Writing Reports

PAD Team

Overview

• This session will cover:

• The importance of selecting good quality information when writing a report

• Note taking tips

• How to structure a formal report

Evaluating Information

Why evaluate?

• A report should always be based on good quality information.

• Evaluation will help to ensure that information included in a report is:

– Accurate – Relevant– Information is used correctly– Reduce gullibility

How to evaluate

• In order to perform an evaluation you need to develop an evaluative framework.

• The structure of your evaluative framework should depend on what aspect of the report you are examining:

– Previous literature– Practical situation

Typically you would evaluate previous literature to interpret

a practical situation

Evaluating previous literature

• Relevance

• Evidence

• Historical value

• Generalisability

• Authority and credibility of source

To judge a piece of information typically we should apply a number of criteria and ask ourselves questions about what we have read.

Some of the common criteria used when evaluating literature are:

Judgement:

How good is the information/theory?

Relevance

• Remember it is likely that not all of the information you find will be relevant to your report.

– Including less relevant information can give the impression you do not fully understand your topic

– Including irrelevant information will waste valuable words

Evidence

• Question:

• What evidence supports the information or theory?

• Does the evidence support alternative explanations, theories or models?

– Could findings be interpreted differently?

• Can the evidence be verified independently?

– For example, by replicating a study.

Exercise

• Which source is best?

– Source A (1964)

– Source B (2008)

Historical value

• Question:

• Is the source dated or has it stood the test of time?

– Phrenology

– Personal Construct Psychology

• If it has become obsolete, does it nevertheless tell us something useful?

– Dated material might be used to provide a historical context when writing.

Generalisability

• Question:

• Does the source generalise to other contexts?

– e.g. from one organisation to the next, from one individual to the next

• Is the evidence used in constructing the theory representative of the whole population?

– How was a sample obtained?

Generalisability II

• Question:

• Are there any exceptions that are covered/not covered by the model/theory?

– Did a sample omit or under represent a certain demographic group? If so, these might not be covered by the model / theory.

– Is the sample large enough to allow generalisability to a range of different contexts?

Authority and credibility of source

• Which of these newspapers are likely to a credible source?

– The Times

– The Sun

– The News of the World

– The Independent

Authority and credibility of source II

• Which of these websites are likely to a credible source?

• http://en.wikipedia.org

• http://www.businesslink.gov.uk/

• http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/

Authority and credibility of source

• Question:

• How expert is the author in the field?

• How credible is the source where the theory is published?

– Is it an academic source?

– Is it a suitable online source?

Authority and credibility of source II

• Question:

• What type of language is used in presenting the source?

Is it:

• Scientific language?

• Persuasive language? (e.g. sales, advertising)

• Colloquial or common language?

Evaluating practical situations

• When evaluating practical situations you should also endeavour to develop an evaluative framework.

• The nature of a situation will always dictate what factors are appropriate to include in your evaluative framework.

Things to remember when evaluating

• Avoid personal biases – be objective

• Look for trends in information

• Examine source quality

• Ask questions

Formatting Notes

Organising Notes

• As you undertake your research you should make notes.

• When writing a long document it is important to ensure that your notes are well organised and easy to use

Note Taking Strategy

• On the computer make notes under headings that relate to the topic of your report.

• When making your notes always identify where each piece of information was taken from by including a reference (in the text and in a reference list at the end).

• Allows you to easily group information from different sources into themes.

• Make sure that all of your references are accurate.

• Business management theory

– Jones (1999) stated……

– Hughes (2005) reported…..

• Business interventions

– Jones (1999) stated….

– Smith (2008) commented….

• Business strategies

– Smith (2008) said….

– Butler (2006) indicated…

The amount of information included in your notes from each source will vary depending on source relevance

Could be one sentence / several paragraphs.

Reference List

• Butler, M. (2009) Business Today. London: McMillan.

• Hughes, J. (2005) Business Studies. USA: Penguin.

• Jones, S. (1999) Business Book. London: Palgrave.

• Smith, L. (2004) Business Plus. Cornwall: Penguin.

Storing Information

• Keep any print outs / photocopying you collect well organised.

• Store information in well labelled lever arch / ring binders or folders

• Good idea to keep information organised in a logical order

– A-Z based on first author surname / organisation

Report format

Areas to explore…

• Report preparation

• The type of content to include in a report

• A common report format

• Things to consider when writing a report

Reports

• A report is a formal document.

• It should therefore be:

– Concise– Easy to follow – Based on evidence – Well organised– Relevant – Accurate

Getting started

• Before you start writing your report make sure you carefully read ALL of your assignment brief (including any small print).

• Follow the guidance given in your brief.

• If you are unsure about how to do part of your report clarify your understanding.

Getting started II

• Before you start to write a report you will also need to:

– Research the topic area.

– Make notes whilst you are researching.

– From your notes create a plan.

Why plan?

• Introduces structure

• Will help you to organise your thoughts

• Helps to avoid tangents

• For more information see the PAD BREO site or visit us in Room F203.

Standard conventions

• Typically the structure and format of a report follow a fairly standard convention.

• The type of structure that you should use will depend on the type of report that you are writing (see your module handbook for guidance).

• The following slides discuss a basic structure that might be used for a report.

(1) Cover sheet

• Things to include:

– Unit code

– Topic

– Your name

– Your student ID number

Report Title Page example

(2) Table of Contents

• This page should provide a list detailing what sections are in your report and where these can be found.

– The title of each section and subsections

– The page where each section can be found

– Each section and sub section should be numbered (both on the contents page and in text)…

Numbering sections

• How to number sections:

– Each main section – 1, 2, 3, etc

– First level of sub section – 1.1, 1.2

– Second level of subsection – 1.1.1, 1.1.2

Example of numbering sections

1 Introduction

1.1 Why there is a need for change

1.1.1 Theory A

1.1.2 Theory B

1.2 A new approach

2 Method

Report Contents Example

(3) Executive summary

• This should comprise a short statement (usually around one side of A4) summarising what the report is about. It might include:

– Brief explanation as to why the report was written

– Detail key report issues / findings

– You might use references in the summary

(4) Aims and Objectives

• This section should detail how you are going to address your report question(s).

• (5) Literature Review, Analysis and Discussion

(5.1) Introduction

• Your literature review should start with an introduction. The purpose of an introduction is to set the scene for your reader. You might include:

– A brief discussion of the topic area that the report is about.

– Some evidence (references) that give general information around the areas explored in the report.

– An explanation as to why it is important that the report has been written.

– Overview of what will be covered in the report.

(5.2) Main Body

• The main body will normally comprise of a number of different sections and sub sections.

• Inside the main body is where you should go into detail about the aims and objectives you are addressing.

• You should show evaluation in the main body.

• Sections should be logically ordered.

(5.3) Discussion

• The main body of the essay should lead to your discussion.

• In a discussion you might:

– Highlight your main findings – Discuss any limitations– Outline additional work that might be required

(6) Conclusions

• In the conclusion you should not simply repeat what you have already said. You might include:

– Summary of main points – Suggestions for future work – Your own conclusions (backed up with evidence)– Answer any questions raised in the report.

• You should not introduce any new material in the conclusion.

(7) Recommendations

• In some instances it will be appropriate for a report to include some recommendations.

• Recommendations must be based on report findings and will usually be written in a list format.

• Recommendations should be:

– Appropriate / realistic

– Informed by report content

(8) References

• At the end of an academic report you should always include a list of the references that you have cited in your report.

• These should be referenced using the Harvard referencing convention.

– Note: a reference list is NOT the same as a bibliography.

(9) Bibliography

• This should contain a list of sources that you have read but not specifically cited in your report.

• This should be presented in the Harvard style.

(10) Appendices

• The appendices is where you can include supporting material that you refer to in your report.

• Things you might include:

– A copy of a questionnaire you designed

– A more detailed set of statistics than you used in your report

When compiling appendices be selective regarding what you include.

Other things to consider…

• There are a number of other areas that you should always consider when writing a report…..

Who is your audience?

• When writing a report you should always consider your audience. This should influence:

– Your use of subject terminology and jargon

– How much detail you go into

– Assumptions of prior knowledge

Write in the right person

• When writing a report always ensure that you write in the correct person:

– First person: I, my,

– Second person: He / his, she / her

– Third person: It might be suggested

Use ‘Power’ Words

• Essay quality can be really improved through effectively using transitional devices (words). Such as:

– To present an argument:• However…, It follows…, Consequently…, As a result…

– To present a list:• Including…, excluding…, additional, further….

– To conclude:• In summary…., in conclusion…

Check spelling and grammar

• It is important that you check your spelling and grammar.

• Do not just rely on the Microsoft spell and grammar checkers.

• You must proof read your work.

Avoid repetition

• Where possible don’t keep repeating the same words in an assignment.

• Use a thesaurus to identify appropriate synonyms. For example:

– Bloggs (1996) said……– Bloggs (1996) claimed…..– Bloggs (1996) purported…..– Bloggs (1996) outlined…..

• Also think about how you structure your sentences:

– According to Bloggs (1996)…..

Proof read

• The best way to do this is to read your work out loud. This will help you to identify mistakes.

• If you find there are any parts of your assignment (such as referencing) that you are not sure about check they are correct before you hand the work in.

• Do not just rely on a computer’s spell checker.

Plan your time

• Inevitably writing a good assignment will take some time.

• Do not leave your assignment to the last minute. This will mean you have to rush and will increase the chances of you making mistakes.

• Start the assignment as early as possible!

Formatting

• Ensure that the format you have used for your essay is inline with your departmental conventions:

– Font size– Line spacing– Font type– Header/footer

Is it possible to enrich report content?

• On occasion it may be appropriate to include:

– Tables

– Graphs

– Diagrams

– Illustrations

Further develop your skills

• Ongoing reading of what professionals have published can help you to conceptualise how you should write an academic assignment.

– Terminology– Flow – Linking concepts

Further develop your skills II

• If you feel unsure about an aspect of writing (e.g. how and when to use commas) look the rules up.

• Lots of good internet sites

• See useful study skills websites folder on the PAD BREO site.

Summary

• Keep in mind why and for whom you are writing a report.

• To find out more about writing reports and associated study skills:

• Make a 1:1 appointment with a PAD tutor:

– Email: pad@beds.ac.uk

And…..

Check out the PAD BREO site