continuing growth in the residential sector due to the renewables requirement in the building regulations for new dwellings and also due to the introduction of a capital grant for domestic solar PV in existing dwellings.41

39 Details available from: https://www.electricireland.ie/residential/help/micro-generation/electric-ireland-micro-generation-pilot-scheme40 EirGrid (2018) Contracted TSO (Non Wind) Generators [Internet]. Available from: http://www.eirgridgroup.com/site-files/library/EirGrid/Contracted-TSO-

(Non-Wind)-Generators.pdf [Accessed December 2018]41 For more information, see: https://www.seai.ie/grants/home-energy-grants/solar-electricity-grant/

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6 EU comparison

This section provides a comparison of the progress Ireland has made towards its 2020 renewable energy targets with that of other EU member states (MS).

Eurostat has developed a harmonised approach to calculating and reporting renewable energy shares across the EU. This is done using the SHARES42 tool. Eurostat publishes the results for each member state annually. Here, we examine the latest available data for 2016.

6.1 Gross final consumption in EU by heat, transport and electricityFigure 20 shows the share of GFC in each of the 28 EU member states (EU-28) split by heat transport and electricity. In 21 out of the EU-28 heat is the largest end use. Ireland is unusual in that transport is the largest end use. In 23 of the EU-28 electricity is the smallest of the three end uses. This context is important when looking at the contribution of renewable energy in each of the modes to overall renewable energy supply for each EU MS.

Figure 20: Gross final consumption in EU by heat, transport and electricity, 2016

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6.2 Overall RESFigure 21 shows the share of overall renewable energy for each MS split by the contribution from each mode. Ireland was 22nd out of the EU-28 for overall RES in 2016 on 9.5%, compared to the EU-28 average of 17.0%. There is a broadly similar pattern across most MS. Although transport is a major final end use (typically the second largest after heat), renewable transport is small and contributes little to overall renewable energy share. The heat and electricity sectors have achieved higher shares of renewable energy. For every MS except Malta, heat is a larger end use than electricity; for most MS, the share of heat is twice as big as the share of electricity. RES-H contributed the largest share of overall RES in 21 of the EU-28 in 2016. For almost all MS, the share of RES-H is the most important factor influencing the share of overall renewable energy.

Ireland was 22nd out of the EU-28 for overall renewable energy share in 2016.

Each MS has its own target for overall renewable energy share in 2020, shown in Figure 21 by the orange markers. The overall EU-28 target is for 20% overall RES in 2020. MS which had higher shares of renewable energy prior to 2007, when the 2020 targets were determined, were given higher targets for 2020 than the EU-28 average. MS that were starting from a low base in 2007 have targets lower than the EU-28 average. Ireland’s 2020 target is for 16% overall RES.

42 See https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/energy/data/shares

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Figure 21: Overall renewable energy share in 2016 for EU member states

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For most of the EU-28, RES-H contributes the largest share to overall renewable energy supply.

Figure 22 examines the progress each MS had made towards meeting its 2020 target in 2016. The progress in 2016 is expressed as a percentage of the 2020 target; if the 2020 target was already fully achieved in 2016, the progress towards target would be 100%; if the MS was only half-way towards the 2020 target, the progress would be 50%. Ireland was 26th out of the EU28 in 2016, having reached 59% of the 2020 target, compared to the average for the EU28 of 85%. Eleven MS had already surpassed their 2020 targets by 2016.

Ireland was 26th out of the EU-28 for progress towards the overall renewable energy 2020 targets in 2016.

Figure 22: Percentage of 2020 renewable energy target achieved in 2016 for EU member states

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6.3 Renewable heatFigure 23 shows data on renewable heat use split into direct energy use, district heating and ambient energy from heat pumps. In 2016, Ireland was 27th out of the EU-28 for renewable heat, at 6.8%. The EU average was 19.1% and Sweden had the highest share at 68.6% RES-H.

Ireland was 27th out of the EU-28 for renewable heat in 2016

The MS with the highest levels of RES-H are the Baltic countries, which use significant amounts of renewable heat through district heating networks. The MS with the lowest levels of RES-H are the northwestern countries, which have high annual heat demands but did not develop significant district heating networks and are reliant on direct fossil fuel use for heat. Despite the lack of past experience of district heating in Ireland, there are significant opportunities for the development of new district heating networks in specific areas that have high heat demand, in particular utilising waste heat.43

Some MS with warmer climates, such as Portugal, have achieved high percentage shares of renewable heating and cooling, but this must be viewed in the context of their overall lower heat demand and the prevalence of traditional wood burning for residential heat.

Ireland’s low share of RES-H is the biggest reason for our poor progress towards our overall renewable energy target.

Figure 23: Renewable heat share in 2016 for EU member states

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43 See for example the Dublin District Heating Scheme, available at http://www.dublincity.ie/ddhs. For more information, see also A Guide to District Heating in Ireland, available from https://www.seai.ie/resources/publications/2016_RDD_79._Guide_District_Heating_Irl_-_CODEMA.pdf

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6.4 Renewable electricityFigure 24 shows the share of electricity from renewable sources for each MS. In 2016, Ireland was 13th out of the EU-28 at 27.2%, just below the EU-28 average of 29.6%.44

The MS with the highest share of RES-E tend to have a high share of hydro energy. Electricity that is generated from pumped-hydro plants from water that has previously been pumped uphill does not count as renewable hydroelectricity. However, having pumped-hydro capacity on the electricity grid makes it easier to accommodate significant amounts of variable renewables such as wind. This is the case in Portugal, for example, which had a high share of hydro (23.4%) and the second highest share of wind (23.2%). It is also easier to incorporate large amounts of variable renewables if a MS has extensive interconnection with neighbouring countries. This is the case for Denmark, which had the highest share of wind energy in 2016 at 37.9%.

Ireland was 13th out of the EU-28 for renewable electricity in 2016. The top performing countries tend to have large hydropower resources.

Ireland had the third highest share of wind-generated electricity in 2016 at 22.3%. In Ireland’s case, this was achieved without the benefits of significant amounts of pumped-hydro storage or interconnection and required the Irish electricity grid operator EirGrid to become a world leader in incorporating large amounts of variable non-synchronous generation onto an isolated electricity grid.

Figure 24: Renewable electricity share in 2016 for EU member states

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44 Ranking MS by the share of RES-E does not give a good indication of the GHG intensity of electricity in each MS, as it ignores the source of the non-renewable electricity, in particular nuclear power. For instance France has a relatively low share of RES-E, mostly from hydropower, but the GHG intensity of French electricity is very low as it is mostly generated from nuclear power. In contrast, Ireland has one of the most GHG-intensive electricity systems in the EU due to the share of coal and peat generation.

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6.5 Renewable transportIn the heat and transport sectors, some MS have natural advantages over others in adopting renewable energy technologies, for example pre-existing district heating networks or large hydroelectricity resources. In comparison, the transport sector is largely a level playing-field for all MS. This is reflected in the broadly similar progress made by the majority of MS, with 14 of the EU-28 achieving between 5.0% and 7.5% RES-T in 2016. In 2016, Ireland was 18th out of the EU-28 for RES-T.

Figure 25 shows the progress of each MS in 2016 towards the RES-T target. The columns for each MS show the amount of each source of renewable energy used without any multipliers applied. The blue line shows the percentage of RES-T achieved when multipliers are taken into account. The green line shows the 2020 target of 10% RES-T for all MS. For most MS, the majority of renewable transport energy use comes from first-generation biofuels, which do not qualify for multiple weightings, such as bioethanol from energy crops.

Ireland was 18th out of the EU-28 for renewable transport in 2016.

Figure 25: Renewable transport share in 2016 for EU member states

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The obvious outlier is Sweden, which has managed to achieve 20% of renewable energy in road and rail transport not including multipliers, or more than 30% RES-T including multipliers. In 2016, advanced biofuels accounted for 10.5% of total Swedish road and rail energy demand, in energy terms, not including multipliers.

According to the Swedish Bioenergy Association (Svebio),45 this is largely due to the use of the so-called "drop-in" biofuel, Hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO). Conventional biofuels are not chemically identical to the fossil fuel equivalents, and can only be blended up to certain ratios without causing technical difficulties when used in engines designed for fossil fuels. In contrast drop-in biofuels are chemically identical to fossil diesel and so can be blended at any rate or used directly in pure form. Pure HVO, referred to as HVO100, was introduced to the Swedish market in 2015 and is now used widely for commercial vehicles, helped by attractive tax exemptions.46 The share of biomethane in the natural gas used by compressed natural gas (CNG) vehicles in Sweden also reached a record high of 83% in 2016. Sweden also has the second highest market share of EVs in the EU, coupled with the second highest share of renewable electricity, but does not currently count the renewable electricity used by EVs towards the RES-T target as it has not yet developed a methodology to estimate EV energy use.

45 See https://www.svebio.se/en/about-bioenergy/biodrivmedel/46 See https://www.svebio.se/press/pressmeddelanden/allt-fler-tankar-hvo100/

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Glossary of abbreviations

Abbreviation Explanation

AD Anaerobic Digestion

BOS Biofuels Obligation SchemeCHP Combined Heat and PowerCO2 Carbon DioxideCOP Coefficient of Performance - usually of heat pumpEPA Environmental Protection AgencyETS EU Emissions Trading SchemeEU-28 28 Member States of the European UnionEV Electric VehicleGFC Gross Final Energy ConsumptionGHG Green-House GasHVO Hydrotreated vegetable oilILUC Indirect Land-Use Changektoe kilo-tonne of oil equivalentMEC Maximum Export Capacity

MS EU Member State

MSW Municipal Solid WasteNORA National Oil Reserves AgencyPSO Public Service ObligationPV Solar Photo-VoltaicRED Renewable Energy DirectiveRES Renewable Energy ShareRES-E Renewable Energy Share in ElectricityRES-H Renewable Energy Share in HeatRES-T Renewable Energy Share in TransportSEAI Sustainable Energy Authority of IrelandSSRH Support Scheme for Renewable HeatTFC Total Final Consumptiontoe tonne of oil equivalentTPER Total Primary Energy Requirement

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Glossary of terms

Air-source energy: Heat energy contained in the air, even at low temperatures. Heat pumps can use this low grade energy as a renewable source useful heat.

Ambient energy: The energy that heat pumps use to provide useful heat. It typically comes from use freely available but low-grade energy from the outside environment: from air, water, or ground. It can also come from waste energy streams such as exhaust gases or waste water.

Biodiesel: Biofuel that can be blended with fossil diesel. Includes biodiesel, biodimethylether (DME), Fischer-Tropsch diesel, cold-pressed bio-oil and all other liquid biofuels which are added to or blended with or used straight as transport diesel.

Biofuels: Generally refers to liquid fuels derived from biomass crops or by-products that are suitable for use in vehicle engines or heating systems. They can be considered as potential replacements or extenders for mineral fuels such as diesel or petrol. Liquid biofuels are typically categorised by the fossil fuels that they can be blended with or can replace. The two most common categories of liquid biofuel are biodiesel and biogasoline.

Bioenergy: An umbrella term for energy produced from any biological material including solid biomass, biogas, liquid biofuels and landfill gas.

Biogas: A gas composed principally of methane and carbon dioxide produced by the anaerobic digestion of organic materials. Common feedstocks for the production of biogas through anaerobic digestion include sewage sludge, animal slurries, agri-food wastes and crops.

Biogasoline: Biofuel that can be blended with fossil gasoline (petrol). Includes bioethanol, biomethanol, bio-ethyl-ter-butyl ether (bioETBE), bio-methyl-tertio-butyl-ether (bioMTBE), and all other liquid biofuels which are added to or blended with or used straight as transport gasoline.

Biomass: Generally refers to solid organic material that can be used for energy. See Solid Biomass

Carbon dioxide (CO2): A compound of carbon and oxygen formed when carbon is burned. Carbon dioxide is one of the main greenhouse gases. Units used in this report are t CO2 (tonnes of CO2), kt CO2 (kilo-tonnes of CO2 {103 tonnes}) and MtCO2 (mega-tonnes of CO2 {106 tonnes}).

Combined Heat and Power (CHP): Combined heat and power (CHP) refers to plants which are designed to produce both heat and electricity. CHP plants may generate for their own use only (auto-producer), may export electricity to the grid, or may also export heat via a district heating network.

Drop-in biofuel: Biofuels that are chemically identical to their fossil fuel equivalent and so can be blended at any rate or used directly in pure form in engines designed to run fossil fuel without modification. In contrast most biofuel are not chemically identical to the fossil fuel equivalents, and can only be blended up to certain ratios without causing technical difficulties with engines designed to run on fossil fuels.

Geothermal energy: Energy originating from the earth's core, for example from high-temperature geothermal vents. The term "geothermal energy" can sometimes be used to refer low-temperature heat energy in the ground that is used by heatpumps, but this is more correctly referred to as to ground-source energy.

Ground-source energy: Low temperature heat energy contained in the ground. Heatpumps can use this low grade energy as a renewable source useful heat.

Gross final consumption (GFC): The Renewable Energy Directive (2009/28/EC) defines gross final consumption of energy as the energy commodities delivered for energy purposes to manufacturing industry, transport, households, services, agriculture, forestry and fisheries, including the consumption of electricity and heat by the energy branch for electricity and heat production and including losses of electricity and heat in distribution.

Heat pump: A heat pump is a device that moves heat from one location (the source) to another (the sink). Heat pumps are used for space heating and cooling, as well as water heating. Geothermal heat pumps operate on the fact that the earth beneath the surface remains at a constant temperature throughout the year, and that the ground acts as a heat source in winter and a heat sink in summer. They can be used in both residential and commercial or institutional buildings. Other heat pump types are available, such as air- and water-source. These operate on the same principle indoors but the method of collecting heat is different for each type.

HVO: Hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) is a drop-in biofuel that can be used as a direct substitute for fossil diesel.

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Gross electricity consumption: Gross electricity production is measured at the terminals of all alternator sets in a station; it therefore includes the energy taken by station auxiliaries and losses in transformers that are considered integral parts of the station. The difference between gross and net production is the amount of own use of electricity in the generation plants.

Hydropower: Potential and kinetic energy of water converted into electricity in hydroelectric plants. Pumped storage is treated separately in the national energy balance. The Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/EC states that electricity produced in pumped storage units from water that has previously been pumped uphill should not be considered to be electricity produced from renewable energy sources.

Kilowatt hour (kWh): The conventional unit of energy whereby electricity is measured and charged for commercially. Related units are megawatt hour (MWh) and gigawatt hour (GWh) which are one thousand and one million kWhs respectively.

Landfill Gas: A gas composed principally of methane and carbon dioxide produced by anaerobic digestion landfill wastes.

Photovoltaic energy (PV): Energy from solar electric panels. Solar radiation is exploited for electricity generation by photovoltaic cells which convert the solar radiation into DC current.

Refuse derived fuels (RDF): Fuels produced from waste through a number of different processes such as mechanical separation, blending and compressing to increase the fuel value of the waste. Such waste derived fuels can be comprised of paper, plastic and other combustible wastes and can be combusted in a waste-to-energy plant, cement kiln or industrial furnace.

RES-E: Renewable energy share of electricity.

RES-H : Renewable energy share of heat/thermal energy.

RES-T: Renewable energy share of road and rail transport energy.

Solar PV: See Photovoltaic Energy

Solid biomass: Covers organic, non-fossil material of biological origin which may be used as fuel for heat production or electricity generation. It comprises: (a) charcoal, covering the solid residue of the destructive distillation and pyrolysis of wood and other vegetal material and (b) wood, wood wastes and other solid wastes, covering purpose-grown energy crops (poplar, willow etc.), a multitude of woody materials generated by an industrial process (wood/paper industry in particular) or provided directly by forestry and agriculture (firewood, wood chips, bark, sawdust, shavings, chips, black liquor etc.) as well as (c) wastes such as tallow, straw, rice husks, nut shells, poultry litter, crushed grape dregs etc. Combustion is the preferred technology for these solid wastes. The quantity of fuel used is reported on a net calorific value basis.

Solid recovered fuels (SRF): Fuels refined from crude refuse derived fuels (RDF). To be defined as SRF a fuel must meet minimum standards for moisture content, particle size, metals, chloride and chlorine content and calorific value.

Tallow: The fatty tissue or suet of animals.

Tonne of oil equivalent (toe): This is a conventional standardised unit of energy and is defined on the basis of a tonne of oil having a net calorific value of 41686 kJ/kg.

Total final consumption (TFC): This is the energy used by the final consuming sectors of industry, transport, residential, agriculture and tertiary. It excludes the energy sector such as electricity generation and oil refining etc.

Total primary energy requirement (TPER): This is the total requirement for all uses of energy, including energy used to transform one energy form to another (e.g. burning fossil fuel to generate electricity) and energy used by the final consumer.

Wind energy: Kinetic energy of wind exploited for electricity generation in wind turbines.

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SourcesDepartment of Communications, Climate Action and Environment (2018) Biofuels Obligation Scheme Policy Statement.

Available from: https://www.dccae.gov.ie/en-ie/energy/publications/Pages/Biofuel-Obligation-Scheme-Policy-Statement.aspx [Accessed December 2018].

Directive 2009/28/EC on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources. Available from: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=celex%3A32009L0028 [Accessed December 2018].

EirGrid (2018) Connected TSO (Non-Wind) Generators [Internet]. Available from: http://www.eirgridgroup.com/customer-and-industry/general-customer-information/connected-and-contracted-generators/ [Accessed December 2018].

EirGrid (2018) Contracted TSO (Non Wind) Generators [Internet]. Available from: http://www.eirgridgroup.com/site-files/library/EirGrid/Contracted-TSO-(Non-Wind)-Generators.pdf [Accessed December 2018].

EirGrid (n.d.) DS3 Programme [Internet]. Available from: http://www.eirgridgroup.com/how-the-grid-works/ds3-programme/ [Accessed December 2018].

Eirgrid (n.d.) System information [Internet]. Available from: http://www.eirgridgroup.com/how-the-grid-works/system-information/ [Accessed December 2018].

Electric Ireland (n.d.) Electric Ireland Micro-Generation Pilot Scheme [Internet]. Available from: https://www.electricireland.ie/residential/help/micro-generation/electric-ireland-micro-generation-pilot-scheme [Accessed December 2018].

ESB Networks (2018) Distribution Energised Connected Non-Wind [Internet]. Available from: https://www.esbnetworks.ie/new-connections/generator-connections/generator-connection-statistics [Accessed December 2018].

Eurostat (n.d.) SHARES (Renewables) [Internet]. Available from https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/energy/data/shares [Accessed December 2018].

National Oil Reserves Agency (n.d.) BOS Annual Reports [Internet]. Available from: http://www.nora.ie/biofuels-obligation-scheme/bos-annual-reports.225.html [Accessed December 2018].

Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (2018) Irish National Energy Balances 1990-2017. Available from: https://www.seai.ie/resources/seai-statistics/key-publications/ [Accessed December 2018].

Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (2018) National Energy Projections [Internet]. Available from: https://www.seai.ie/resources/publications/National-Energy-Projections-to-2030.pdf [Accessed December 2018].

Swedish Bioenergy Association (n.d.) Biofuels for transport [Internet]. Details available from https://www.svebio.se/en/about-bioenergy/biodrivmedel/ [Accessed December 2018].

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Appendix 1: Methodology for calculating renewable energy shares

Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/ECIreland’s binding target under the RED is for renewable sources to account for 16% of gross final energy consumption (GFC) in 2020. There are differing methodologies for the calculation of the overall share of energy from renewables and the individual share of renewables by each mode of energy application, namely heat, transport and electricity (termed RES-E, RES-T and RES-H respectively). These individual targets have separate denominators and in some cases weighting factors; therefore, the individual target percentages cannot be simply added together to get the overall share of renewables.

The main difference arises in transport energy consumption. In the overall RES target all transport energy is included, including aviation and marine, whereas the RES-T target relates only to road and rail energy use (i.e. land transport). There are also weighting factors used in the RES-T calculation for some individual renewable sources (namely biofuels from waste, second generation biofuels and renewable generated electricity powering electric vehicles and rail) but in the calculation of the overall renewable energy target weighting factors are not applied.

Gross Final ConsumptionThe RED defines gross final consumption of energy (GFC) as the energy commodities delivered for energy purposes to manufacturing industry, transport, households, services, agriculture, forestry and fisheries, including the consumption of electricity and heat by the energy branch for electricity and heat production and including losses of electricity and heat in distribution. The renewable energy contribution includes electricity generation, transport energy and thermal energy from renewable sources. This builds on the definition for GFC of electricity used in Directive 2001/77/EC (to track progress in renewable generated electricity) and adds gross final consumption of heat and transport.

• GFC = TFC (Transport) + GFC (Electricity) + GFC (Heat)

In the case of electricity for example, the difference between TFC and GFC is that TFC equates to all electricity demand used by customers, whereas GFC includes the transmission and distribution losses and the in-house use of electricity by electricity generators.

Overall renewables targetIn order to facilitate international comparisons of renewable energy, it is necessary to set transparent and unambiguous rules for calculating the share of energy from renewable sources and for defining those sources across all countries. In the RED, the renewable energy share is calculated from the gross final consumption of energy. No weighting factors are applied to renewable energy sources for the calculation of the overall renewable energy share. There is a legally binding European target for Ireland to achieve a 16% share of energy from renewable energy sources in gross final consumption of energy by 2020, specified in Annex 1 of the RED.

Numerator: The numerator here is the sum of the individual renewable sources.

• Electricity – This is the total renewable electricity generation, with the contribution from wind and hydro normalized to account for climatic variation and in the case of wind to smooth the effect of large annual increases in the installed capacity.

• Heat – This is the total renewable energy used for heat purposes, excluding renewable generated electricity that is used for heating to avoid double counting.

• Transport – This is the total renewable energy used for transport, excluding renewable generated electricity that is used for transport to avoid double counting.

Denominator: The denominator is the gross final consumption adjusted so that aviation is limited to 6.18% of gross final consumption (as prescribed in Article 5.6 of the RED).

Renewable electricity (RES-E)Ireland’s 2020 national target for renewable electricity is 40% of gross electricity consumption, but there is no specified mandatory EU RES-E target for 2020.

Numerator: The total renewable electricity for RES-E calculation is the same as the amount calculated for the overall target, i.e. the sum of the individual renewable electricity sources. No multiplication factors are applied in the calculation

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of the renewable electricity target, but the wind and hydro portions of renewable electricity are normalised for weather variations when reporting progress towards international renewable energy targets.

Denominator: The denominator here is the gross electricity consumption, which is defined as gross electricity generated plus net imports. No account is taken of the renewable content of imports.

It is important to note that the gross electricity generated is different to (greater than) both the final electricity consumption and the total electricity requirement, the latter of which is often quoted by EirGrid, the transmission system operator (TSO). Gross electricity includes electricity used within power stations and also transmission system and distribution system losses, whereas the total electricity requirement is the gross electricity requirement minus the in-house load of power plants.

NormalisationIn calculating the contribution of hydro and wind energy for the purpose of the overall 16% target for renewable energy in Ireland by 2020 in the RED, the effects of climatic variation are smoothed through use of normalisation rules. The normalisation rules are specified in Annex II of the RED and different rules apply for hydro and for wind.

The normalised renewable hydro contribution is calculated as the installed capacity of the latest year for hydro multiplied by the sum of electricity generated, divided by the installed capacity for the last 15 years for hydro energy, as shown in Equation 1, where:

• N is the reference year;

• QN(Norm) is the normalised electricity generated by all hydropower plants in year N for reporting towards the RED;

• Qi is the actual quantity of electricity generated in year i by all hydropower plants measured in GWh, excluding production from pumped storage units, using water that has previously been pumped uphill and

• Ci is the total installed capacity of all hydropower plants, net of pumped storage, at the end of year i measured in MW.

Equation 1 Hydro Normalisation Equation

Source: European Commission

The normalised wind electricity contribution is calculated as the average installed capacity of the latest two years, multiplied by the sum of electricity generated, divided by the average year-end installed capacity over the last five years, as shown in Equation 2, where:

• N is the reference year;

• QN(Norm) is the normalised electricity generated by all wind-power plants in year N for reporting towards the RED;

• Qi is the actual quantity of electricity generated in year i by all wind-power plants measured in GWh;

• Ci is the total installed capacity of wind-power plants at the end of year i measured in MW and

• n is 4 or the number of years preceding year N for which capacity and production data are available, whichever is the lower.

Equation 2 Wind Normalisation Equation

Source: European Commission

Renewable heat (RES-H)In order to meet the 2020 national RES target, renewable thermal energy (RES-H) is required to be around 12% in 2020, but there is not a specified mandatory RES-H target for 2020 in the RED.

Numerator: Total renewable heat for the RES-H target is the same as that for the overall target, i.e. the total renewables used for heat purposes. With regard to geothermal energy, the renewable energy contribution is taken to be the total heat produced by the heat pump less the final energy of the electricity input, i.e. the renewable portion of the heat produced. It is assumed that the coefficient of performance of all heat pumps is 3.5. In the case of direct electric heating, the share of renewable electricity used for heating is not included as it would lead to double counting.

Denominator: In the absence of district heating, thermal GFC is equal to thermal TFC. Hence, thermal GFC is calculated as TFC minus TFC (electricity) minus TFC (transport less electricity used in transport) i.e. the heat demand is calculated as a remainder when electricity and transport demands are subtracted from the overall final consumption.

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Renewable transport (RES-T)There is a mandatory obligation for all Member States to meet the 10% RES-T target by 2020 as well as achieving the overall RES target specified for each Member State.

Numerator: Total renewables for RES-T is the sum of

• first-generation biofuels used for road or rail

• plus second-generation biofuels or biofuels from waste used for road and rail transport multiplied by a weighting factor of 247

• plus the renewable portion of electricity used for road vehicles multiplied by a weighting factor of 5,

• plus the renewable portion of electricity used for rail multiplied by a weighting factor of 2.5,

These weighting factors are used for the calculation of RES-T only and do not apply when calculating the transport contribution to the overall RES share.

The RED attaches an important condition to biofuels: that they must come from sustainable sources. Sustainable sources as defined by Article 17 of the RED are:

• The greenhouse gas emission savings from the use of biofuels and bioliquids shall be at least 35%, in accordance with the methodology prescribed in the RED. This percentage increases to 50% from 2017 and (for new biofuel plants that start production from 1 January 2017) 60% from 2018.

• Biofuels and bioliquids shall not be made from raw material obtained from land with high biodiversity value.

• Biofuels and bioliquids shall not be made from raw material obtained from land with high carbon stock.

Agricultural raw materials cultivated in the EU and used for the production of biofuels and bioliquids shall be obtained in accordance with the requirements and standards set out in the provisions referred to under the heading ‘Environment’ in part A and in point 9 of Annex II to Council Regulation (EC) No 73/2009.

Denominator: The denominator here is the sum of petrol, diesel, biofuels and electricity used for road and rail transport. The multiplication factor for renewable electricity in rail is included in the denominator, but the multiplication factors for advanced biofuels and renewable electricity used for road transport are not included. Consumption of aviation (kerosene and/or biofuels) and marine transport are not included in the denominator.

Co-operating mechanisms and short-term statistical transfersIf a country is unable to meet the target with indigenous renewable energy sources, there are mechanisms outlined in the RED that could assist in meeting the EU target48. There are three main cooperation mechanisms:

• Statistical transfers, where Member States agree to attribute renewable energy produced in one Member to another in their statistical accounting for target compliance. There is no specific plant or physical energy involved.

• Joint projects, where the renewable energy from a particular project is shared between the parties, with or without a physical flow of the energy produced. Under Article 9 of the RED joint projects with physical flows can also be arranged with third countries.

• Joint support schemes, where Member States co-finance their new renewable energy production independent of its location (within their territories).

47 Directive 2009/28/EC; Article 21 (2).48 European Comission (2013) Guidance on the use of renewable energy cooperation mechanisms [Internet]. Available from: http://ec.europa.eu/energy/gas_

electricity/doc/com_2013_government_intervention_en.pdf [Accessed December 2018].

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Appendix 2: Displacement of fossil fuels by renewable energy

SEAI estimates the amount of fossil fuel use that is avoided through the use of renewable energy, and the resulting reduction in CO2 emissions. To do this, we are required to make a number of assumptions about which fossil fuels are displaced by each renewable energy source.

Renewable heat and transportRenewable transport is the most straightforward. We assume that biodiesel and biogasoline replace conventional diesel and petrol respectively.

Renewable thermal energy is assumed to displace thermal energy from oil-fired boilers. The exception is the use of solid biomass in the wood processing industry. In this case we assume that the biomass used does not displace fossil fuel, as biomass has traditionally been used for heat in this sector. This is significant because solid biomass used in the wood processing industry accounted for 58% of all renewable thermal energy in 2017. Biomass used for heat generation in CHP is assumed to displace heat from oil-fired boilers.

Renewable electricityVariable renewable generatorsFor renewable electricity, there are a number of considerations. The first is what type of fossil fuel electricity generation is being displaced by renewables. Previously49, we assumed that each kWh of electricity generated from non-combustible renewable generation displaced a kWh of electricity from across the entire fossil fuel plant mix. The methodology used now draws on approaches that have been developed for use in baselining studies in credit-based emissions-trading systems50,51. Variable renewable energy generators primarily displace electricity from the last fossil fuel plant dispatched to meet electricity demand, also known as the marginal generator. In Ireland these are mostly gas generators.

A further consideration is the interaction between variable renewable electricity generation and both fossil fuel generation and cross-border trade. The simple approach of assuming that a unit of electricity from renewables displaces a unit of electricity from fossil fuel generators cannot account for these complex interactions. To accurately account for these interactions a full dispatch model of the Irish electricity system is required.

SEAI conducted such an analysis for a single year (2012) using a detailed dispatch model. This work is presented in the SEAI report Quantifying Ireland’s Fuel and CO2 Emissions Savings from Renewable Electricity in 2012, which was published in May 201452,53. The advantage of such a model is that it is capable of comprehensively accounting for the extensive range of dynamic factors that influence the interaction of renewable plant and fossil fuel generators and which affect the savings attributed to renewable generation, such as ramping and cycling effects, contingency reserve, network constraints, cross-border electricity trade, etc.

The disadvantage of dispatch models is that because of the level of detail involved, they are labour-intensive to build, update and maintain. For this reason, it is not practical to routinely use a dispatch model to estimate the annual avoided fossil fuel usage and carbon emissions from renewable energy. Instead, the results of the single-year analysis using the dispatch model have been used to inform and refine the results of the simplified approach, in particular by enabling the emissions resulting from ramping and cycling of fossil fuel plants in response to renewable electricity generation to be estimated and accounted for. There are clear limitations in this analysis but it does provide useful indicative results.

49 Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (2004) Renewable Energy in Ireland—Trends and Issues 1990 – 2002. Available from http://www.seai.ie/Publications/

50 Kartha S., Lazarus M. and Bosi M., 2004, Baseline Recommendations for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Projects in the Electric Power Sector, Energy Policy 32, 545 - 566

51 For further information on Ireland see Ó Gallachóir B. P., O’Leary F., Bazilian M., Howley M. and McKeogh E. J., Comparing Primary Energy Attributed to Renewable Energy with Primary Energy Equivalent to Determine Carbon Abatement in a National Context. Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part A: Toxic /Hazardous Substances and Environmental Engineering, Vol. 41, No. 5

52 See http://www.seai.ie/Publications/Statistics_Publications/Energy_Modelling_Group_Publications/Quantifying-Ireland%E2%80%99s-Fuel-and-CO2-Emissions-Savings-from-Renewable-Electricity-in-2012.pdf

53 See also Di Cosmo V. and Malaguzzi Valeri L., October 2014, ESRI Working Paper No. 493 – The Effect of Wind on Electricity CO2 Emissions: The Case of Ireland, ESRI.

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On this basis we assume that renewable hydro and wind electricity generation displaces electricity production from natural gas, which is assumed to be the marginal fossil fuel generator. We further assume that wind-generation results in a 5% increase in the energy intensity of the remaining fossil fuel electricity generation mix, due to increased cycling and ramping effects.

Renewable CHPBiomass used for electricity generation in CHP is assumed to displace electricity production from gas, as the marginal generator.

Biomass co-firing with peatBiomass used for co-firing with peat was assumed to displace peat up until 2015. From 2016 onwards biomass co-fired with peat is not assumed to achieve CO2 savings.

Up until 2015 burning peat for electricity generation was supported directly by the PSO. In this case, where biomass was co-fired with peat, it was assumed to be directly displacing peat, as if the biomass had not been co-fired, peat would have been burned instead. Since 2016, electricity generation from peat is no longer supported by the PSO. Instead, co-firing of biomass with peat at Edenderry is supported under REFIT 3. Without the REFIT from co-firing with biomass, electricity generation from peat would fall down the merit order and be replaced by gas generation (applying the operating margin approach, as for other renewables). The emissions from electricity generated from gas are lower than from electricity generated by peat co-fired with biomass at the current rates of co-firing. Therefore, co-firing biomass with peat resulted in greater carbon dioxide emissions in electricity generation in 2016 and 2017.

In 2017 the co-firing rate of biomass was approximately 40%, i.e. 40% of the energy inputs were from biomass and 60% from peat. The co-firing rate would have to increase to over 65% biomass to break even with the emissions of natural gas generation.

Bioenergy carbon dioxide accounting For combustible renewables, such as solid biomass and liquid biofuels used for heat, transport or electricity, we use the standard carbon dioxide accounting rules that are used to calculate Ireland’s green-house gas (GHG) emissions targets54. Therefore as long as a biofuel meets the minimum sustainability requirements set out in the RED it is counted as zero carbon at the point of combustion.

54 Decision 406 of 2009, on the effort of Member States to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to meet the EU’s GHG emission reduction commitments up to 2020, requires Ireland to reduce GHG emissions from non-ETS sectors (i.e. sectors outside of the EU Emissions Trading Scheme) by 20% below 2005 levels by 2020.

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Sustainable Energy Authority of IrelandWilton Park HouseWilton PlaceDublin 2IrelandD02 T228

e [email protected] www.seai.iet +353 1 808 2100

@seai_ie

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