representation of islam and muslims during israel palestine conflict

8/19/2019 REPRESENTATION OF ISLAM AND MUSLIMS DURING ISRAEL PALESTINE CONFLICT

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Investigating Ideology in Media through

Positive-self presentation and Negative-other presentation:A Critical Discourse Analysis of U.S Media Coverage of

Israel-Palestine Conflict

y

Dayana inti Nayan!" #$%%&'

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Chapter #

Introduction

#.# Introduction

Generally, news broadcasts, news reports, situation comedies, advertisements, talk

shows, press photos, emails or text messages on a mobile phone, just to name a few,

are what constitute media. Rapid growing and great enhancement of media in our world

today as a results of modernization have vastly benefited the human race in a way that

access to information become effortless. The fact that we are living in what is typically

described as the !nformation "ge# where internet connection and online communication

become almost available everywhere is icing on the cake where information and events

from all around the world is just one click away to be obtained. The great exposure

towards media at our disposal could lead us to unconsciously bestow the authority for

the media to shape our perspectives on certain events $ "mir, %azem, & 'ossein, ()*+.

!n parallel, -aya, 'afriza, and "in adzimah $())/ highlighted that society is

influenced by the media as people who depend on media as a source of information

often find themselves affected by their images. This is due to the fact that media has the

power in determining what information they want the public to have $ "mir et al., ()*+.

evertheless, despite the media0s self1proclaimed objectivity and bias1free principle in

reporting life events and happenings all over the world, they actually presuppose their

preferred# version of reality hence making their targeted readers to view this reality

from their point of view $ "lireza & Rahman, ()*(. 2oesmans $()*+ is in agreement

with this view focusing on news as a particular example. 'e depicted journalism as an

ideological choice1making practice in today0s information1driven world. 'e elaborated

that journalists as the news producers often based their reporting styles on how they

want their readers to decode the reported events and what effects do they want the

news to have on the targeted readers. Thus, this governs which issues are highlighted

and which ones are concealed in the news reports $2oesmans, ()*+. 2oncisely, it is

often far from the truth that news reports are objective and bias1free $ "lireza & Rahman,

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()*(. The notion how news reports could be deviated from the real facts due to news

producer0s hidden value had been illustrated brilliantly by 2aldas12oulthard $())+ as

well in such following3

ews is socially and culturally determined which resulted in it being deviated

from the real facts of the events. -eanwhile, news producers play a role as

social agents whose point of view is conveyed through how they constructed the

news.

Thus, news is hardly the event itself, but just an ideologically constructed report

of the event.# $p. (45.

The explanation above highlighted that such alleged claim that media or particularly

news create their own version of reality# is often motivated by the media0s ideology

which is evident in the description of the news itself as it has been described as

ideological choice1making practice# and ideologically constructed report# $2aldas1

2oulthard, ())+, p. (45. 2onse6uently, this leads to the next logical 6uestion that

needs to be asked by every media consumers3 how does media controllers or news

producers carefully weave their ideology in their discourses7 The answer to this6uestion could lie in Richardson $())/0s hypothesis in which he proposed that

language serves as the tool to endow meaning to our action, ultimately it is the

language as well that can be ideally used as the tool to derive meaning from our action.

Thus, this answers the aforementioned 6uestion in which language is deemed as the

medium to convey ideology. !n a study analyzing the language use of newspapers,

Richardson $())/ identified language as a non1neutral element# which justified his

hypothesis that it is through language that media construct their own version of reality

thus it is through language as well that this presupposition of reality by media can be

detected. Richardson0s hypothesis found its affinity in 8akoff $()))0s notes on language

in which she highlighted that words are rarely purely neutral. The way we use the

language is often motivated by the meaning that we want to achieve. Therefore,

language analysis in media could path a way to analyze how meanings are embedded

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in specific contexts as well. !n light of this, -aya et al. $())/ emphasized that language

and media share a symbiotic relationship in which they noted that not only does

language analysis enrich media studies, but media analysis also enriches our

understanding of language# $p. vii.

1.2 Statement of problem

The media0s enormous capacity in influencing the ideology of the public combined with

their nature as public discourse which denotes their wide, if not unlimited, access to the

public results in the media discourse being one of the popular social practices of what

has been termed as the contemporary form of racism $T. " 9an :ijk, ())). Thecontemporary form of racism is differentiated from the old racism in a way that it does

not appear as ;transparent0 as the old racism in which among its characteristics are

physical and verbal violence and forceful segregation. !nstead, contemporary form of

racism is characterized as ;discursive0 which is expressed and conveyed through text

and talk of various popular mass1mediated formats< news reports being one of them, in

as subtle and as ;natural0 it could possibly be $T. " 9an :ijk, ())). evertheless, the

power of contemporary racism should not be underestimated. !t might not be as radical

as the old racism but it works just as effective in marginalizing and demonizing

particular social groups. 2orrespondingly, T. " 9an :ijk $*==4 inferred biased,

prejudiced, and xenophobic ideology, hegemony practices and demonization of

particular social groups in media discourse as the contemporary form of racism.

The understanding of production or reproduction of contemporary form of racism,

specifically biased ideology in the media and subse6uently the media power in

influencing, to some extent, the thoughts and beliefs of their consumers re6uires the

understanding of the notion of mental model. T. " 9an :ijk $*==> described a mental

model as a mental representation or perspective or understanding of an event. ?ach

media controller, producer or journalist has a mental model of each reported news event

which stems from their ideological belief $T. " 9an :ijk, *==>. Therefore, in order to

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reproduce these ideological beliefs through the media texts, it is the pivotal aim of the

media controllers or the journalists to manipulate the news texts in such a way that

would facilitate the media consumers to form a mental model of a particular event that is

at least almost similar to that mental model of theirs $T. " 9an :ijk, *==>. 2onclusively,

manipulating the mental model of the media consumers is the key to the production and

reproduction of biased ideology in media. @ubse6uently, repeated exposure to biased

mental models could lead to e6ually biased attitudes such as ethnic prejudices and

over1generalization towards particular social groups. Ance these ethnic prejudices are

firmly established $production of ideology, they will in turn control the future formation of

mental models of the media consumers upon reading any news related to the same

particular social groups $T. " 9an :ijk, *==+a. Thus, the media0s ability to shape the

mental model of a particular event of the media consumers them the power to control to

some extent the minds of the public and indirectly their attitudes.

"s previously discussed, the construction of ideology occurs through the manipulation

of mental model. Bnderstandably, the media controllers or the journalists use the

structures and the contents of the news texts as the vehicle to manipulate the structures

and contents of the mental model of the media consumers in order to ensure the

synchronization between the consumers0 mental model upon reading the news and theideological beliefs of the media controllers or the journalists. Cairclough $*==>

accentuated the encryption of the ideology in media discourse and the mind control by

the media would be accomplished effectively under the condition that the media

consumers are not aware of the persuasive and manipulative functions of the news text

which lead them to believe that the news reports are true or the journalist0s point of view

is legitimate and making sense. "s a results, identifying ideology in media discourse

specifically those that could be regarded as contemporary form of racism such as

biased and prejudiced ideology could be 6uite tricky and often goes unnoticed by

readers especially those who are less1privileged in education $asser & "lireza, ()*(.

The juxtaposition of the fact that news media discourse plays a huge role as the social

practices of ideological construction particularly those that are prejudiced and biased

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and the fact that they have almost unlimited access to the public discourse places the

media as the main source of people0s prejudiced and biased ideology especially if they

are lack of other alternative sources of information $2oesmans, ()*+. Thus, being in

the risk of becoming the victim of the media abusing their power to impose a particular

prejudiced ideology on our beliefs and understanding, this called for the urgency to

e6uip ourselves with skills and tool to identify the underlying ideology in media $asser

& "lireza, ()*(. Cairclough $*==> highlighted that the investigation of ideological work

in the media could be asked through series of 6uestions involving representation,

identities or relations such as why one representation is selected over the other

available one or why a particular identity is constructed in one way rather than the other,

where does this representation come from and why is it represented in such as way.

2orrespondingly, analysis of representation of in1group and out1group has been the

method of analysis for many studies focusing on prejudiced and xenophobic ideologies

as well as hegemonic relations such as the study of racism and anti1@emitisms by

Dodak $*==4 and Reisigl and Dodak $())* as well as the study of immigrants and

asylum seekers by %hosraviik $()*) and Euraidah and 8ee $()*5.

Thus, in order to explore the 6uestions of representation, identities and relations hence

the ideological work in the media, language use in the media should be addressed as aform of a social practice in which it has a dialogical relationship with social facets< it is

not only shaped by the social but shaping the social as well. Cairclough $*==>

emphasized that analysis of language has certain advantages over other form of

analysis in media studies in which it can give detailed account of the mechanisms

through which media mediate sociocultural changes discreetly< the imposition of certain

ideology on their consumers being one of them. 'owever, as we treat the language use

as a social practice, language analysis alone would not make the cut. 8anguage

analysis of media should be carried out as discourse analysis, specifically critical

discourse analysis. This is due to the fact that critical discourse analysis has the

capacity to simultaneously address both facets of the language use< the socially shaped

and socially constitutive $Cairclough, *==>. "s a results, by analyzing mass media

linguistically in a critical discourse analysis manner, the 6uestions of representation,

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identities and relations hence the ideological work in the media could be explored

satisfactorily $Cairclough, *==>.

Foung and Citzgerald $())/ proposed that the skills we need to e6uip ourselves in the

era of ideological1saturated news media is the ability to utilize our knowledge,

experiences and perspectives to perform a critical italics in originalH examination on

every discourse we encounter. The expression critical is used to illustrate the reflective

and interpretative approach of looking at language. The reflective approach comprises

of finding out the speaker0s or writer0s motivation in choosing particular words and

structures instead of others while interpretative approach could be related to examining

the relationship between language use in a society and societal structures. Bltimately,

by ac6uiring this skills, we could approach discourses as a more effective reader that

goes beyond breaking the code and making meaning instead of just acting as a passive

reader and listener absorbing every piece of information like a sponge $Foung &

Citzgerald, ())/.

Thus, this study generally aims to explore the relationship between media and ideology

and demonstrate how media could implicitly convey ideology to their targeted

consumers using language as a tool. !t is hoped that this study could enrich the current

literatures on the study of media and ideology as well as promote the importance of critical literacy in today0s world with the rapid growing of media that could be ideological1

loaded. "s the findings of this study could turn out as another prove that media could be

biased and misleading, it might serve as a justification to consider the teaching of

critical literacy in our current national curriculum.

1.3 Research aim and questions

2onsidering the fact of the possible influence media have in shaping our thoughts and

beliefs on certain issues due to their ideological1laden discourse which reflected in their

different presentation of information or reality# as well as the role of language is

operationalizing the media ideology, this study aims to linguistically investigate the

underlying ideology conveyed by different B.@ media in the coverage of !srael1Ialestine

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conflict by performing 2ritical :iscourse "nalysis. !n doing so, media ideology would be

examined from the point of view of positive self1presentation and negative1other

presentation. Therefore, 9an 8eeuwen0s @ocial "ctor "nalysis and Dodak0s :iscourse1

'istorical "pproach are borrowed from 2ritical :iscourse analysis for the purpose of this

study. -ore specifically, this study aims to answer3

*. Dhich representational strategies are used by the different media to represent

social actors involved in the !srael1Ialestine conflict7 'ow do they compare7

(. Dhat are the argumentative strategies exercised by the different media to

legitimize or de1legitimize the social actors and actions of !srael1Ialestine

conflict7

+. 'ow are the findings obtained in $* and $( used to illustrate !srael and 'amas

and their military action as positive or negative7

5. Dhat are the rhetorical strategies used to mitigate or intensify the media0s

perspectivation of positive self1presentation and negative1other presentation7

The first 6uestion studies the representation of social actors involved in the !srael1

Ialestine conflict using 9an 8eeuwen $())/0s sociosemantic inventory. -eanwhile, the

second 6uestion examines the argumentative strategies used by different media inorder to legitimize or de1legitimize the social actors and actions of the !srael1Ialestine

conflict. The third 6uestion which re6uires the categorization of the representational

strategies and argumentative strategies as positive construal or negative construal of

!srael or Ialestine, would be answered simultaneously during the analysis for the first

6uestion and the second 6uestion. @pecifically, every finding for the first 6uestion and

second 6uestion would immediately being discussed as positive presentation or

negative presentation. "ll the findings with regards to research 6uestion *, ( and +

would be discussed in Chapter & of the actual thesis which is the Data Analysis

chapter.

"fter 6uestion + has been discussed satisfactorily, the us# and others# of each media

outlet would be inferred from the findings of 6uestion +. !n other words, the media

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ideology or stance $who is in favour of their coverage with regards to the !srael1

Ialestine conflict would be discussed. This would be explained in Chapter ( which is

the Discussion chapter together with the findings of 6uestion 5 which studies how the

positive presentation and negative presentation are intensified or mitigated. The

analysis of intensification or mitigation would be carried out by examining the rhetorical

strategies used by the media such as the use of metaphor. The news reports and

opinion1editorial $op1ed articles from three different media outlets would be used as the

texts to fulfill these 6uestions.

Section )

*iterature revie+

).% !heoretical ,rae+or and Previous Studies

The purpose of this section is to provide the theoretical background for this study as

well as to develop understanding of the ideas with regards to the research aim and

6uestions. Therefore, this section discusses three main key frameworks that govern this

study3

Su/-section ).#: Ideology through positive-self presentation and negative-other

presentation

• (.*.* @ocial !dentitiy Theory

Su/-section ).): U.S edia coverage of Israel-Palestine conflict

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privilege certain sets of idea and neglect or undermine others# $ T." 9an :ijk, *==K, p.

*/*.

Given the characteristics of ideology as often narcissistic and self1centered, it is

reasonable to assume that a group0s ideology is organized by the group0s schemata

$T." 9an :ijk, *==K. The use of language generally and the construction of discourse

specifically are governed by this group0s schemata. Thus, the representation of this

group schemata in episodic memory is what termed as context model. 2ontext model

controls many aspects of discourse where one of them is making sure that the

discourse is socially appropriate#. Jy socially appropriate#, it means that ensuring that

the discourse conforms to the group0s schemata hence its ideology $T. ". 9an :ijk,

())/. "s a results, this context model is said to be ideologically biased which resulted

in the construction of a biased discourse. T. ". 9an :ijk $())/ further highlighted that

the production and understanding of a discourse is also governed by mental models

which are representations of happenings, behaviours or circumstances people are

involved in, or which they read about. These mental representations possessed by an

individual are claimed to be stem from the cognitive functions of ideology in which

ideology organizes and monitors specific group attitudes as well as governs thedevelopment, structure and application of sociocultural knowledge. "s a results,

ideology in particular, determine evaluative beliefs i.e. common opinions approved by all

members of a group. Cor example, news on !srael1Ialestine conflict is constructed and

understood based on the models that the news producers and readers have with

regards to this war. @imilar with the context model, as these mental models are claimed

to be rooted from the group ideology, these models are said to be ideological biased as

well which in turn instigate an ideological discourse $T. ". 9an :ijk, ())/.

2onse6uently, T. ". 9an :ijk $())/ pointed out that ideology in discourse can be traced

as actions or actors are illustrated as extra or less positively or negatively, governed by

the mental models possessed by the discourse producers. Collowing this idea, T. ". 9an

:ijk $())/ further made one important note pertinent to this study, in which he

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mentioned that the construction of ideology in terms of positive and negative construal

of social actors and action is a common phenomenon for all discourses that illustrate

particular happenings and actions including news articles, opinion editorials and

narratives about personal experiences# $p. *(*. Therefore, it is reasonable to deduce

that an ideology is usually engrained in the relationship between the group and Athers

in terms of us# versus them# in which us# are linked with positive values and them#

are subtly presented in negative light $T." 9an :ijk, *==K.

!n fact, the positive and negative presentation as illustrated above is clearly explained

by @ocial !dentity Theory. Thus, the following part describes explicitly @ocial !dentity

Theory which is used as the framework for examining representation of us# and

others# as ideology.

2.1.1 Social Identity theory

@ocial identity theory is one of the theoretical frameworks that has greatly benefited the

study of ideology in media $-atu & 8ubbe, ())4. Cor example, -atu and 8ubbe $())4

used @ocial !dentity Theory to investigate how %enyan political groups in the run are

portrayed in three different newspapers which ultimately demonstrate how newspapers

construct conflicting ideological positions in election reporting. -eanwhile, @ocial

!dentity Theory was also used as a framework in a study carried out by Aktar $())* to

examine how two Turkish newspapers of different ideological orientations construct the

representation of social groups in ;secular0 and ;anti1secular0 discourse. !n his study,

Aktar $())* explained that @ocial !dentity Theory was developed by Tajfel and Turner

and their associates during mid to late *=4)s. @ocial !dentity Theory is grounded in a

premise that the structure of hierarchy of social groups in society is organized with

regards to the notion of power and status. ?ach level of the hierarchy provides the

members of its respective social group with a social identity. Thus, this social identity

defines who one is and offers a description and evaluation of this definition $Aktar,

())*.

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The evolution of social identity theory leads to the derivation of @elf1categorization

Theory. "ccording to @elf1categorization Theory, people in a society categorized one

another into groups due to the presence of conflicting objectives and intention. Ieople0s

individualized objectives and intention hence provide the basis for their self1concept.

Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that this self1concept is what motivate

categorization. "s a results, categorization yields intergroup phenomena in a society,

which constructs the notion of in1group and out1group. "chugar $())5 stated that with

regards to this intergroup phenomena, each group has its own representation of

defining features which is contextually constructed by the people of the society. Thus,

the decision of whether to regard one another as in1group members or outgroup

members is made based on this defining features. Aktar $())* claimed that self1

concept often results in in1group bias as in1group members will fancy their own group

compared to other groups as it is a human0s nature to enhance their self1esteem by

making social comparisons. Thus, in order to achieve the positive self1esteem, in1group

members would position themselves along the positive values continuum while

portraying the out1group using negative features. 2oncisely, people are more likely to

embrace positive aspects of the group in which they are ascribed to $Aktar, ())*.

Thus, the attitudes in which people are inclined to emphasize the positive 6ualities of their own group while accentuate the negative traits of the out1group stem from their

ideology. This justifies why @ocial !dentity Theory is largely used as a framework in

studying ideology. !n light of the notion of in1group and out1group, T." 9an :ijk $*==K

described the categorization of social groups as us” versus them” in which us” refers

to the in1group while them” refers to the out1group. 2onsistent with the in1group and

out1group stereotyping, the members of a social group create an ideological

representation of us” $themselves through positive presentation while them” $others

through negative presentation $T. ". 9an :ijk, ())/.

Aktar $())* further elaborated that the construction of positive self1presentation and

negative other1presentation in discourses consists four approaches which constitute

what is termed as ;ideological s6uare03

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*. ?xpressLemphasize information that is ;positive0 about us.

(. ?xpressLemphasize information that is ;negative0 about them.

+. @urpressLde1emphasize information that is ;positive0 about them.

5. @uppressLde1emphasize information that is ;negative0 about us.

$Aktar, ())*, p. +*=

).) U.S edia coverage of Israel-Palestine conflict

-anohar $())K described media coverage in terms of how they present a particular

part of information either as news, entertainment or as infotainment. -anohar $())K

further elaborated that media coverage can be distinguished based on two crucial

aspects namely type of mass media used and the style of coverage. Type of mass

media can be divided into four main categories which are newspaper coverage,

television coverage, radio coverage, and internet coverage. -eanwhile, the style of

coverage of media is generally categorized as biased coverage, un1biased coverage

and interactive coverage. Jasically, biased coverage refers to the biased manner in

presenting information in which the coverage is in favour of a particular idea or against aparticular idea. An the other hand, un1biased coverage refers to a manner in which the

media do not take any particular stance with regards to a particular idea. !nteractive

coverage is the type of coverage that present an information and taking audience views

at the same time in the presentation of the information hence making the coverage

interactive $-anohar, ())K.

Collowing the notion of media and ideology, the !srael1Ialestine conflict has been

attracted the eyes from all over the world although the conflict has been going on for a

long time. Recently, the !srael and Ialestine once again captured the world attention

with their latest round of conflict allegedly sparked by the murder of three !srael youths

by members of 'amas $2hillag & 8evs, ()*5. This followed by the air strikes and

ground invasion. Thus, the happenings related to the conflict have attracted extensive

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media coverage not only from media originated from both parties in conflict but from

international media as well such as media in the Bnited @tates. evertheless, the media

in the Bnited @tates are under scrutiny after numerous claims emerged that their reports

are either Iro1!srael or Iro1Ialestine in nature.

"n analysis of biases in B@ media coverage of !srael1Ialestine conflict by -intIress

ews $Reese, ()*5 claimed that Iro1!srael stance is traceable in "merican media in

the coverage of the !srael1Ialestine conflict. Cor example, Cairness and "ccuracy in

Reporting, which is a news industry watchdog, found that IJ@ ews'our, an "merican

evening television news programme, to be skewed towards !srael in its coverage of the

conflict in ()*+. -eanwhile, a study conducted in ())( found that "J2, 2J@ and J2

which are the major broadcasters in "merica were 4= percent preferred to illustrate

!srael0s action in the conflict as defensive while Ialestine0s action as aggressive $Reese,

()*5. @imilarly, the most recent claim was made by The 'uffington0s writer, -urra

$()*5 in which he insisted that Cox and 20s coverage of !srael1Ialestine conflict is

far from the reality undergone by the Ialestinians in Gaza. 'is allegation also stated

that B.@ media are inclined to portray the !srael1Ialestine conflict as if the clash

between 'amas and !srael is e6uivalent. 'e urged that the imbalance power involved in

the conflict needs to be acknowledged. B.@ media often stress the !srael0s right todefend themselves but undermine the Ialestine0s right to do the same as Ialestine0s or

more accurately 'amas0s retaliation often perceived as an act of violence $-urra,

()*5.

"t the other side of the coin, there are also claims saying that certain B@ media

coverage of !srael1Ialestine conflict are in favour of !srael. Jrown $()*5, the chief

political analyst of Dall @treet :aily claimed that certain B.@ media are conspiring

against the !srael. 'e 6uoted an example of such bias reporting against !srael from The

:aily Jeast in which the report has been focusing merely on the suffering and

destruction faced by the Ialestinians without acknowledging the similar impact

experiencing by the Mews. Jrown $()*5 intensified his claim with a powerful concluding

remark in which he stressed that "merican is keeping themselves misinformed if they

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still go to "merican press for their source of information. "nother B.@ media that comes

under fire for skewing towards Iro1Ialestine direction in its coverage of the conflict, is

the ew Fork Times. This allegation was made by Iro1!srael watchdog as well as

!srael0s "mbassador to the Bnited @tates, Ron :ermer, following ew Fork Times0s

alleged false accusation towards !sraeli I- Jenjamin etanyahu of neglecting the

murder of innocent Ialestinian teenager despite the Irime -inister0s statement that

very day in which he called the murder reprehensible# $?l1@henawi, ()*5. Collowing

the alleged false accusation by ew Fork Times, :ermer bluntly labelled ew Fork

Times as an embarrassment to journalism#.

).$ Critical Discourse Analysis 0CDA1

"s this study aims to disclose media ideology by looking from the angle of

representation as explained earlier, the notion of polarized presentation of own group

and Athers can be rooted from the idea of power and dominance as well. Thus, by

taking into account the idea of power and dominance, this could justify clearer why 2:"

is chosen as the medium# to understand the ideology at work of different media.

:ominance is referred to as the execution of social power by elites, organizations or groups. $T. " 9an :ijk, *==+b. Cor example, in the context of this study, dominance is

referred to the enactment of social power by the media controllers or producers. "s this

social power comprises control, it is not merely confined to action but cognition as well.

!n fact, the most effective power is mostly in a cognitive form which is often

operationalized through persuasion, disguise or manipulation in order to influence the

mind of others to conform to one0s own interest or ideology. Thus, a powerful groups

may not only regulate the freedom of action of other groups but affect their thoughts as

well $T. " 9an :ijk, *==+b.

The conse6uence of this dominance or the exercise of power is in turn evident in social

ine6uality such as political, cultural, class, racial and gender ine6uality $T. " 9an :ijk,

*==+b. T. " 9an :ijk $*==+b highlighted that ine6uality in a discourse can be justified

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and understood using two discursive strategies which are positive presentation of own

group and negative presentation of the Athers which could subtly be implemented

through arguments, narratives, semantic manipulation and other structures of

discourses such as daily conversations, political speeches, academic books and news

articles. Thus, this is where the notion of representation as ideology intersects with the

notion of power and dominance. The action of influencing the minds of others through

the use of dominance and power to construct social ine6uality is indeed a function of

text and talk. Dodak and -eyer $())= were in agreement with this as they emphasized

that texts are often serve as the medium for competing for dominance which manifest

through opposing discourses and ideologies.

Therefore, it is at this critical point, where the notion of text and talk is brought in,

particularly, that language is identified as the ideal vehicle to articulate power or to

challenge power, that justify the pivotal role of 2ritical :iscourse "nalysis in examining

the ideology, power and dominance. !n particular, 2ritical :iscourse "nalysis enable

explicit investigation on how discourse structures are constructed in order to portray

social representations in such a way that sustain dominance. -ore specifically, the role

of 2ritical :iscourse "nalysis is to find out what discursive structures are

operationalized, in a case where powerful speakers or groups manage to persuade or influence their audience. Thus, according to T. " 9an :ijk $*==+b the discursive

reproduction of dominance involves two point of views which are production and

reception. These point of view can be summarized in a way that the discursive

reproduction of dominance is rooted from the social cognitions of the people in power, in

the context of this study, the ideology of the media controllers and subse6uently, the

discourse structures affect the thoughts of the consumers of the discourse i.e. how the

readers or consumers construct their understanding of the discourse.

Bltimately, T. " 9an :ijk $*==+b summarized that the focus of 2:" is the $reproduction

and challenge of dominance in a discourse as what has been elaborated in the above

explanation. -eanwhile, although still in parallel, Foung and Citzgerald $())/ described

2ritical :iscourse "nalysis in a more simpler term3 2:" approach discourses through

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language analysis in order to disclose any misconception, ine6uality or power

imbalance. !n the same light, @ahragad and :avatgarzadeh $()*) highlighted that 2:"

focuses on internalizing the ideological mechanisms at work in discourse and aims to

provide a criti6ue on how discourses function as a platform to convey certain agendas.

Bltimately, Dodak and -eyer $())= simply concluded that it is the revelation of

structures of power and disclosure of ideologies that lie at the heart of 2ritical :iscourse

"nalysis.

Ane important note made by T. ". 9an :ijk $())* is that 2:" itself is not an

approach#. Ireferably, it attempts to provide an alternative manner# or point of view#

of theorizing, analysis, and application of what it aims to discover in a discourse# $ p.

+>(. "s such, 2ritical :iscourse analysts often differ in terms of their methods and

theoretical frameworks as 2:" constitutes various approaches. Cor the purpose of this

study, 9an 8eeuwen0s @ocial "ctors "nalysis, particularly his sociosemantic inventory,

as well as Dodak0s model of discursive strategies from :iscourse1'istorical "pproach

are drawn as approaches to 2:" as they fit well with the research 6uestions.

The following part describes 9an 8eeuwen0s sociosemantic inventory that are going to

be used in this study to identify how social actors are represented in the coverage of !srael1Ialestine conflict by different B.@ media.

2.3.1 Van Leeuwan’s sociosemantic inentory of representation of social actors

Ane of the manners where specific attitudes, ideologies and standpoint are encoded

through language in discourses is through the representation of social actors involved in

the event $ "dampa, *===. Cairclough $*==> asserted that in the process of producing

the texts, text producers choose a number of representational strategies from the whole

array of strategies available to them and thus, these choices become ideologically

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motivated as they construct the versions of reality desired by the text producer. Aktar

$())* supported this view as he highlighted that media controllers convey their

versions of reality through their selections of representational strategies during the

construction of the discourses which is governed by their social positions, objectives

and intention Therefore, a representation analysis in a discourse centers on this choice

of representational strategies that text producers make..

Thus, this justify why studies of ideology in media discourses, particularly, are

commonly drawn on social actor analysis. Cor example, asser and "lireza $()*(

studied the representation of social actors involved in !ran0s nuclear activities to identify

conflicting ideology in four western newspapers with regards to the issue of sanctions

on !ran. Jy examining how social actors are represented in the four different

newspapers using 9an 8eeuwen0s representational strategies, the study found out the

reporting of !ran0s nuclear activities in the four newspapers had covertly imposed

ideological bias in representing the !ranian side on their readers $asser & "lireza,

()*(. -eanwhile, Euraidah and "lan $()*+ analyzed how !ran0s top leader, "li

%hamenei, is represented in pro government news media. The finding showed that the

way "li %hamenei is represented has ideological motives in which to elevate his

authority by manipulating the religious belief of !ranian people. This was donediscursively for example, by positioning him as God0s representative on earth, the

discourse producers subtly imply to people, who by any chance, believe this, should

have undivided faith towards him as they would have towards God.

9an 8eeuwen $*==/0s model of representation of social actors offers systematic

theoretical bases for studying representation in discourses as described by Cairclough

$*==>. !n approaching the 6uestion of how social actors are represented in discourses,

9an 8eeuwen $*==/ in his framework, attempted to begin his analysis of representation

of social actors in unconventional way as linguists would commonly do where they tend

to launch linguistic operations in performing the analysis. 'aving said so, instead of

starting off from linguistic point of view, he began approaching the representation of

social actors in discourses from sociological point of view in which he described as to

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demonstrate the sociological and critical significance of the classifications# $p. +(.

'ence, the categories# here refer to his systematic sets of representational strategies

in his framework that he termed as sociosemantic italics in the originalH inventory. !n

light of this, 9an 8eeuwen $*==/0s framework would see the manifestation of

sociological categories such as nomination# and agency# instead of linguistic

classifications such as nominalization# and the omission of passive agent.

evertheless, despite his unconventional approach, 9an 8eeuwen $*==/ stated that his

framework of representation of social actors still have a trace of variety linguistic

elements. Thus, 9an 8eeuwen $*==/0s model of representation of social actors is

actually two1tiered with the first level draws upon the sociosemantic inventory available

in the system network as what have been described above. 'ence, it is the second level

of his framework that provides an evident of linguistic operations in which he seeks to

find out the how a particular representation is realized linguistically soon after he

performs the sociosemantic inventory $9an 8eeuwen, *==/. 9an 8eeuwen $*==/

6uoted, each of the representational choices ! shall propose will be tied to specific

linguistic or rhetorical realisations# $p. +5. This is evident as 9an 8eeuwen $*==/

explained the operation of the sociological categories in the system network using

variety of linguistic and rhetorical phenomena such as nominalization, adjectivalisationand transitivity, just to name a few.

Cor the purpose of this study, six sets of sociological categories from 9an 8eeuwen

$*==/0s sociosemantic inventory are used to analyse the representation of social actors

in the reporting of !srael1Ialestine conflict by two B.@ news media in order to

deconstruct their underlying ideology respectively. Those six sets of categories are

inclusionLexclusion, activationLpassivation, individualizationLassimilation,

functionalizationLidentification and personalizationLimpersonalisation.

9an 8eeuwen $*==/ highlighted that discourse producers include or exclude the

representation of social actors in their discourse to achieve the desired effect that they

want their choice to have on their targeted readers. An one hand, the exclusion of social

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actors could be bias1free as when the text producers presupposed that the text

consumers are already well1informed about the particular details or the details are

believed to be irrelevant to the readers. 2onversely, exclusion could also be

ideologically motivated as the text producers used it to achieve a particular agenda $ 9an

8eeuwen, *==/. 9an 8eeuwen $*==/ further categorized exclusion into suppression

and backgrounding in which he described suppression as radical# and backgrounding

as less radical” . Dhen social actors are suppressed, there would be no trace of the

social actors anywhere in the text while when social actors are backgrounding in

describing particular activities, readers might still be able to identify who they are by

making inferences based on their inclusion in elsewhere in the text although they are

not mentioned during the illustration of the given activities related to them. Thus, in light

of this, 9an 8eeuwen $*==/ highlighted that the social actors are not blatantly being

excluded, but it is more accurate to say that they are being de1emphasized and

positioned in the background# $p. +=. 8inguistically, suppression could be realized

through passive agent deletion, non1finite clauses and nominalization. -eanwhile,

ellipses in non1finite clauses can be used to background the social actors.

-oving onto activation and passivation, 9an 8eeuwen $*==/ asserted that social actors

can play either active roles or passive roles in representation. Activation

is described aswhen the social actors are portrayed as the operating forces of the activity while

passivation is when the social actors are represented as being affected by the activity.

'alliday0s systematic functional grammar particularly transitivity $'alliday, *=K> is the

linguistic device that could realize this particular set of representation categories.

Jrowsing further 9an 8eeuwen $*==/ sociosemantic inventory, individualization and

assimilation is another set of categories that is used to represent the social actors. !n

light of this, social actors thus can be denoted as either individuals which indicates

individualization or as groups which indicates assimilation. Thus, singularity signifies

individualization while plurality signifies assimilation. "ssimilation can be achieved using

a noun symbolizing a group of people. Cor example, this nation# in !s he entitled to

believe that this nation, which only recently shed Dhite "ustralia Iolicy, is somehow

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impervious to racist sentiment7# $p. 5= might refers to the citizens of "ustralia or the

policy makers. 9an 8eeuwen $*==/ further broke down the notion of assimilation into

aggregation and collectivization. Aggregation 6uantifies groups of participants while

collectivization does not. "ccording to 9an 8eeuwen $*==/, as it is socially sanctioned

in our society that the majority rules, aggregation is often utilized to ideologically signify

unanimous opinion. as Aggregation is described as 6uantifies groups of participants#, it

is often realized through definite and indefinite 6uantifiers.

Dith regards to the next set of representation categories, 9an 8eeuwen $*==/

distinguished functionalization and identification in such a way that functionalisation

happened when social actors are referred to their action, occupation or role. There are

three ways of how functionalisation is realized linguistically. Cirstly, by a noun formed

from a verb with the addition of suffixes such as –er, -ant, -ent, -ian, or –ee. Cor

examples, ;speaker 0, ‘emploee! , ;driver 0. @econdly, by a noun formed from another

noun with the addition of suffixes such as –ist and –eer . Cor example, motorcclist .

8astly, by the compounding of nouns denoting places or tools closely associated with an

activity and highly generalized categorization such as ;man0, ;woman0, ;person0, ;people0.

Cor example, ;cameraman0 and ;chairperson0 $9an 8eeuwen, *==/, p. >5. An the other

hand,identification

happens when social actors are represented by who they are,instead of what they do. "dentification can be broke down into classification, relational

identification and phsical identification. 2oncisely, classification refers to when social

actors are represented by major categories which are used by a particular society to

distinguish between classes of people. This includes age, gender, economic status,

race, beliefs and others. -eanwhile, relational identification occurs when social actors

are represented by their relationship with each other which is realized by set of nouns

denoting the relationship. Cor example, ;friend0, ;aunt0, and ;mother0. 8astly, phsical

identification happens when social actors are described in terms of physical

appearances which gives uni6ue identity to them in a particular context. 8inguistically ,

phsical identification is signified through nouns indicating physical features such as

;blonde0 and ;redhead0 or through adjectives such as ;disabled0 and ;thin0 $ 9an 8eeuwen,

*==/, p. >4.

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"ll those categories above which represent social actors as human beings are actually

indicate personalisation of social actors. Thus, 9an 8eeuwen $*==/ emphasized that

social actors could also be ;impersonalised0 in which impersonalisation occurs when

representation of social actors are realized by non1human element. 9an 8eeuwen

$*==/ introduced two categories of impersonalisation which are abstraction and

ob#ectivation. Abstraction of social actors can be seen in the sentence of "ustralia is in

danger of saddling itself up with lot of unwanted problem# $ 9an 8eeuwen, *==/, p. >=

where the phrase unwanted problem# is actually impersonalized the migrants. "s 9an

8eeuwen $*==/ highlighted that abstraction occurs when 6uality is used to illustrate a

social actor in a discourse, thus, in the example above, the 6uality of being problematic

is used to represent the migrants. -eanwhile, ob#ectivation happens when social actors

are represented by a place or object they are related with or in terms of the activity that

they are currently associated with $9an 8eeuwen, *==/. Cor example, when

;"ustralians0 are substituted by ;"ustralia0, this indicates ob#ectivation in the form of

spatialisation. "nother example of ob#ectivation in the form of instrumentalisation is

showed in this sentence " *() mm mortar shell slammed into @arajevo0s marketplace#

$9an 8eeuwen, *==/, p. /). !n this example, the attacker is represented in terms of an

object which is the instrument used to accomplish the activity, a *() mm mortar shell#$9an 8eeuwen, *==/. !n addition, somatisation is another type of ob#ectivation in which

body part is used to represent the social actors such as @he put her hand on -ary

%ate0s shoulder# $9an 8eeuwen, *==/, p. /). !n this sentence, -ary %ate# is

represented in the phrase -ary %ate0s shoulder# instead of just directly -ary %ate#.

The last common form of ob#ectivation is utterance autonomisation. $tterance

autonomisation is signified when utterances are used to represent the social actors.

Thus, the report# and surveys# in This concern, the report noted, was reflected in

surveys which showed that the level of support for stopping immigration altogether was

a postwar high# $9an 8eeuwen, *==/, p. /) are actually impersonalised the social

actors who actually carried out the report# and surveys#. Thus, it can be deduced that

the claim that immigration is in urgent need to be stopped can be rooted to these social

actors instead of the report# and survey#. 'ence, as explained above, ob#ectivation

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can manifest in five different forms namely spatialisation, instrumentalisation,

somatisation, and utterance autonomisation.

ext, Dodak0s five discursive strategies of positive self1presentation and negative1other

presentation from :iscourse1'istorical "pproach is explained in order to give

background information on how it is applied to study media ideology, specifically

positive1self presentation and negative1other presentation.

2.3.2 !oda"’s discursie strate#ies of positie self$presentation and ne#atie$other

presentation

!n order to triangulate the study of media ideology, the ideology $which is viewed fromthe angle of positive self1presentation and negative other1presentation would not be

examined merely from the aspect of representation of social actors but from the

discursive strategies used by the media as well. !n doing do, the study of discursive

strategies is based on Dodak0s model of discursive strategies namely referential

strategies, predicational strategies, argumentation strategies, perspectivation strategies

and intensifing and mitigation strategies.

%eferential strategies referred to the ways in which a person or a group of people is

named and referred to linguistically. -eanwhile, predicational strategies can be

described in terms of the traits, the 6ualities, and the characteristics, that are ascribed to

the person. Cor the purpose of this study, 9an 8eeuwen0s sociosemantic inventory of

representational strategies of social actors is borrowed in order to analyse the

referential strategies and predicational strategies used by the media to construct

positive or negative construal. "lireza and Rahman $()*( in their study highlighted that

Dodak0s referential strategies and predicational strategies are indeed partially grounded

in 9an 8eeuwen $*==/0s framework of actor analysis.

-eanwhile, argumentation strategies play a role in legitimation or de1legitimation of

social actors or action in a discourse. Thus, positive1self presentation and negative1

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other presentation are inferred from this process of legitimation or de1legitimation

$ "lireza & Rahman, ()*(. Jlackledge $())> highlighted that the key feature of

argumentation strategy lies in Dodak0s notion of topoi. "mong the category of topoi

highlighted by Dodak are topoi of advantage&usefulness, danger&threat,

definition&name-interpretation, burdening&weighting down, law&right, culture, abuse,

authorit, finance, e'ualit, human rights and responsibilit. Thus, topoi provide a tool to

identify discriminatory arguments that serve to construe own self positively while

emphasize the negative 6uality Athers which are traceable in the discourse

$Jlackledge, ())>.

8astly, intensification and mitigation strategies can be defined as the strategies used to

strengthen or alleviate the illocutionary force of utterance $Dodak & -eyer, ())=. !n

other words, the analysis of intensification or mitigation strategies look into how the

intention or ideology of the speakers or writers is articulated in the discourse, whether

implicitly or explicitly. Jlackledge $())> highlighted that intensification or mitigation

strategies can be used to express involvement in, or detachment from the sense of the

text# $p. (>. Cor example, it is the mitigation strategies that are often used by speakers

or writers to find their way to the mainstream discourse to convey what is typically

regarded as unacceptable idea $Jlackledge, ())>.(itigation strategies

can be realizedthrough lexicalization such as the use of phrase such as ! think#, ! assume#, it seems#

as well as the use of mitigating verbs such as probably#, fairly# 6uietly# and others,

just to list a few $Jlackledge, ())>.

Section $

2esearch Methods

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$.% 2esearch ethods

This section illustrates two crucial parts that constitute the methods of this study. They

are the dataset $sub1section +.* and the framework of the analysis of the dataset $sub1

section +.(.

3.1 %ataset

The corpus for the analysis comprises of two different genre of texts which are opinion1

editorial $op1ed articles and news reports that have been published in three B.@ online

newspapers which are The 'uffington Iost, 2 and ew Fork Times within Muly to

ovember ()*5 as Muly 4th

marked the starting point of !srael0s Aperation Irotective?dge which is a term for the ground invasion in Gaza $8evs, ()*5. The chosen of op1

ed articles alongside the news reports as the corpus for this study is motivated by the

fact that op1ed articles generally portrayed detailed illustration of contexts, settings and

people in describing events or happenings $Aktar, ())*. Thus, this nature of op1ed may

contribute to argumentative, rhetorical and possible ideological implications# $9an :ijk,

*==> as cited in Aktar, ())*, p. +(*. Therefore, the use on op1ed as materials of

analysis would provide appropriate platform to study the ideology of news media. !n

order to ensure the consistency of the topics chosen from each of the media outlet so

that better comparison can be carried out, the chosen of the op1ed articles and news

report are governed by three themes which are military actions#, killings# and peace

process#.

-eanwhile, the main motivation behind the selection of !srael1Ialestine conflict by B.@

media as the topic of this study is that according to a poll conducted in Mune ()*5,

"merican attitude towards "rab and -uslims are getting worse in which favourability

towards "rab1"merican fall to +/N compared to 5+N in ()*). -eanwhile, favourability

towards -uslim1"merican fall to (4N compare to +/N in ()*) $@abrina, ()*5.

Therefore, as this study is analyzing the relationship between media and ideology, it

would be fascinating to find out whether "merican general attitude towards -uslim and

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"rab is traceable in the ideological proposition of their media with regards to the

coverage of !srael1Ialestine conflict.

!n addition, the chosen of The 'uffington Iost, 2 and ew Fork Times as the media

outlets over the other available options is based on the significant role they play as the

source of news and information, not just for "merica citizens, but for people from all

over the world as well. Bntil @eptember, these three online news websites have

occupied com@core0s list of the world0s *) most popular newspaper website. "ccording

to the monthly statistics produced by com@core, The 'uffington Iost news website has

collected /K.> million worldwide users which position it at the top of the list followed by

2 with /4..4 million users and ew Fork Times with 5*./ million uni6ue visitors

$@weney, ()*5. The fact that 2 and ew Fork Times have come under fire for a fewallegations of being biased in their coverage of !srael1Ialestine conflict adds the

element of curiosity# to this study as it would be fascinating to know whether these

allegations are accurate or otherwise. evertheless, it is crucial to note that, despite the

allegations, all three media would be regarded as ideologically neutral, until indicated

otherwise through the analysis done during this study.

3.2 &nalysis of dataset

?ach media text is examined and the common dominant social actors in the reporting of

!srael1Ialestine conflict are identified. :ue to the fact that different news media might

use different term to describe similar social actor, for example, ew Fork Times might

use !sraeli forces# while The 'uffington Iost might use !sraeli army#, the social actors

will be categorized under general denominators such as !sraeli forces#, 'amas

militants#, Ialestine civilians#, !sraeli civilians#, !sraeli authorities#, Ialestine

authorities# and 'amas#.

!n order to fulfill the research 6uestions, the analysis of the dataset would follow the

structure of micro1macro analysis as illustrated in figure * below3

27

Micro analysis

1. Representation of socialactors


28/32

)igure *+ (icro-macro analsis of dataset

Collowing the analysis framework above, the analysis would be bottom1up in nature as it

begins with micro analysis first then moving on to the macro analysis. The reason why

bottom1up approach is chosen is because the media outlets chosen are independent#

of any party involved in the conflict as they are originated from B.@, which are neither

!srael nor Ialestine. Thus, their ideology is unknown $without taking into account any

allegation of being biased thrown at them. Thus, micro analysis would be carried out

first in which representation strategies of social actors and argumentation strategies

would be examined using 9an 8eeuwen0s sociosemantic inventory as well as Dodak0smodel of argumentation strategies as what have been described earlier in this paper.

:uring this micro analysis, the findings would be interpreted and categorized as

attributes demonstrating either positive construal or negative construal with reference to

the Ialestine side and !srael side. @everal themes would be created as to demonstrate

how the representation and argumentation embed positive connotation and vice versa.

Cinally, the findings of micro analysis and macro analysis of each media outlets would

be compare with one another to highlight who the media regard as self# and others#.

Cor any similarity of the notion of self# and others# between any of the media, then

comparison would be made in terms of the micro strategies such as what is the most

used social actors0 representational strategy of ewspaper A in order to construct

positive1self presentation and negative other1presentation and how do this compare with

28

Macro analysis

Positive selfpresentation

an! negative ot"er


29/32

the representational strategy used by ewspaper $which also has similar notion of

self# and others#. This goes the same for the comparison of the argumentative

strategies.

:uring the discussion, the ideology of each media outlet would be inferred based on

who they portray positively $self# and who are being construed negatively $others#. !n

other words, a hypothesis of which side is favoured by each of the media outlet would

be made. Then, findings on how this ideology is intensified or mitigated would be

presented here as well.

*iitations

"mong the major limitations or challenges that might be faced in carrying out this study

is, it is going to consume a lot of time in order to fulfill the aim and the research

6uestions in particular as this study re6uired detailed micro analysis for it to produced

accurate findings. !n terms of financial, as the ew Fork Times only allowed for ten free

articles per month, ! might need to subscribe to the website as to have more access to

its articles thus enables me to have wide range of selection of the articles. Thus, this

might cost me some money. "nother possible limitation that might arise is that as 9an8eeuwen0s sociosemantic inventory is not a straightforward and clear1cut framework of

categorizing the representational strategies of the social actors, some representational

strategies might be overlooked throughout the course of analysis due to lack of

knowledge and understanding with regards to the sociosemantic representational

categories. 'owever, in order to overcome this, ! would seek help from somebody who

is experienced in 2ritical :iscourse analysis and particularly familiar with 9an

8eeuwen0s sociosemantic inventory to validate my findings.

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