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Space Station: Key to the Future.National Aeronautics and Space Administration,Washington, D.C.NASA-EP-75[71]44p.Superintendent of Documents, Government PrintingOffice, Washington, D.C. 20402 ($0.45)

MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29*Aerospace Education; *Aerospace Technology;*Astronomy; Earth Science; Instructional Materials;

Resource MaterialsSpace Age; *Space Sciences

ABSTRACTThe possible applications, advantages and features of

an advanced space station to be developed are considered in anon-technical manner in this booklet. Some of the areas ofapplication considered include the following: the detection of largescale dynamic earth processes such as changes in snow pack, r.:rops,and air pollution levels; the development of new industrialprocessing and technology in space, such as metal foam, growingcrystals, and levitati.on melting; scientific research in astronomy,life science, and physics. The space station design and environmentas well as the space shuttle transportation system are described.Many large drawings illustrate the space station and its operation.

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U S DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH.EDUCATION & WELFAREOFFICE OF EDUCATION

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EP-75 National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Issued by the Office of Public AffairsNational Aeronautics and Space AdministrationWashington, D.C. 20546

For sale by theSuperintendent of DocumentsU.S. Govem.nent Printing OfficeWashington, D.C. 20402

Price 45 cents

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ForewordThe areas of communication and meteorologyhave demonstrated vividly that space systemscan provide unique, direct benefits to man onEarth. In a few short years, these space applica-tions are no longer sources of wonder, they havetaken their place in the array of commercialand governmental services that our society nowtakes for granted. It is easily perceived thatapplications emanating from current researchactivities will continue to grow. No one can yetcomprehend the full dimensions of the possi-bilities to which space systems can be placed inthe service of man. The most beneficial and mostprofound results of our activities in space mayaccrue in areas where the benefits are indirect.These include international relation% man-agement techniques for complex mt.. prises, andindustrial technology. But the most significantresults will be in the advance of knowledge, theunderstanding of the evolution of the universeand the origin of life. This understanding can beexpected to progress significantly, and perhapsundergo profound transformations, as the newfrontier of space is explored to aid the under-standing of the secrets of nature and theuniverse.

Manned space flight programs have beenprimarily concerned until now with learning howto operate effectively and safely in space environ-ment while accomplishing missions of increas-ing complexity and value. The astronauts havebeen test pilots undertaking experimental flights.Overall, our cbjective has been to build amanned space flight capability. Now, an increas-ingly complex set of missions using increasinglycomplex spacecraft has been completed success-fully in the Mercury, Gemini and Apollo Pro-grams. Their success attests to the maturing ofthat capability. With this capability in hand, wecan pay considerably more attention to thescientific objectiVes that can be achieved byemploying men at the scene of the activity. Wehave established follow-on programs to the lunarlanding in which scientifically trained astronautswill employ Apollo space vehicles in programsorienteu toward scientific experimentation.Such a program is the Skylab Program in whichthe third stage (S-IVB stage) of the Saturn launchvehicle will be fitted out as an orbital workshopto be a precursor to the Space Station. Threeastronauts will occupy this Earth orbiting labora-tory for continuous periods as long as two months.They will use the equipment installed to conduct

scientific experiments, make solar observationsand to determinc the effects of long space mis-sions on the health of crewmen. NASA will alsoinvestigate the factors of habitability which affectcnw morale and effectiveness with the goal ofmaking future Space Stations increasinglyproductive.

The Skylab Program is a first step in mannedutilization of space, but further s', ps must betaken to realize the full potential of this capability.Operating costs must be reduced and workerswith varying skills and normal physical constitu-tions must be accommodated to facithate thenation's uses of space. In the nem by regions ofEarth orbit, a new, semi-permanent space facilitysupplied by a new, low cost, surface to orbit andreturn transportation vehicle is needed. Thesesame systems will be building blocks in thesystem to be employed in future space activitiesof continuing the exploration of the moon and theplanets. The Space Station module design may beused as living quarters in various Earth orbits,in lunar orbit or on a planetary mission. The verylong lifetime of the Space Station permits majorreductions in utilization costs.This booklet describes the Space Station andsome of its future returns. In a non-technicalmanner, It seeks to convey information that hasbeen presented at technical conferences andmeetings.

BackgroundAccomplishmentsOur nation's goal in the first decade of spaceflight was to reach a necessary level of capabil-ity. The focus of this effort was to work to placemen on the surface of the moon, conductscientific investigations, and laturn them safelyfo Earth. The elements needed to achieve thisgoal were hundreds of thousands of skilledpeople in industry, the universities and govern-ment, manufacturing and testing facilities, space-craft, launch vehicles, launch facilities, tracking,data acquisition, and mission control facilitiesand expc,rience in conduct of space operations.Crews have been trained and flight and groundoperations have been carried out with unexcelledprecision and safety. The nation now has theopportunity to employ these capabilities toanhieve new goals in space and to put space towork In an even more practical sense.

Space UtilizationTo exploit space for direct prabtical benefits, thescientific, technological and operational capa-bility which our country has achieved in thelast C. 3cade should now be focused on mature,routine, productive and com-offective utilizationof space. A necessary step in the evolution ofthis approach will be the establishment ofadvanced space stations allowing the directInvolvement of the most talented scientists,technologists and specialists of all kinds withoutregard to their piloting skills, physical staminaor nationality.

Centralized permanent space stations cansupport many diverse activities, can be modifiedand expanded as required, and can be operated

much lower unit costs becduse of the econ-oiny Inherent in large-scale operations. Thesespace stations wouli be national research,development and operat:ons centers in space,comparable to major Earth-bound government,university and Industrial laboratories. They wouldprovide pilot plants for the introduction of com-mercial activities In space in line with thepmedents set in the 1960s in the area of com-munications satellitos, thus returning furtherdirect dividends Porn the space Investment. Theprogram would bring together and make thebest use of our skills in designing both mannedspacecraft and automated satellites. Newmodes of support and control of space activitieswould be investigated. Finally, the SpaceStation will be a vital link in a space transporta-

tion system extending outward to permit theexploration of the moon and the planets.The desired system characteristics for the SpaceStation are routine productive operations, mini-mum operating costs, program flexibility andcrew efficiency and safety.Productive space utilization will require a suffi-ciently large staff of disciplinary rAnd technologi-cal specialists working in a general purposelaboratory which can easily accommodate manydifferent research tasks and applications. Fre-quent resupply from Earth will convenientlyprovide the materials and apparatus required forproductive operations. Relatively large marginson resources such as electrical power andcommunications with the ground, coupled withthe ability to modify, repair, adjust and calibrateequipment onboard will contribote to the sta-tion's broad utility.The Space Station will achieve major costreduction through Its long useful life, Its reduceddependence on ground operational support andIts reusable ground to orbit transportation system.Flexibility in operation will result from a designthat permits modular replacement of systems andcomponents. This in turn allows growth to meetchanging demands. The station will be con-structod gradually over a period of years byplacing in orbit and docking together an Increas-ing number of structural modules of standarddesign. Specialized modules will be developedby installing different kinds of equipment in thestandard structure.The Space Station staff will work and live incomfortable, safe and convenient accommoda-tions. These conditions will be achieved by usinggood architecture, appetizing foods and adequatepersonal hygiene facilities. A normal atmosphereand artificial gravity (where appropriate) willbe provided. Automation will be used to reducethe amount of housekeeping required aridenhance safety by failure warning and fault isola-tion. Damage control and tempr,rary refuge willbe provided for emergency conditions andonboard medical help will be available.

Thls figure shows the External configuration of thetwelve man Space Station. Large wing-like solarcell arrays are shown deployed on double articu-late arms. An experiment module, In this case anastronomy module, is shown docked to the forend of the station for servicing or modification.

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Science andApplicationsThe Space Station will be a scientific laboratoryand a site for applying the new environment ofspace to the direct benefit of man.From the outset, the thrust of the U.S. spaceprogram has been one of exploration to deter-mine what benefits can accrue from space.Starting with the first Explorer satellite in 1958,we have been building on previous knowledge,expanding our horizons. As this expansion ofnew knowledge continues, we find increasingapplication of the new knowledge to the benefitsof man. Satellites now serve us i, the areas ofmeteorology, communications, navigation andmapping. There are a number of other areaswhere the exploration and research point to earlydirect benefits. The planned adaptability of theSpace Station and the versatility of its transporta-tion system should readily assist in the develop-ment of these applications. Of the number ofpromising areas of exploitation, two broad onesare discussed in this section: EarthApplications and l'Aaterials Processing.

EarthApplicationsDirect economic returns can be foreseen in theexploitation of the potential of Earth orbitingspace platforms. The 'Iroad areas of the Earththat can be observed from orbital altitudes can-not be observed simultaneously even by the mostadvanced aerial and ground techniques. Trendsin large-scale dynamic Earth p!--nnmena, suchas changes in snow pack, crop condition, air andwater pollution and relationships between thesea and the atmosphere can be detected as theyoccur. Instruments in space will observe occur-rences in areas where surface observations areinfrequent, such as the broad expanses of oceanand the Arctic and Antarctic masses.

Man's ContributionThe Space Station will allow man to directlyr;articipate in the definitive determination of whatuseful phenomena can be observed from spaceand what systems and techniques are best suitedto the tasks. Man should be sent into space andmaintained there only to perform tasks besthandled in this way. One such task will be in thedevelopment and testing of systems to be em-ployed ii the exploitation of space. As thetechniques become established and the opera-tions repetitious, automat Al equipment can beintroduced, freeing humans for maintenance,redirection and supervision of the machines.Humans who are informed in the area beingstudied can also interpret and analyre the rawinformation obtained in flight, seleoting whichis to be transmitted to Earth, thereby reducingthe great burden on the communication ,,ystem.Here man's role is recognizing patternsa taskthat can be very difficult to program into acomputer.The cost of transportation and Space Stationoperation can be expected to decline as usageincreases, just as has been the case in aviation,communications and other applications ofadvanced technology. When these reductionsproceed far enough, it will be more economicalto repair satellites than to abandon them.

The Earth Resources Sensor Module, attached tothe side of the Space Station, could be used tostudy the geology of the earth's surface.

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Meteorology 6Meteorology is one of the better known areaswhere space application has already benefittedthe world. Very successful observations havebeen made since 1960 by automated satellites.Information on Hurricane Carla permitted 500,000persons to evacuate the areas of Galveston andparts of Louisiana in the path of the storm,reduc-ing loss of life and property. The accompanyingphotograph taken during a recent manned flightshows an entire weather disturbance. Equip-ment tended by men on the space facility wouldsupplement the observations of the automatedsatellites. In addition, maintenance and repairof these very complex automated satellites wouldbe possible, resulting in significantly extendeduseful lifetimes.

Cyclonic Storm Photographed From Apollo 9

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Earth ResourcesMineralProspectingAnother area of great potential return is pros-pecting for mineral resources. Every chemicalelement or compound has a characteristic"signature" like a human fingerprint. It radiatesand reflects not only visible light but also radia-tions of wavelengt'ls not visible to the nakedeyesuch as ultraviolet, infrared, microwave,radio, etc. Simultaleous photography with filmsensitive to radiatiDns in different parts of thespectrum give promise of revealing much infor-mation henceforth unavailable. The accompany-ing photograph of he Colorado River, Lake Meadand Las Vegas in the foreground, is an exampleof the high level of topographical detail availablethrough infrared photography.

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Crop ConditionsTo investigate a different use, an experiment wascarried ou'i by introducing a blight into certainportions of a potato planting. The field was thenrepeatedly photographed with infrared sensitivefilm. The dark portions of the accompanyingphotograph, which are far more vividly seen onthe color print, are the diseased areas. They werediscernible in infrared photographs several daysbefore any changes were noted on the ground.While these photos were taken from an aircraft,comparable results over much larger areas canbe achieved from spacecraft. In fact, crop con-dition identification would be possible on a worldwide basis.

Diseased Crop Photograph

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HydrologyThe use of microwave imagery offers a uniqueopportunity to understand the distribution ofwater both on the Earth's surface and in theground near the Earth's surface. The illustrationbelow demonstrates how the water can be sensedeven though completely obscured to the humaneye. The frame at the left shows a complete cloudcoverage over the area to be hydrologicallymapped. The center frame, taken with a micro-wave system shows the water distribution sensedthrough the clouds and may be compared to thesame section taken from a map. A close examina-tion of the center frame indicates darkened areasaround the streams representing the water-

Cloud Cover

saturated stream banks. In some locations, suchas shown in the right upper center side of thecenter frame, areas of subterranean seepageare detected far inland from the streams. Thisseepage is not discernible in visible light eitherfrom high altitude or from the surface.

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MaterialsProcessingAdvantagesof SpaceThe weightless environment in an orbiting space-craft opens new possibilities for utilization ofspace to develop new industrial processing andmaterials science and technclogy. The absenceof strong gravitational fields and the presenceof high vacuum in space may make it possibleto produce new and greatly improved materials,to manufacture products more precisely, and toprocess materials in new and different ways.Early space experiments will investigate basicfactors affecting the processing of materials ofdirect commercial importance which cannot beproduced elsewhere.

MaterialsProcessingModuleA module for the conduct of materials processingexperiments would be attached to the SpaceStation. However, for some experiments it mightbe desirable to detach it from the station. Sucha free flying mode would permit operationsabsolutely free of the vibrations and contaminantsassociated with the Space Station or wouldassure safety in the handling of hazardousmaterials.The module would provide a workroom with anumber of processing chambers, tools and equip-ment as well as storage space for raw materialsand gases. A large airlock would afford accessto the space environment or could be openedto space to provide a large, sheltered vacuumchamber.

Astronauts, trained in metallurgy and crystallog-raphy, are shown experimenting with new materialprocesses in the weightless environment.

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Metal FoamSpace offers the promise of producing stablefoams from a wide variety of liquefied materialsand gases. It should be possible to produce afoamed steel with the weight of balsa wood butwith many of the properties of solid steel. Suchmaterials cannot be produced on Earth becausethe weight of the liquid metal causes the gasfoam bubbles to float to the surface before cool-ing can occur. However, in space, gases wouldremain entrapped, producing a porous spongelikematerial.The illustration shows the significant part of aconceptual experimental ;:iltup. A charge ofpowdered metal and foaming agent mixture isplaced in the left end of the feed mechanism andpushed through by a piston. As the mixturepasses through the heating zone it melts and thefoaming agent causes bubbles to be formedwithin the metal. It then is cooled into a solidifiedfoam.Similar techniques can be used to mix othermaterials of vastly different densities and prop-erties; steel and glass for example. Such com-posite and foamed materials should result inlighter and stronger material for basic study,probable industrial applications, and the ;:on-struction of future spacecraft.

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Crystal GrowthThe size of sing:e crystals grown on Earth islimited by disturbing outside forces or introduc-tion of contaminants.In a very clean, zero gravity environment ofspace, there are no such limits to the growthand, therefore, very large single crystals may begrown. These crystals, if grown of the right mate-rial and with the proper controlled impurities,might be used as very large power transistors,or if of pure quartz, as optical blanks for lensesof near perfect quality. Thus, prime candidatesfor commercial space manufacturing, even attoday's cost of space transportation, are the verylarge dislocation free crystals we expect to beable to produce.

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Levitation MeltingSuspending a specimen of material (levitation) isimportant because it offers the possibility ofmelting materials without the contamination froma crucible or any type of mechanical restraint.Metallic materials and structures may be shapedby manipulating surrounding electromagneticfields with resulting perfect shapes. The virtualabsence of gravitational forces makesthis a natural process to investigate in space.

SuspensionTechniquesLevitation melting can be accomplished on Earthusing a scheme similar to that in this illustration.Electricity passing through the coils creates amagnetic field of such a nature that a metallicspecimen placed in the center will remain thereas in a bottle. The high frequency current alsoheats. Unfortunately, under the gravity conditionson Earth, it takes more current to levitate thematerial than it does to melt it. It cannot becooled without coming to rest on something. Inweightless space, however, the metallic materialIs easily levitated and maintained in place and thecurrent can be raised to cause softening or melt-ing. By manipulating the magnetic fields in a

Levitation MeltingConcept

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system of such coils, the specimen can be movedabout without touching anything. Thus, it can beboth melted and resolidified without becomingcontaminated or deformed. By such a method,perfect spheres could be produced for use asball bearings. Alloys could be produced withuniformity resulting from maximum intermixingof ccnstituents. Refinement of metals to highlevels of purity should also be possible.

OtherProcessesThe foregoing are but three processes that havebeen considered as among thelirst candidatesfor investigation aboard the Space Station. Otherprocesses difficult to perform in the atmosphereor in Earth's gravity, are also being studied forconduct in space.

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ScienceAnother initiar and continuing use of a permanentspace researcn facility is to conduct scientificinvestigations to extend man's knowledge of thenature of the universe. Man's curiosity has causedhim to explore the entire surface of the Earthand now to go beneath the seas. It has led himto the moon and will in time lead him to theplanets. Science offers answers to man's naturalcuriosity and the promise of the unfor3seenrewards of new knowledge.To the sciences of cAronomy and certainbranches of physics, the universe is both a vastarena for observation and a laboratory for theconduct of experiments difficult or impossible onEarth. Astronomers, physicists, biologists andphysicians have all found the environment ofspace to offer exciting opportunities for research.They seek understanding of the basic laws ofphysics, the nature and origin of the universe, thesolar system and the Earth, life not of Earth originand how living organisms respond to theabsence of gravity and night/day rhythms.

AstronomyInstrumentsIn SpaceAstronomy and related sciences have provedinvaluable in man's exploration and understand-ing of Earthin marine navigation, in aerialnavigation, in communications, meteorology andother sciences. All draw upon man's ability tostudy the skies and make deductions about theEarth (helium, for example, was first discoveredon the sun). But astronomical observations havealways been limited by the atmosphere; for man,like a fish, peers up through a semi-transparentfluid.Astronomers have long wished to get their in-struments into space, where they will be aboveatmospheric interference, free from atmosphericturbulence, light-ray scattering, sky brightness,cloud cover and pollution. In space, there will bevirtually no resolution limitation imposed by themedium and astronomers will be able to fullyuse the inherent capabilities of the instruments.Just as when Earth was first studied from space,so astronomical observations from space haverevealed new, previously unknown phenomena.This Is especially true in ultraviolet and infraredastronomy. The atmosphere effectively blocksfrom the Earth's surface much radiation in theseimportant spectral bands.

Automated astronomical instruments have beenorbited to overcome these nandicaps. The mostnotable of these has been the Orbiting Astronomi-cal Observatory. Instruments of larger size andgreater capability are needed. But the cost ofthese instruments mounts rapidly with size andcomplexity. Manned attendance for modificationadjustment, maintenance repair, film recovery,and replenishment could greatly extend usefullife of the observatory and reduce costs.

Multiple Useof InstrumentsThese illustrations show a large telescope moduleoperating in conjunction with a Space Station.The concept depicted is designed for observingultraviolet and infrared as well as visible radia-tion from stars and planets. Similar modulesequipped with different instruments could be usedfor solar observations or study of X-rays fromcelestial objects. In the design shown, the tele-scope compartment and instrument area can bepressurized to accommodate a man. The modulewould operate at a distance from the SpaceStation to remove it from dish', oances causedby the crew moving about or from contaminationby waste products from the Space Station. Thelarge shade shown around the telescope aperturescreens off unwanted sunlight.Since man's motion in the telescope module mayupset measurements even when the moduleis free of the station, it should have the capabilityfor completely automated operation. This wouldgive two approaches to flexible observatoryoperation. Instead of orbiting an unretrievable,unmanned observatory, a retrievable one wouldbe controlled from the Space Station. In oneoption, the automated module could be sent outfor operation and brought back, repeatedly, formaintenance, repair, and replenishment. In thesecond option, a man could be put aboard toconduct observations and experiments and tomake on-the-spot repairs. When operating prop-arly and long term observations were desired, itcould be sent out unmanned and brought backat the conclusion of an observation. Multiplereuse of the same laboratory would reduce costsand increase the knowledge gained.

The large aperture telescope shown orbited abovethe atmosphere would allow clear and sharp seeingof individual stars in distant galaxies ten timessmaller than can be seen from same Size telescopeon the Earth.

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Life SciencesSpecimensin SpiceThe Space Station offers life scientists the oppor-tun,ty to study life processes under conditionsthat cannot ba duplicated on Earth. These condi-tions Include removal from the gravity and fromthe period icitIes associated with the Earth'srotationand perhaps removal from other phe-nomena not yet recognized.There Is a pervasive, complex relationship be-tween biological functions and environment.When the environment Is altered, living organismsshow a great capacity to ea apt themselves. Theydo this by maintaining a uniform Intenial environ-ment. Or they adapt genetically, to improve theprobability that the species will survive. Re-searchers have come to understand a great dealabout biological functions by applying the tech-nique of altering environmental factors and study-ing adaptive processes as they come into play.But the closest biologists can come to weightless-ness in their laboratories is by use of a deviceknown as a clinostat. This device rotates livingsamples so the force of gravity alternates. Theeffect Is to have no net effect of gravity aboutany single axis. Use of the clinostat has beenproductive in research on plants, but the diffi-culties with higher animals or through severalgenerations of plants are obvious.

Advances InWe SciencesSignificant advances in life sciences should comeabout through prolonged study of all kinds ofplants and animals, including man, in space. Thiswork has already been started, using automatedbiosatellites and through monitoring man's reac-tions in space travel; but, a manned biologicallaboratory is expected to yield vastly more in-

formation. M an's presence is highly desirablefor most of the experiments; however, there aretimes when this is a deterrent. Biological orga-nisms and their life processes are inherentlyvariable and complex, requiring interpretation,extraction of information from incomplete data,and rearrangement of experiments. Equipmentthat can manipulate sott tissue ant: handle livelyanimals defies automation.The biological laboratory concept illustrated isdesigned for experiments with plants and animals,and for human physiological and medical evalua-tion. Special compartments will house specimensfor study and will have separate environmentalcontrol systems. A radioisotope facility willoccupy two wedge-shaped segments, along withequipment for measuring and data-handling.The human physiological assessment laboratoryuses an integrated monitoring and data-manage-ment system, filling about a third of the availablespace. An astronaut is pictured undergoingcardiovascular and metabolic astressment on abicycle ergometer. A crew member monitors hisresponses while measurements are fed to a com-puter for storage and comparison to past per-formance. The development of this capabilityhas two important facets. First, it enables a con-tinuing evaluation of the astronaut's physicalcondition as the mission progresses. In earlierspace programs these tests could be performedonly after the flight was completed. Second, theequipment and techniques developed, whichallow a small staff to perform a comprehensivephysical analysis, may find wide application tocivil medical practice.

Astronaut/Biologists and medical doctors areshown observing the physical condition of a fellowastronaut riding the exercise bicycle. Smallanimals would be kept aboard for seve 'Ill genera-tions to observe the adaptations to spAce.

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PhysicsCosmic Raysand the Natureof MatterSome of the basic questions about the nature ofmatter can best be illuminated by the study ofcosmic rays, which are charged particles suchas protons and electrons that originateoutside the solar system and travel at very highspeeds. Much of the rapid progress in physicalscience in recent years has resulted from thestudy of secondary effects of cosmic rays afterthey strike the upper reaches of the Earth'satmosphere or by employing powerful magneticfields to accelerate such particles to high speedsin earthbound machines.Since 1958, automated satellites have carriedinstruments to detect and measure cosmic raysin their original form in space. From these ob-servations came Dr. James A. Van Allen's dis-covery of the trapped radiation belts about theEarth. Now physicists would like to take the nextstep of placing in orbit machinery to generatepowerful magnetic fields that might detect cosmicrays of much higher energies and possibly provethat "anti-matter" occurs naturally in the uni-verse. The equipment for such experiments wouldbe so large and complex that it would best beoperated in conjunction with the Space Station.Other experiments that might be conducted in aphysics laboratory in space would test thoseaspects of Albert Einstein's Special and GeneralLaws of Relativity that cannot be tested on Earth.

1. Experiment Bay 32. Experiment Bay 2 & 43. Experiment Bay 14. Liquld Hydrogen Target5. Cryogenics Laboratory8. Super Conducting Magnet7. Emulsion Storage8. Cryogenics Control Room9. Ionization Spectography

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High EnergyPhysics LaboratoryThis illustration shows a laboratory concept forhigh-energy physics and cosmic ray studies. Thelaboratory could be one deck of the Space Sta-tion or could be a separate module to operatein conjunction with the station.The heart of the facility is a sup( rconductingmagnet two meters in diameter. It is surrouadedby two concentric octagonal chambers fortracking incoming high-energy particles. Oneoctagonal face is shadowed by a target of liquidhydrogen and a second set of track chambers.Particles passing through the target react withthe hydrogeri. The reaction products are the pri-mary object of study. They can be analyzedimmediately or they can be transmitted to theground for analysis. The laboratory arrangementallows simultaneous scanning of large areas ofthe sky. As experimental knowledge develops,the configuration can be changed te. meet newrequirements.

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Large Structures 19in SpaceMuch communications work can most econom-ically be conducted from space. These uses willrequire large antennas. An antenna like theone shown in this illustration Is too large to belaunched fully extended. It might be sent upfrom Earth folded or in several pieces. Men mightcontribute to the work in space to assemble,deploy, calibrate, service, and repair such alarge structure. Because of its size and theprecise manipulation required, full automationof a large antenna deployment seems to have toohigh a risk of failure.

The large antenna deployment problem might beregarded as a technology development area, withthe Space Station the base of operations. Modi-fied parts and tools could be developed in thestation or send up from Earth as needed. Anantenna in good working order in space wouldbe the end item of the development program andthe experience gained would make setup of an-other, better, antenna far more routine.The antenna shown is a rigid, lightweight typethat could be used for direct television and voicebroadcasting, traffic control radar, or for deepspace cummunications. As shown here, it is fullyoperational and is being readied for removalfrom the vicinity of the Space Station to a moresuitable location (for communications) by a spacetug. Grappling arms on the tug are latched to theantenna. The tug could return the antenna to thestation or carry a man to the antenna for adjust-ment or repair.A communications antenna Is only one of manylarge structures that might be built in space.Others include launch platforms for deep spaceprobes and space factories for making newproducts.

A Space Station crewman is making final adjust-ments on a large commu.nication antenna prior totowing to a higher operatiolml altitude.

HybridSpace Suit

R&D AdvancedTechnologyLaboratory

AdvancedTechnologyAt the Space Station, efforts will be made to re-duce operating and maintenance costs, to im-prove the station's efficiency and to extend itslife. This effort will result in technology andknowledge of direct value in extending the lifeof devices used in every day life on Earth. Re-search and engineering will also be conductedto develop better longer life systems, com-ponents, and materials. These advances assistthe Nation in world industrial competition andenhance its security.Much of this work will be conducted as at presenton the ground. But there will be areas in whichthe Space Station and its environment will beneeded to validate or qualify ideas and equip-ment.

A concept of an advanced technology laboratoryin a Space Station is illustrated. Space suits,environmental control systems, personal maneu-vering units, liquid storage and transfer equip-ment, electrical power systems, reaction controls,and structural repairing could be tested anddeveloped safely in the laboratory or the sur-rounding space.

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1. Display EquipmentAssociatedElectronics

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The Station has five decks, each with a particularfunction. The men would spend most of their timein the upper four decks, the fifth serving primarilyfor storage. The artist has attempted to conveyzero gravity by showing the crew tree floatingabout the Station. Our Apollo experiences lead usto believe the crew will find zero "g" environmentpleasant and .conducive to functioning effectively.

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The Space Station

The Space Station will be a semi-permanentfacility in orbit with an operational life of ten ormore years. It will be a site of research, Earth-oriented practical applications and support ofspace flight operations. For such an installationto be useful for so long a period, it must becapable of evolutionary change to meet newrequirements. This need for flexibility is found inany laboratory, space or terrestrial. As one typeof activity is completed, it is replaced by anotherwith new support requirements. New apparatuswill be installed, old systems will be modifiedand the training and makeup of the crewwill change.Core stations may weigh up to 100,000 pcunds.They will have as many as five decks. Twowill be devoted to living, eating, sleeping, andcontrolling the Space Station. One will be used toreceive and house supplies. One will containsuch subsystems as environmental control tomaintain a pure, breathable atmosphere andwater management to reclaim waste water forreuse. The fifth deck would be a laboratoryequipped to conduct a wide variety of experimentactivities. This deck would be supplementedwith other modules containing specialized ex-periments or developments. Electric power wouldbe supplied by large solar cell arrays or by anuclear power system.

Crew ProvisionsThe station will provide living accommodationsfor a crew of 12, some responsible for themaintenance and operation of the Space Stationothers for the conduct of experiments or tomake observations. A crewman may be aboardthe station for up to six months. To keep thecrew morale high and to stimulate creative andeffective research operations, a great deal ofcare will be taken to selection of the every dayliving facilities. Food served will be as nearas possible to that served on Earth. Some freshfrozen meats and vegetables will be included.Quiet, private areas will be provided in which thecrewmen can work, read or write. Adequatepersonal hygiene facilities will be provided toallow the crew to keep themselves clean and wellgroomed. A wardroom area will serve both fordining and to hold meetings to coordinatethe station's activities.

Shown below is a crew member operating a multi-purpose control and monitoring station. By thecrew men selecting different modes of operations,the single display screen can be used to showdata on performance of a spacecraft system or tomonitor the operation of a remote experiment. Inthis case, the operator has selected a TV view ofthe Earth. Latitude and Longitude are alsodisplayed on the screen.

23

This sketch illustrates the type operations whichmight be carried on, on the subsystems deck.Crew members are shown checking equipmentperformance prior to making a repair. This type ofroutine repair activity will become a normal modeof operation as the Space Stations life is extendedto ten years.

An artist's concept of a compartment designed tohouse one crewman. The design is intended tomake a very small room (about 6' x 8') seem largerand more comfortable through the use ofbright colors and simple uncluttered design.

1

Environment

The crew will live in an Earth- II ke environment.The atmosphere will have the same constituentsand pressure as air at sea level. Artificial gravity,obtained by swinging the Space Station counter-balanced by a spent booster stage, will be evalu-ated early in the station's mission and should itprove advantageous to conduct of operations orcontribute to crew comfort, a future growth versionof the station would have volumes of both zeroand artificial gravity.

The Future

The history of scientific and technologicalprogress would indicate that many uses will bemade of space beyond those now envisioned.Thus, it is important to take steps that assurethat what is built today will continue to serve inthe future. Design It proceeding with the goal inmind of eventually having a national researchfacility in Earth orbit called Space Base. TheSpace Station would serve as the first part of thisfacility to be retained and used as the SpaceBase grows, just us today it is common forcolleges to retain and use their initial buildings.Space Stations will grow by addition of SpaceStation modules, experiment modules, utilitymodules and storage units for liquid fuels,oxidizers and other consumrble supplies. TheSpace Base will provide both artificial gravityvolumes, used in those operations enhanced bythe presence of gravity, and zero gravityvolumes in which to conduct experiments. Itwould also serve as a supply depot, launch siteand mission control facility for deep spacespacecraft.

Shown in this cut-away Is a portion ot a deckused as a ward room. In this area, the crew willdine and hold discussions to plan the Station'sactivities.

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One of the initial evaluations to be made in theSpace Station Program is the usefulness of artifi-cial gravity. In this concept, the Space Station(upper module) is connected to the spent S-IIbooster stage (lower module) by long cables. Thetwo are then spun, one counter-balancing the otherto provide artificial gravity. The solar cell arraysare shown retracted to protect them from possibledamage during the test.

As the activities in the Space Station increase, Itwill be necessary to add additional living and work-ing space. Shown here are two identical spacestations docked together to provide housing andlaboratories for a crew of 24 men.

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This figure illustrates some other configurationswhich may prove desirable for a large Space Basa.Concept C is the result of the build-up shown inthe previous figure. Concept A is for a Y stationhaving a large amount of electric power availablefrom four nuclear reactors. Concept C offerslarger habitable volume. Concept B maximizes theamount of zero "g" volume available for experi-ments or manufacturing activities.

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TypicalExpansionSequenceThe concept of growth by addition of modules isnew to space, but commonly done in schools andlaboratories. This schematic shows how the initial12-man Space Station could grow to a 50-manSpace Base over several years of operation. Forsuch a large station it will be more economical tochange from solar electric power to nuclear elec-tric power, particularly if high power consumptionactivities such as materials processing provesprofitable.

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Space Base

Space Station asTransfer PointPlanners have been intrigued for years with thepossibility of using a low Earth orbit Space Baseas a base for launching missions to higherorbits, to the moon and into deeper space. TheSpace Base would serve as fuel and supplystorage and transfer facility as well as anassembly point for vehicles too large to belaunched directly from the surface of the Earth.Space tugs specialized shuttle vehiclesdesigned exclusively for use in space wouldmake this process very efficient. The illustrationshows how supplies and crewmen would bebrought to the Space Base in the Earth-to-orbit-shuttle and then transferred to another shuttlevehicle, propelled by a nuclear engine, for transitto lunar or geosynchronous orbit. In this mode,very massive payloads could be effectivelytransported to the moon. Larger vehicles wouldbe required for planotary missions, but a com-parable type of operation could be employed.

30

1. Space Station supervises rosupply of hydrogentank farm by Earth Shuttle.

2. Space Station controls loading of hydrogen toNuclear Lunar Shuttle.

3. Space Station checks out Lunar Shuttle, asLunar bound passengers arrive from Earth.

4. Lunar Shuttle goes to Moon, Space Stationremains In Earth orbit, shuttle returns to Earth.

5. Lunar Shuttle docks with Lunar Space Station,trarafers payload, then returns to closeproximity of Earth-orbital Space Station.

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TransportationSystemA round-trip transportation system betweenEarth and Earth orbit is essential to the continu-ous operation of large manned Earth orbitalfacilities. This system is used to rotate personnel,to resupply expendable items, to return cargofrom orbit to Earth, and to deliver experimentsand equipment. Transportation is potentially afruitful area of major operating cost reductions.Studies show that logistics cost:, based uponvehicles and spacecraft in current use couldaccount for 40% of the costs of the Space Stationprogram through development and the first yearof operation, then jump to nearly 70% of theannual costs thereafter.

Cost ofTransportationThe cost of transportation into space has beendramatically reduced since the inception ofthe space program. The costs of launching ourfirst satellites were on the order of $1 millionper pound placed into Earth orbit. Economies ofscale have been achieved over the past dozenyears. With the Saturn V, this has been reducedto less than $1,000 per pound of payload. This isvery real progress but it is only a beginning.Within the next decade, the cost of transporta-tion can be reduced by one or more orders ofmagnitude. When such an economical spaceshuttle becomes available, it will be possible tocarry thousands of tons of material toand from space.

ReusabilityThe surest way to achieve cost reduction is bydeveloping maximum reusability of the vehicle,rather than discarding it after each flight as isdone at preSent. The secret of the success ofmodern aviation is the long lifetime of theaircraft. They become very economical to operateeven though they are large, complex and costlyto produce. By building space vehicles forrepeated usage, comparable reductions in costscan be achieved.

Airplane Type OperationsRepeated usage is only one of the essentials forthe transportation system. Other directions inwhich to look for cost effectiveness includeaircraft development testing procedures, aircraftmanufacturing techniques, long life componentsfor maximum reuse, flexibility for multiple uses,complete onboard checkout and airline mainte-nance and handling procedures, such asminimum refurbishment and requalification test-ing between flights.

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Space ShuttleObjectivesThe goals of the space shuttle program are tobring into operation a fully reusable vehiclecapable of carrying up to 50,000 pounds of pay-load (passengers, cargo or a mixture of the two)on both legs of the round trip between Earthand Earth orblt. The cargo compartment would beat least 15 feet In dlameter and 60 feet long.The vehlcle will take off from and land on land.Flights would be up to a week in duration.Turn-around time would be no more than a fewweeks. The vehicle will be designed for a life-time of at least 100 flights. If longer lifetimes canbe achieved In actual operation, unit costs willdecline below the presently projected targets.Under present thinking, the vehicle would welghup to 31/2 million pounds at launch. Its engines,generating thrust of 400,000 pounds each, wouldburn liquld hydrogen and liquid oxygen. Twotypes of fully reusable space shuttles areillustrated.

Tandem ConceptShown below is a fully reusable Tandem conceptresembling a modern high performance air-plane. The large vehicle, with a smaller orbitalvehicle attached, is launched vertically. After thefuel Is exhausted in the large vehicle, it stagesfree of the smaller vehicle and returns to Earth,landing in a fashion similar to an airplane. Thesmaller vehicle uses Its own engine to gainorbital velocity and later to return to Earth.

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Trimness ConceptAnother space shuttle concept Is the Trlamese.In the Triamese two boost elements and oneorbital element are jolned together In parallel atlaunch. The three elements are aerodynamlcallysimilar wlth Identical basic structures andpropulslon systems. As shown In the illustration,the vehlcle takes off vertically wlth the englnesfrom all three elements operating. The hydrogen/oxygen englnes In the orbital element drawspropellant from the booster sectlons up tostaglng veloclty, approximately 8,000 ft/sec.,when the propellant exhausted booster sectionsare staged off and the orbltal section contlnuesto accelerate to orbital veloclty. The two boostersreturn to Earth and perform a littIng body typeentry. Next, their wings and turbo-fan engines areextended providing for subsonic flight up rangeand landing at the launch site. The orbitalelement, when its misslon is complete, deorblts,enters and returns to the launch site inessentlally the same manner.

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Space ShuttleOperationsThe shuttle will be able to operate in a modesimilar in many ways to that of large commercialair transports and be compatible with theenvironment of major airports. Ground crews toservice the craft for launch would be almost assmall as those required for intercontinentaljet aircraft. The space shuttle, upon its returnfrom orbit, would reenter the atmosphere andfly to a runway landing. Noise will occur only ontakeoff and at reentry. The landing could becompletely automated with prime dependenceupon the spacecraft guidance system, but withground control backup and pilot emergencytakeover. The operating c rew would consist of apilot and a co-pilot.

GroundOperationsThe space shuttle will employ a large landfacility such as Cape Kennedy for landings andtakeoffs while under development. At the outset,the ground equipment for the space shuttle willbe unique. However, the cargo handling, tractors,air conditioning and other airport servicingequipment will eventually become as standard asthe conventional equipment at major airports.Thus, it can be anticipated that other airports willultimately be employed. Equipment and proc-esses for refurbishment, maintenance, and repairwill be planned and designed to minimize downtime. Preventive maintenance as presentlypracticed by all major airlines will further mini-mize the turn-around time of the shuttle.

Staging of a Tandem Space Shuttle

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CriticalRoles of ManMan has the demonstrated capability to observe,to correlate information, and to learn from un-usual phenomena; to respond and adjust to newor changing situations; and, to overcome dif-ficulties through innovation and improvisation.The value of man in the conduct of scientific inves-tigations has been proven by the thousands ofyearsiof experimentation he has conducted on earth.The Space Station program will have a primarygoal of making space accessible for the conduct ofresearch or to be applied earth problems. Crew-men will be called upon to operate complex andsophisticated experimental apparatus. They willview the results of these activities, communicatethem to earth, and in concert with colleagues onthe ground draw conclusions and redirect theexperiment. Thus, by using man's most *valuableattributes; his natural curiosity and courage, hisability to observe, to learn and to take newdirections when results indicate a new course isdesired, the increases in knowledge and returnsobtained by the use of space will be enhancedand their achievement accelerated.

When the Space Station and the reusable logisticsystem begin operation, it will no longer benecessary to limit space flight to persons trainedextensively as test pilots. It will be possible totransfer others to the station to maintainand repair space equipment. It will also be feas-ible to retum space equipment to Earth formaintenance and repair. The possibility of main-tenance and repair will extend the lifetime ofsuch equipment indefinitely, thus greatly Increu-ing the value provided for each dollar of cost.It will also make it possible to greatly reducethe cost of space equipmeht.

Man's ability to observe and select situations ofopportunity opens possibilities for gatheringinformation on a wide variety of phenomenawithout tying up instruments, data processingand communication facilities unnecessarily.

"That's on* small stp tor a man, on. giant loopfor mankind."

A large space facility containing precision, com-plex equipment will place a premium on themanipulative skills of man. Large structures willbe launched in stored condition and will bedeployed and aligned in orbit. As trends towardgreater size, complexity, and precision continue,the need will increase for human beings to bepresent to assure that the machines operateproperly.Since many types of experiment and applicationequipment have common basic instruments suchas telescopes and cameras, it is expected thata trend toward larger instruments will be accom-panied by increasing demand for multiple usage.With these complex arrays of filters, data record-ing media, and other ancillary equipment, it willbe necessary to have man present to control andunderstand their functions and results.

39

The Prospect-- 40Immediate and UltimateWe are now harvesting our national investmentin the programs of the first decade of the SpaceAge. Today, we use communications satellitesto transmit color television and messages aroundthe world. The dependability of the INTELSATcommunications satellites is so high they wereused to replace transatlantic cable transmissionsrecently while the cable was being repaired. Morecommunications satellites are planned. No onecan now predict the extent of the applicationsof Earth Resources satellites. Mineral-producingindustries are using Earth photographs takenfrom Gemini and Apollo to guide the search forore deposits. High-aiiitude cameras and filmshave revolutionized mapping. Other benefits in-clude new products, new manufacturing proc-esses and testing techniques, new materials,new treatment of familiar materials, and a hostof medical, health and safety devices, techniquesand procedures.Space-related developments permeate the econ-omy. The resulting new products, new jobs andhigh productivity stimulate national growth. Inthe long run, this new wealth created in oureconomy, will pay the cost of the program andwill provide solutions to many problems notevidently related to space.Americans who have recently traveled abroadcan appreciate the impact our space programmakes on other nations around the world. Peoplein all parts of the world are impressed by am-bitious objectives stated openly in advance, bymissions conducted openly, and by results thatare made available to all.NASA is now conducting technical definitionstudies of a Space Station, a Space Shuttle andthe activities to be conducted in orbit. A targetdate to have this national facility in use has beenestablished for the late 1970s.

In the future man will venture to the planets. Shownis a planetary exploration mission departing fromEarth on a year and hall expedition to land on Marsand return.

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