REPORT ON FOOD SECURITY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT : DEVELOPMENT OF XANTHAN GUM TECHNOLOGY FOR ENHANCING FOOD SECURITY IN WEST

AFRICA Subregional Development Centre for West Africa (SRDC-WA) EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Xanthan gum derives from biotechnology process employing micro-organisms, to degrade carbohydrates to generate new products. It is considered as a strategic product in the agro-industrial development in industrialized countries, the technologies are scaleable, economical and generally environmentally friendly. The central equipment used is the bioreactor or fermenter. The application of bio- processing technologies is one area which may be targeted for stimulating development in Africa agro-industry in light of relatively low costs, minimal energy and infrastructure requirements and scalability of the technologies involved. It can offer tremendous opportunity for stimulating food security in Africa. Especially, it can constitute a powerful agent or improver for baking tropical flours. This has led to the ECA/ITAlJAPAN project to develop at laboratory level in Africa a process for the production of a specific Xanthan gum for the above purpose. The technological process and findings of the project are made in fermenters of 2 liters and 10 liters and the Xanthan gum that derives from it has been tested in bakery with an imported Xanthan gum as witness for reference purpose. The physical appearance and organoleptical acceptance of the baked products have been evaluated by an international panel of agricultural scientists. Though very encouraging and a proof of high level skill of scientist work, the technology developed has been assessed as a preliminary achievement; it requires further R&D work in order to refine the technology followed with further baking tests to achieve better ready-to-eat products in terms of acceptability, appearance, quality and competitivity. The new R&D works will also aim at scaling up the pre-industrial level and prepare the conditions for its introduction to the industrial and commercial sector of the member States. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

a. Conclusions The recent development of Xanthan gum biotechnology has opened up new possibilities for strengthening and improving food processing performance in the world. Developed countries are making wide and intensive use of this technology. African countries have to get necessarily into that circle if they want to compete one day with advanced countries. In this context, ECA and ITA (Institute of Food Technology, Dakar, Senegal) have cooperated to formulate and implement a Xanthan gum project aiming at developing a technology process for the gum production. The findings of the project implementation are encouraging and the gum produced has been tested in baking composite flo:urs and pure tropical flours.

i. With 100% local flours (millet, maize, sorghum, cassava), it is possible to make "anglo-saxon type" moulded breads, adding the xanthan gum either alone or in association with vegetal food gums such as sterculia and arabic.

ii. With french style breads, the results are interesting when at least 30% of wheat flour is

added to the tropical and gluten-free flours. iii. A great synergy is observed in associating Xanthan gum with vegetal gum (sterculia

and arabic) in the above bread-making. It is also concluded that the technological process which has been developed needs further verifications and scaled-up through applied research in order to improve, master and control the technology at pre-industrial level and identify the conditions and parameters for its industrial and commercial exploitation by the private sector. b. Recommendations With respect to the above conclusions, it is recommended : i. To pursue the Xanthan gum R&D experience for further development of the technology

that will lead to the processing of 100 percent local cereals and tubers flours into bread and "Ready- To-Eat" products which will be capable to compete with the traditional bread made from imported wheat. The further development of Xanthan gum technology will include the following steps: . Process development in a 100 litres fermenter . Process development at pre-industrial and pre-commerciallevels; . Training and transfer of the technology into the private and industrial sectors.

ii. The above R&D work will require high level expertise and skill mix, financial

resources and time. On the basis of the current technology achievement and considering the importance of this technology for the agro-industrial development in the subregion, it is recommended to involve now the member States, ECOWAS, UEMOA, CILSS, the African Regional Centre for Technology (ARCT), the Chambers of Agriculture and Industries and the private sector in the continuation of the R&D work so as to prepare for the industrial and commercial stages.

REPORT ON FOOD SECURITY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Page 0 sautée

INTRODUCTION 1. This report is the continuation of a series of papers on the application of science and

technology for sustainable food security development in West Africa. 2. The first report in the series was presented at the first meeting of ICE in Niamey in

March 1998 and was entitled: "Technological policy options for enhancing food security in West Africa". The theme developed in the paper was that of composite flours technology based on the principle of "eating local foods".

3. Briefly, the paper underscored the potential danger resulting from the continuous and

growing consumption of imported food and recommended to:

(a) provide member States with a model of formulation of a composite flour programme and a check-list of actions to be considered in the course of such exercise of transforming indigenous food staples into modern food products;

(b ) bring to the attention of food research institutes, latest worldwide technological R&D results in the field of composite flours production and utilization technology for strengthening food security programmes in the sub-region; © provide National Standards Organizations and food processing enterprises with guidelines on composite flour standards in order to respond to the growing awareness of the need for national and international standardization of processed local cereals and tubers into high quality products. These guidelines are intended to serve as basis for the elaboration of national standards based on local conditions such as consumers acceptability; ( d) provide concerned vocational schools and flour-based industrial sector with a trainer's manual on composite flour technology and management.

4. The second report of the series was presented to the second meeting of ICE in March

1999 in Conakry. It is entitled: "Report on the techno-economic study of a pilot laboratory project for the production and utilisation of Xanthan gum for the baking industry in Africa". The paper provided necessary background information to guide the implementation of the ECA/Japan/ Xanthan gum (Xg) project which was being executed by the Food Technology Institute in Dakar, Senegal. It further brought to the attention of the member states, the opportunities offered by Xanthan gum in food industries in general and in baking industry in particular .

4. This paper indicated that essential properties of Xg achieved during the research

process should target two final applications which are:

(a) the baking of tropical flours and; (b ) the use of a greater number of improved varieties of maize, sorghum and millet which, though high-yield varieties, are rejected by plant breeders because they are not suitable for traditional food preparations.

The paper also stressed that the technological process should be cost-effective. 6. The present third report in the series is a continuation of the above two papers and a

step forward in the field of efforts to processing and promoting local foods to replace imported ones. The paper is based on the results of the ECNITNJAPAN Xanthan gum project, the objective of which was to explore at laboratory level whether the technological process of production of Xanthan gum is feasible in the Mrican economic, industrial and technical skill mix environment. ne successful implementation of the project will open the way for further research. It will be recalled that Xanthan gum is known as a strategic food additive in the world and the mastering of its technology will facilitate the processing of staple cereals and tubers flours into modern "Ready- To-Eat" (RTE) products or bread in order to enable the baking industry to create more added value and contribute more to the socio- economic development in the member States.

7. The paper is therefore an introduction to a further R&D work in order to achieve

objectives (a) and (b) stated in paragraph 5 above. This R&D work could be carried out at national levels by the Agro-food Technology Centres and the Agricultural Research Institutions. As such, the project is a direct assistance to member States for capacity building in Xanthan gum biotechnology.

8. The increased use of local raw materials in baking industry to support national and sub-

regional development of agriculture and industry is in line with the historical background of worldwide industrial development and also the industrial development policy favored in Africa. It is expected that Xanthan gum will playa key role in this endeavor and lead to food security diversification in member States.

9. In this context, the report deals with:

(a) Genesis, background and justification of composite flours concept (Chapter 1 ); this chapter provides the legislative background of composite flours as well as some of the implementation benefits achieved so far in West Arica;

(b) The results of the Xanthan gum project (Chapter 2); this chapter is an abstract from the ITA terminal report; it highlights in a nutshell the technological findings of the ECA/ITA/JAPAN project; (c) The status of food security in West Africa (Chapter 3); this chapter reviews the current situation of food production and supply in the sub-region and identifies the shortcomings and the areas which could be further developed with Xanthan gum.

(d) The challenge ahead (Chapter 4); this chapter examines the interaction between Xanthan gum and cassava development in West Africa.

( e ) Policy framework (Chapter 5); this chapter emphasizes the practices and governance required from governments to achieve sustainable agro- industrial development in West Africa.

CHAPTER 1: GENESIS, BACKGROUND AND JUSTIFICATION OF COMPOSITE FLOUR CONCEPT

1.1 Genesis 10. The United Nations General Assembly, at its Sixth Special Session in May 1974,

adopted a declaration and programme of action on the establishment of a New International Economic Order in their resolutions 3201 (S.IV) and 3202 (S-VI), according to which every effort should be made by the international community to the accelerate development. These resolutions have laid emphasis on the utilization of appropriate technologies by developing countries to promote the production, processing and utilization of local raw materials in their development operations.

11. From its inception, the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) has

recognized the primary role that processing plays in the achievement of food self sufficiency. In this context, the Lagos Plan of Action exhorts African Governments to pursue such policies and strategies as would secure and expand the production and processing of food products that would eventually replace imported products by local. A study conducted in Sub-Saharan Africa on the monitoring of the African food consumption pattern indicated that development of bakery products based on local raw materials will greatly contribute to the reversal of the increasing trend of consuming food not grown locally.

12. In connection with the above, R&D research on composite flours, conducted in the

industrialized countries (USA, Canada, UK, Germany, France, and the Netherlands) during the 1970s by FAO in Africa and Asia and Latin America during the 1980s, has led to the feasible combination of wheat and non-wheat flours in the production of bakery and other flour-based products. Thus, composite flour is seen today as a measure that would restore the value of local cereals, tubers and pulses in modern industry and speed up the pursuit of sustainable food security policies.

13. Following these R&D achievements and in translating the recommendations of the

Lagos Plan of Action into action, the Fifth Conference of African Ministers of Industry (CAMI) adopted on 2Oth of October 1979, Resolution 3(V), which requested and ECA "to compile technological processes for the production of composite flours utilizing indigenous grains such as sorghum, millet, maize and cassava, and make these available to member States as soon as possible. This request led to the preparation and publication by ECA in 1985 of the "Technical Compendium on Composite Flours.Technologies available for application".

14. The need for replacing imported wheat flour by locally derived non-wheat flours in the

Africa baking industry was reiterated in Resolution 10 (X) (d) of the Ninth CAM Conference held in Harare from 29 to 31 May 1989 as follows: "Member States should develop national composite flour programmes in order to reduce wheat imports and save foreign currency which will be used to stimulate the production of local staples."

1.2. Composite flour implementation

Progress made in composite flour development in the continent was reported to the first ICE meeting in Niamey (1998). Its main achievements and impact in the West Africa sub-region can be summarized as follows.

( a) A creation of awareness: In most Sub-Saharan countries where potentiality exists to produce additional cereals and tubers, awareness on the potentialities of composite flours has been raised. This sensitization targeted: concerned ministries (e.g. planning, agriculture, industry, trade); international and non-governmental organizations, the private sector (e.g. flour milling companies and baking industries); the national flour milling and baking industries professional Unions and donor agencies; Food technology centres; Agricultural research institutes; Universities and the Chambers of Trade and Agriculture have been in most countries the cornerstones for the information dissemination and sensitization in the member countries.

(b) A multiplication of national experiences: As a result of (a) above, many countries in the sub-region have attempted to formulate and implement specific projects and programmes for composite flour development with various mixed results. Among these countries are: Benin, Burkina Paso, Cape Verde, Cote-d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra-Leone and Togo. The experiences of Burkina Paso and Senegal can be considered as best practices for other countries. The unsuccessful attempts of Nigeria and Cote d'Ivoire in establishing nationwide composite flour programmes have far-reaching political implications. The programme was turned down in Nigeria after 5 years of implementation and did not start in Cote d 'Ivoire because of the opposition of the wheat export cam tries and their transnational firms that dominate the wheat markets in those countries. Both experiences are very rich in lessons learnt from North-South cooperation.

(c) A technical capacity building: Countries such as Burkina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria and Senegal have taken concrete initiatives for composite flour development through composite flour R&D projects funded by local institutions and/or international organization and bilateral donors and implemented by their national food technology institutes with the first objective of mastering composite flours technology.

(d) Financial benefits: The returns in the form of foreign currencies savings at macro- economic level are estimated at a minimum of US$ 2 billions during the period of 1985 -1991 in the sub-region where composite flour implementation has been most visible in three countries in the sub-region (Burkina Paso, Nigeria, Senegal). Especially during that period, high ratio (70% local flours and 30% wheat flours) composite flours were used in the Nigerian bakeries.

16. Although interesting the above achievements are much below expectations. All

along, composite flour is being implemented in member states without following a given policy orientation and most of them have failed or are suffering. In this context, a policy framework will be instrumental in supporting the formulation and implementation of composite flour projects.

17. This was achieved with the publication in the year 2000 of an advocacy manual prepared

by ECA/SRDC-W A and entitled: "Technical Handbook on composite flours". The printing of this book was requested by an ad-hoc expert group meeting held in Addis-Ababa in

November 1991. The Handbook is composed of four parts, namely: a Model Pre-feasibility Study for the establishment of a nationwide composite flour programme; the R&D results on production and utilization of composite flours worldwide; the guideline on composite flours standards and a to Trainers' Manual on composite flour technology and practices. The manuscript was introduced to the first ICE meeting in March 1998; it was then reviewed and updated before printing.

1.2 Composite flour perspective 18. The desirable development path of composite flours is well illustrated by the tones

experience of Nigeria during the period 1987-1991. The story started with a seminar on composite flour development, organized in Lagos in May 1985 by ECA, the Lagos Chamber of Agriculture, Industry and Trade and the Federal Institute of Industrial Research, Oshodi, Lagos in cooperation with the Federal Ministries of Agriculture and Industry and the Nigeria Standard Organization. The recommendation of the Seminar requested the government to develop a food security policy whereby imported wheat will be gradually replaced by local substitutes over ten years. In 1985, the country was importing about 1.4 million tons of wheat for a value of about US$370 millions annually.

19. In studying and formulating policy alternatives to implement the above

recommendation, the Government realized quickly the macro-economic advantages which can derive from early replacement of total wheat imports by local substitutes. In order to achieve these benefits immediately, the government put a ban on wheat imports effective 1st January 1987. This achievement is the overall expectation of any composite flour programme.

20. Composite flour concept is therefore considered as intermediate solution towards a

maximum use of local cereals and tubers in baking industry. At that time, 100 percent tropical flours will be used in "bread making" as rightly stated by Gunilla and Beckman who reported in their book "The Wheat Trap" that: "If Africans want to eat bread, let it be! But they must eat bread made from their own locally produced raw materials" in order to induce the development of related industries (as it is the case in the country of the two authors). The ECA/ITA/JAPAN Xanthan gum project has been designed and executed in order to facilitate the implementation of such policy. The results of the project are debated in Chapter 2 .

CHAPTER 2 : THE RESULTS OF THE ECA/ITNXANTHAN GUM PROJECT: , THE BEGINNING OF A BIO-TECHNOLOGICAL BREAKTHROUGH IN AFRICA 2.1. Definition of Xanthan gum 21. Xanthan gum is a high molecular weight anion polysaccharide produced by

fermentation of a carbohydrate with Xanthomonas campestris. More simply, it is a bio-technological product frequently used in a wide range of food industries. It is soluble in cold or hot water, but not soluble in organic solvent. It is widely used in food industries, pharmaceutical and many other applications. It has so many and diversified properties and functions that it is considered as a strategic substance as it can provide specific quality to the product to make the difference with the competition; that's why its

technology is kept secret. There is a neutral quality of Xanthan gum in the international market for very general purpose; but in practice and because of the numerous functions it can play particularly in food industries, its production is often based on custom demand for specific applications.

22. The objective of the ECA Xanthan gum project is to explore at laboratory level the

development of a technological process of a specific formulae of Xanthan gum to be used as gluten substitute in order to bake tropical flours which do not contain gluten. Gluten is a very complex protein which gives wheat its ability to produce bread. Xanthan gum innocuousness was demonstrated in the paper presented in March 1999 to the second ICE meeting in Conakry.

2.2. Development of a technological process for Xanthan gum production 23. First, activities involve literature review on Xanthan gum technological process on the

basis of which an experimental protocol adapted to the needs, the objectives, the equipment and the financial resources available was established. It was also felt crucial to study sufficiently the acquired Xanthomonas campestris (Xc) species with a view to developing full control of its evolution, multiplication and behaviour. This preliminary study is a prerequisite for the use of the species as processing agent. It includes two steps:

.Conservation of the species over time while maintaining its genetic stability; .Study of optimal conditions for the feeding environment and the propagation speed of the Xc species.

24. With respect to the creation of the production environment, local materials inputs were

preferred with the view of minimizing the production costs. Hence, molasses, in a by-product of sugar industry and maize flour has been targeted as basic feeding input for the gum production.

25. Following the above preparatory activities, the Xanthan gum production trials were

conducted in two phases: the shaked flasks culture phase and the fermenters phase. The production of the gum in shaked flasks culture was successfully realized January/February 1999 and the production tests in fermenters were carried out from March to December 1999. This lengthy period is due to the general power failures in Dakar from April/May to August 1999.

26. The process development and engineering in fermenters have showed better results

than those obtained in shaked flasks culture. The optimisation of the bioconversion process has led to a yield of up to 20g of gum per litre of feeding solution. It has also reduced the fermentation time from 120 to 65 hours. It has further enable ITA to gather interesting data on the all process including the fermentation phase and to define the scale up criteria for production in fermenters of 5 litres and 100 Iitres. ITA even improves the process yield to 2.2% gum weight / volume.

27. Concerning the processing cost which is usually high in industry, the process

engineering development at ITA was oriented towards the production of a specific

product formulae able to meet the requirements of the baking of glutenless flours at an acceptable cost. Three alternatives have been explored:

.Precipitation of fermentation broth with ethylic alcohol (cells included). .Precipitation of thefermentation broth after partial purification (dilution and centrifugation); the gum collected is dried in a 70°C drying oven before milling to the desired granulometry (photo 2). .Feeding liquid formulation at pH = 4 for a better microbiological stability; total gum content: 2%(W/v).

28. The limiting factor, regarding the formulation of the finished product is the high

viscosity of the fermentation liquid. Given the high cost of the purification in the traditional industrial process and considering the project objective that is to produce a bread improver, a specific xanthan gum recovery-formulation technique was developed and the gum obtained from this process is of good quality. AIl batches of production were sent to the chemical laboratory for quality analysis and control.

29. The conclusion that derives from the overall implementation is that the project has

been usefull in developing a process of production -recuperation and formulation of an objective oriented biotechnological bread improver called Xanthan gum. It demonstrates the feasibility of the production of the gum using a feeding environment made of maize flour, molasses and other inputs locally available.

30. An industrial transfer of the ITA processing techniques could be envisaged. A scaling

up of the installations together with costing will be necessary in order to show the economic and financial viability as compared to the alternative of wheat imports in the baking industry. The following conditions are suggested to scale up the "2 litre Fermenter" processing techniques developed at ITA in a "100 -litre Fermenter":

. Batch-based fermentation mode .Fermentation temperature during the process: 28°C .Regulation of production environment pH at 7 during the entire bioconversion process .Aeration .Shaking of the production environment during the process

2.3 Development of new baking technology 31. The objective here is to use the Xanthan gum produced locally at ITA as a substitute of

gluten and bread improver in order to bake local cereal (millet, maize, sorghum) and tubers flours (cassava) and/or their mixtures. The gum is considered as a food additive.

(a) Procedure and formulae

32. The procedure followed consisted on:

.The determination of physical, chemical and rheological characteristics of the gluten less flours (millet, maize, sorghum and cassava) to be tested and comparing them to those of suitable wheat baking flour ;

.The adaptation of the identified bread-making techniques to the equipment available at ITA’s bakery department;

.The bread-making trials by incorporating variable rates of ITA Xanthan gum the alone, and in combination with food vegetal gums (sterculia and/or arabic) to produce both short French and moulded English breads ; .The monitoring of the dough reaction to kneading and fermentation, and of evaluation of the Breads made ;

.The optimisation of the dough (pâton) weight to obtain good bread rise after dough fermentation ;

33. These baking tests on glutenless tropical flours were conducted at ITA in Dakar but

also in the Laboratory of Baking Test of the "Ecole Nationale Superieure de Meunerie et des Industries Cerealieres" (ENSMIC) of Paris. The following formulae have been tested while the traditional baking technology remains basically the same:

.100 % local flour + wheat 00% + X gum 1% .80% local flour + wheat 20% + X gum 1% .70% local flour + wheat 30% + X gum 1% .50% local flour + wheat 50% + X gum 1 %

34. Two types of gums: biotechnological (Xanthan Rhodigel imported from France and

Xanthan ITA produced locally) and naturals tercullia and arabic have been added to the tropical flours alone or in a combined form (0.5% Rhodigel + 0.5% vegetal gum" and 0.5% ITA xanthan gum). Rhodigel gum served as reference for comparison f purposes. Like gluten, the viscosity of the gums is an important factor for bread quality. This viscosity measurements were carried out in a CIRAD laboratory in Montpellier, France, at a concentration of 1% at 26°C.

(b ) Breads quality evaluation

35. Bread quality evaluation has been conducted in the following steps. . After carrying out bread making trials using both methods (J. Bodson et al./Eggleston

et al. ), the Eggleston method was prtferred because it produced the best results. . With this method, the dough obtained after kneading is slightly cohesive and viscous. . An interesting development was noted during fermentation compared to Witness

(dough made of "pamible" type composite flour).

. The organoleptic evaluation of the breads was conducted by comparison, by a group of 8 people during an international Forum organised by the "Reseau Ouest et Centre Africain de Recherche sur le Mil "(ROCAFREMI) held at ITA.

. The breads have thick crusts except the one made of cassava which had a pale

aspect. . The breads analysis shows nice honey crumbs with quite regular structures, especially

breads made from sorghum flour. (c) Conclusions and recommendations 36. The following conclusions emanated from the tests conducted:

(i) With 100% local flours (millet, maize, sorghum, cassava), it is possible to make "anglo-saxon type" moulded breads, adding the xanthan gum either alone or in association with other food gums such as sterculia and arabic.

(ii) However, for French style breads, the results are interesting when at least 30% of wheat flour is added to the gluten-free flour.

(iii) A great synergy is observed in associating Xanthan gum with vegetal gum (sterculia and arabic) in bread-making with gluten-free flours.

37. The following recommendations derive from the above conclusions:

(i) The recent development of Xanthan gum biotechnology has opened up new possibilities for strengthening and improving food processing performance in the world. Developed countries are making wide and intensive use of this technology. African countries have to get necessarily into that circle if they want to compete one day with advanced countries. In this context, the ECA/IT A Xanthan gum nascent technology needs further applied research in order to improve, master and control the technology at pre-industrial level and identify the conditions and the parameters for its industrial and commercial exploitation by the private sector.

(ii) It is therefore strongly recommended to pursue the Xanthan gum experience in order to develop reliable and efficient technology that will give a momentum for bread to the processing of 100 percent local cereals and tubers flours into "Ready-To-Eat" products which can compete with the traditional bread made from imported wheat. The further development of Xanthan gum technology will include the following steps:

.Process development in fermenter of 100 litres .Process development at pre-industrial and pre-commercial level; .Training and transfer of the technology into the private and industrial sectors.

(iii) The above R&D work will require high level expertise and skill mix, financial resources and time. On the basis of the current technology achievement and considering the importance of this technology for the agro-industrial development in the sub-region, it is recommended to involve now the member witness States, ECOWAS, UEMOA, CILSS, the African Regional Centre for Technology (ARCT), the Chambers of

Agriculture and lndustries and the private sector in the continuation of the R&D work so as to prepare for the 'Reseau industrial and commercial stages.

2.4. Economic benefits of Xanthan based food processing industries 38. The expected economic impact of development projects and programmes which will ,

derive from the Xanthan gum technology will become visible only after a number of years of well-planned and well-implemented research programmes supported by strong political commitments at national, sub-regional and regional levels. This economic impact will consist of:

(a) Reduction to a minimum of wheat imports with subsequent foreign exchange savings; (b ) Increased production of local cereals, tubers and pulses;

(c) Increased industrial transformation of the above commodities through the establishment of new industries;

( d) Industrial investments are intensified and expanded, thus creating more jobs;

(e) Create a greater degree of food self-sufficiency and food security;

(f) The nutritional value of grain crops that are poor in lysine but rich in methionine and the nutritional value of cassava which is poor in protein are sufficiently enriched through the addition of pulses flours in protein, particularly in lysine.

39. To achieve the above economic objective, the first and foremost activity will be they the

production of raw materials to replace the wheat which will not be imported anymore. This production is one of the most important factors constraining the implementation of composite flours in the member States. It deserves special level attention and strategy (chapter 4) in the context of the current status of food and security in the member States and in the sub-region (Chapter 3).

CHAPTER 3: THE STATUS OF FOOD SECURITY IN WEST AFRICA 3.1 Introduction 40. Africa's economic malaise is first and foremost a malaise of food production stagnation.

The chronic food shortages have, over the years, become synonymous with its mismanagement and social decline and contributing greatly to the continent's marginalization in the world. On-going trends in food production and consumption prompt alarm, especially in West Africa since the situation is getting worse in several parts of the sub-region. Indeed outright starvation and famine are now quite frequent occurrences in many countries. Population growth, droughts, crop failures and accelerating food imports in the face of mounting foreign exchange problems and a crippling debt burden, have now moved the issue of food security and self-sufficiency in West Africa into a position of prominence and top priority.

41. Food insecurity is a problem that exists in most African countries and the problem has become even more serious despite the existence of a large number of regional and global strategies to tackle it. Indeed much of these strategies have mostly been unable to increase enough food production for "assuring access by all Africans at all times to enough food for an active and healthy life."

42. There is also the fundamental problem of African countries' inability to produce enough

food from their own natural resources as well as the related problem of the inability of their economies to generate enough income to permit their households to produce or buy adequate amounts of food either from their own countries or from other sister African countries. How the same African countries manage to produce so much coffee, cocoa, cotton and other non food commodities for export and use the export earnings to import food (rice, wheat and dairy products)?

43. The regional and global strategies proposed to tackle the food insecurity and

insufficiency problem of the continent, include the Lagos Plan of Action (LPA), the African Priority Programme for Economic Recovery (APPER), the United Nations Programme of Action for African Economic Recovery and Development (UNPAEERD), the FAO's Regional Food Plan for Africa and recently, the Plan of Action of the 1996 World Food Summit. Also, during the 1980's and 1990's, several World Bank and IMF supported structural Adjustment programmes with important food security components in African countries. Further, strategies to improve food security and sufficiency in the continent have featured prominently in UN-NADAF, the Agenda 21 and the Abuja Treaty establishing the African Economic Community. All have failed to achieve the expectations.

44. The problem, however, is that, despite the availability of all these strategies, the food

security situation continues to deteriorate. Given the seriousness of the subject, there is need to start asking some searching questions. What new programmes are needed and how should they be executed ? What should be the role of ECA, African governments themselves, other members of the United Nations system, and other African organizations in the renewed efforts to achieve food security ?

45. It is a common belief that many of these strategies have fallen short of their objectives

principally because of inadequate political will and commitment. There is also a general consensus that technical capacities in support of specific initiaives must be strengthened. This report provides guidelines on how these capacities could be strengthened in the specific field of sustainable cassava flour-based industries in Africa.

3.2. Definition of food security 46. Food security, though interpreted in many ways, may be defined as access by all

people at all times to enough food in quantity and quality for an active and healthy life and its essential elements are the availability of food, and the ability to acquire it. This definition identifies three specific objectives for food security at the global level as follows:

(a) ensuring production of adequate food supplies;

(b) maximizing stability in the flow of supplies; and

(c) securing access to available supplies on the part of those who need them. 47. In the African context, food security must not however be seen only in terms of food

availability but also in terms of ability to acquire and particularly the capacity to produce food, drawing essentially on the area's natural endowments and available resources. Food security in West Africa should, therefore, be seen in the context of national and sub-regional self-reliance and self-sufficiency with adequate sub-regional production to meet basic needs at all levels. Such definition implies a limited access the to food imports to reduce the current excessive dependence on commercial imports and / or food aid that are detrimental to local production. Foreign exchange earnings should be allocated to finance development projects and programmes which include food production and processing at all levels.

3.3. Food demand and supply in West Africa 48. Fifty years ago at the end of the second world war, average food availability was the

only of 2300 kcal per caput per day in the world. Today, the world's population exceeds 6 billion people, consuming a daily average of about 2800 kcal per caput, compared with a West Africa's population of 220 millions and an average daily intake of 2200 kcal per caput.

49. The Dietary Energy Supply (DES) in the sub-region is as follows:

Table 1. Per caput DES in West Africa: 1961.1998 (kcal/day) 1961-63 1976-78 1988-90 1998 World 2800 Africa 2 100 2 220 2 320 2 415 Sub-Saharan 2 040 2 060 2 080 2 200 West Africa 2 090 2 030 2 200 2 250 50. he above level of food supply or DES is covered by both internal production and

imports. The value of imports is shown in Annex 2, Table 2. The West Africa sub region will have to increase its food supply by 24 percent to reach the average world current consumption.

51. In commercial terms, the ratio of food imports as percentage of total value of exports in

the sub-region is about 15.2 % in 1985, 19.2% in 1990 and roughly 22% in 1998. This ratio varies from country to country and is high in Cabo Verde, Sierra Leone, Gambia, Senegal and Togo. With imports increasing and earnings from primary exports diminishing, mainly due to the collapse of international commodity prices, member States had to reduce their investment budget in order to allocate increasing financial resources to cover food imports.

52. t is also observed that:

.the four main cotton producers (Benin, Burkina Paso, Cote d'Ivoire and Mali) in the sub-region have to use more than 72 percent of their average cotton lint exports earnings to cover their food imports bills;

.the total earnings from cocoa and coffee in the sub-region represent hardly 72 percent of the sub-regional food import bill;

.most countries in the sub-region earn their foreign currencies from export of agricultural products. During the period considered, annual average food import absorbs 78 percent of these earnings, leaving only US$800 millions for other uses;

.up to 78 percent of the total agricultural products export earnings at sub- regional level is used to finance food imports alone of which wheat and rice represent 40 percent in value terms.

53. In conclusion, the sub-region export capacity is too weak to support the present level of

food imports in which wheat weight is shown in section 3.4. 3.5 The magnitude of wheat imports in West Africa 54. With respect to the above, it seems logic that the meager financial resources earned

from exports is not wasted in importing food which can be produced at home (rice) or which can find substitutes internally (rice). Instead, wheat imports (see Tables 3 and 4 in Annex 2) in the sub-region is characterized by massive outflow of capital as described in selected countries as follows:

.in country like Nigeria, the agricultural products export earnings cover only 39 percent of food imports and just enough to pay wheat and rice imports bill;

.in Senegal, all agricultural export earnings represent only 86 percent of the financial needs to pay the bill of wheat and rice imports ;

.wheat and rice constitute 40 percent of food imports and twice the earnings and from cotton lint exports in the sub-region; for instance, inability to keep up with consumer demand for rice crop led to a 400 percent increase in rice imports over the past 25 years, costing the sub-region US$ 1 billion in 1998. However, potential of rice production in West Africa is considered untapped and the sub- region can become easily a major producer. cumulated value of wheat imports for sub-regional baking industry amounts to in 1998. US$ 4.4 billions over the 10-year period.

.in average, bread consumption per capita is higher in West Africa than any other sub-region in Sub-Saharan Africa (see Annex 2, Table 5). There is a fix relation between bread consumption and wheat imports.

55. Member states, individually and collectively should take adequate policy measures to

reverse the trend. With respect to this, the commitments of the Heads of States during the 1996 World Food Summit show good awareness. They are summarized as follows:

.Ensuring an enabling political, social, and economic environment.

.Implementing policies aimed at the eradication of poverty and inequality and improving physical and economic access to food by all.

.Pursuing participatory an sustainable food production and rural development policies and practices in both high- and low-potential areas.

.Ensuring trade policies conducive to foresting food security for all.

.Preventing and forestalling natural and human-induced disasters and meeting transitory and emergency food requirements.

.Allocating public and private investments to foster human resources, sustainable agricultural systems and rural development in high- and low-potential areas.

56. The translation of these commitments into projects and programmes at both country

and sub-regional levels will provide a solide base for improving NSSS and food security, trade balance and industrialization in the sub-region. Production and processing of selected staple to be associated with Xanthan gum to replace wheat in baking industries is viewed in that context.

57. From the above two sections, it appears that the sub-region is spending a lot of foreign

currencies on food imports dominated by wheat and rice. Such practice increases poverty at home and jeopardizes the overall development of the member States? To reverse the trend, a great number of policy recommendations and resolutions have been formulated in international meetings and fora to remedy the situation. The implementation of some of these policies have been at the basis of the composite flours concept and programmes in Africa, Latin America and Asia. Implementation of high ratio composite flours supported by Xanthan gum will have to face first and for most the production of adequate raw materials and that is a real challenge for the national economies.

CHAPTER 4: THE CHALLENGE AHEAD 58. In the African Food Plan studies jointly prepared by ECA and FAO, food self sufficiency

ratios (SSR) and nutritional levels formed the basis of international standards set for improving the insufferable dietary patterns in most African countries. With respect to this, if West Africa was to develop at a faster pace, it will have therefore to produce, first and foremost, more food to meet the increasing demand. An average dietary energy supply (DES) of 2500 kcal per caput per day is considered as a normal standard. If only the sub-region wants to achieve 80 percent food self- sufficiency, it has to provide a DES of 2000 kcal/day/caput (730000 kcal/caput/year) which corresponds to a production of about 200 kg of rice per year per caput. For the total population, the food production will be equivalent to 44 millions tons of rice, or 51 millions tons of cereals, or 169 millions tons of cassava tubers. Figures calculation derive from FAO Food Balance Sheet, Year 1998.

59. To achieve the above desirable food production, member States would need to re-think their agricultural policies and strategies. Particularly, they would have to create a critical mass of expertise to articulate, analyse and implement the national, sub- regional and regional agricultural development goals in order to gain a firm grip on their agriculture. The immediate task of these experts will be to strengthen government agricultural policy formulation, feasibility studies and farm and agricultural programmes managerial functions by employing more and more African researchers, analysts, managers, farmers, rural entrepreneurs, food industrialists and household food processors. The policy actions to be devised should overcome the following factors responsible for growing food shortages: investment policies increased sociological awareness, reduction of food losses, improved storage and marketing institutions, land tenure, farming systems, drought and flood control.

60. The challenge ahead is therefore to develop and implement a normative scenario of

food supply without relying on food imports, but producing internally enough staples to cover both traditional and modern food products needs at national and sub-regional level. Such scenario will involve a policy of NSSS in drawing lessons from the secular interaction between agriculture and development and from the world experiences in food security achievements.

4.1. Agriculture and development 61. In the secular debate of agriculture and development, there was a "rediscovery" of

agriculture by neoclassic economists who claimed that freer markets, more liberal trade regimes and a growing agricultural economy were conducive to overall economic growth. This position was opposed by the "structuralists", including social scientists from the UN Economic Commission for Latin America and Caraibes (ECLAC). Strong supporters of import-substitution industrialization, structuralists had long contested the theory of comparative advantage implied in liberal trade regimes, noting that it was not to the advantage of developing countries to specialize and to export primary and agricultural products when industrialized nations were exporting manufactured goods with greater value added.

62. Although this paper did not enter directly into the debate, its position is that in the sub-

region:

.agriculture remains an active source of development and should constitute therefore a strong basis for industrialization starting with the transformation of the commodities to the manufacture of agricultural inputs;

.farmers in food production deserve at least the same attention that Governments usually accord to cash crops producers in terms of agricultural inputs (e.g. extension services, fertilizers, credit, guaranteed market etc.);

.ongoing and future plans for agricultural development should be closely integrated with those for general economic development; these planning efforts will be seen as signs of awareness of the importance of agriculture and its potential contribution to overall development;

.development of agriculture should aim at achieving high level of NSSS as well as correcting the distortions and imbalances of actual food consumption patterns inherited from the colonial influence.

4.2 World food security experiences 63. During the last 50 years, the world enormous increase in food production is attributable

to:

.the spread in the developed countries of the modern agricultural revolution (involving motorization, large-scale mechanization, biological selection, plant breeding and use of improved high yield varieties, use of chemicals) and its expansion into some sectors of the developing countries;

.the more noteworthy occurrence in the developing countries of the green revolution -a modern agricultural revolution that is not dependent on heavy motorized mechanization but instead involves the use of chemicals and the selection of high-yielding cereal and other domestic plant varieties suited to warm regions;

.the expansion of irrigated surfaces, from about 80 million ha in 1950 to about 270 million ha today;

.the expansion of land under permanent crops, from some 1330 million ha in 1950 to some 1500 million ha today;

.the development of mixed farming systems in the most densely populated areas that lack new land.

64. With respect to the above, a lot of progress and efforts remain to be done in the sub-

region to achieve food self-sufficiency or food security and thereby reach the average levels of world agricultural productivity and nutrition standards.

4.3. Food self-sufficiency versus food security 65. Food security is of concern to all member States in the sub-region because of its

increasing interdependence with issues such as political stability and peace, poverty eradication, prevention of and reaction to crises and disasters, environmental degradation, trade, sub-regional threats to the sustainability of food security, growing population, trans-border population movements, technology, research, investment and technical cooperation.

66. To attain National and sub-regional food security in the current economic conditions of West Africa, national staples self-sufficiency (NSSS) should be emphasized as it was the case for the rest of the World, particularly with the Western developed countries.

67. Between 1950 and 2000, Western countries farm subsidies helped to cut the share of

these countries in the world import volume of wheat, rice and maize from 62.6 to 16.1 percent while their export share rose tremendously. With such huge net supply rises,

countries outside Western World are almost bound to move away from staples self-sufficiency policy to increasingly acquire cheap wheat, rice and maize from the international markets and thereby jeopardizing the development of their own agriculture.

.Policies aimed at NSSS, such as support for agricultural research and well conceived rural extension services turned the quest for NSSS into a policy of extracting rural produce cheaply to feed the cities, thereby creating perverse incentives that discourage African farmers from growing more food. This should change by offering to farmers attractive prices for their food commodities.

.Above all, a greater degree of NSSS may not mean necessarily better household food security or protein-energy-intake levels; however, surely it means better sustainable national food security at macro-economic level. The substance of this report is based on that logic assumption. Therefore, any policy for NSSS should deal with all staples including which can be produced locally (e.g. rice) and those which cannot be produced locally in enough quantity (e.g. wheat) but which can find substitutes among locally produced staples.

4.4. Selecting staples as substitutes for wheat in baking industries 68. Which food staple is to be produced in order to replace wheat in the baking industries

in the sub-region? This raw material should meet the following criteria:

.Easy production in terms of quantity and quality; bout. .Adaptability in various and diversified ecosystems;

.Flour with neutral taste;

. Efficient industrial technology available locally for primary transformation.

69. Among the candidate crops (maize, sorghum, millet and cassava), cassava appears to

be the most manageable in responding to the above criteria. However, each country can choose the material that suits best its own environment and conditions.

4.5. Cassava development potential in West Africa 70. A worldwide project entitled "Global Cassava Production Strategy" -GCPS- was

established few years ago to promote cassava, a daily staple food of more than 200 millions peoples in the world. The first Progress Review Workshop of the project held in Rome, 26-28 April 1997, confirmed the relevance of cassava as a crop of rerty food security and income generation and economic diversification. A raison d'être for a global cassava development strategy is the belief that it will contribute to the economic development of processing communities and well-being of numerous disadvantaged individuals in the world; and spurring rural industrial development and raising incomes for the rural poor. The necessary condition for the implementation of this strategy is the existence of a growing demand for cassava.

71. Current global cassava production and utilization is 170.5 MMT, to increase to 208.8 MMT by the year 2005, showing a similar growth rate as in past trends. Projected cassava utilization rates show an increase for the industrial use in the world. The share for food remains to represent more than half of total supplies and consists mainly of fresh cassava and a large variety of processed flours and pastes. The group of other uses or industrial uses is principally made up of cassava-based starches, including hydrolysed. These starches are used for the manufacturing of numerous intermediate and final products in the food processing, paper, cardboard, plywood, textile, pharma & chemical, and feed industries.

72. In West Africa, cassava means production amounted to 41 MMT per year during the

period 1990-2000, corresponding almost to half of the continental production. The majority of the production is for human consumption (88% ). The remainder for animal feed and starch-based products (starches and alcohol). Studies evidence a very large variety of traditional food dishes and drinks. Some inter-regional trade of cassava roots exists and minor volumes are being exported to the EU. While the use of cassava flour is common, the partial substitution of wheat by cassava flour in bakery products, is more recent, and mostly as part of R&D projects.

73. At the processing level, cassava flour and starch production is still dominated by

traditional and artisanal sector. Industrial cassava processing technology developed by two countries of the sub-region are not yet fully introduced to the industrial sector. However, private sector interest does exist in several countries, regarding future starch and flour processing investments. Cassava flour is particularly relevant for baking.

74. In West Africa, cassava could become the raw material base for an array of processed

"Ready-to-Eat" products that can greatly compete with bread and increase demand for cassava and contribute to agricultural transformation and economic growth in the countries. The current level of cassava production in the sub-region shows in Table 6, Annex 2. It will be noted that West Africa which is controlling half of the African production can increase more its production.

75. In the sub-region, wheat imports projection (from Table 3) may show a level of 6

millions MT at the horizon 2010 corresponding roughly to 4.4 millions MT of flours available for the baking and related industries. The quantity of cassava needed to process such amount of flours will be equivalent to 22 millions MT, e.g. 50 percent of the mean production over the last ten years. How the sub-region will be able to produce such surplus to meet the new demand of the baking industry? The answer is through the Global Cassava Development Strategy, drafted through a series of consultations with cassava "stakeholders" -including international agencies, NGOs, farmer organizations, national institutions and the private sector- and designed to make cassava more competitive in domestic and international markets.

76. To achieve this high demand for cassava, the strategy proposes to develop cassava

based industries through a synergy of national and sub-regional plans. And, for cassava to be a major contributor to development, its market must grow more pastes. rapidly than population or have the potential to expand: this is the case of using cassava in bakeries. As cassava is a very perishable product, it should be processed

quickly. Home and village-level processed products, particularly toasted flour board (known as farinha in Brazil and gari in West Africa), could be marketed more widely as convenience foods because they are easy to buy, store and prepare.

77. Cassava flour can be used as a substitute for wheat flour and may lead to different

grades of breads and prices for the consumer. The product has potential in many developing countries, particularly Africa, where bread made entirely from imported wheat dominates the market. Research has been done at lITA, Nigeria and I2T in Cote d'lvoire to evaluate in partnership with the bakery industry, different combinations of cassava/wheat flour. Xanthan gum will greatly contribute to the increase the cassava component. As an example, 100 percent modified cassava flour/starch (amidon aigre) is used in Jamaica and other Latin American countries to produce bread such as Hammy bread. Cassava ability in bread making is well known.

78. The industrial technology that will process the required quality of cassava flour has been

already developed and known as I2T Cassava technology. Cassava starch/flour viscosity and resistance to shear, makes it attractive for manufacturers of food products especially; it can therefore capitalize easily on special traits not available in other products to compete with their starches and flours (e.g. maize, sorghum).

4.6: I2T Cassava processing technology 79. Cassava processing technology developed by the Institute of Tropical Technology in

Cote d'lvoire (Société Ivoirienne de Technologie Tropicale (I2T) is described as follows in the "Technical Handbook on composite flours".

80. An important breakthrough in the form of a reliable industrial technology for cassava

processing is now available with the Institute of Tropical Technology in Cote d'lvoire. The main technological findings include a patented mechanical peeling system, a specific artificial drying technique and energy production.

81. The mechanical peeling of cassava tubers is a key operation of the whole process. The

technology is specific and unique in the world. It is known as "broyage differentiel", with an efficiency higher than that of the hand peeling which was known as the most economical until the I2T breakthrough.

82. The artificial drying of the cassava pulp uses a specific dryer "sechoir a lit fluidise" or a

rotative dryer which provides equal quality of flour. The mechanical peeling and the drying systems are the core components of the I2T cassava processing technology.

83. The biogas production contributes to increase the economic return of the factory. The

biogas (methane) is generated in a giant digestor using mainly the factory wastages (cassava peels, factory losses, wasted waters) and subsidiarily, the aerial parts of cassava stems and leaves after harvesting. Such energy production covers more than the requirements of the factory and electricity surplus can be supplied to the neighbouring villages. However about 10 per cent of this requirement is to come from outside for the starting periods of the factory.

84. The factory is designed to process cassava tubers of any size, any form and any configuration. The flour produced is highly convenient in breadmaking and its specifications are as follows:

. Starch 88% . Cellulose 0.5% . Protein 1% . Ash 0.5% . Water 10% . Energy 3500/kcal/kg

85. I2T cassava technology can provide factories with different capacities, 50 or 100

MT/day of raw materials. These processing units can be disseminated easily in the production areas. About 700 to 1400 units will be needed to process cassava flour each year for the baking industry from the year 2010. A detailed study will evidence the multiplication effect of the installation of these factories.

86. Rural and industrial extension services are needed to improve activities of the

peasants. Such services should, among other, target women's groups as they constitute a viable and successful vehicle for addressing problems of production and processing.

87. Measures to promote integtated cassava food processing within an overall sustainable

development policy involve firm political commitment and good governance, integrated national development, better co-operation between relevant institutions, integrated agricultural processing and marketing that involve vertical integration and sub-regional, regional and international supportive initiatives.

90. Modernization of the agriculture could bring a lot of improvements in West Africa where

the distinctive feature of agriculture is that the sub-region uses by far the least amount of agricultural inputs (fertilizer, pesticides, machinery, irrigation.. ) in the world; For example :

(a) Total fertilizers consumption (M1) /1000 capita in 1998

World: 23.28 West Africa 2.43

(b) Number of tractors in use per 1000 capita in 1998

World: 4.45 West Africa 0.21 Number of tractors 1000 agric. workers: (during 1995/1998) World: 20 West Africa: 0.38

(c) Irrigation, Agric Area (1000 Ha) per 1000 capita in 1998

World: 0.05 West Africa: 0.00

Irrigation as % of cropland (during 1995/1998) World: 19.2 West Africa: 2.7

Sources: FAO & World Bank database 91. In addition, agro-food yields are also very low. For example, yields in the production of

cereals in Sub-Sahara Mrica and in India were approximatively the same in early 1970's. Twenty years later in early 1990's, the yields have increased only by 30% in SSA while it has more than doubled in India. Taking the example of West Africa, there are enough arable lands and water resources to produce sufficient food for hundreds of millions of people providing that suitable farming organisation and systems are put into place with adequate inputs (finance, equipment, improved seeds, irrigation, etc ...).

5.2. Government policy and commitments 92. From the above, it can be summarized that the persistent tendency of food staples

imports in West Africa is due to wrong policies leading to inadequate farming systems, lack of control of the continent abundant water resources, poor productivity, and the ease of penetration of imported and food aid that discourage African farmers to produce more and the industrialists to introduce new products in the markets. With respect to this, governments have to revisit their current economic policies so as to enhance their economic and social functions, redefine their role, prevent poverty, promote growth and equity and build technological capital.

a. Economic and social functions of the Government .

93. It is now generally agreed that, while the government often plays an obtrusive role in

areas where it usually performs poorly (e.g. in certain lines of manufacturing or trade, including regulations in food grain marketing and pricing), it frequently does not play an important role where it should (e.g. providing basic education, research and extension services, public health and sanitation and roads). In particular, falling public investment in agricultural research and development in many countries is slowing the rate of technological progress in agriculture, while the decline of investments in the maintenance and repair of irrigation and drainage systems and rural roads as well as in the prevention of soil erosion have curtailed the effectiveness of earlier investments in agriculture. In Africa, public agronomic research aimed at locally specific technological improvements has been seriously deficient.

b. Defining the role of the State

94. The state has an important role in catalysing public involvement and decision- making,

enabling the mobilization of people in local participatory development; and in supplying technical and professional services to build local capacity.

95. The relationship between the state and local governance is also important in thinking

about the question of why progress in the alleviation of poverty and food insecurity in recent decades seems to have been slowel in some countries than in others. It is possible to argue that regions with slower growth in general may have seen no more

government interventionism than other regions. More important than the quantity of intervention, however, is the quality of intervention.

c. Eradicating poverty to increase food security

96. "Poverty traps" continue to plague large segments of populations in West African

societies, and they are perpetuated or even accentuated by failures in various political, institutional and coordinating mechanisms. Imperfections in the credit and insurance markets severely restrict the ability of the poor to invest in and expand production. Where success has been achieved in poverty alleviation, governments have played a fundamental role in helping the poor to escape the poverty trap, by enabling them to have access to basic education, health, research and extension services, roads and marketing infrastructures. On the other hand, the removal of costly and distortive government regulations and market interventions has boosted economic and agricultural development. Cassava development is viewed today by experts as a strategy for combating poverty.

d. Promoting growth with equity

97. For a poor household whose major endowment is its labour force, economic growth

with equity can offer a favourable market for its products, more employment opportunities, a greater capacity on the part of society to support the needy.

98. There is a strong case for resource-poor farmers who are unable to keep up with the

competition of modern agriculture. Most of the reviews of rural poverty, particularly women's poverty, point to a common factor- unequal access to land, compounded by unequal access to water, credit, knowledge and markets. This underlines the importance of agrarian reform. Although politically difficult, successful agrarian reforms have not only rectified income distribution but also fling resulted in sharp increases in productivity.

99. Improving the distribution of wealth, resources and opportunities is a key factor in and

the fight against hunger and poverty. This also points to the need for targeted measures that not only address the immediate food and health care requirements of disadvantaged groups, but also provide them with developmental means, i.e. access to inputs, infrastructure, services and, most importantly, education.

e. Building technological capital

100. The unprecedented increase in crop yields over the past years in the developed

countries has been the main source of growth in the world's food supplies, as the global expansion of arable land has been limited. Behind the yield increases are major technological forces, including increased inputs of fertilizers and pesticides, in genetically improved seeds, irrigation and drainage. Improved infrastructure, such as rural roads, has also contributed to the increase in agricultural productivity. Such I in advances were made possible by public and private investments. In this context, research leading to technological development and its dissemination has been , Ian crucial. National research capacities to adopt and disseminate technological

developments for food production and processing have proved a crucial factor in the performance of yield increases.

101. Investment in research, rural infrastructure and extension services, as well as human

capital development, has proved indispensable to technological progress and the social development.

f. Developing human capital Its

102. Human capital in the form of knowledge and skills has been-vital for reducing poverty

and improving food security and economic development. Many studies have demonstrated the effect of education, especially for women, on farm and off-farm output and productivity, as well as on health and nutrition. Training and the development of skills are also fundamental, as farmers with good knowledge and skills are better able to respond to new technology, market opportunities and risks.

g. The importance of sound and stable institutions

103. The institutional framework that governs a people's collective behaviour and social

relations is crucial in enabling the expression of individuals' capacities for their own betterment as well as for the collective welfare, encompassing food security and sustainable agriculture. Institutions can either help shape or prevent solidarity relations, sustainable management of common resources, risk pooling and responsible behaviour. Institutions are also crucial in giving a voice to the weak and in checking the damaging effects of excessive power differences within a society. Moreover, sound institutional frameworks and capacity are naturally conducive to good governance.

104. Sound institutions are also required to secure minimum conditions of political stability

and social cohesion. In addition to their direct and dramatic impacts on the populations concerned, civil strife and conflicts have long-term negative effects on development and food security, as clearly indicated by the high proportion of conflict-affected countries among those with the highest incidence of undernourishment. Even when conflicts have been resolved, they leave behind a terrible inheritance that can last many years, including land mines, loss of human capital and demolished infrastructure.

h. Making incentives work

105. Incentives fail where the risks cannot be afforded. This is one element of the poverty

trap. Many poor farmers cannot adopt higher-return crops or new technology because the change entails risks, and failure would be fatal for their livelihood. They therefore continue low-risk, low-return farming activities.

106. Unless effective incentives and a minimum level of protection against risks are

available to farmers, agricultural capacity cannot be fully exploited. Adequate credit and insurance markets are crucial in this regard.

i. Keeping pace with globalization

107. Currently, the dominant phenomenon is accelerating globalization. Without a historical precedent, goods and services, money and information are crossing borders in increasing amounts and with greater speed. This extraordinary process is not without costs, however. Globalization or borderlessness, does not automatically benefit the poor. The fact that labor, the chief resource in early stages of development, is among the least mobile (in terms of crossing borders) of all production factors means that globalization can lead to greater inequalities as well as to greater progress. The capability of humankind to accompany globalization with the required understanding of its impact, as well as the collective capacity to harness its strength for the common good, will be crucial in the years to come.

ANNEX l KA BAMMY BREAD In mid-1992, FAO received a call for help from the Jamaican Government. Local market demand for the root crop cassava had virtually evaporated, and the country's cassava farmers were facing increasing economic hardship. The cause of cassava's decline was the rapid growth in demand for bread made from wheat flour. Indeed, one of the island's biggest new food enterprises was a flour mill built specifically to process wheat imported from Canada and the USA. Fewer and fewer Jamaicans were eating traditional foods, which meant a continually shrinking market for cassava and other long-established food crops produced by low-income small farmers. Morton Satin, of AG's Agricultural Support Systems Division in Rome, was immediately dispatched to Jamaica with a possible solution to the cassava crisis- the introduction of "wheatless" or high ration composite bread, which uses flours of indigenous origin in place of much of the wheat flour. Initially, however, Jamaican officials were not convinced. They pointed out that cassava was considerably more expensive than the highly subsidized, imported wheat. What is more, conventional wheat bread was so well established in Jamaica that any alternative would meet great consumer resistance. Local news. At breakfast in his Kingston hotel the following morning, a somewhat discouraged Satin was browsing through the local newspaper when his eye fell on a small news item: a group of women in the village of Brown's Hall were struggling to make ends meet selling something called Hammy bread. "I asked the waitress about it and she told me Hammy was a local bread made from the cassava root that people ate years ago. It was once the favourite accompaniment to a number of dishes, including fish, but you hardly saw it anymore. " That same day, Morton Satin headed for Brown's Hall with Robert Salmon, a local FAO staffer and -Satin says -"an unending source of local knowledge, customs and lore". Salmon recounted nostalgically the process for making Hammy bread: first, the finely grated cassava root was heaped into baskets, then pressed overnight to squeeze out the juice, which contains a natural cyanide-based toxin. The cassava was then sifted to produce a coarse, cream-coloured flour that was piled into round metal rings and pressed down to form "bammies" -round cakes approximately 10 cm in diameter and 1 cm thick. The bammies were grilled on a hot, flat plate until golden brown. Robert Salmon held that if people had easy access to bammies they wouldn’t hesitate buying them, despite the flood of wheat bread on the market. "Nothing," he said, "goes better with fish than bammy". Finally at Brown's Hall, Satin met the women's group and took copious notes of the bammy production process. Youngsters peeled and washed the roots before passing them on to an old man who fed them into a rickety grinder. The pulp was drained of liquid in a simple hydraulic press, then sifted through wire mesh by three of the women. Once sifted, the

cassava was piled into a metal rings on a thick flat iron plate over an enormous gas burner. The cooked bammies were then coolled and packaged in small, thin plastic bags. "It was a fairly straightforward operation," Satin says, "but the unsuitable hygienic conditions, the poor state of the equipment, the basic recipe used and the inferior packaging all contributed to a rather limited shelf-life of four to five days for the finished products. Considering the need to sell and distribute the products, this short shelf-life was a real constraint to the success of the operation." The women confirmed that sales were declining and that soon there would be no more bammy production in Jamaica: bad for the women of Brown's Hall and bad for the few cassava farmers who continued to supply them. Project Bammy. His enthusiasm renewed, Satin returned to Kingston and recommended a project to upgrade Hammy bread into a modern, convenient, marketable 00 food product. The idea was accepted and Lorna Gooden, of Jamaica's Rural Agricultural Development Authority (RADA), set up a training facility with FAO-supplied equipment, including a sturdy grinder, a robust hydraulic press and standard-sized moulding rings. All on of the equipment was locally made and the designs continually tested and improved. place With support from the National Food Technology Institute, the project determined which mould inhibitors -the same ones used in conventional bread making- were most effective led extending shelf life, tested various package methods, and even designed labels for the finished products. Women groups were trained in all phases of production and in business ! management as well. In the years following termination of the project, Satin heard reports that Jamaica's bammy group production was increasing steadily, and that cassava production volume was also on the elling rise. But even this promising news did not prepare him for what he found on a recent visit to Jamaica: "To my astonishment, I saw Hammy bread in every supermarket all standardised, beautifully packaged and labelled with the names of the individual cooperatives making them. I could barely believe it." RADA's Lorna Gooden had even more to tell. Hammy Bread was now being packaged, frozen and exported all the way to Europe and North America. In fact, cassava was sometimes imported to Jamaica to meet the burgeoning demand of the bammy makers. Jamaican Hammy Bread was truly a commercial success story. At breakfast in his Kingston hotel next morning, Morton Satin saw mounds of hot, steaming bammies laid out beside the locally prepared fish and- although eggs, bacon and toast were also on offer -other guests returning to their tables with plates piled high with bammies. Bammy Bread Recipe Ingredients goes 1lb (about 700g) grated cassava Pinch of salt

Method

1. Place grated cassava in a muslin cloth 2. Wring out, discard juice, add salt 3. Prepare each bammy by pressing one cup of the mixture into a small, greased frying

pan 4. Cook over moderate heat, turning when edges shrink from the sides of the pan (about

10 minutes per side ) 5. Soak bammies in coconut milk for 5-10 minutes 6. Fry or grill till light brown 7. Butter the bammies and serve hot with fried fish.

Source: FAD online database

REFERENCES 1. See, for example, J. Yaron, B. McDonald and S. Charitonenko. 1998. Promoting

efficient rural financial intermediation. In World Bank Research Observer, and R. Vogel. 1984. The effect of subsidised agricultural credit on income distribution in Costa Rica. In D. W .Adams, D. Graham and J.D. von Pischke. Undermining rural development with cheap credit. Boulder, Colorado, USA, Westview Press.

2. See J. Morduch. 1998. The microfinance promise. Princeton University (unpublished

paper).

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