replacing the benefits of set-aside - scottish natural heritage · 2017-06-08 · sparrows this is...

Scottish Natural Heritage

Managing Arable Farmland for Wildlife Replacing the benefits of set-aside

www.snh.gov.uk 1

This booklet highlights some of the concerns that have been raised about the impacts of the loss of set-aside on the wildlife of arable farmland and looks at some options for replacing biodiversity and providing other benefits. This includes options that may be available under grant schemes as well as adjustments to farm management that could be implemented at little or no expense.

AnumberofcasestudiesareprovidedshowingsuccessfulmanagementforwildlifeconservationthathasbeenintegratedwithcommercialarableproductionatfarmsthroughouteasternScotland.

Introduction

1Wild flower habitat.

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www.snh.gov.uk 3

Wildlife on arable farmland

Thepopulationindexoffarmlandbirdshasdeclinedbyaround50%acrosstheUKsince1970whilebirdpopulationsingeneralhaveremainedrelativelystable(BTO,RSPB,Defra).Therearesimilarconcernsaboutdecliningpopulationsofformerlywidespreadarableplantssuchasthecornflowerandcornmarigoldandofinsectssuchasbutterfliesandbumblebeesonarablefarmland.Asthevalueofinsectpollinatorsforcropshasbeenestimatedat£440millionperannumacrosstheUK–13%ofoverallincomefromfarming1–thesebiodiversitylossescouldhavesignificanteconomicaswellasecologicalimplications.

Thereislittledoubtthattheprimaryfactordrivingthesedeclineshasbeentheintensificationoffarmingthatstartedinthe1970s.Farmspecialisationandsimplification,increasedpesticideinputs,theincreaseofwintercroppingandthedrainageandimprovementofsemi-naturalhabitatsareallfactorsthathavebeenassociatedwithareductioninfarmlandbiodiversity.

Set-aside

Theintroductionofset-asidein1992wasintendedasamarketcontrolmechanisminresponsetothe‘grainmountains’ofthe1980s.Asmostset-asidereceivedfewercropprotectionandfertiliserinputsandlowerlevelsofdisturbancefrommachinerythanarablecrops,they

oftenprovidedamorebotanicallyandstructurallydiversehabitatthanadjacentcropswhichinturnledtoenhancedpopulationsofplants,insectsandthebirdswhichfedonthem.

Notallset-asidewasbeneficialtowildlife,butthesheerscaleoflandinvolved(around15%ofthearableareaofScotland–80-100,000hectares)meantthatthisrelativelybluntinstrumentwaslikelytobeofsignificantbenefittoarablebiodiversity.

Sincethedemiseofcompulsoryset-asidein2008(only20,000haofset-asidetypehabitatsremainedin2009)therehasbeenconsiderableconcernabouttheimpactonbiodiversity.Aconservativeestimatesuggeststhatthearealostsupportedatleasthalfamillionbumblebeenests2.Withanincreasingemphasisonfoodsecurityitwillbenecessarytodeliverbenefitstowildlifethroughmuchmoretargetedandefficientlyusedmeasures.

Requirements of arable wildlife

Inthecaseoffarmlandbirds,researchhasledtothedevelopmentofaconceptofhaltingandreversingthesedeclinesthroughimplementationofasuiteofmeasuresthatdeliverthe‘BigThree’3.Asthisstrategypromotesmanagementthatwillincreaseinsectpopulationsandseedavailability(asfoodforbirds)itisalsolikelytobeeffectiveathelpingdeclininginsectandarableplantpopulations,althoughsomeofthesehavetheirownspecificrequirements.

Arable wildlife and the benefits of set-aside

1Corn flower.

2 ManagingArableFarmlandforWildlife

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4 ManagingArableFarmlandforWildlife www.snh.gov.uk 5

‘The Big Three’ for farmland birds ‘A Big Three’ for bumblebees and other bees

Bumblebeesarekeypollinatorsoflegumesandsoftfruits,withsixcommonspeciesprovidingthebulkofthisservice,althoughmanygrowerssupplementwithcommercial(non-native)bumblebeenests.Bumblebeesandhoneybeesboostyieldsofcropssuchasoil-seedrape,andassuchhaveconsiderableeconomic,environmentalandaestheticvalues.Allbeeshavethreemainrequirements:

Nest Site

Bumblebeenestsarelocatedusuallyunderground,oftenintheoldnestofamouseorvoleor,aboveground,intussockygrass.Awayfromgardens,nestdensitiesarehighestalongfencelines,hedgerowsandwoodlandedge.

Food Supply throughout the summer

Bumblebeesrequireacontinuoussupplyofnectar(assugar-richfuel)andpollen(richinproteinfordevelopinglarvae)throughoutthespringandsummer.Goodsources

offoodinspringencouragequeenstofoundnestsnearby.Floweringcropscanprovidearichsourceoffood,butfortooshortaperiodtosustainnestsandpopulations.Havingavarietyofperennialwildflowers(particularlycloversandvetches)alongsidecropsprovidesasustainedsupplyofnectarandhigh-proteinpollenthroughoutthesummer.

Hibernation site for Queens

Survivalofthebumblebeepopulationfromoneyeartothenextisdependentontherecruitmentofmatedqueensandtheirsurvivaloverthewintersothattheycanestablishnewnestsinthespring.Hibernationsitesareoftenundergroundoramongtreerootsordeadwoodinacool,shadylocation.Patchesofwoodlandandscrubmayprovideimportanthibernationsitesinarablefarmland.

A safe nesting site

Birdsneedanestsitethatisprotectedfromdisturbancebyfarmingactivitiesandtheriskofpredation.Fortreesparrowsthisisadensehedgeroworaclumpoftrees.Forlinnets,itisusuallyapatchofgorsescrub.Forgreypartridgesandyellowhammers,itisdensetussockygrassmarginsalongfieldboundaries(particularlynexttoahedgeorsomescrub).Somespeciessuchasskylarks,lapwingsandcornbuntingsnestoutinthemiddleofopenfieldsandrequirefieldsthatarenotheavilygrazedormownduringthenestingperiod.Forskylarks,themainnestingperiodislateApriluntilmidJuly;forlapwingsitislateMarchuntilmidMay;forcornbuntingsitislateMayuntilearlyAugust.

Summer food

Althoughmanyfarmlandbirdsareseed-eaters,mostspeciesneedagoodsupplyofinsectsandotherinvertebratestoprovideahighproteindietfortheirchicks.Awiderangeofinvertebratesareeaten,butlargerprey

itemssuchascaterpillars,sawflylarvaeandbeetlesareparticularlyvaluablefoodforchickswhentheyareinthenest.

Winter food and shelter

Thewinterfoodoffarmlandbirdsusuallyincludesavarietyofseeds.Thereisoftenaparticularshortageinlatewinteroncetheprevioussummer’sseedproductionhasbeenusedup.Differentspeciesrequiredifferenttypesofseeds,withfinchesusuallyeatingsmallseedssuchasbrassicaswhilebuntingsandsparrowsprefergrain.Inlatewinterthereisusuallyalsoashortageofshelterasthepreviousyear’svegetationcoverhasdiedback.Thismakessomespeciessuchasgreypartridgeparticularlyvulnerabletopredationsohabitatsthatprovidesomesheltersuchasgamecropsandwinterstubblescanbeextremelyvaluable.

Providingthe‘BigThree’givesfarmlandbirdpopulationsthebestchanceofsurvival,helpingthemtocopewithothersourcesofmortalitysuchaspredationandadverseweather.

2Linnet.

3Yellowhammer.

4Great yellow bumblebee.

5Strip of red clover.

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Creating and managing conservation habitats

Managing specific areas of the farm for wildlife is probably the most popular conservation strategy among farmers and a natural extension of the concept of set-aside.

Managingarablehabitatsforwildlifecanoftenbecombinedwithbusinessobjectives.ManymanagementoptionsaresupportedbyanannualpaymentundertheScottishRuralDevelopmentProgramme.Additionally,fieldmargins,wetareasandotherawkwardcornerswithlowerproductivitymayadvantageouslybemanagedaswildlife

habitats,althoughchoosingtherightlocationandcarefulmanagementarethekeytoensuringthatthemaximumbenefitisdeliveredateachlocation.

Knowingwhatwildlifeispresentonandaroundthefarmisimportanttochooseappropriatemanagement,particularlyifspecieswithspecialisedrequirementsarepresent.OngoingschemessuchastheRSPBVolunteerandFarmerAllianceprovidetheidealopportunitytogetadetailedreviewofthebirdlifeonafarm.Lessformally,speakingtolocalbirdwatchersorwildlifeenthusiastscanbeausefulsourceofinformationandsuchpeopleoftenappreciatetheopportunitytovisitnewareas.

Indicative financial margins for a range of arable habitat creation options, based on 2010 prices and payment rates

Grass margins Wild bird Wild bird Native wild Grass with 5% native cover cover Pollen and flower margins wild flowers 1 year 2 year nectar mix meadow

No.yearsofmanagement 5 5 1 2 3 5

SRDPpaymentrate – 474 391 391 – 360

Annualisedseedcost 15 30 60 65 30 150

Grossmargin -15 444 331 326 -30 210

Annualisedestablishment 27 27 100 50 55 60andmanagementcosts(contractor’scharges)

Enterprisemargin -42 417 231 276 -85 150

1Hedgerow and field margin, Gallowhill, Tayside and Clackmannanshire Area.

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Examples of suitable seed mix for grass margins

Grasses % by weight

Cocksfoot 35

Cocksfoot 30

Timothy 25

Timothy 30

Creepingredfescue 25

Creepingredfescue 20

Perennialryegrass 15

Smoothstalkedmeadowgrass 10

Redclover 10

– Recommendedseedingrate:20-25kg/ha– Typicalcostofseed:£50-75/haOptionalwildflowercomponent:– Short-termmarginsoxeyedaisy,yarrow,bushvetch– Long-termmarginsredclover,commonknapweed,

tuftedvetchormeadowvetchling(1-2kg/ha)– Typicalcostofseed:£60-£150/ha

Sowingthemix

Manyset-asidegrassmarginswereestablishedthroughnaturalregeneration,butthereareclearbenefitstowildlifeifasuitableseedmixissowninspringorautumnintoafine,firmseed-bed.Themixshouldcontainavarietyofgrassspecies,includingtussock-formingspeciessuchascocksfootandtimothytomaximisestructuraldiversityinthesward.Thevalueofgrassmarginsfornectarfeedinginsectsandthewildlifethatfeedsonthemisgreatlyenhancedifwildflowersareincludedinthesward.Thiscouldbethesimpleadditionofanagriculturalclovercultivarwhichwillflowerforuptofouryearsandsupportthelonger-tonguedbumblebees.However,agreaterfloweringcontinuitywillbeachievedifamixtureofspeciesisused,thatwillsupportawiderrangeofbumblebeespecies,whichthenpollinateawiderrangeofcropsandwildflowers.Thewildflowercomponentisalsolikelytopersistforlongerifnativewildflowersareused,forexampleavarietyofrobustandvigorousspeciessuchasknapweed,yarrowandoxeyedaisy.

Cutting/grazing regime

Grassmarginsshouldbeleftundisturbedduringthesummer.Althoughcuttingorgrazingafterharvestreducesthestructuraldiversityoftheswardintheshorttermitdoeshelptomaintainstructureinthelong-termandpreventsmarginsfrombecomingovergrown.Theidealmanagementofgrassmarginsforconservationissimilartothatforhedgerows–cuttingaroundone-thirdofthemarginsonthefarmonathreeyearrotation.For6mmargins,annualcutting(priortonesting)of3mnearestthecropencouragesamorediversegrassstructure.Marginsshouldnotbecutshorterthan10cmtoensurethatthegrasstussockscontinuetoprovideanoverwinteringsiteforinsects.

Grass margins along the edge of arable fields provide nesting cover for birds such as grey partridge and yellowhammer, an insect-rich summer foraging habitat for many farmland birds and a suitable nesting habitat for bumblebees, thus helping to deliver the ‘Big Three’. They can also form useful buffer strips, protecting watercourses and other natural habitats from soil erosion, fertiliser run-off and spray drift.

Widthofthemargins

Thewidthofgrassmarginsisoftendeterminedbypracticalconsiderationssuchasthewidthofthedrillusedtoestablishtheseedmix,butmarginsofbetween1.5-6minwidthwilldeliversignificantwildlifebenefitsasdifferentspecieswillhavedifferentrequirements.Forinstance6mwidemarginswillprovidegoodforaginghabitatforbarnowlwhilstgreypartridgeswilltendtonestinnarrowerstrips(2m)butwillbenefitfromadjacentconservationheadlandsorwildbirdcoversforchickfood.Combininggrassmarginswiththemanagementofadjacenthedgerowswillprovideanidealnestinghabitatforgreypartridgesandyellowhammers,whichliketonestonthegroundintheshelterofahedge.Game&WildlifeConservationTrust(GWCT)researchhasshownthat4.3-6.9kmofgoodfieldmarginnestingcoverisrequiredpersquarekilometreoffarmlandtohaltthedeclineandhelprecoverpopulationsofGreyPartridges.

Grass margins Enriching existing margins

Existinggrassmarginscanbeenrichedbysowingoneormorenectarandpollen-bearingspecies,withrecommendedmixesappropriatefordifferentsituations.Thisshouldbecarriedoutwhenthereisplentyofmoistureinthesoil–clovermustbesowninthespringbutnaturalwildflowersmayalsobesowninautumn.Theexistinggrasscovershouldbecutasshortaspossiblebeforesowingandadirectdrillshouldbeusedtoensurethattheseedmakescontactwiththesoil.Thegrasscovershouldbecutagainafteracoupleofweekstoreducecompetitionwiththegerminatingwildflowers.

1Field margin and hedgerow trees, Gallowhill, Tayside and Clackmannanshire Area.

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Key points

– Anetworkofatleast4kmof2-6mwidegrassmarginper100hectaresprovidesthebestcover

– Grassmarginsadjacenttohedgerowsandwatercoursesandadjacenttoconservationheadlandsinthecropareparticularlybeneficial.

– Sowadiversemixofgrassspeciesandincludesomenectarandpollen-bearingplantssuchasredclover,tuftedvetch,knapweedandyarrow.

– Cutone-thirdofthegrassmarginsonthefarmeachyearafterharvest,followingathreeyearrotation,orlightlygrazeafterharvest.


Managing Grass Margins – Cairnhill Farm, Turriff, Aberdeenshire

AtCairnhillFarm,JamesNorriemowshisgrassmarginsafterharvesteachyear.Thishelpsmaintainmorebotanicaldiversityandimprovesaccessforforagingbirds.However,itdoesreducetheamountofcoveravailable,particularlynestingcoverforgreypartridgesthefollowingspring,astheytendtonestintheresidualtussocksofthepreviousyear’sgrowth.Someofthemarginsincludewildflowerssuchasknapweedandoxeyedaisywhichenhancesthesupplyofnectarandpollenforinsects.

Grass Margins – Andet Farm, Methlick, Aberdeenshire

AtAndetFarm,NeilGrayhashadgrassmarginsthroughtheCountrysidePremiumSchemesince2000.Therulesofthisschemepreventedcuttingorgrazingofthemarginsandthevegetationisnowverytallandtussocky.Thisprovidesexcellentnestingandwintercoverforpartridgesandyellowhammers,butthetallgrassestendtosmotheroutotherplants,meaningthatthediversityofplantsandassociatedinsectsmaynotbeashighasitcouldhavebeenhadthemanagementbeendifferent.MostofthesemarginsarelikelytobetransferredintotheLandManager’sOptionsschemeinduecourse,whichwillallowthemtobecutafterharvesteveryona2-3yearrotation.

2Grass margin at Andet Farm.

3Grass margin at Cairnhill Farm.

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Wild bird cover

1Unharvested crop.

2Goldfinch.

3Two year wild bird cover at Cowbog Farm.

Wild bird cover (also known as unharvested crops or game cover) provides a valuable source of seed food for birds over the winter and can also provide shelter from predators at a time when there is very limited cover available from crops and grassland. The addition of a small proportion of nectar and pollen-bearing flowers provides a good source of food for bees. Additionally, when sown as a biannual mix wild bird cover can provide excellent chick foraging habitat in its second year of growth.

Wild bird cover – Cowbog Farm, Morebattle, Roxburghshire

RobertWilsonhasestablished10haofwildbirdcoveracross200haoffarmland,mostlymakinguseofawkwardfieldcornersthataredifficulttocultivate.Theplotsaresownwithatwo-yearmixofoats,triticaleandkale.Overwinter,theplotsattracthugeflocksofchaffinches,goldfinches,reedbuntings,yellowhammers,treesparrowsandlinnets.Inaddition,barnowlsbreedonthefarmandareoftenseenhuntingoverthewildbirdcoverplots.Bumblebees,damselfliesandseveralbutterflyspeciesusetheplotsthroughoutthesummermonthsandgreypartridgenumbershaveincreaseddramaticallyinrecentyears,inlargepartduetotheareasofwildbirdcoverandgrassmarginsthathavebeenprovided.

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Two year mix Kg/ha One year mix Kg/ha

Oats 20.0 Oats 15.0

Barley 20.0 Barley 35.0

Kale,merlin 1.0 Triticale 20.0

Kale,mariskestrel 1.0 Springrape 1.0

Kale,keeper 1.0 Mustard 1.0

Quinoa 1.0 Linseed 1.0

Springrape 0.5 Cloverred 0.5

Mustard 0.5

Redclover 1.0

Where to establish a wild bird cover?

Flocksoffinches,treesparrowsandbuntingsaremorelikelytofeedinwildbirdcoveriftherearesafeplacesofretreatforwhentheyaredisturbed.Establishingcropsnexttohedges,trees,shrubsandoverheadwiresisthereforelikelytoencouragetheirusebythesebirds.However,sitesnexttodensewoodlandorforestryarelesssuitableastheyareavoidedbymanyopen-countryfarmlandspecies.

Around1-2haofwell-establishedwildbirdcoverper100haoffarmlandprovidesgoodcoverformobileflocksofsmallbirdssuchasfinchesandbuntings.GWCTresearchdemonstratesthat3%ofthearablehabitatneedstobeinsect-richbroodrearingcover(wildbirdcover,unharvestedcropsorconservationheadlands)tohelphaltgreypartridgedeclineand5%forpopulationrecoverytotheBiodiversityActionPlantargets.Speciessuchasgreypartridgesareterritorialinlatewinterandbenefitmostifsmallplotsorstripsofwildbirdcover(around0.25haeach)arescatteredthroughoutthearea.However,rabbitanddeergrazingcanhaveadisproportionateeffectonverynarrowstrips(<10metres)andtheseshouldbeavoided.

Mixes

Wildbirdcoverisestablishedinthespringusingeitheraone-ortwo-yearseedmix.One-yearmixesareusuallycereal-basedwhiletwo-yearmixescombinecerealswithaBrassica(usuallykale)toprovideasourceofseedsinthesecondyear.

Two-yearmixesoftenprovidebettercoverfrompredators,butkalecanbedifficulttoestablish,requiringhighfertilityforgoodgrowth.Ifkalegrowthispoorinthefirstyear,thereislikelytobelittleseedavailabilityduringthesecondyearandgrassweedscanbecomeestablished.Inthesecircumstances,aone-yearmixwouldprovideequalbenefit.One-yearmixesarealsopreferredwheretheyareintendedtohelpgrain-eaterssuchasthecornbunting,asthecerealcomponentusuallydisappearsduringthesecondyearoftwo-yearmixes.Outsidecorn

buntingareas,analternativetofailingkaleistosowamixofquickgrowingcropslikemustard,fodderradish,foragerapeorstubbleturnipsthatwillpatchfailedspringsowncovers.Mustardandfodderradishcanbeusedasa‘rescuecrop’butarenotwinterhardyandwillnotprovideacoverthroughoutthewinter.

Springtriticale,quinoa,linseedandspringticbeansarevaluablesourcesofseedsandaresuitabletoScottishconditions.

Havingseparateblocksoftwo-yearwildbirdcoverwithalternatingsowingyearsensuresthatavarietyofdifferentseedtypesareavailableeachyear.

Establishment

Cultivationshouldaimtoprovideafirm,fineseedbedpriortosowing.Thesmallerseedsshouldnotbesowntoodeep,somanypeopleprefertobroadcastthesmallerseedsanddrillthecerealcomponent.Alowrateoffertiliser(30kgN/ha,upto90kgN/haforKale)maybeappliedtoaidestablishmentbutisnotalwaysnecessaryandshouldbeavoidedifthereisalreadyhighfertility.

Key points

– Aimtohaveatleast1-2haofwildbirdcoverper100hectaresoffarmland,ideallyin2-4separateblocksorstrips.

– Locatewildbirdcoveradjacenttoahedge,scatteredscrubortreesornexttoanoverheadwiretoprovideaplaceofretreatforsmallbirds.

– Avoidsitesnexttodensewoodlandorforest.– Sowasuitableoneortwoyearcropmix,but

avoidtwoyearmixesifkaledoesnotestablishwellinyouarea.

– Sowdifferentblocksoftwo-yearmixesinalternateyearstoensurethatawiderangeofseedsareavailableeachyear.

Examples of seed mixtures for Wild Bird Cover with added nectar source for bumblebees

MoresuggestionsareprovidedinRSPB‘FarmingandCroftingforbirdsinScotland’leafletsorontheGWCTwebsite(www.gwct.org.uk).Costofmixturescanrangefrom£50-£130perha,withtwoyearmixesgenerallymoreexpensivethanoneyearmixes.

4Grain crop for small birds, Balliefurth Farm, Grantown on Spey.

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Grassland and wild flower habitats

Many areas of permanent set-aside were sown with grass and managed with low inputs and limited disturbance through cutting. Such areas of setaside have often been retained where the ground is wet or steep or alongside an environmentally sensitive habitat such as a watercourse.

Continuingtomanagetheseareasinalow-intensitymannerisbeneficialtoinsectsandthespeciesthatfeedonthemandtogroundnestingbirdssuchascurlews,skylarksandcornbuntings.ManagementofgrasslandhabitatsisalsoimportantforarablewildlifeinthemixedfarmingsystemsthatpredominateinsomepartsofScotland.

Wildflowerscanbeincorporatedintoseedmixesforlong-termgrassmargins,butdedicatedwildflowerhabitatscanprovideanevenrichersourceofnectarandpollenforinsects,especiallyundersympatheticcuttingand/orgrazingmanagement.Theseinsectsinturnprovidearichsourceofsummerfoodforfarmlandbirds.

Clover Leys – Cairnhill Farm, Turriff, Aberdeenshire

OrganicfarmerssuchasJamesNorrieatCairnhillinAberdeenshirefrequentlymakeuseofshort-termcloverleysaspartofthearablerotation,astheyfixnitrogenandbuildsoilfertility.Floweringcloveralsoprovidesanabundanceofnectarandpollenforinsectsonthefarm.Cloverleysarebynomeanslimitedtoorganicfarmingsystemsandtheymaybeworthconsideringbyconventionalarable(andparticularlymixed)farmersfortheiragronomicandenvironmentalbenefits.

Clover leys

A1-2yearcloverleycanproduceasimilaryieldtoaconventionalgrasssilagecropbutwithasavingof£150-£200/hainnitrogenfertilisercosts.Furthermoretheycanreducethenitrogenrequirementofthefollowingcropby20-40kg/ha(asavingof£10-£20perhaatcurrentprices).Thegreatestsavingsareachievedifitispossibletograzethecloverwithintwomonthspriortoploughingasthedungproducedreleasesthenitrogeninamorereadilyavailableform.

Thekeytodeliveringwildlifebenefitsfromcloverleysistoallowtheclovertofullyflowerbeforecutting,otherwisetherewillbenonectarorpollenavailableforbumblebeesandotherinsects.Althoughcloversilageisusuallycutlaterthanconventionalgrasssilage,delayingcuttinguntilafterfullfloweringmayresultinaslightdeclineinquality,butthisisnotassevereasthatwhichaffectslatecutgrasssilage.AsfullfloweringmaynotoccuruntilJuly,cloversilagealsohasthepotentialtoprovideasafenestingsiteforbirdssuchascornbuntingsandskylarks.

1Species-rich grassland with red clover and bird’s foot trefoil, Woodend, Little Glenshee.

2Great yellow bumblebee.

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3Corn bunting.

4Wildflower meadow at Keltneyburn, Perthshire.

Corn Bunting Management – Cornceres Farm, Anstruther, Fife/ Harvieston Farm, Catterline, Kincardineshire

CornbuntingsarethemostseriouslythreatenedofallthefarmlandbirdsinScotlandwithonly800pairsremainingintheeasternlowlandsandtheUists.Asaground-nestingspecies,ineasternScotlanditshowsapreferencefordensegrasslandratherthanmoreopencerealcropsforfirstnestingattemptsduringearlyJune.However,duetoitshabitofnestinglaterinthesummerthanmostbirdsitisparticularlyvulnerabletosilagecutting,whichcandestroymostfirstnestingattempts.

AndrewPeddieatCornceresfarminFifeandDavidArgoatHarviestoninKincardineshirehavebothworkedwiththeRSPBforseveralyearstomanagegrassset-asidefieldsasnestinghabitatforCornbuntings.ThefieldsarenotmownuntilAugustandthisusuallyresultsinfewerfirstnestingattemptsbeingdestroyed.Althoughsilagequalityisreducedbylatecutting,thisiscompensatedforbytheagri-environmentpaymentsthatarereceived.

Species-rich grassland

Creatingspecies-richgrasslandonasterileseedbedhasbeenthemostwidelyusedtechniqueinScotland,butrequirescarefulestablishmentandongoingmanagementtobesuccessfulasitisintendedaspermanentrecreationofasemi-naturalhabitat.

Where to establish species-rich grasslands?

Sitesshouldbefreeofsignificantweedproblems,particularlythecommonperennialweedsofgrasslandsuchasdocksandthistles.Thesiteshouldideallybeofrelativelylowfertility.

Mixes

Theseedmixshouldincludeavarietyofgrassesandatleast15%nativewildflowers,ideallyoflocalorigin.Someoftheseedmixesthathavebeensowninthepasthavelargelycomprisedannualwildflowerssuchaspoppiesandcornflowers.Theseproduceaverycolourfuldisplayinthefirstyearbutareoutcompetedbygrassesinsubsequentyears.Itisthereforeimportantthatmostofthewildflowerseedsareofperennialspecies.Thesemaybelessspectacularvisuallybutprovideanongoingnectarandpollenresourceforyearstocome.

Pricesmayvarybetween£400-550/haformixesincludingcultivarsorahighproportionofgrass(above90%),tomorethan£1500/haformorediversemixesofnativegrassesandwildflowersthatwillbenefitawiderrangeofinsectsandmaybemoresuitabletolocalconditions.

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Example of species-rich grassland mix for bumblebees and butterflies

Localoriginseedwillestablishbetterandisrecommendedwhereverpossible,althoughthismayincreasethecostconsiderably(£750/haormore).Seedshouldbesownatarateofatleast15kg/haandpreferably20-25kg/ha.

Grasses

Strongcreepingredfescue 35%

Smoothstalkedmeadowgrass 31%

Cresteddog’stail 15%

Meadowfoxtail 4%

Wildflowers

Redclover 2%

Bird’sfoottrefoil 1%

Meadowbuttercup 2%

Yarrow 1%

Commonknapweed 1.55%

Lady’sbedstraw 0.70%

Ribwortplantain 1.50%

Yellowrattle 0.50%

Tuftedvetch 1.50%

Commonsorrel 0.20%

Whiteclover 1%

Meadowvetchling 0.05%

Selfheal 2%

Nectar and Pollen mixes

Mixes

Asimplerwayofboostingtheavailabilityofnectarandpollenforinsectssuchasbeesandbutterfliesistosowamixtureofatleastthreenectarrichlegumespeciessuchasclovers,vetchesandtrefoilsinaplotorstripwithinafield,ideallyinasheltered,sunnylocation.Themixmayalsocontainfinegrassessuchasredfescueandcommonbentatarationof80%grasses:20%legumesandshouldbesownatarateofabout20kg/ha.

However,grass-freemixesarealsocommonlyused,whichprovidemuchgreaterbenefitsforbees.Thiscreatesatemporaryhabitatthatwilllastforthreeorfouryearsbeforeanewmixwillneedtobesown.

Cutting regime

Theplotshouldbecutinlateautumn(ideallyremovingthecuttings)althoughinsouth-eastScotlandcuttingpartoftheplotinmid-summermayhelptoprolongthefloweringperiod.ThistypeofmanagementisrareinScotlandatpresentasithasnotbeensupportedbyagri-environmentschemes,butisemployedaspartofenvironmentalprogrammesadoptedbycertainfoodretailers.

Ideallytheaimwouldbetocreate1-2haofnectarandpollenrichhabitatper100haoffarmland,inindividualplotsofupto0.5ha.Thisissimilartotherecommendedamountofwildbirdcover.

Alternatingthepollenandnectarmixandwildbirdcoveronthesameplotsoflandevery3-4yearsmayhelptomaintainfertilityandcontroltheweedburdeninwildbirdcover.

Cutting/grazing regime

Onceestablished,speciesrichgrasslandshouldbecutinlatesummerorautumn,andthecuttingsremoved.Latecutting(after15thAugust)isparticularlyimportantinareaswherecornbuntingsarebreeding.Grazingtheaftermathwithlivestockduringthewintercanhelptothickentheswardandreducethedominanceofunwelcomegrasses(e.g.Yorkshirefog)andtheriskofweedssuchasthistlesandragwortbecomingestablished.Alternatively,anappropriategrazingregimecanbeappliedthroughouttheyear.Lightgrazinginthesummercanhelpmaintainapatchycover.Cattlearelessselectivethansheepandwillhelpmaintaindifferentheightsofvegetationwhileleavingplentyoffloweringheads.Theyaresuitableinareasthatarenotsusceptibletopoaching.Verylightgrazinginlatespringisparticularlyimportanttoavoidbirdnestsandearlyflowerstobedestroyed.Livestockshouldberemovedinwinterandearlyspringiftherisksofpoachingareimportant.Supplementaryfeedingshouldbeavoidedasitmayintroduceforeignseedsandnutrientsandencouragedamagestothesward.

Key points

Considerusingacloverleyasameansofbuildingfertilityinthearablerotationandprovidinghighqualityforageforlivestock.– Thiscanreducethenitrogenrequirementofthe

followingcropby20-40kg/ha.– Cuttheseandotherareasofgrasslandsetaside

aslateaspossibletoprotectgroundnestingbirds–ideallymidJulyorlater.

– Inareaswithcornbuntings,takeexpertadvicetoensureeffectivetargetingoflategrasscutting.TherequirementfortheRuralPrioritycornbuntingoptionistoavoidcutting,grazingorrollingthegrassbetween1Mayand1August.

– Aimtohave1-2haofwildflowerhabitatper100hectaresoffarmland,ideallyinplotsofnomorethan0.5ha.

– Choosesheltered,sunnylocationsfortheplots–Sowamixof80%finegrassesand20%legumes(clover,vetches,trefoil)atarateof20kg/ha,oragrassfreemixoflegumesat15-20kg/ha.Ifspring-sown,includeatleastoneannualspeciestoprovidenectarandpolleninthefirstsummer.

– Alternatively,sowalocaloriginmixof85%finegrassesand15%nativewildmeadowflowerstocreateapermanentwildflowerhabitat.

– Cuttheplotinlatesummerorautumnandremovethecuttings.

– Temporarynectarandpollenmixescouldbeestablishedinrotationwithwildbirdcover.”


1Barley.

2Seven spotted ladybird on barley ear.

Enhancing the value of cropped areas for wildlife

While creating habitats alongside cropped areas is extremely beneficial to wildlife, the cropped area itself can deliver enhanced benefits for wildlife, through targeted use of fertilisers and pesticides but also by managing areas of stubbles and introducing fallows in the rotation.

1

2


Input efficiency

Making the most efficient use of crop inputs makes considerable economic sense, particularly as rising oil costs push up the price of fertiliser and other crop inputs. An integrated farming approach that combines measures such as varietal choice for disease resistance, minimum tillage and precision farming to optimise nutrient and crop protection inputs has the potential to deliver significant financial and environmental benefits.

Manyoftheenvironmentalbenefitsofintegratedfarmingrelatetosoilandwaterconservationbuttherearealsospecificbenefitstofarmlandwildlife,particularlythroughmeasuresthatreducenutrientandpesticideinputs.

Themainvalueforwildlifeofreducedcropinputsislikelytobeanincreaseinplantdiversitywithinthecropwithassociatedbenefitsforrarearableplants,insectsandseed-eatingspecies,thushelpingtoprovideboththesummerandwinterfoodelementsofthe‘BigThree’forfarmlandbirds.Someoftheplantsthatbenefitmaybeconsideredtobeweedspeciesbyfarmers.Fortunately,manyofthemoredesirableweedsforwildlifearethelesscompetitiveormoreeasilycontrolledspecies.Itisthereforepossibletoconsidermanagementtechniquesthatmightallowsomedesirableweedstoflourishwithoutencouragingtheproblemspecies.

Management options

Precisionfarmingcanhelptooptimisecropinputsandsavemoneythroughanumberoftechniquessuchas:– GPSGuidancesystemstoreduceoverlapsin

cultivation,spraysandfertiliser.– Mappingvariationinsoils,cropgrowthandyield– VariableapplicationofspraysandfertiliserThepracticalityofinvestinginprecisionfarmingtechnologywilldependonthesizeofthefarmandtheamountofvariabilityinsoilsandcropyieldsonthefarm.Recentresearchsuggeststhatprecisionfarmingmethodscoulddelivernetbenefitsof£6-19/haforarablefarmsof300-750hainarea,withthelargestfarmsgettingthegreatestbenefit4.Thecostofinvestinginthetechnologytodeliverthisnetbenefitrangedfrom£14-£36/ha.Manual-steerGPSguidancesystemscandeliversavingsforaninitialcapitalinvestmentof£1000-4000andarelikelytobethemostcosteffectiveintroductiontoprecisionfarmingforsmallerarablefarms.Moreaccurateautosteersystemsmaycost£15-20,000ormoreandwillonlybecosteffectiveforverylargefarms.

Improving the use of herbicides

Amorestraightforwardmethodofincreasingdesirableweedsissimplytoreduceherbicideuseacrossthewholefield(orpartofafield),ifitispossibletodothiswithoutsignificanteconomicoragronomicproblems.Inorganicfarmsthisisdoneasamatterofcourse,butwithcareitcanalsobecarriedoutonconventionalfarms.

ResearchonwinterwheatfromtheSAFFIEproject(SustainableArableFarmingforanImprovedEnvironment)foundthatonlightsoilswithalowweedburden(thosewithouttheundesirablespeciesmentionedinthetable),itwaspossibletoincreasedesirableweedsalonebyapplyingherbicideonlyinspring,oftenwithoutyieldloss.SACresearchhasshownthatavoidingautumnweedcontroliseasiestinlater-sownwintercrops5.

Springcerealsoftensuffernegligibleyieldlossevenintheabsenceofanyherbicideapplicationatall.SACtrialssuggestthat2.5-3.0%yieldlossistypicalinuntreatedspringbarley6.Atrecentlowgrainpricesthiscostisoffsetbythesavingsinherbicide,resultinginafinanciallyneutraloutcome.However,theprimaryreasonforherbicideuseinspringcropsistopreventalong-termbuild-upofweedpopulationsandtoavoidexcessiveweedgrowththatinterfereswithharvesting,whilethosewithhighvaluegraincrops(e.g.forseedormalting)willwanttoavoidweedseedcontamination.

Implementationofreducedherbicidemanagementwillthereforebesite-specific.

Ingeneralthistypeofmanagementshouldnotbecarriedoutcontinuouslyonanyonefieldtopreventthedevelopmentofanunacceptableweedburdeninthelongterm.Movingtheunsprayedareatoadifferentlocationeveryoneortwoyearsandresumingconventionalmanagementontheoriginallocationcanhelptoavoidthisproblem,ascanfollowingatraditionalarable-grassrotation.

Somefarmersmaybewaryofriskingreducedherbicidemanagement,butforspringcropsthereisapaymentof£96/haavailableundertheLandManager’sOptionsschemeifthistypeofmanagementiscombinedwiththeretentionofstubblesuntiltheendofFebruary,whichmakestheoptionmuchmorefinanciallyattractive.Itisalsopossibletoimplementthistypeofmanagementonastripattheedgeofthefield(conservationheadland)oronanareawithinafield(forexampleifrarearableplantssuchascornflowerarepresent).Forconservationheadlands,theaimistoavoidusingbroadleafherbicidesandinsecticidesandfinancialsupportisavailablethroughLandManager’sOptions.Graminicidesandfungicidestypicallyhavealowimpactonfarmlandwildlife,sothereisnoneedtoavoidusingtheseproductsiftheyarerequired.Reducingfertiliseruseonconservationheadlandscanalsoreduceproblemsfromaggressiveweedssuchascleavers.

When to envisage herbicide reduction?

Characteristics of the site

Soil Light Heavy

Weedspresent Lowgrowingbroadleaved Problematicweeds(e.g.couch, andmeadow-grassspecies black-grass,cleavers)

Crop Grainisgrownforfeed Grainisgrownformalting orseedproduction

Suitabilityforherbicidereduction Suitable Shouldbeavoided


‘Desirable Weeds’ Source: SAFFIE Project

PicturesandinformationontheweedscanbefoundonHGCAonlineEncyclopaediaofArableWeeds:www.hgca.com/awe

Undesirable Desirable Very desirable

Black-grass Fumitory Annual meadow-grass

Broad-leaveddock Groundsel Black-bindweed

Bromegrasses Mayweeds Charlock

Cleavers Mouse-ear Chickweed

Couch Pansies Fat-hen

Creepingthistle Sow-thistles Knotgrass

Cropvolunteers Redshank

Wild-oats WildradishIntegrated and precision farming – Gilston Mains, Leven, Fife

EdwardBaxterisaTIBREarablegroupfarmerandcropsover800haatGilstonMains(aLEAFdemonstrationfarm)andcontractedground.Varietalchoice,agronomiccropwalking,low-dosesprayingequipment,croprotationandyieldmonitoringformthebasisoftheintegratedfarmmanagementsystemthathasbeenimplementedhereforovertwentyyears.Minimumtillageisusedwhenestablishingsomecropsandforfieldsthatareploughed,lowground-pressuretyresandon-landploughsareusedtominimisesoilcompaction.ThefarmhasrecentlyinvestedinhighprecisionGPSauto-steerguidancesystemsfortwotractorswhichwillallowmoreaccuratecultivation,drillingandspraying.Researchsuggeststhatthistypeofsystemdeliverssavingsofover£20/hainfuel,timeandinputsthroughreducedoverlaps,againstacostofaround£12/haforan800hafarm.Lowercostguidancesystemsdeliversmallersavingsbutaremorecosteffectiveforfarmsoflessthan500ha.

Key points

– Lookatthepotentialforprecisionfarmingtodelivercostsavingsandenvironmentalbenefitsonthefarm.

– Inwintercerealsonlightsoilwithalowweedburden,considerusingselectiveherbicidesandsprayinginspringonly.

– Inspringcerealsonlightsoilwithalowweedburden,considerreducingoravoidingherbicideuseonarotationalbasis.

– Considerhavingunsprayedorselectivelysprayed(nobroadleafherbicidesorinsecticides)conservationheadlands(atleast6metreswide)alongthemarginsofarablefields.

Conservation Headlands – Meadowend Farm, Clackmannanshire

AtMeadowend,theTurnbullsmaintainunsprayedconservationheadlandsalongthemarginsofsomeoftheirarablefields.Duetothewidthofthesprayerboomthattheyuserelativetothesizeofthefield,theyareoftenleftwithanarrowstripofcropattheedgeofthefieldthatisleftunsprayed.Thismakespracticalsenseaswellasenhancingthehabitatforfarmlandbirds,andisaverylowcostsolution.Someoftheunsprayedheadlandsarealsoleftunharvestedtoprovideasimpleformofwildbirdcover

1Redshank.

2Unharvested conservation headlands at Meadowend Farm.

1 2


Stubble management

Stubbleshavetraditionallybeenoneofthemostimportantsourcesofseedfoodandshelterforfarmlandbirdsoverthewinter.Spiltgrainandweedseedsamongthestubblecanattractlargeflocksoffinches,larksandbuntings.However,theadventofwintercroppinghasreducedtheamountofstubbleavailableandbetterweedcontrolhasreducedthenumberofseedsavailablewithintheremainingstubbles.Asstubblesaregraduallyploughedthroughoutthewinter,thoseremaininguntillatewinterorearlyspringareparticularlyvaluableatatimewhenseedresourcesforbirdsarescarcest.

Stubblesforwildlifeshouldideallybeleftunploughedaslateaspossible(endofFebruary).Todeliverwidespreadbenefitsforseed-eatingbirds,10-20%ofarablelandshouldbeleftaslateploughedstubblesasresearchhasshownthattheskylarkpopulationdeclinesiftheproportionofoverwinteredstubbleinthelandscapedropsbelow10%.Thevalueofstubblesforwildlifeisdependentonthemprovidingarichsourceofseeds,sotomaximisebenefits,theretentionoflateploughedstubblesshouldideallyfollowthekindofreducedherbicidemanagementdescribedearlierintheinputefficiencysection.

Fallow Management

Oneofthemostvaluableformsofset-asideforwildlifewasrotationalset-asidewherenaturallyregeneratedstubblewasleftfallowoverthefollowinggrowingseason.Aswellasprovidingseed-richstubblewellintothespring,thepatchy,diversevegetationthatregeneratesprovidesaninsectrichhabitatduringthesummerandanundisturbedbreedingareaforgroundnestingbirdsandmammalssuchasthebrownhare.Thebenefitsoffallowsforinvertebrateslargelydependonseedbankdiversity.Firstyearfallowsusuallyprovidelittleforbumblebeesbutleavingfallowsforasecondyearallowsthefloweringofusefulperennialorbiennialflowers.Fallowscanalsohaveanagronomicbenefit,allowingsoilfertilitytorecoverandsoilstructuretoimprovefollowingcontinuouscultivation.

ManagementoffallowsforwildlifeshouldaimtodelaycultivationormowingofthevegetationuntilatleastlateJulytoprotectground-nestingbirds.Sprayingcanalsobedelayeduntilthistimeifthevegetationislargelybroad-leavedweedsandcropvolunteers.However,ifproblematicgrassweedsarepresent,earliersprayingmaybenecessarytoachievecontrol.

Fallows and stubbles

1Field corner left set-aside.

1


Example of gross margins for spring barley at different grain prices, based on figures from The Farm Management Handbook 2009/10 (SAC)

Spring barley @ £75/t Spring barley @ £100/t Spring barley @ £125/t

Grossmargin £252 £389 £527

Contractor’srates(ploughing, £220 £220 £220sowing,fertilising,spraying,combiningandbaling)

Fuelcosts £32 £32 £32

Typicaldryingcosts £20 £20 £20

Enterprisemargin -£20 £117 £255

Key points

Aimtoretain10-20haofstubblesper100haoflanduntiltheendofFebruary.– Combinestubbleretentionwithreducedherbicide

inputsontheprecedingcroptomaximisethevaluetoseed-eatingbirds.

– Maintainsomestubblesasrotationalfallowifeconomicsandpracticalityoffarmmanagementallow.

– Delaycutting,cultivatingandsprayingoffallowstubblesaslateaspossible,andideallyuntilatleastlateJuly.

2Corn marigolds.

2


Furtheradviceisavailablefromthefollowingorganisations,manyofwhichprovidetechnicalandadvisorynotesthatareavailableonlineorasprintedandCDcopies.

– BumblebeeConservationTrust:www.bumblebeeconservation.org.uk– FarmwildlifeWebsite:www.farmwildlife.info– Game&WildlifeConservationTrust:www.gwct.org.uk– RSPBScotland–FarmingandcroftingforbirdsinScotlandadvicenotes:www.rspb.org.uk– Plantlife–TheArablePlantsWebsite:www.arableplants.org.uk– HGCAonlineencyclopaediaofarableweeds:www.hgca.com/awe– SACTechnicalNotes:http://www.sac.ac.uk/publications/technicalnotes/– SNHTIBREArableHandbook:http://www.snh.org.uk/publications/on-line/heritagemanagement/tibre/– HGCAprecisionfarmingcost-benefitcalculator:www.hgca.com/beprecise– TheVoluntaryInitiative–Promotingresponsiblepesticideuse:http://www.voluntaryinitiative.org.uk/

Useful resources

ThisbookletwasproducedaspartofanSNHfundedprojecttopromotealternativestoset-asideforthewildlifeofarablefarmland,whichincludedaseriesof16workshopsonfarmsthroughouteasternScotland.TheworkshopsweredeliveredbySACConsultingwithassistancefromtheGame&WildlifeConservationTrust.InvaluablesupportwasprovidedbyRSPBScotlandandtheBumblebeeConservationTrust.

SACConsultingwouldliketothankallofthefarmsthatparticipated:

– DavidArgo,Harvieston,Catterline,Kincardineshire– EdwardBaxter,Gilston,Leven,Fife– HughBroad,Woodhead,Gifford,EastLothian– W.G.Campbell&Sons,NewtonFarm,Cromarty,Ross-shire– NeilGray,Andet,Methlick,Aberdeenshire– HughGrierson,Newmiln,Tibbermore,Perthshire– IanMcCall,Henderston,Newtyle,Angus– G.C.Morrison&Son,Cunninghaugh,SpeyBay,Moray– JamesNorrie,Cairnhill,Turriff,Aberdeenshire– AndrewPeddie,Cornceres,Anstruther,Fife– RoseberyEstates,Ochiltree,Dalmeny,WestLothian– TomSampson,MainsofBalgavie,Forfar,Angus– J.H.andN.T.Turnbull,Meadowend,Clackmannanshire– IanandTinaWightman,Clarabad,Paxton,Berwickshire– RobertWilson,Cowbog,Morebattle,Borders– DouglasYounger,Whitslaid,Lauder,Berwickshire

Acknowledgements

1 POSTnote348InsectPollination.ParliamentaryOfficeofScienceandTechnology,January20102 Pers.Comm.DrRDawson,BumbleBeeConservationTrust,20103 http://www.rspb.org.uk/ourwork/farming/advice/conservation/big3.asp4 HGCAResearchReview71:Anup-to-datecost/benefitanalysisofprecisionfarmingtechniquestoguidegrowersof

cerealsandoilseeds,20095 SACTechnicalNote540:WinterWheat&Barley:TheIntegratedManagementOfWeeds,20036 SACTechnicalNote596:SpringBarleyWeedControl,2007

References

Contacts

SAC Consulting Paul Chapmantel:01467625385email:[email protected]

SNHMarie Pagès-Goldtel:01463725326email:[email protected]

Front cover image:

Corncockle,cornflower,cornmarigolds

andpoppiesgrowingattheedgeofa

fieldofoats,Bankfoot.

www.snh.org.uk

©ScottishNaturalHeritage2010

Acknowledgments

Author:SACconsulting

Contributions by:GWCT,RSPB,BBCT,SNH

Photography: Paul Chapman (SAC)insidefrontcover,10,11,12,27left,29;Robert Dawson (BBCT)5right;

Lorne Gill (SNH)frontcover,2,4left,4right,5left,6,9,13left,15,16,18,19,22,23,31;David Goulson

(BBCT)17;Derek Robeson (SAC) 13right;Sandra Stewart (SAC)27right.

ISBN:978-1-85397-659-9PrintCode:TCP0.5K0810

Furthercopiesareavailablefrom:Publications,

ScottishNaturalHeritage,Battleby,Redgorton,PerthPH13EW

T:01738458530F:01738456613E:[email protected]

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