1

REPORT RESUMESED 019 465 VT 003 382CERAMIC TECHNOLOGY - -FROM POTTER'S WHEEL TO NUCLEATION, APHILOSOPHY OF CURRICULUM ANALYSIS TO MEET THE NEEDS OF THESPACE AGE.BY... FRITZ, ROBERT C.

OHIO STATE DEPT. OF EDUCATION, COLUMBUSREPORT NUMBER OSDE- TIES - RESEARCH- BULL -2 PUB DATE 63EORS PRICE MF-$0.25 HC-$2.20 53P.

DESCRIPTORS- *INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, *CURRICULUM RESEARCH,*CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT, *CERAMICS, CERAMIC TECHNOLOGY,

THE OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY WERE TO ObTAIN ANDESTABLISH CURRICULAR COMPONENTS FROM TECHNOLOGICAL RESEARCHAND TO PROJECT THE RESEARCH INTO AN OUTLINE OF ORGANIZEDSUBJECT MATTER. THE STUDY IS LIMITED TO AN INVESTIGATION OFSELECTED SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL ELEMENTS OF CERAMICTECHNOLOGY THAT ARE RECORDED AS RESOURCE REFERENCES. THE DATAWERE SELECTED FROM BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES. THE SCOPE ANDDIVERSITY OF THE CERAMICS FIELD ARE SHOWN BY ITSCLASSIFICATION .OF PRODUCTS - -(1) STRUCTURAL CERAMICS, (2)

REFRACTORIES, (3) WHITEWARES, (4) VITREOUS ENAMELS, (5)

GLASS, (6) ABRASIVES AND CERAMICS TOOLS, (?) CEMENTS, LIME,AND GYPSUM, AND (8) MISCELLANEOUS. THE SUBJECT MATTER OF THEDERIVED CURRICULAR OUTLINE IS DIVIDED INTO THE FOLLOWINGSEQUENTIAL ELEMENTS - -(1) SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH, (2) ANALYSIS OFCERAMIC MATERIALS AND CLASSIFICATIONS, (3) COMPOSITION ANDPREPARATION OF CERAMICS MATERIALS, (4) CERAMIC PROCESSES, AND(5) TESTS OF CERAMIC MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS WHICH INCLUDESDETERMINING TEST PROCEDURES, APPLYING EQUIPMENT ANDINSTRUMENTS, DETERMINING TEST CONTROLS, DEVELOPING ADAPTABLEMETHODS AND DEVICES, AND DEVICES, AND DESIGNING ANDCONSTRUCTING SPECIALIZED EQUIPMENT. A SAMPLE CURRICULAR UNIT,"THE PROBLEM - -SLIP CASTING," IS INCLUDED. THIS IS A REPORT OFA DOCTORAL RESEARCH STUDY, "CERAMIC TECHNOLOGY - -A

TECHNOLOGICAL RESEARCH AND CURRICULUM ANALYSIS, WITHIMPLICATIONS FOR INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION," SUBMITTED TO OHIOSTATE UNIVERSITY AND AVAILABLE AS 61 -908 FOR $4.10 ONMICROFILM AND FOR $14.40 AS XEROXED COPY FROM UNIVERSITYMICROFILMS, INC., 300 NORTH ZEEB ROAD, ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN48106. (EM)

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443. . 4 . e

wtaitteeE Tec/tit014fif

A CURRICULUM ANALYSISWITH IMPLICATIONS FOR INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

RESEARCH BULLETIN NO.2

CC(.44Po' VOCATIONAL TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION SERVICES

THE.OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONCOLUMBUS, OHIO

........vanasescazik xislaxexar,=a4a1W,13

CERAMIC TECHNOLOGY:

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. EDUCATION & WELFARE

OFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE

PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS

STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDUCATION

POSITION OR POLICY.

FROM POTTER'S WHEEL TO NUCLEATION

A philosophy of curriculum analysis to meet the needs ofthe Space Age.

A report of a Doctoral Research Study by Robert C. Fritzentitled "Ceramic Technology: A Technological Researchand Curriculum Analysis, with Implications for IndustrialEducation." 1960.

Study directed by Dr. Robert M. Reese, Professor ofEducation, The Ohio State University.

Research Bulletin No. 2

OHIO TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION SERVICES

Division of Vocational EducationState Department of Education

Columbus, Ohio

In Cooperation WithThe Ohio State University

College of Education

Edited and reproduced by theTrade and Industrial Education

Instructional Materials LaboratoryThe Ohio State University

College of EducationColumbus 10, Ohio

1963

"eliace

This publication provides an overview of a comprehensiveresearch study in the field of Ceramic Technology withinthe United States. The major purpose of the study was toprovide a basis for the development of a curriculum in anyone of the several industrial areas of instruction. This maybeat the secondary Industrial Arts (general education) levelor the high school and post high school skilled occupationand technician level of vocational instruction.

The detailed sections on Composition and Preparation ofCeramic Materials, Processing Methods and Testing Pro-cedures will be particularly useful to a teacher in planningfor instruction in ceramics.

Personnel of industry who find a need for a detailed analysisof the ceramics field will also find this bulletin useful.

Acknowledgement is extended to Dr. Robert C. Fritz forsummarizing the results of his research study for this bul-letin; to Dr. Robert M. Reese, Director of Trade & Indus-trial Education Service for directing the preparation andediting the material; and to William Berndt and the staff ofthe Trade & Industrial Instructional Materials Laboratoryfor the publication of this research bulletin.

Earl Fowler, SupervisorTrade and Industrial Education

ems.PREFACE

I. INTRODUCTION

II. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMAssumptionsLimitationsMethods and TechniquesIndustrial Education

III. INVESTIGATION OF CERAMIC

PAGEiii

1

5

6

6

7

8

TECHNOLOGY 12Scope of the Ceramic Industry 12Nature of the Ceramic Industry 15Analyses of the Technological

Investigation 19Analysis of the Ceramic Technology . . . 19Analysis of Manufacturing and Processing 21Analysis of Production Processes 22

IV. ORGANIZATION OF THE SUBJECT MATTER- -CURRICULAR ELEMENTS 24Scientific Research 25Analysis of Ceramic Materials and

Classifications 27Composition and Preparation of

Ceramic Materials 28Ceramic Processes 31Tests of Ceramic Materials and Products 34

V. APPLICATION OF CERAMIC TECHNOLOGYTO INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION . 39Implications for Industrial Education 40The Problem: Slip Casting 41Manipulative Procedures 41Biographical Research 43Conclusions 48

I. AtAoductiemSince World War II and especially since the advent of theatomic age and "Sputnik", many areas of the economy havebeen affected by technological and industrial developments.Advances in such fields as electronics, chemistry, andastrophysics are creating shortages of scientists, engineers,technicians, and skilled craftsmen. It is estimated thatwithin the next decade the number of persons employed inprofessional and subprofessional technical positions mayincrease about 40 per cent, and the number employed inmanagerial and highly skilled jobs will increase by 25 percent or more.' At the same time, despite an increase inthe total labor force, the number of openings for laborersand unskilled workers will continue to decline.

Because of the emphasis placed on science, considerableinterest has been generated in the United States for reeval-uation of educational programs . The awareness of the needto disseminate knowledge of the technological and scientific

and nd theories has great implications for In-dustrial Education in the area of research for new techniquesin curriculum development. Research is needed to developcurricula that will exemplify the technology and keep abreastof technological progress. The desired outcomes of sucha study is to develop a critical evaluation of subject mattercontent and to direct the revisions of the curriculum thatsuch an evaluation indicates .

1Bogue, Jesse P. (Editor). American Junior Colleges.Fourth Edition, American Council on Education, 1956.p. 2.

1

L..

One of the characteristic changes that should be developedin all Industrial Education programs is one reported at theAmerican Vocational Association Conference in 1957 byRobert Jacoby:

. . .The nature of the method of instruction inmost technical courses must be directed toward de-veloping original thinking and diagnosis rather thantrial and error application. This necessitates thelaboratory method of teaching rather than the job orproject, type or demonstration-analysis or laboratoryworkbook method. 2

To effectuate Jacoby's report, another characteristic changeshould be implemented. Through the process of delineat-ing the curricular elements of a major technological fieldand by the extraction of the curricular elements, IndustrialEducation programs representative of industry, should bedeveloped by the inclusion of technical and scientific know-ledge within the occupations . A major field that lendsitself to such a research is ceramics. When one considersthat ceramic technology is a subject that pertains to severalclosely integrated sciences and applied sciences, it canreadily be seen that research in the field could include thesciences of chemistry, physics, mineralogy, and geology;and in the field of applied science--ceramics, engineering,agriculture, and mining. A consideration of structure,physical properties, origin and occurrence of ceramicminerals is also essential to an understanding of thetechnology.

2Jacoby, Robert. "An Overview of Technicians TrainingThrough Public Education and Expansion PossibilitiesUnder Federal and State Policies." Presented to theAmerican Vocational Association Convention,Philadelphia, Pa., August 8, 1957.

2

The field of ceramics offers a diversity of opportunity forexploration and occupations, and it is stimulating enoughto maintain a continual attraction by the very fact thatcrude minerals can be transformed by ceramic manufactur-ing processes into products of permanence, utility, andbeauty. The variety of mineral combinations, the manyfeasible methods of processing, and the diverse currentand possible future applications for ceramic products, in-sures a continuing interest whether it is in research, edu-cation product design, equipment, raw material process-ing, purchasing, production control, testing, distribution,sales, or management.

The reason ceramics has advanced so rapidly lies partlyin the inherent properties of ceramic materials and partlyin their increased exploitation through accelerated researchprograms. Research activities are continually expandingthe accumulation of basic data essential for future develop-ments of increased production of established products, andthe development of new products and processes. A. B.Kinzel of Union Carbide and Carbon Corporation predictedfurther developments in Ceramics.

Ceramics, long outstanding with respect to temper-ature and corrosion resistance, are coming into wideuse as their strength and toughness are improved.Much remains to be done, but the scientific approachhas already resulted in such new ceramics as siliconnitride and various metal silicides, borides, andcarbides, not to mention metal ceramics. Potentialitiesin the field are impressive, and new ceramics promisebetter furnaces, better chemical plants, better cuttingtools, and better jet engines, to mention just a few of thc:items making for better living. 3

3 "Many Jobs in Many Fields Await the Ceramic Engineer."Reprint from Air Trails Hobbies for Young Men, May,1955.

3

The most striking developments have occurred in glass,ceramic coatings, ceramics for electronic uses, and re-fractories. Much of the progress and the development ofnew materials has resulted from fundamental studies con-cerning the nature of ceramic materials; investigations offine structures of matter--nucleation; research based oncrystal structure studies--a new abrasive material; and,investigation of the phenomenon of sintering.

With the new challenge to develop technological and scientificelements within Industrial Education programs, there is aneed to investigate new resources and techniques for cur-riculum development. The philosophy of curriculm analysisfor Vocational, Industrial, and Technical Education has tobe revised to a more encompassing, realistic view-pointcognizant of contemporary and future technological ad-vancements.

AI

I. Sidemen" oi the PvildemStudies have been made 0 determine curriculum contentand to ascertain the status of Industrial Education in theUnited States. This study was a departure from the usualresearch in curriculum development in that it was anattempt to obtain and establish curricular components froma technological research and project the research into anoutline of organized subject matter. The principal featuresof the study are presented as guiding principles .

1. The presentation of a basic philosophical foundationfor industrial education that should illustrate its positionin education: general and vocational.

2. The presentation of an investigation of the histor-ical significance of ceramics, its nature, and technologicaldevelopment from 12,000 B.C. to the twentieth centur ythat should illustrate the role ceramics has played in pastcivilizations and future predictions.

3. The presentation of information to illustrate therelationship between ceramics, a major industry, and theeconomy of the United States that should show the diversityand size of the industry.

4. The presentation of an investigation of technologi-cal resource material on ceramics in the United Statesthat should represent the relationship of the sciences tothe ceramic industry.

5. The presentation of curricular elements derivedfrom the technological investigation and interpreted in out-line form should facilitate comprehension of the scope ofthe subject matter.

5

6. The presentation of an illustrative instructional unitin ceramic technology that should be derived from the sub -ject matter outline of selected curricular elements in orderto establish a basis for curriculum analysis . The unitshould be applicable to vocational industrial education at thetechnical level utilizing research, experimentation, and theindustrial processes of the industry.

Assumptions

It is assumed throughout the study that the ceramic industryhas a definite influence upon the economy and the people inthe United States; that ceramic technology is advanced bymethods of scientific research; and, that there exists withinthe ceramic technology curricular elements which are applicable to various educational levels. Since most of themajor industries are represented at secondary and technicallevels, it may be assumed that, as one of the major indus -tries in the United States, ceramic technology should berepresented in the curriculum in a form other than fine artsor engineering.

Limitations

The study is limited to an investigation of selected scienti-fic and practical elements of ceramic technology that arerecorded as resource references.

An imporcant limitation is the use of literature in the fieldof ceramics as a primary source of material for the study.It was discovered that there exists numerous technicalbooks and publications on ceramics at the engineering level,and also hobby or how-to-do-it literature; however, thereis a paucity of material specifically written for programs atthe technical level. Consequently, the material presentedis limited to ideas discerned by the writer through personalcontacts with many ceramic scientists and engineers in the

6

Iindustry, and to those ideas derived by logical processesfrom the technical investigation.

Probably the most important limitation for the investigationof ceramic technology is that it has been restricted tospecial emphasis on mineral technology, glasses, and coat-ings (glazes and vitreous enamels). Although the limitationwas necessary, the technical aspects of these areas areextensively presented.

The organization of the subject matter, presented in outlineform to exemplify ceramic technology, was limited to thetechnological investigation and to the presentation of selectedcurricular elements . The elements of the outline were re-stricted to specific sub-headings that were developed, in se-quential order, from the basic fundamental knowledges tothe culminating process of testing the properties of ceramicmaterials and finished products .

The study was further limited to the delineation of the cur-ricular elements into one illustrative unit of instructionwhich was applicable to the technical level; however, therewere implications for other educational levels.

The studywas limited to industrial education theories forcurriculum development. Consideration was given to theunderlying theories of direction and control of the educationalprocesses in determining the content in technical programsthrough a technological investigation.

Methods and Techniques

The data for the study were selected from bibliographicalreferences: technical; literary; and scientific books, peri-odicals, and writings . An endeavor was made to examinecritically the selected data pertaining to ceramic technologyand technical instruction. The statements expressed or im-plied were extracted from the literature and condensed so asto be applicable to the scope or limitations of the study.

7

a.

The technical information was written as an overview ofselected areas of ceramics; quotations were interpolated tosubstantiate or express the technical, scientific, and edu-cational factors. The author's parttime employment as alaboratory technician in the Ceramic Division of Battelle'sMemorial Research Institute was of immeasurable value tothe study. It was through research at Battelle's with mate-rials and scientific procedures that much of the technicalscope of the dissertation was developed.

The process of classifying and organizing the subject mattercomponents into an outline of curricular elements reducedtheir number and permitted a more convenient method forinterpretation and analysis. An example was presented toillustrate a unit of instruction for the technical level basedon the philosophy of Industrial Education and the selectedbibliographical data. The unit was derived from elementsof the subject matter, and synthesized into a sequentialproblematic solution of a unit of instruction for ceramicsutilizing bibliographical research techniques, laboratoryexperimentation, and acceptable standard procedures asprescribed by the ceramic industry.

Industrial Education

Industrial Education is the generic term applied to all typesof education related to industry, including general industrialeducation (industrial arts), vocational industrial education(trade and industrial), and technical education.

A close relationship should exist between industrial arts,trade and industrial and technical education. It becomesapparent that an effective industrial arts program is con-tributory to a successful trade and industrial program. Thefirst two years of secondary school in which trade and in-dustrial vocational education cannot be taken, permits thestudent to enroll in industrial arts courses to provide a

8

means for students to discover their abilities, aptitudes,and interests and thereby to make a more intelligent se-lection of their vocation.

In each type of program in Trade and Industrial educationthere is reflected the relationship that exists between theseprograms and industrial pursuits. It has been commonlyaccepted that to meet the objectives of Trade and Industrialprograms it is necessary that the instruction should bebased on an analysis of an occupation or of a particularphase of the occupation. All instructional material should

be based on an occupational analysis. The analysis shouldinclude an investigation and organization of the occupationand the reducing or dividing of the information into itsmanipulative skills and technological details. These skillsand details are arranged into a logical order to satisfy theparticular objectives for the course of instruction.

Because of the difficulty of defining technical educationadequately, and in order for technical education to expandand develop, some attempt was made to clarify a basicphilosophy. Clarification was attempted by the considera-tion of a number of characteristics of programs as theyhave been developed and listed in a paper presented byRobert Jacoby at the American Vocational AssociationConvention in 1957:

1. Technical education must be different from tradeeducation. Trade education is a curriculum designed toprepare for earning a living in a skilled tradeTechnical education differs from trade education by em-phasizing definite industrial application of laws of sci-

ence .

2. Technical education functions most effectively as

a program of non-college grade. .The place or ins ti-

9

....._...._ _._

tution in which technical education is offered is of limitedimportance as long as the established objectives, principlesare not altered. . . .

3. The nature of the method of instruction in mosttechnical courses must be directed toward developing orig-inal thinking and diagnosis rather than trial and error ap-plication. This necessitates the laboratory method ofteaching rather than the job or project type or demonstration-analysis or laboratory workbook method. .

4. Technical education offered on a service area basisis sufficiently large to operate efficiently and economicallyas well as provide a broad and varied curricular program. . . .

5. The technical program can operate as part of acomprehensive vocational education program encompassinga broad curricular program of technical trade and opera-tional levels. . .the states must assume greater respons-ibility and vision in the development of plans for meetingthe needs of all youth and adults for trade and technicaleducation.

I

6. More attention must be directed to training occupa- i

tions for girls and women. A . .

7. Technical education must be for the able student.One of the most important obligations is to actively recruitand properly guide youth into technical education who canprofit from the instruction. .4

4Jacoby, Robert. "An Overview of Technicians TrainingThrough Public Education and Expansion PossibilitiesUnder Federal and State Policies." Presented to theAmerican Vocational Association Convention, Philadelphia,Pa., August 8, 1957.

10

;4.4: "

To understand fully the need for the introduction of moretechnical knowledge in Industrial Education, one must beaware of the changes which have evolved in the industrialeconomy. There has been tremendous industrial growthand continuous increased use of mechanization, thus requir-ing labor with technical knowledge to maintain it. Innumerous instances, established trades and occupationshave disappeared and new and more highly skilled technicalfields have emerged. This constant advancement of in-dustrial technology with accompanying new industries, newmethods, and new and more sophisticated equipMent isplacing greater demands upon skilled mechanics and tech-nicians. The economy is based upon a complex and con-stantly evolving technology; it cannot function without anadequate supply of skilled workers and technicians to keepabreast of the new scientific advances. Therefore, thecurriculum planners of Industrial Education should becognizant of the significant facts concerning (1) currentoccupational, social, and educational conditions and needsof the nation's citizens; and (2) facilities existing withinthe nation for serving these needs.

11

iii. yowesie -"ton. °if "14"441

i/Scope of the Ceramic It Austry

The diversity of the ceramic field is comprehensible whenthe scope of the industry and its classification of ,:ioductsare observed in Figure 1. Ceramic products have beenloosely classified as regards raw materials, fabricationmethods, character of product, and ware utility. Althoughit is 'difficult if not impossible to avoid some overlapping inclassifying products, a modification of Wilson's classifi-cation is presented in Figure 1.5 The Figure clearly in-dicates the extensive scope and diversity of the ceramicfield. It is of further interest to review seven of the generalmethods of manufacture:

1. Those products which are molded in the aqueousplastic condition and which derive their strength from thepartial fusion of silicate at high temperatures: structural,whiteware, and refractory.

2. Those products which are heated until they becomefluid and are molded in the viscous liquid state. The finalstrength obtained from cooling: glass.

3. Those pulverized products in which raw materialsacquire a letent cementitious property by heating with theaddition of water: cements, plasters, and limes.

4. Those raw materials which, sometimes after fusionof sintering and crystallization, are crushed or pulverizedand graded into specified grain sizes: abrasives.

5Wilson, Hewitt. Ceramics: Clay Technology, New York:McGraw-Hill Book, Inc., 1927, p. 2.

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5. Those minerals which, after mining in massiveform, are cut, machined, or shaped into useful products:insulation and diatomaceous earth.

6. Those raw materials or compositions which areapplied as coatings to ceramic or metal articles and heatedto fuse or sinter the coatings; glazes and vitrified enamels.

7. Those large crystals which are grown from anaqueous solution, from fused powder, by solid state re-action, or by other means: synthetic gems, mica, andother crystals.

It is impossible to define accurately the size of the ceramicindustry in the United States. The difficulty is in as sembly-ing complete factual data because of the disagreement as towhich borderline products are ceramic; however, for thepurposes of a statistical analysis, it is evident that the firstrequirement is a set of well-defined limits for inclusionand exclusion of various branches for collecting data ononly ceramic industries. These limits were established bythe definition of "ceramics" as adopted by the ResearchCommittee of the American Ceramic Society in 1920.

In general, the usage of the term by the Greeksmay be said to involve two characteristic elements.First, and primarily, a product in whose manufacturea high-temperature treatment is involved; and secondand secondarily, a product customarily manufacturedentirely or chiefly from raw materials of an earthy(as distinguished from metallic, organic, and so forth)nature. It is also clear that it is these very elementswhich characterize the significance of the term"ceramics" as it has come to be employed by theAmerican Ceramic Society.

In accordance with this definition, ceramic indus-

13

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tries may be properly defined and described as thoseindustries which manufacture products by the actionof heat on raw materials, most of which are of anearthy nature, while the constituents of these raw ma-terials, the chemical element silicon together withits oxide end the compounds occupies a predominantposition.

Nature of the Ceramic Industry

The numerous ceramic materials and products applied toindustry is extensive. Many industrial areas could notsubsist without ceramic refractory materials. Throughconstant research in ceramics refractory materials, im-portant to the metal industries, have become paramount inthe development of missiles, satellites, and nuclear ad-vances. Refractories are also necessary in the processingof cements, limes, and other ceramic materials, as wellas linings of boilers and furnaces. These and other re-quirements, make it understandable as to why ceramicrefactory materials are so essential to modern industry.

Electronic ceramics is the fastest growing industry in theUnited States according to Deem and Sullivan7; it includestransitors in communications and other electronic controlsand operations, and the ferrites in the field of computers.Ceramic parts composed of alumina meet many of the de-mands of high-powered, high-frequency, and high-temper-ature electronic equipment. There appears to be no limit

6"Report of Committee on Classification and Nomenclature,"American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 24, 1, 1945.p. 536.

7Deem, Betty and John D. Sullivan. "Ceramic Statistics."American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 39, 2, 1960.

15

to the size and shape in which alumina can be fabricated.Many parts are produced to precise tolerances such asvacuum tube envelopes, coil forms, and other high-frequencyproducts.

The list of glass products for industrial use is almost end-less. In every field of science and industry, glass has animportant role. In regard to new developments in glassproducts, H. E. Simpson, of Alfred University, commentsas follows:

Continued research with photo-chemical glass hasproduced a new process of chemical machining.Pieces can be produced by this process which are so in-tricate that their manufacture by mechanical means wouldbe impossible. New glasses are being developed thatwill transmit or retard radiations of specific frequencies.Glasses of improved faculties for the absorption of infra-red and ultraviolet rays have been produced as well asglasses capable of absorbing slow neutrons. 8

The final machining of highly finished products by newabrasive tools has attained dimensions never thought pos-sible with the use of metal tools. Many other major in-dustrial operations vital to manufacturing are performedwith the use of these artificial abrasives. Although fiftyyears ago the only hard abrasive available as emery--anatural form of impure alumina--today, there exists manymanufactured grinding materials possessing great hardness.One of the more recent developments has been the ceramic-tipped tools .

8Shute, R. W. and B. W. King. "Engineering for IncreasedGlass Production, " Industrial Engineering Chemistry.Vol. 46, 1, 1954. p. 174.

16

A projection into the future of ceramics would revealsignificant advances in nuclear energy experiments . Con-sequently, ceramic products should increase in importanceas the trend continues toward higher temperature appli-cations for electrical and electronic currents. Dr. EdwardTeller, a leading scientist in the development of hydrogendevices, had the following to say about the future use ofceramics in the nuclear field:

High-temperature resistance ceramics are playingan increasingly important role in the planning of thenuclear reactors of the future. A thorough understand-ing of these materials will be needed in order to en-gineer the energy supply for the coming decades.9

Hydrogen fusion may become a source of low cost powerthrough the use of alumina. Alumina, because of itsproperties of density and strength is to be used as theceramic material for the reactor changer. Other new usesfor alumina are being developed.

Melting points have become a major factor to be consideredin the future development potential of new materials in highrefractory processes. The temperature chart Figure 2,illustrates how the utilization of pure compounds, manyvery scarce materials, make it practical to use highertemperature materials as compared to present -day com-mercial refractories. Presently, the only practical pos-sibility of achieving temperatures above 5,0000 F. is withgraphite in a controlled atmosphere. M. jack Snyder,Project Engineer, Battelle Memorial Institute has the follow-ing to say about the future of refractories:

9Ceramic Education Committee. For Career Opportun-ities Explore The Wonder World Of Ceramics.Columbus, Ohio: American Ceramic Society.

17

Although new high-melting compounds undoubtedlywill be discovered, it is highly unlikely that they will becomposed of the more abundant elements, and accord-ingly these new compounds also are likely to be unavail-able in the quantities needed for refractory applicationeven at a high price. . . It is likely that some expedientsuch as cooling the walls, use of the reactants as the con-tainer, or levitation would be employed in developing theprocess and be adapted to commercial operation.10

The development of new high-temperature chemical pro-cesses requires an associated development of new materials.Snyder proposes a number of ideas that require new ma-terials such as processing ozone from oxygen, direct syn-thesis of cyanogen from carbon and nitrogen; and additionalproduction of products by thermal decomposition.

As to the future developments in the glass industry, thereshould be greater conversion to adapt the combination of

gas and electric heating for melting furnaces . It has beenreported by ceramists that the output of furnaces alreadyin use should, when converted, increase production from30 to 50 per cent. A few predictions in glass research arefor the future development of a large mirror to produce atemperature of 5,000° F. from the sun's rays; malleableglass that can be worked like plastic, but still resistant toheat; light-weight glass for construction; glass cements;and glass-coated bearings for engines.

Equally diversified products are forecast in the ceramicareas of abrasives, the laboratory development of a man-made material with greater hardness than diamond; ce-ments, plaster, limes, extending the longevity of concreteby new developments in cements; insulation, using newly

10Snyder, M. Jack. "Ceramic Materials for High-Temper-ature Applications in the Chemical Process Industries."Chemical Engineering Progress. November, 1958.

18

1

developed theories; ad infinitum.

Analyses Of The Technological Investigation

The investigation of the technological research was pre-sented as an analyses of selected subject matter that wasconsidered to be representative of ceramic technology.The research of the technological material and its presenta-tion required decisions that were difficult to make; there-fore, the selection presented were only those the writerbelieved to be pertinent to the study. Certain areas of thestudy were substantiated through the utilization of charts,figures, and tables. Unquestionably, many of the areasdiscussed could involve major experimentation and researchby specialists; this was not the purpose of the analyses.The purpose being the presentation of basic technologicalinformation for breadth rather than depth of scope. Ifadditional knowledge is needed, the many bibliographicalreferences are available. Undoubtedly, additional ref-erences are needed to expand research and experimentationin the ceramic field. The analyses can be logically dividedinto three groupings: Analysis of Ceramic Technology,Analysis of Manufacturing and Processing, Analysis ofProduction Processes.

Analysis of the Ceramic Technology

The analysis of ceramic technology is primarily concernedwith selected fundamental information pertaining to thetechnology of minerals and materials of the ceramic in-dustry. The technology involves selected basic knowledgein geology, mineralogy, and to the possible origin andmineralogical composition of ceramic materials. Thetechnology is also concerned with selected chemical andphysical reactions as related to crystal chemistry andphysiCal state reactions involving scientific phenomena thathave definite affects upon the preparation and processing ofceramic materials.

19

Temperature,

4500

F Compound Temperature, F Compound

7500B4C

- 7r02, Si02- UC2

4200 1 7200

- Magnesite brick, graphite - TaC

- SiC, self-bonded silicon carbide3900 1=111 6900

- Be2C (decomposes)- A1203 - Graphite

3600 NMI - Ba0 6600- Fused alumina- Mo Si2

- TiO2

3300 NNW 6300iHigh alumina, chrome-magnesite

J - 7rC

Ssilicon carbide- Si02

3000- Silica brick

WINN 6000- TiN

- Th0 2

2700 OEM 5700 IM - TiC

- HfB

- BN (sublimes)2400 Ma% - Fire clay brick 5400 NM

- Hf0- UO2

2100 IIMM 5100 OM - Mg0- WC

1800 =II 4800 NW - 7r02, Ce203- Ca0

- Sm203, Gd203, BeC

1500 4500Source: Snyder, "Ceramic Materials for High-Temperature

Applications in the Chemical Process Industries."

FIGURE 2 UPPER OPERATING TEMPERATURES OF COMMERCIALCERAMICS AND ME LTING POINTS OF PURE COMPOUNDS

20

A brief outline of the analysis of the selected knowledgeincludes:

Ceramic Mineral AnalysisClassification of mineralsElements of crystal chemistry

Origin and Occurrence of Ceramic MineralsCeramic geology and mineralsFormation of claysChemical constitution of clay minerals

Properties of ceramic materialsTextureHomogeneityPorosityPermeabilityStrength and allied properties

Rheological phenomenaElements of colloidal chemistryFundamentals of plasticity

Physio-chemical reaction between ceramic materialsChanges effected by water-hydrationChemical components of ceramic materialsPlastic materialsNon-plastic materials

Analysis of Manufacturing and Processing

The analysis of manufacturing and processing is primarilyconcerned with the preparation, composition, calculation,and batching of ceramic materials into enamels, bodies,and coatings. The calculation of most ceramic bodies andcoatings involves similar steps and methods of expressingformulas and recipes. The raw materials used are similarexcept in the degree of refinements, therefore, the sameconsideration is given to their classification.

A brief outline of the analysis would include the following:

21

Preparation of raw materialsMining methods

Composition and calculation of ceramic productsEmpirical formulaEquivalent weightBatch calculation-compoundingSubstitutionTriaxial diagramBlending

Preparation of ceramic bodiesClayGlazesGlassesVitreous enamelsMethods of preparation

Analysis of Production Processes

The analysis of production processes is primarily concernedwith the various methods of forming ceramic materials,methods of drying, decorative techniques, and thermo-chemical reactions that occur during the firing process .There is also a discussion of a number of properties andtests that are utilized by the ceramic industry.

A brief outline of the analysis would include the followinginformation:

Forming methodsPlastic formingCasting processPressure formingGlass forming

Drying productsDrying rateDrying systems

Design development

22

Decorative ProcessesGlaze application

Firing and SettingsFiringHeat and temperatureTemperature measurement and controlTypes of kilnKiln design principlesFiring changes and defects in claysFiring changes and defects in glazesFiring changes and defects in vitreous enamelsFiring chanties and defects in glass

Thermal chemical reactionsEquilibrium diagramsEutectics and related phenomenaLiquid and/or solid state reactionVitrification, porosity, and absorptionProperties and tests of ceramic material

23

Iv . 649catiriitia ai the &diedMalta - eauk44144 amteals

This part of the study is an analysis of the technologicalmaterial presented in Chapter III. From the analyses, aselection of basic curricular el lents was organized intoa compilation of pertinent subject matter. The subjectmatter is in no way a specific curriculum proposal for alevel of training, but rather a selection of basic learningelements discernible to the writer that may be applicableto the various educational levels. However, a specificproposal for one unit of instruction for the technical levelderived from the following curricular elements is pre-sented in Chapter V.

Although scientific knowledge has accumulated throughouitthe centuries to lay the foundation for modern researchtechniques, it has only been in the last half century thatnew applications have been discovered as well as newatomic theories developed. Through scientific research,dynamic changes have been initiated in the ceramic industry.

The field of research in ceramic technology is so largethat it has taken many years to understand and substantiatethe basic principles involved. The major problem has beenthe difficulties experienced in obtaining pure substances,the general insolubility and apparent inertness of mostceramic materials at temperatures below a dull-mu , .at,and the need for the development of testing and recc- .flingthe constitution and properties of materials and products.

At present, many important fundamental principles needfurther investigation in areas such as colloidal phenomena,distribution of water in drying products, and the effects of

24

temperature on ceramic materials. There has been a sub-stantial accumulation of research recorded which has causedchanges to take place in many phases of manufacturing pro-cesses in the ceramic industry.

The following abbreviated outlines are concerned with anintroduction to research techniques and procedures, andapplication of these techniques and procedures as they applyto selected areas in ceramics. The subject matter, rep-resented in the outlines, is divided into the followingsequential elements of the technological research: Scien-tific Research, Analysis of Ceramic Materials and Class-ifications, Composition and Preparation of Ceramic Ma-terials, Ceramic Processes, and Tests of Ceramic Materialsand Products.

Scientific Research

This section is organized to represent an orientation toceramic technology and its place in the American economy.Introduction to research techniques and a selected listingsof various basic working laws as they apply to the ceramictechnology are presented in the outline. The physical andchemical reactions that are inherent in ceramic materialsand the method of measurement and control of them are alsosuggested. The basic fundamental knowledge requisite totechnological research are presented as suggested elementsthroughout the curricular outlines.

I. Nature of CeramicsA. Orientation

1. Terminology2. Scope of Industry

B. Orientation to Occupational Field1. Technological: technical, engineering2. Supervisory3. Sales

25

4. Designing

II. Introduction to ResearchA. Language of research

1. Centigrade vs. Fahrenheit2. Inches vs. Centimeters3. C. g. s. -- Centimeters, grams, seconds

B . Basic Working Laws1. Electricity and Electronics--Ohm's law,

voltage, resistance, etc.2. Optics--optical systems3. Physical Chemistry--gas laws, atomic

and molecular weights, valences, etc.C. Methods and Devices

1. Temperature Measurements -- thermom-eters, pyroineters, thermocouples,potentiometers

2. Temperature Control

III. Development of Scientific ProceduresA. Procedures in Experiments

1. Standardization with controlled variables2. Experimental

B . Record Keeping1. Procedure change2. Process specifications3. Reporting

C. MeasurementsD. Investigation of Published Research

IV. Application to Ceramic TechnologyA. Elements of Crystal Chemistry

1. Classification2. Crystal Structure3. Mineral Structures4. Identification of Minerals

26

,,e" ,, ..-, 4

B. Rheological Phenomena1. Properties of Solid-liquid Systems2. Ion Exchange--flocculation,

defloccu lation3. Colloids -- theories

C. Chemical Constitution of Ceramic Minerals1. Acids, Bases, and Salts2. Chemical Constitution of Materials

D. Crystalline and Glassy State of Matter1. Glass Structure and Composition2. Phase Rule and Equilibrium Diagrams

E. Physico-Chemical Reactions1. Factors Influencing Chemical Reaction2. Phase Conditions

Analysis of Ceramic Materials and Classifications

The fundamental curricular elements pertinent to researchtechniques have been presented in abbreviated form. Con-comitantly, the assimulation of sufficient knowledge of theceramic technology is necessary in the area of physicaland chemical properties of raw materials and finishedproducts. Such a technical investigation illustrates theimportance of raw material control to mechanization.

This section is an abbreviated outline of an analysis ofsubject matter about the properties of "raw" materialsas to their identification and methods of preparation. Theclassification of products is also presented to characterizeand identify ceramic products.

I. Ceramic MaterialsA. DefinitionB . Origin & Occurrence of Clays & Ceramic

Materials1. Ceramic Geology

27

2. Classification3. Characteristics

C. Mineralogical Composition1. Formation of Minerals2. Crystallography

D. Physical StructureE. IdentificationF. Physical State

1. Solid2. Pastes3. Slips4. State of Aggregation5. Alteration

G. Properties of Ceramic Materials1. Color2. Hardness3. Strength4. Elasticity5. Fired Properties

II. Preparation of Raw Materials.A. Mining MethodsB . DisintegrationC. Size Classification

1. Screening2. Milling

D. Treatment1. Washing2. Blunging

E. Controls for Uniformity

Composition and Preparation of Ceramic Materials

The physical and chemical properties of raw and preparedmaterials have been presented; therefore, this section isconcerned with the composition and calculation of ceramic

28

i

bodies and coverings which constitutes the next importantphase o1 ceramic technology. The determining factors ofthe properties of ceramic products are formulated at thistime. The numerous theories and phenomena included inthe technology are considered as they are applied to tech-nical formulas. This section includes those elements in-volved in the formulation, batching, and processing ofceramic materials as they apply to ceramic bodies andcoatings.

I. Composition and Calculation of Bodies & CoatingsConstitution

1. Bases2. Neutrals3. Acids

Method of Expressing Composition1.2.3.4.

A.

B.Molecular WeightsEmpirical FormulaFormula WeightEquivalent Weight

5. Batch Formula WeightC. Formulation of Ceramic Bodies and Coatings

1. Phase Equilibrium Diagrams2. Charts3. Triaxial4. Substitution5. Fundamentals of Color Formation

D. Classification of Ceramic Bodies & Coatings1. Salt Glaze2. Raw-lead or Leadless3. Bristol4. Feldspathic5. Fritted6. Earthenware, Stoneware, Porcelain7. Transparent, Opaque, Matt, Gloss,

Color8. Ground and Cover Coat

29

E. Physical Properties1. Thermal Expansion2. Density3. Elasticity4. Tensile Strength5. Hardness6. Thermal Conductivity7. Compressive Strength8. Viscosity9. Coefficient of Expansion

10. Adherence11. Surface Factors

H. Preparation of Ceramic MaterialsA. Clay BodiesB . Glazes, Glasses, Vitreous EnamelsC. Processes

1. Wedging2. Blunging3. Pugging--De-Airing4. Milling5. Filter Pressing6. Magnetic Separating7. Screening8. Mixing9. Chemical Treatment--Bleaching

10. Coloring11. Grinding12. Deflocculating13. Fritting14. Flocculating15. Calcining

D. Product ControlE. Product Preparation

1. Chemical Cleaning of Metal2. Pickling3. Acid Washes

30

Ceramic Processes

The preceding sections include a presentation in sequentialorder of the fundamental considerations of ceramic ma-terials and their preparation. The preparation and controlof materials are the major determinants for the requisitemethod of fabrication; therefore, this section constitutesthose elements of processing methods and their implica-tions for production techniques. Elements of drying anddecoration are presented with related techniques applicableto the forming, decorating, and drying of ceramic products.These curricular elements lead to the completion of pro-cessing raw materials into finished products; this culmina-tion of the ceramic processes is represented as selectedelements of firing and setting, including the elements ofmeasurement and control of thermo-chemical reactions .As a result of extensive research into various phenon.anaand control of materials and fabricating processes, theceramic industry has adopted new methods of automationand mechanization.

I.

IPASM"..

Proces sing MethodsA. Plastic Forming

1. Hand Molding -- pinch, coil, slab2. Wheel Throwing3. Jiggering4. Pressure Formingdie, hot, ram5. Extrusionpub-mill, auger, hydraulic,

injectionB . Casting

1. Slip Casting--solid, drain2. Fusion Casting

C . Pressure Die Forming1. Dry Pressing2. Damp Pressing3. Sinter Pressing4. Hot Molding (Resin)

31

+sv-mr,

D. Special Forming1. Grinding2. Turning3. Repressing4. Drop Molding5. Vibrating6. Fluid Pressure7. Coating

E. Glass Forming Processes1. Rolling2. Molding3. Drawing4. Casting5. Mechanical Glassworking6. Pressing7. Blowing8. Hand Shaping9. Lamp Working

II. Production TechniquesA. Application of Techniques

1. Plaster Molds and Dies2. Slips-preparation, uses3. Binders & Lubricants4. Special Proces ses- cementitious bonding,

nucleation, cermetsB . Elements of Drying

1. Surface Evaporation2. Drying Shrinkage3. Dry Strength4. Vaporization5. Defects in drying

C. Application of Drying Method1. Drying Systems2. Classification -- intermittent, continuous3. Controls

32

III. Elements of Ceramic DesignA. Controlling Factors

1. Ceramic Materials2. Decorating Materials3. Firing Conditions4. Composition -- bodies, coverings,

glassesB . Decorative Processes

1. Selected Processes for Greenware2. Selected Processes for Bisqueware3. Selected Processes for Glazes --sten-

cil, decalcomania, silk screen, etc.4. Selected Processes for Glass--cutting,

grinding, etching, polishing, etc.C. Color Formation

1. Stains2. Overglaze3. Underglaze4. Lusters5. Oxides of Metal

D. Die DesignE. Defects

IV. Elements of Firing and SettingA. Thermo-chemical Reactions and Changes

1. Thermodynamics of Reactions2. Equilibrium DiagramsInterpretation3. !" lid-State Reactions4. Pyrochemical Measurements5. Chemical Change Inversions6. Thermal Behavior of Ceramic

Material7. Sintering and Recrystallization8. Nucleation9. Devitrification of Glass

10. Vitrification, Porosity, Adsorption

33

11. Eutectics and Related Phenomena12. Physical Changes13. Effects of Heat, Temperature, Com-

bination, Radiation, and TimeB . Fundamentals of Kiln Design and Construction

1. Principles of Design2. Temperature Measurement3. Controllers and Devices4. Fuels

C. Setting

Tests of Ceramic Material and Products

It is through the study of the preceding outlines that thissection is possible because through research, experimen-tation, and scientific reporting, standard procedures havebeen established. The establishment of these standardprocedures has resulted in advanced research, standardi-zation of products, and a standardized nomenclature forcommunication purposes.

The following subject matter is concerned with the testingprocedures that have been accepted as standards by theceramic industries. Test samples are prepared, formed,dried, and fired within the standards so that variables fortesting may be held constant. This is essential for onetest or standard may be dependent on the preceding sample.Just as raw materials are essential to finished products,adequate testing procedures used concomitantly throughoutall processing are necessary if standards are to be main-tained.

One of the many challenges to the researcher, especiallywhen it is out of the realm of standard procedures and intothe field of creative thinking, is the area of ceramic tech-nology for design and construction of specialized equipmentrequisite to experimentation and research.

34

I. Determination of Test ProceduresA . Clay Materials

1. Representative Sampling2. Clay Trials3. Testing--slaking, water of plasticity,

shrinkage4. Dry Strength5. Temperature6. Particle Size7. True Specific Gravity8. Firing Behavior-fired properties9. Fired Strength Tests

10. Effects of Heat--thermal shock,porosity

11. Chemical Analysis13 . Glasses

1. Chemical Properties - - durability2. Mechanical--tensile, impact, thermal3. Optical Properties --Snell's law,

dispersion, transmission4. Electrical Properties5. Thermal Properties6. High- temperature Glass --vis cos ity, ,

annealingC. Vitreous Enamels

1. Thermal Properties -- fusibility, fusion,optical, physical, chemical

D. Refractories1. Physical and Mechanical Properties

II. Application of Equipment and InstrumentsA. Chemical Laboratory WareB . Standard Analytical ScalesC. Tyler Standard Sieve SeriesD. Specification for a Sieving Test

1. Apparatus2. Sampling

35

1

1

3. Preparation of Sample4. Procedure - -dry or wet screening5. Method of Reporting Results

E. Specialized Equipment--mills, mixer, micro-scope, etc.

F. Measuring Devicespyrometers, controllerpotentiometers, etc.

G. Ceramic Equipment-- kilns, driers, ovens, etc.

III. Determination of Test ControlsA. Investigation of Literature-- books, periodicals,

etc.B . Hypothesis of Experiment

1. Theory2. Variables3. Measurements

C. Procedure1. Variable Constants and Changes2. Measuring Devices3. Anticipated Results4. Equipment Design

D. Recording1. Record of Hypothesis2. Record of Procedure3. Record of Variable4. Record of Equipment5. End Results

IV. Development of Adaptable Methods and DevicesA. Temperature Measurements

1. Method2. Devices

B . Controls1. Basic Principles2. Method of Automatic Control3. Controllers

36

V. Design and Construction of Specialized EquipmentA. Experimental Kilns

1. Construction Principles2. Special Features3. Measurement and Control

B . Specialized EquipmentNote: Each experiment requires the con-

struction of some special equipment,which is usually not purchasable,along with standard equipmentsuch as chemical glass ware,measuring devices, and controllers .The experiment controls the typeand method of construction.

The outline as presented is by no means intended to be acomplete study of ceramic technology for changes in thefield are constantly being affected. Research in manu-facturing processes, according to Kingery, has causedmany changes in the ceramic industry. He listi a numberof factors that have been important in effecting thesechanges:

First of all, there has been a substantial increasein ceramic research and its general dissemination.

Secondly, users of special ceramic materialshave become sufficiently concerned with specialproperties to undertake ceramic research.

Thirdly, rapidly growing electrical, electronic,aeronautical, atomic energy, and other industrieshave found that developing ceramics with improvedproperties is essential to technical progress.

Fourthly, increased automotion and mechaniza-tion have been necessary to maintain economicproductionand this has required better control ofprocesses .

37

Finally, increased realization that statisticalquality control can be applied to ceramic processeswith substantial advantages has led to a desire forbetter control of ceramic processes . In general, astheoretical understanding of the factors affectingceramic processes becomes available, improvedutilization of automation and statistical quality controlcan be achieved--which leads to further study of theprinciples underlying actual processes .11

In summary, the organization of the subject matter in theform of an outline of curricular elements has beenpresented. These elements were extracted from the re-source material from which selected elements can beorganized and presented at various educational levels .

1 1Kingery, W. D. (ed.). Ceramic Fabrication Processes.New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc ., 1958. p. 1

38

AloiLMAI*11

AAO% ANINMIAteI AI 4V,. 1rartvwvarewri vErtrwrrivirso

1#144.1144:41 edaeredirMSA systematic presentation and analysis of American ceramictechnology was previously developed. Specifically, an in-vestigation was presented, as a technological research, ofthe highly complex nature of the principal divisions inceramic technology. An organizational treatment of thesubject matter, presented inoutline form, was derived froman analysis of the technological research. The organizationof the subject matter is not proposed as a curriculum out-line for a specific program, but rather as as prototype forfuture use of this method for curriculum development by ex-tracting the basic curricular components for arrangement ina course of study applicable to the objectives of specificeducational programs.

The introduction included a review of the nature and foundationsof the Americaneducational system, with special referenceto Industrial Education: industrial arts, vocational and in-dustrial, trade and technical. The curricular unit (The Prob-lem: Slip Casting) is limited to the technical aspects of ce-ramic technology and the implications for enrichment of in-dustrial education curricula, with an illustration of a curricu-lar unit derived and extracted from components of the subjectmatter outline. Just as resource studies are requisite to thedevelopment of curriculum guides, so are the guides (outlines)essential to sound application of the curricular elements tothe educational level.

The approach to ceramic technology should be one thatstimulates and challenges the creative capacities or poten-tialities of the students. It is through the individual's ownexperiences that real learning takes place. The objectivesinvolved in the application of ceramic technology to industrial

39

education are to encourage the student to think creatively;to stimulate his interest in the subject by research of litera-ture which pertains to the new learning areas; to requirehis experimentation with the possible methods for solvingthe problem; to require his reporting of the results of theproblem in a systematic and scientific manner; and finally,to require an evaluation of his results based upon his writtenprocedures and final product.

Implications for Industrial Education

The following unit of instruction in ceramic technology,slip casting, and the method of presentation are selectedfrom the Curricular Elements, to demonstrate how unitsmay be derived from the curricular elements into a teachingunit with breadth and depth. The unit is a prototype for thetechnical level of vocational education; however, similarunits may be derived appropriate to the various educationallevels . Selected units may be made comprehensible to thesecondary or elementary levels, or enriched with "theory"to the level of ceramic engineers . The unit should be de-signed to fulfill the objectives requisite to the specific levelfor which the proposal is made.

The unit of instruction, slip casting, was selected becauseit is a basic forming process in the ceramic industry bywhich many shapes and sizes can be mass produced. Theprocess of slip casting includes so many areas of theceramic technology that study of this one unit alone couldtouch on a majority of the sciences involved in the subjectmatter. In addition, the evolution of the process is typicalof the historical developments in ceramic processes.

The primary purpose for the outlines in the previous chap-ter makes it possible for the instructor to be cognizant ofthe scope of the ceramic technology when he determineswhich elements to use in the specific units of instruction.Furthermore, the outline serves as a readily understood

40

1

source for the units of instruction which are inherent in theceramic technology. To illustrate the possibilities for theuse of the outline, a consideration of the approach to thefirst manipulative procedure listed for the problem, "to de-sign a ceramic article for production, " might requirebibliographical research and laboratory experimentation bythe students in such areas as follows: bibliographical re-search would include investigation as to product use, designand decorative processes; laboratory experimentation wouldinclude such areas as model considerations by sketchingand planning; and determining the method of application forthe decorative process.

The unit of instruction was organized to add breadth anddepth of knowledge about slip casting in the ceramic tech-nology. The emphasis is upon individual research and ex-perimentation in determining a solution for the problemthrough the use of techniques such as investigation of litera-ture, experimentation in scientific procedures, applicationof the investigation and experimentation in solving the problem,and an evaluation of the problem through accurate recordingand reporting. The writer believes that the length of timeassigned to any one problem is determined by the scope ofthe problem. However, a single unit may be organized insuch a manner as to involve as much time for research aswould be required by two or more problems.

The Problem: Slip Casting

To investigate the technique of slip casting as a productionprocess through the utilization of basic principles involvingdesign, cer;ulations, compounding, material preparation,measurements, controls, constructions, testing, and pro-duction of a ceramic product.

Manipulative Procedures

The procedure should facilitate the development of a

41

challenging, problem solving learning situation. Since thepurpose of the problem is to develop the student's experienceand knowledge in ceramic technology, the instructor's roleshould be to advise and counsel; to require individual reviewof the literature; to suggest new research sources pertainingto the problem; to assist in interpreting the results of theexperiment; to encourage further experimentation. The in-structor should make judicious use of such methods as:demonstration and discussion; visitation - -to industry andmuseums; and teaching aids -- films, slides, displays, mock-ups, charts, and diagrams.

Each of the following selected procedures involves researchor zxperimentation in order to successfully complete theunit. Many of the points listed are dependent upon thestudent's T,:sults from his investigation for the precedingpoint.

1. To design a ceramic article for production.

2. To construct a model.

3. To construct a case and block mold.

4. To construct a casting mold.

5. To calculate, batch, and prepare a casting slip body.

6. To make necessary tests for porperties of. the bodyand make necessary adjustments.

7. To cast and dry ceramic product.

8. To make necessary tests to determine quality of theunfired product.

9. To bisque fire product and make necessary tests todetermine fired properties of product.

42

1M1 h t0,41,,,41,-..ZN,

10. To calculate, batch, and prepare glaze.

11. To test fire glaze on body.

12. To apply glaze and/or decoration to product.

13. To glost fire the ceramic product.

14. To test finished product and evaluate findings.

15. To report recorded results.

Bibliographical Research

The successful conclusion of the problem is often dependentupon the student's accumulated knowledge acquired fromthe various research techniques. Today, there aremany reports, bulletins, and scientific writings publishedon most phases of the ceramic industry. A review of theliterature aids in developing the student's background in thenew learning area requisite to experimentation with the ma-terials. The following are selected research areas of slipcasting:

Product investigation--purpose: home, industrial.

Decorative process investigationplastic, greenware,underglaze, overglaze.

Body composition--materials, plastic, non-plastic,temperature range, classification properties.

Rheological phenomenacolloid, base exchange,plasticity, suspension, electrolytes, viscosity,specific gravity.

43

Glaze composition -- temperature range, clas sificationproperties, gloss, matt, transparent, opaque, color,fritted, leaded, alkali, Bristol, leadless .

Plaster of Parisdensity, strength, absorption, water-plastic ratio, burning, saturation.

Property tests (unfired)--porosity, shrinkage, warpage,adjustments.

Drying of ceramic bodies--elements of drying, methods,infrared, humidity control, air velocity, temperature.

Testing raw materialsgrain size, contamination,calcination.

Fired qualities of ceramic bodies and coverings--thermalbehavior, eutectics, phase diagrams, densification,vitrification, porosity, absorption.

Investigation of defects -- pinholes, crazing, spalling,cracking, crawling, and others .

Measurements and controls--thermocouples, thermom-eters, potentiometers, milliameter.

Investigation of recording techniques and reporting.

Labori.tory Experimentation

Because record keeping and reporting are of key importanceto technicians, it should be stressed throughout the unitthat it is necessary for the student to maintain accurateand complete records; otherwise, a true evaluation of hisproblem is not possible. This section on experimentationincludes the resolving of solutions from the research thatare applicable to the manipulative procedures.

44

Calculation of ceramic body--earthenware, stoneware,porcelain, terra cotta, non-plastic.

Compound slip--viscosity, electrolyte, specific gravity,release, flocculation, deflocculation.

Form test pieces--dry, test shrinkage, warpage,porosity.

Test firetemperature range, absorption, shrinkage,thermal analysis, density, vitrification.

Plasterwater ratio, strength, density, absorption.

Calculate and batch glaze -- substitution, blending,opacity, color, milling time, liquid contents, fritting,testing, specific gravity, viscosity.

Glaze application- -effects of method, thickness, ef-fects of application.

Properties and uniformity of raw materials -- sieving,grinding, milling calcining.

Method of clay preparation--blunging, screening,properties, effects of method.

Thermal behavior of ceramic materials --thermalanalysis (thermograms), temperature measurementand control, microscopic examination.

Effect of water and electrolyte on plaster of Parismolds -- saturation, drying, sulphating, calciumdepos its .

Control of production determined by records.

45

*....W1,...........enveNINIMIWNIAMMONVO

Record keeping and reporting.

Materials

Ceramic raw materials include many complex compoundsand reagents that are practically in unlimited supply. How-ever, reactions involving these materials are often difficultto predict because complex compounds do not remain con-stant at high temperatures. Analyses and research of theseceramic material reactions are available for reference, aswell as information on product properties that are helpfulin solving other ceramic problems. The following is a listof materials that may be used for the "Slip Casting" prob-lem; however, there are available many other materialsand combinations of materials that a student may want toconsider.

Clays Metal Oxides:Feldspars CalciumSilica ZincAlkalies TinFluorspar LeadBorax and Borates ManganesePlaster of Paris BariumElectrolytes ChromiumBentonite CobaltKaolin CopperSizing FerricNepheline Syenite Magnesium

Nickel

Tools and Equipment

It may be seen from the list below, that technical ceramicsinvolves many specialized tools and equipment; those listedare standard manufactured equipment. There are manyoccasions, however, in which they are used in combination

46

with one another; at other times, they are adapted to thespecific problem and additional equipment and tools aredesigned and constructed. Some problems require theuse of a special kiln, oven, or method of method of measure-ment and temperature control in order to solve the prob-lem. The following list is only suggestive of the type neededfor this problem. Other problems may require more orless sophisticated tools and equipment.

BlungerFilter pressBlenderGrinderMillMixerPug MillAuger

ScalesViscosimeterRecorderServo UnitPotentiometerThermocoupleSievesMillimeter

ChemicalsVoltage ControllerControllerMicroscopeDrier or OvenThermometerAssorted Hand Tools

Individual research and the application of basic scientificknowledge are the essential factors in the study of ceramictechnology. This basic technique once developed may beapplied to most areas of ceramic research.

The problem, slip casting, a basic ceramic forming pro-cess, was presented to illustrate the procedure for select-ing curricular elements from the subject matter outlineand organizing them into an instructional unit for industrialeducation. Although the unit was designed for the technicallevel, similar units may be derived that are appropriatefor, and comprehensible to, other educational programs.The selected unit is delimited by the objectives representa-tive of a particular program. The inclusion of researchand experimentation extends the problem beyond tha usualproject approach of curriculum organization; it could includea theoretical problem implemented and solved on paper.With the wealth of subject matter presented in the outline,an enriched technical or general program may be developed.

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Conclusions

Considerable interest has been generated in the need forimprovement of curriculum development in the UnitedStates, especially since the advent of the atomic age and"Sputnik." Numerous studies have been made to deter-mine curriculum content and to ascertain the status ofindustrial education in the United States. This study wasa departure from the usual research in curriculum develop-ment in that it was an attempt to obtain curricular com-ponents from a technological research and project it intoan outline of organized subject matter.

The conclusions are based on the postulate that the con-temporary society in the United States has developed intoone that is basically technological, and that educationalinstitutions should reflect this technology through the ob-jectives of the various programs . The conclusions, there-fore, reflect the dynamic technological advancements anda need to develop a curriculum to reflect these changes inindustrial education programs.

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