Eastern Mediterranean University

Electrical & Electronic Engineering Department

Summer Training Report

Tuna ŞAHİN

090725

2014

May – September 2014

1

Acknowledgments

This study is a summer training proposal for Department of Electrical and Electronic

Engineering at Eastern Mediterranean University. This summer training is transmitters in TRT in

Turkey. I want especially thank to my supervisor Derya YAMAK who is an electronic engineer

TRT for sharing his knowledge and experiences as well as supervising me in the process of

completing my summer training. I also thank to Muammer EROL for sharing their knowledge

and for giving me brief information about electrical and electronic components

2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS………………………………………………………………………..2

TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………………...3

LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………………6

1. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………..7

1.1 TRT………………………....………………………………………………………….7

1.2 TRT Trabzon…………………………………………………………………………...7

2. TRANSMITTERS……………………………………………………………………………..8

2.1 Tv Transmitter.……….………………………………………………………………..9

2.2 Radio Transmitter… …………………………………………………………………10

2.3 CW (Continuous wave) Transmitter………….………………………………………11

2.4 MCW (Modulated continuous wave) Transmitter …………………………………..14

3. MODULATION………………………………………………………………………………14

3.1 Amplitude Modulation …………………………………………………………….…16

3.2 Frequency Modulation. ………………………………………………………….…...18

3.3 Phase Modulation ……………………………………….…………………………...19

3.4 Digital Modulation ……………………………….………………………………….21

3.5 Converting Analog Signals into Digital Signals ……………………………………..22

3

4. UP-LİNK DEVİCE …………………………………………………………………………..24

5. ANTENNA …………………………………………………………………………..……….26

5.1 Hertz Antenna (Half Wave Antenna.....................................................................…...26

5.2 Marko Antenna ……………...……………………………………………………….27

5.3 Rhombic Antenna ……………………….…………………………………………...27

5.4 Loop Antenna………………………………………………………………………...28

5.5 FM Antenna………………………….……………………………………………….29

5.6 VHF Antenna…………………………………………………………………………31

6. OSCILLATOR ……………………………………………………………………….……....33

7. REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………….....34

4

LIST OF FIGURES

FIG 1.2 TRT Trabzon…………………………………………………………….………….....7

FIG 2 System of Transmitter………………….....…………………………….……….……… 8

FIG 2.1.1 Block Diagram of a TV transmitter…………………………………….……..…….9

FIG 2.1.2 TV Station in KAYABASI in TRABZON ………………………….………………9

FIG 2.2 Radio Station in BOZTEPE in TRABZON………...……………………….…….….10

FIG 2.3.1 Electronic Keyer to Generate Morse Coder ………………………………….…… . 11

FIG 2.3.2 Circuit of CW Transmitter……………………………...……………….………….12

FIG 2.3.3 Diagram of CW Transmitter……………………………..……………………...…13

FIG 3 Types of Modulation……………………………………………………...…..………..15

FIG 3.1 the Formation of Amplitude Modulated Wave………….…………………………...16

FIG 3.2 Frequency Modulated Signal ……………………...………………...…………….…18

FIG 3.3 Workplace for Modulation in TRT…………………………………………..……….19

FIG 3.3.1 the Formation of Phase Modulated Wave…………………….…………...…….…20

FIG 3.3.2 Phase modulated signal…………………………………………………..……..….20

FIG 3.5.1 ADC………………………………………………….…………………...……….. 22

FIG 3.5.2 Converting Analog to Digital………………...…………………………...………..23

FIG 3.5.3 the light and color mark sampling varieties……………………….………………23

FIG 4 Uplink Device………………………………………………………..………………... 24

FIG 4.1 Uplink Table ……………………………………….……………………………...…25

FIG 5.1 Antenna for Radio…………………………………………..………………………..26

FIG 5.2 Marko Antenna…………………………………………………………………….…27

FIG 5.3 Rhombic Antenna…………………………………………………………………….27

FIG 5.4 Loop Antenna…………………………………….…………………………..………28

5

FIG 5.5 Connecting the Coaxial Cable at Antenna………………………………….………..29

FIG 5.5.1 FM Antenna …………………………………………………………..……………30

FIG 5.6 VHF Antenna………………………………………….……………………………...32

FIG 6 Oscilloscope……………………………………………..……………………………..33

FIG 6.1 Oscillator……………………………………………………..………………………33

6

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. TRT (Turkish Radio and Television Corporation)The Turkish Radio and Television Corporation, also known as TRT, is the national

public broadcaster of Turkey and was founded in 1964. Around 70% of TRT's funding comes from a tax levied on electricity bills and a sales tax on television and radio receivers. As these are hypothecated taxes, as opposed to the money coming from general government funds, the principle is similar to that of the television license levied in a number of other countries. The rest of TRT's funding comes from government grants, with the final 10% coming from advertising.

Affectionately known to local consumers as the "School", it was for many years the only television and radio provider in Turkey. Before the introduction of commercial radio in 1990, and subsequently commercial television in 1992, it held a monopoly on broadcasting. More recent deregulation of the Turkish television broadcasting market produced analogue cable television. Today, TRT broadcasts around the world, especially in Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia.

TRT's predecessor, "Türkiye Radyoları" was one of 23 founding broadcasting organizations of the European Broadcasting Union in 1950; it would return to the EBU fold as TRT in 1972. The original company started radio test broadcasts in 1926, with a studio built in Istanbul in 1927 and a studio in Ankara following in 1928.

1.2. TRT Trabzon

MANAGER

VİCE CHAİR VİCE CHAİR VİCE CHAİR VİCE CHAİR

(NEWS) (RADİO) (TRANSMİTTERS) (SUPPORT)

RİZE ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICE

SAMSUN SAMSUN

RESOURCES

ACCOUNTİNG

PURCHASE

SOCIAL AFFAIRS

TRANSPORTATION

FIG 1.2 TRT Trabzon

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2. TRANSMITTER

We talk about general information about transmitters. In electronics and telecommunications a transmitter or radio transmitter is an electronic device which, with the aid of an antenna, produces radio waves. The transmitter itself generates a radio frequency alternating current, which is applied to the antenna. When excited by this alternating current, the antenna radiates radio waves. In addition to their use in broadcasting, transmitters are necessary component parts of many electronic devices that communicate by radio, such as cell phones, wireless computer networks, Bluetooth enabled devices, garage door openers, two-way radios in aircraft, ships, and spacecraft, radar sets, and navigational beacons. The term transmitter is usually limited to equipment that generates radio waves for communication purposes; or radiolocation, such as radar and navigational transmitters. Generators of radio waves for heating or industrial purposes, such as microwave ovens or diathermy equipment, are not usually called transmitters even though they often have similar circuits.

The term is popularly used more specifically to refer to a broadcast transmitter, a transmitter used in broadcasting, as in FM radio transmitter or television transmitter. This usage usually includes both the transmitter proper, the antenna, and often the building it is housed in.

An unrelated use of the term is in industrial process control, where a "transmitter" is a telemetry device which converts measurements from a sensor into a signal, and sends it, usually via wires, to be received by some display or control device located a distance away.

FIG 2 System of Transmitter

8

2.1 Tv Transmitter

FIG 2.1.1 Block Diagram of a TV transmitter

We went to Tv station and we talk about tv transmitter. A television transmitter is a device which broadcasts an electromagnetic signal to the television receivers. Television transmitters may be analog or digital. The principals of primarily analog systems are summarized as they are typically more complex than digital transmitters due to the multiplexing of VSB and FM modulation stages.

There are many types of transmitters depending on ;

The system standard

Output power

Back up facility, usually the Modulator, Multiplexer and Power Amplifier

Stereophonic (or dual sound) facility, for analogue TV systems

Aural and visual power combining principal, for analogue TV systems

Active circuit element in the final amplifier stage

FIG 2.1.2. Tv Station in KAYABASI in TRABZON

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2.2 Radio Transmitter

FIG 2.2. Radio Station in BOZTEPE in TRABZON

In Boztepe we saw radio station and how its work. Radio transmitter design has to meet certain requirements. These include the frequency of operation, the type of modulation, the stability and purity of the resulting signal, the efficiency of power use, and the power level required to meet the system design objectives.

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High-power transmitters may have additional constraints with respect to radiation safety, generation of X-rays, and protection from high voltages. Typically a transmitter design includes generation of a carrier signal, which is normally sinusoidal, optionally one or more frequency multiplication stages, a modulator, a power amplifier, and a filter and matching network to connect to an antenna. A very simple transmitter might contain only a continuously running oscillator coupled to some antenna system. More elaborate transmitters allow better control over the modulation of the emitted signal and improve the stability of the transmitted frequency.

For example the Master Oscillator-Power Amplifier configuration inserts an amplifier stage between the oscillator and the antenna. This prevents changes in the loading presented by the antenna from altering the frequency of the oscillator.

2.3 CW (Continuous wave) Transmitter

A continuous wave or continuous waveform (CW) is an electromagnetic wave of constant amplitude and frequency; and in mathematical analysis, of infinite duration. Continuous wave is also the name given to an early method of radio transmission, in which a carrier wave is switched on and off. Information is carried in the varying duration of the on and off periods of the signal, for example by Morse code in early radio. In early wireless telegraphy radio transmission, CW waves were also known as “undammed waves", to distinguish this method from damped wave transmission.

FIG 2.3.1. Electronic Keyer to Generate Morse Code

11

Early radio transmitters could not be modulated to transmit speech, and so CW

radio telegraphy was the only form of communication available. CW still remained a

viable form of radio communication for many years after voice transmission was

perfected, because simple transmitters could be used. The low bandwidth of the code

signal, due in part to low information transmission rate, allowed very selective filters to

be used in the receiver which blocked out much of the atmospheric noise that would

otherwise reduce the intelligibility of the signal.

FIG 2.3.2 Circuit of CW Transmitter

12

FIG 2.3.3 Diagram of CW Transmitter

2.4 MCW (Modulated continuous wave) Transmitter

Modulated continuous wave is defined by the Federal Communications

Commission in 47 CFR §97.3 as "Tone-modulated international Morse code telegraphy

emissions having designators with A, C, D, F, G, H or R as the first symbol; 2 as the

second symbol; A or B as the third symbol." See Types of radio emissions for a general

explanation of these symbols.

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3. MODULATION

We talk about modulation theoretically and I research what is modulation

The physical size of the antenna must be comparable to the wavelength of the

desired signal to be published. For example, the reflective surface mounted on

approximately the length should be one quarter wavelength monopole antenna.

However, the wavelength of the sound signal varies between 20 km and 10000 km.

These long wavelengths are barriers to communication through the antenna as a natural

10000 and the first value of 20 km thick, and the second is the value limit of the

fine sound. Therefore, according to the antenna length must be constantly changed

during the broadcast program content. In a very short period of time, constantly

changing the antenna size is beyond the technological possibilities. On the other hand

many must follow all the publications from confusion between the receivers of the

receiver can be monitored. To find out, modulation technique has been developed.

Audio or video signal modulation will not be published. Published another called radio

frequency electromagnetic waves. This signal is a high frequency.

: wavelength

: speed of light

: frequency

Wavelength of the RF signal wavelength is inversely proportional to

frequency and hence antenna size is relatively short. Also, the change in frequency

of the radio frequency signal by itself will not need to change the low frequency of

the physical size. Moreover, because each uses a different publisher RF signal, the

receiver can be set to different RF signals and can be viewed without mixing

different publications

14

FIG 3 Types of Modulation

15

Analog modulation Digital modulation

Amplitude modulation

Angle modulation

Frequency modulation

Phase modulation

MODULATION

3.1 Amplitude Modulation

In this type of modulation, depending on the frequency and amplitude of the

information signal, only the amplitude of the carrier signal is changed. To be sent over

long distances before the desired information in the form of low-frequency sound or music

is converted to electrical energy. Then the carrier frequency (RF) signal is superposed on

the distances are published in the form of electromagnetic waves

FIG 3.1. The Formation of Amplitude Modulated Wave

16

Low-frequency information signal

High frequency carrier signal

Amplitude modulated signal

Amplitude modulated (AM) signal, the equation with respect to time;

(Angular frequency of the carrier signal)

(Angular frequency of the information signal);

EA-M(t) = Ec cos2πfct + (Em/2) cos2π(fc+fm)t +- (Em/2)cos2π(fc-fm)t

Carrier signal Top Edge Band Sub-Edge Band

AM signal, as will be understood from the mathematical process comprises the three

components;

A-M Signal

Carrier signal Top Edge Band Sub-Edge Band

In this formula;

EA - M(t) = Ec cos 2π fc t + (Em / 2) cos 2π (fc + fm) t + (Em / 2) cos 2π (fc - fm)t ;

Ec = The amplitude of the carrier

fc = The frequency of the carrier

fc + fm = The upper sideband frequency

fc - fm = The frequency of the lower sideband

17

(Em / 2)= The upper sideband frequency and the frequency of the lower

sideband

3.2. Frequency Modulation

There are two important signal for frequency modulation. These are low-frequency

information and high frequency carrier signal. The non-modulated carrier frequency, the

center frequency is called or restraint. For example, 3 kHz to 100 MHz data signals' like

carrier is subjected to frequency modulation, wherein the carrier center frequency is 100

MHz

What the larger the amplitude of the signal that modulates the frequency modulated

signal, the frequency variation is that much more. For example, low amplitude signal that

module 100 MHz a carrier frequency of 99.99 MHz to 100.01 MHz the like. If changing

between, wherein the frequency deviation ± 10KHz. That is, 10 kHz above the carrier

frequency and the center frequency falls below 10 kHz.

18

information signal

center frequency of the carrier signal

frequency modulated wave

FIG 3.2. Frequency Modulated Signal

3.3. Phase Modulation

FIG 3.3. Workplace for Modulation in TRT

The carrier signal phase information is changed depending on the signal amplitude

and frequency. Very similar to frequency modulation. When a carrier frequency is shifted

in phase, the phase is changed when the frequency varies. Therefore, similar to FM AM.

Directly changed according to the modulating signal regardless of the frequency of the FM

carrier phase is directly changed in accordance with the modulating signals PM carrier

occurs.

Summary;

Information signal (-) in alternation, the phase of the carrier is increased.

Phase means an increase in the same period of the carrier signal and noting

the amount of the angle scan is complete in less time. This is an increase of

frequency

Information signal (+) in alternation, the phase of the carrier is reduced.

Phase means the reduction of the amount of the same period as the scan

angle is reduced and the carrier signal longer to complete. This means the

frequency of the reduction

19

FIG 3.3.1. The Formation of Phase Modulated Wave

Information signal P-M

FIG 3.3.2 Phase modulated signal

20

Carrier signal

information signal

Frequency Modulated Signal

Derivatives of the information signal

Phase modulated signals

differentiator circuits

F-M

3.4. Digital Modulation

In this method we talk about techniques and types of digital modulation.

The most fundamental digital modulation techniques are based on keying:

PSK (phase-shift keying): a finite number of phases are used.

FSK (frequency-shift keying): a finite number of frequencies are used.

ASK (amplitude-shift keying): a finite number of amplitudes are used.

QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation): a finite number of at least two phases

and at least two amplitudes are used.

If the alphabet consists of M = 2^N alternative symbols, each symbol represents a

message consisting of N bits. If the symbol rate is fs symbols/second the data rate is N fs

bit/second.

Input and output signals in electronic systems are generally "analog. They can be

processed as digital and can be transmitted "Analog / Digital Converter" (Analog-to-

Digital Converter ADC) and "Digital / Analog Converter" (Digital-to-Analog Converter

DAC) is used.

Today began to be digitized all electronic systems. Because digital electronic circuits:

It is more reliable.

Repeated the same circuits and systems

Signal quality is unchanged. This quality can be as good as desired

Noise and very little affected by external influences

Cheaper

The quality of the centenary of the first copies of copies of the same

digital signal techniques developing

The digital audio field, WAV can convert to MP3 format

Therefore TRT will chance their modulation as a digital modulation.

21

3.5. Converting Analog Signals into Digital Signals

FIG 3.5. Analog Radio in TRT Radio

The conversion of analog signals to digital has three stages:

FIG 3.5.1. ADC

A signal we want to quantify the number of digits ranging from 0-1V with a 3-bit

encoding 8, the number of intervals of 8 -1 = 7. If you would 0,143V range from 1 volt 7

divided into two steps. After a certain number of digits form a code corresponding to each

step. This is usually due to the step numbers in the binary number system

22

A/D Sampler Classifier Coding

FIG 3.5.2. Converting Analog to Digital

For encoding process we look the amplitude of our sample. Whichever is the

closest places to the amplitude of the code that step is sent. For example the signal

amplitude get 0.82 volts. Since this value falls closest step against 0,857V level 6 digits

code 110, which is transmitted to the output of its code. Reverse operation is performed in

the receiver. First, from the serial bit sequence is converted to a binary number. This

number is a digital / analog converter is converted to voltage by the aid. The resulting

filtered analog signal voltage is recovered digits

Video signal processing of the digital picture frame as before for each 16x16 dots

and the size of the "macroblock" is the name given is divided into parts. Each macroblock

is encoded first in itself. Light and color information of each point to digitized this

encoding process starts. 13.5 MHz sampling rate and 8 bits per sample for the

quantification of standard television images (256 gray levels) is used. 720 samples are

taken in a row. Sampling different forms in different standards are used. They Are :

X : light O :Color (Cb,Cr)

FIG 3.5.3. The light and color mark sampling varieties

23

VOLT

DIGIT

CODE

4. UP-LİNK DEVİCE

FIG 4. Uplink Device

24

Spare systematic Ku Band (13.750 to 14.500 MHz), PAL / NTSC uplink.MPEG2 4: 4: 2, 24Mbit / s SDI-AES / EBU embed / deembed.

Uplink equipment:

1.2 mt motorized antenna. 1 + 1 MCL 3200 HPA - 400 Watts. 1 + 1 mode & upco the Newtec 2180. 1 + 1 Tandberg 5710 Encoder - RAS / BIS TANDBERG TT1260 IRD 2xnet IRD Hamlet 601 Scope Monitor

Video&Audio:

Panasonic MX 70E -SDI video mixer Soundcraft M12 sound mixer Clearcom Intercom Unit MS-440 Hybrid IFB

Play-out:

Sony 2800P Beta SP. Panasonic AJ-D250 DVC Pro - DV Cam - Mini DV. Sony J-30 SDI Beta SP/SX /Digital Betacam Player

And:

10 KVA generator 12000Bt Air Conditioning

FIG 4.1. Uplink Table

25

5. ANTENNA

Antenna signals to the space or the space is an interface that allows it to reach the recipient device. Antennas are transmitting antenna and receiving antenna. Transmit antennas by high-frequency electromagnetic waves into electric energy turning the conductive system emits an empty field. Receiving antenna of the electromagnetic waves sent by the transmitter is turned back to the electric current conductor system.

5.1. Hertz Antenna (Half Wave Antenna)

FIG 5.1. Antenna for Radio

Directional antennas are the most simple and basic forms are Hertz antennas. λ / 2-wave dipole in the neck antenna hertz (half-wave dipole) is called the antenna. Usually frequencies above 2MHz.

Example: we will find size of dipole antenna at f = 100 MHz

Current in the other end fed antenna input of energy is greatest. The open end of the

line the current through the right antenna is gradually reduced. Becomes zero at the end of the line. Each alternans changing flow direction 7 and ends towards the center a large decrease radiated magnetic field lines is created. The generated magnetic field is emitted as electromagnetic waves into space. Hertz antenna impedance end of showed a maximum value2500 Ω, the antenna feed point impedance is approximately 72Ω .

26

5.2 Marko Antenna

Marko the antenna, where to stand right on the surface in which a quarter wavelength. It consists of rods. See the electrically conductive surface of a mirror for that place. The Following Marko antenna is reflected from the soil as seen in the image, and a consequential half remove wave dipole. Work and equal half-wave dipole antenna in effect Marko. Marko compared to the antenna of the most important advantage of Hertz antenna, the antenna markolength is half the length of the antenna hertz. Disadvantages marko the antenna is mounted to the ground alone.

FIG 5.2. Marko Antenna

Marko voltage and current of the antenna is seen standing waves. Marko if the antenna is mounted directly to the earth, the dream and half-wave antenna is combined with the actual antenna seems to be equivalent to allowing hertz wave antenna. The maximum value of the current, which occurred at the ends of the antenna is grounded, so the understood. Those situation leads to high current flow to ground. The antenna power is reduced. The place to reduce the loss of power, clay and humus is required only to have a good conductor such as soil.

5.3. Rhombic Antenna

FIG 5.3. Rhombic Antenna

27

Rhombic antenna coupled to the rhombus formed four conductors occurs. All edges and angles of the antennas are mutually equal. Rhombic antenna is a resonant antenna. Rhombic antenna for transmitting signals between 3MHz-30MHz used. The most commonly used rhombic antennas, the center side to an elongated transmission line similar. The antenna is mounted horizontally. Soil located above the half-wave

Each element acts as a transmission line terminated with the characteristic impedance, so the waves propagated toward the forward direction only. Antenna terminating resistor, the total antenna spend approximately one third of the input power. Thus, the maximum efficiency of a rhombic antenna 67%

5.4. Loop Antenna

Basic loop antenna, a wave from the neck is short enough that the RF current carrying single-wire coil is wound. A frame as a large number of dipole elements connected to each other conceivable. Dipole antenna similar to the frame because the apartment is short. A loop antenna propagation patent is short and horizontal. Dipole propagation is the same patent.

FIG 5.4. Loop Antenna

Very low frequency applications in the loop antenna are mostly done with multiple wire wrap. Vertically polarized small frames often used as a direction finding antennas. Direction of the received signal, the framework can be found by turning up to a value of zero is found. Direction to obtain the zero value is the direction of the received signal.

28

5.5. FM Antenna

FM antenna signals with a vertical rod antenna radiates in all directions. Is Thisantenna is not sufficient for meeting the normal range. Such antennas must be proportional to the frequency and wavelengths are used as the other antenna.

Formula we use to calculate the antenna length:

λ= Wavelength (meters) f = signal frequency (hertz)

For example,calculate the length of the broadcast antenna 90 MHz as follows:

1/1: 3,33 meter - 5/8: 2,08 meter - 1/2: 1.665 meter - ¼ : 0,825 meter

FIG 5.5. Connecting the Coaxial Cable at Antenna

The length of the antenna, the better results at a rate approaching full wavelength. Selecting a larger area of the antenna are referred to as 5/8 of the stations wishing to speak to some restrictions may vary from country to country on the size of the antenna nedeni.fm. Using half-wave antenna above is prohibited in some countries as a theoretical Reflector 1760 mm

Dipole 1465 mm

Director 1 - 1250 mm

Director 2 - 1265 mm

Director 3 - 1245 mm

Director 4 – 1225 mm

29

Signal reception direction

FIG 5.5.1. FM Antenna

Dipole element and pipe diameter (aluminum) 1cm = 10 mm pipe ends mushrooms. If done or plastic stopper prevents making buzzing in the wind.

Boom, square shaped aluminum profile 15x15 or 20x20 mm. Boom height is ~ 2900 mm If the 3.35 m above the roof surface that connects to the pipe used to provide the most

efficient

I: cable length to be cut for Baluλ: Wavelength0.7: fixed coefficient is provided if a connected buying the most efficient

5.6. VHF Antenna

The formulas used in the antenna account:

30

The frequency band of the channel from F1 and F2 in MHz

The length of the half-wave dipole

The length of the folded dipole

31

The length of the reflector

The length of the router

The distance between the reflector with Router

The distance between the dipoles with Router

The distance between the router 1 and the router 2

The distance between the parallel conductors of the folded dipole

FIG 5.6. VHF Antenna

VHF III. Band, Channel 10 (220-225 MHz) broadcast a TV channel4 element will be used to track your physical length of a television receiver calculates the distance between the antenna elements and elements:

6. OSCILLATOR

Sine wave oscillator in the radio system, to generate the carrier signal and mixer a frequency in the multiples used to convert the other. The sine wave oscillator makes the task of square wave oscillators and synthesizers in digital communication techniques fulfill. Square wave oscillator of the phase locked loop also is used.

Basically an oscillator; consisting of amplifiers and feedback floors in entry without any sign of the output waveform of the circuit determined by it producing electronic circuits are shaped mark.

32

FIG 6. Oscilloscope

V0

FIG 6.1 Oscillator

7. REFERENCES

-Pappenfus, Bruene and Schoenike Single sideband principles and circuits McGraw-Hill, 1964, chapter 6

-Reference data for Radio Engineers, Chapter 30, Howard W.Sams Co Inc., Indianapolis,197

-TRT. Retrieved from World Wide Web ‘www.trt.net.tr’

-Harri Holma and Antti Toskala (2006). HSDPA/HSUPA for UMTS: High Speed Radio Access for Mobile Communications.

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