DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 438 227 SO 031 387

TITLE Civics: A Resource Book for Teachers in the Junior SecondarySocial Studies Curriculum and Resource List, 1998.

INSTITUTION Northwest Territories Dept. of Education, Yellowknife.PUB DATE 1998-00-00NOTE 182p.; For Civics in the Elementary Social Studies

Classroom, see SO 031 385.AVAILABLE FROM Northwest Territories Dept. of Education, Culture &

Employment, Government of the Northwest Territories, P.O.Box 1320, Yellow Knife, NWT X1A 2L9, Canada; Web site:http://siksik.learnnet.nt.ca/schoo1/5/INDEX.HTM.

PUB TYPE Guides Classroom Teacher (052)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC08 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Citizenship; *Citizenship Education; *Civics; Foreign

Countries; Junior High Schools; Social StudiesIDENTIFIERS Northwest Territories

ABSTRACTCivics is an area of study in which students learn about the

rights and duties of citizens. In the Junior Secondary Social StudiesCurriculum in Canada, civics is integrated with all other components ofsocial studies. The civics themes identified in this book are not explicitlystated in the social studies curriculum, but rather, a reading of thecurriculum makes it clear that the social studies teacher in the juniorsecondary/middle school is expected to address aspects of political scienceas well as of history, geography, and economics. After an introduction, "Howto Use This Resource Book", the book is divided into the following "strands";(7) "The Circumpolar World"; (8) "The Changing World"; and (9) "The Growth ofCanada." Each of the three strands forming the core of the junior secondarycivics curriculum is comprised of three themes inferred from the politicalscience content of the curriculum. For each theme, where appropriate, thereader is provided with the following: commentary on the theme; informationrelated to the theme; and development of concepts, issues, and suggestedactivities related to the theme. (BT)

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

A=

MD

e

MD . . D

. I.

I

I

I

I e I

1

, II

:

A'

-

AI

I

I

ipI I 1

- -

-

a 4

/IEP

a

.

I I

I

a

I'

I '

. . .- I-

II, : '8 ell 0 4

Of

0 - . OS .

a

a

ij440

7,

-0"..e

treF14t.yi

124t '

v.I

Acknowledgements

The Department of Education, Culture and Employment wishes to gratefully acknowlecI Bob MacQuarrie for his special contribution to this Civics in the Junior Secondary. Soci

Studies Curriculum and Resource List, to Tessa Macintosh for her help with the photogfound in this document, and to Jean-Marie Beaulieu for his role in the original organizaof this document. Liz Rose, Education, Culture and Employment, Fibbie Tatti, EducaticCulture and Employment, Merril Dean, Yellowknife Catholic Schools, Sean Daly,Yellowknife Education District #1 and Kyle Kelly, Dogrib Divisional Board assisted inreview of the contents of this document. John Stewart, Curriculum Co-ordinator for SotStudies, was responsible for the final development of this document.

'Cover photo : Rankin Inlet from the air, Tessa Macintosh

Inset cover photo :Legislative Assembly, Yellowknife, Tessa Macintosh

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

4

Foreword

Civics is an area of study in which students learn about the rights and duties of citizens. In itsbroadest sense, it involves both learning about government and the political process,acquiring the knowledge and developing the attitudes and skills that enable effectiveparticipation by citizens in a democratic society.

In the Junior Secondary Social Studies Curriculum civics education is integrated with allother components of Social Studies. Thus, one would look in vain for a discrete civicsprogram. The civics "themes" identified in this book are not explicitly stated in .the SocialStudies curriculum. Rather, a reading of the curriculum makes it clear that the Social Studiesteacher in the junior secondary/middle school is expected to address aspects of politicalscience as well as of history, geography and economics. These civics themes have beeninferi-ed from the political science content of the curriculum.

This resource book is offered solely as a support for teachers of junior secondary SocialStudies. Its use is not prescribed; therefore, teachers may use it as they see fit. Those who useit will find that it offers relevant information about government and the political process inthe NWT, as well as

useful ideas for activities. They may find too that it stimulates their thinking about importantcivics topics and related issues.

Some of the 'Additional Resources' that are recommended in this book, if they are accessed,will provide the teacher with additional information about the subject matter of the civicsthemes, while other resources cited will perhaps stimulate thoughts on how best to teach thematerial of the junior secondary Social Studies curriculum more generally. The 'themes' thatvarious resources are associated with (A,B, or C) refer to the three themes identified in theJunior Secondary Social Studies curriculum document. None of these resources are beingrecommended as a text.The literature lists and two page resource layouts at the end of each strand give a quickreference to resources that might be useful in the teaching of this course. They take intoconsideration the intention of many schools to integrate Social Studies and Language Arts atthe junior secondary/middle school level. Civics - A Resource Book for Teachers - 1998

ty

HOME

Introduction

How To Use This Resource Book

Each of the three strands forming the core of the junior secondary civics curriculum iscomprised of three themes inferred from the political science content of the curriculum.

For each theme, where appropriate, the reader is provided with the following (seeOrganizational Chart next page):

1) commentary on the theme;

2) information related to the theme;

3) development of concepts related to the theme;1

4) development of issues related to the theme;2

5) suggested activities related to the theme.

11

ommentor;on thetheme

A. It or C

3) 4)isforcontior concept o is)rlesrelated to relate() to rehired 10the (bens., t the them., the Menu.

51

atti)i1;esreInted tothq thenn

Adapted from p. iii of Elementary Social Studies Document (1992)

Teachers will notice that, especially for Strand Seven, the information related to the thequite extensive. This is intended to provide information that is sometimes difficult to acSome of the information is time sensitive and will need to be updated by the classroomteacher as necessary. For each strand, this document also suggests a list of supplementateaching and learning resources that may be helpful for the teacher, either as backgrouninformation and/or as materials to be used by students for their work in the area of civicwell as for the junior secondary Social Studies curriculum generally.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

This document does not constitute a program to be taught as such. Its purpose is to still]the reader's thinking on some concepts and issues to be shared and debated with yourstudents. The reader may find that some of these issues raise more questions than theyprovide answers to. For many there is no one answer, but a way of looking at differentoptions, alternatives and points of view before making a decision.

Recognizing that not everybody lives accordihg to the same moral and ethical tenets, itnonetheless important to debate these questions in order to prepare oneself for activeparticipation as an informed citizen.

1Some concepts may repeat themselves from one theme to another. Likewise, some thenshare common issues. Therefore, the reader may find that, at times, the development ofand concepts may have been omitted.

2 See Footnote #1.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

7.1 Theme One - Political Make-upof the Circumpolar World

7.2 Theme Two - Political Changesin the Circumpolar World

7.3 Theme Three - Three CanadianLinks to other CircumpolarCountries

7.4 Additional Resources for Strand7

7.5 Maps Related to the CircumpolarWorld

7.6 Strand Seven Glossary of Terms

,164,:tf

7.1.1 Commentary on the Theme

7.1.2 Information on the Theme

7.1.3 Concepts Related to Theme

7.1.4 Issues Related to the Theme

Issue #1 How should circumpolar nations resolve conflict between resourcedevelopment and environmental degradation?

Issue #2 Should major economic development in the circumpolar world facestringent environmental reviews before being allowed to proceed?

7.1.5 Possible Activities Related to the Theme

9

As citizens of a northern nation, Canadianstudents should acquire a basicknowledge of their northern neighbours,and the political jurisdictions that makeup the circumpolar world. They shouldrecognize and appreciate thecharacteristics these nations have incommon, their common interests andneeds, and from these commonalities,recognize opportunities that might existfor their fruitful cooperation. However,they should also recognize thatsimilarities, where economic matters areconcerned, can lead to competition ratherthan to cooperation.

Students should learn to appreciate thedifferences among the polar nations aswell, such as differing historicalassociations and the use of differentlanguages.

Recognizing these obstacles to closenessand cooperation, as well as physical.obstacles such as the difficulty oftransportation, will help students to better understand why Canada turnsother directions, to the USA, Mexico, Japan and Britain, for example.

its attention in

Northern students should know too that indigenous peoples are found in most of thecircumpolar countries. They should be helped to understand the particular problemsfaced by these groups which find themselves - without having invited the situationenclosed within the boundaries of various national states and subject to thegovernments of those states. Understanding the unique position of indigenous peopleswill also helpstudents to understand their recent self-government initiatives in Canadaas well as their efforts at cooperation with indigenous peoples in other nations. It willalso help students to understand the political changes that are presently taking place inthe Northwest Territories.

EST COPY AVAILABLE

The circumpolar world is defined as those countries which surround and touch upon, orcome very close to touching upon, the Arctic Ocean: Canada, Denmark (Greenland),Finland (this country and Sweden are actually separated from the Arctic Ocean by astrip of Norwegian territory), Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the USA (Alaska).The information on these circumpolar countries that follows comes largely from TheStatesman's Year-Book, The MacMillan Press Ltd., London, 1995, from up-to-datepamphlets and booklets acquired from the Canadian embassies of circumpolarcountries, from Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc., from The World Book Encyclopediaand from the Project Gutenberg edition of the CIA World Fact Book 1993, available onInternet.

Supplementary Information

114 IMA41 Not*-1JL-- IIIEIN

The Arctic

The name Arctic comes from the Greek word arktos, which means "bear". This isbecause theconstellation of the Great Bear is very prominent in the northern sky.

.13 C

The Arctic region includes the Arctic Ocean and the northern parts of Eurasia and NorthAmerica, including the mainland and islands. It is the northernmost region of the Earth.

The southern limit of the Arctic is defined variously as: (1) the Arctic Circle at 66 1/2degrees North Latitude, which is the first point north of the equator that receives a 24hour summer day; (2) the tree line; or (3) the -4 degree C annual isotherm.

Most areas of the Arctic land mass are free of ice and snow for a few months each year.However, permafrost (permanently frozen ground) is found in all Arctic lands. Thepermafrost varies from thin layers to depths of several hundred metres below thesurface.

The continental lands surrounding the Arctic Ocean are generally low-lying. Many of theArctic islands, however, are quite mountainous. Most notable are Baffin Island,Ellesmere Island, Iceland and Greenland.

Four of the largest rivers in the world flow through the low-lying, continental coastalplane to the Arctic Ocean. These are the Lena, Ob and Yenisei in Russia, and the

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

1 J.

Mackenzie in Canada.

Most of the Arctic area receives 250 mm, or less, of precipitation annually, thus it is adesert region, and is commonly called a cold desert. The climate of the Arctic ischaracterized by long, cold, dark winters and short, cool summers. Even though thereare many hours of sunlight in the summer, the sun's rays strike the earth at an obliqueangle and not much of the light energy is converted to heat.

In this cold climate, the plants that are most successful are mosses and lichens. Lichensgrow on therocks and help to break them down into soil. In addition to various kinds ofcoarse grasses, there are some small flowering plants as well. These have to completetheir life cycle within a very short period of time, between the frosts of spring and fall.

Familiar animals are found throughout the circumpolar region. These include polar bear,caribou, musk-ox, wolf, fox, and smaller animals such as hares, various weasels, volesand lemmings. In the sea there are cod, salmon and char and larger species such aswhales, narwhals, walrus and seals.

Many birds are found in the Arctic region as well. Only some of them remain in theArctic throughout the year. Most nest in the north, then migrate to the south for thewinter. Ground-nesting migratory birds find the Arctic to be well suited to nestingbecause there are relatively few predators and there is a good supply of insects forfood. Among the birds that can be found are geese, sandpipers, plovers, gulls, cranes,owls, hawks and ptarmigan.

The Arctic Ocean

The Arctic Ocean is 14 056 000 sq. km. in area, the smallest of the world's oceans. Itincludes theNorwegian Sea, the Barents Sea, the Kara Sea, the Laptev Sea, the EastSiberian Sea, the Chukchi Sea, the Beaufort Sea, Baffin Bay, Davis Strait and HudsonBay and Hudson Strait, and the Greenland Sea. The greatest inflow of water comesfrom the Atlantic Ocean by way of the Norwegian Current, which then flows along thecoast of Eurasia. There is also an inflow from the Pacific Ocean via the Bering Strait.The main outflow from the Arctic Ocean is east of Greenland. Almost half the oceanfloor is continental shelf, so the ocean is relatively shallow. Its deepest part is 4 665metres. Some important ports on the Arctic Ocean are Murmansk in Russia, PrudhoeBay in the USA and Churchill in Canada.

The central part of the Arctic Ocean is always covered by a thick, drifting pack of icemade of frozen salt water. The pack is made up of compressed segments of variousshapes and sizes called floes. This pack is marked by pressure ridges that rise to fivemetres or more in some places, and by occasional openings of water called polynyas.The average thickness of the pack ice is more than three metres. Its drift is influencedby winds and ocean currents.

This huge core of ice is surrounded by open seas in the summer. Open areas may benavigable for part of July, August and September, but the area of ice doubles in thewinter and extends to the encircling land masses. Between 20 and 50 centimetres ofsnow cover the frozen ocean in the winter, which lasts nine to ten months. There is littlemarine life found where the ocean is covered by pack ice year round, but fish and seamammals and other marine life abound in the areas of open water.

The Arctic ecosystem is fragile. If it is disrupted or damaged by human activities, it isslow to recover.

Canada

Area: 9 976 140 km2

Population: 28 846 761 (1996)

Capital: Ottawa

Canada is a federal state made up often provinces and two territories (soonto be three). The country's governmentcan be described as a representativedemocracy and a constitutionalmonarchy. It is a parliamentary style ofgovernment.The British monarchserves as Canada's Head of State. Themonarch and his/her representative,the Governor-General, have aceremonial role to play in government.They do not participate in the day-to-day affairs of running the country.

Alaska(USA)

(1(43C(9 \I7Z<Yukon 4 3r

Quebec

eiorthvtirea;erritor Nunavut

Newfoundlandand Labrador

USA

rincedward

rr Island

NovaNev, Scotia

erunswick

The government is led by a Prime Minister, who is traditionally appointed by theGovernor-General because his/her party has a larger number of seats in the House ofCommons than any other party. The Prime Minister chooses his/her cabinet fromamong Members of Parliament, generally from his/her own party.

The federal Parliament is made up of a 301 member House of Commons (as of theelection of June 2, 1997) and an appointed Senate. Elections for seats in the House ofCommons must be held at least every five years, but may be held sooner. Citizens mustbe 18 years or older to vote or to run for office.

There are ten elected provincial governments across the country, each led by a Premierand cabinet. All provincial legislatures have only one house of assembly (Quebecoriginally had two). There are two (soon to be three) elected territorial governments inCanada and their structure is modelled on that of the provinces. There are thousands of

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

local (municipal) governments across the country as well as an increasing number ofAboriginal self-governments.

Canada is a member of the United Nations (UN)*, the Commonwealth*, theOrganization of American States (OAS)*, the Organization for Economic Cooperationand Development (OECD)*, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)*, and is oneof the G-7 (Group of Seven) states, those countries which have the most powerfuleconomies in the world (the USA, Britain, France, Germany, Japan and Italy are theother members; Russia and China might eventually be included, presumablyinaking it.the G-9).

The economy is basically a free enterprise economy, although Canada for many yearshas modified the free enterprise approach with some state enterprises (e.g. CanadianBroadcasting Corporation, Air Canada, National Film Board, Northern TransportationCompany Limited), with state regulation of free enterprises (e.g. Canadian TransportCommittee, Canadian Radio and Television Commission) and with social programs (e.g.medicare, old age pension, employment insurance). In recent years, the federal andprovincial governments have been moving even more to free enterprise with theprivatization of public corporations, with deregulation of industries such as trucking andair transport, and most recently, with a reassessment of social programs.

The USA is Canada's largest trading partner by far; Japan is a distant second, but stillsignificantlybigger than other countries; the United Kingdom (Britain) is third.

Canada's GNP* (gross national product) per capita: US $20 320 (1992). Canada's HDI*is 0.960,ranked #1 in the world in 1997.

Northwest Territories (Canadian circumpolar territory)

Area: 3 426 320 km2

Population: 64 402 (1996)

Capital: Yellowknife - population18,164 (est. 1996)

The government of the NorthwestTerritories is led by a premier, anelected MLA, who is selected by avote of the Members of the LegislativeAssembly. There are 24 members inthe Assembly, some ofwhom are selected by the members to

to.v

Arctic dean

IAN

ea S,

Baffin Ba

ti.qUOari-1A-Ael ...; 03 VIS,

\74"00.4etlisStraitr,ii

-.AfCtO 1

)4e

?U/11, Ear,,?

f---

B.C.)

/1

/4therta .C.Ii"Sask.-41Veth4--/ Zia15°-n-SaY:2i

4 BEST COPY AVAILABLE

serve as ministers. The legislature at present does not operate on the party system asdo all other political jurisdictions in Canada. Citizens must be 18 years or older to voteor to run for office.

The territory is represented by one senator and two Members of parliament at thefederal parliament in Ottawa.

The territory became part of Canada on July 15, 1870. From within this territory severalsubsequent political jurisdictions have been created, including: Manitoba (1870), theYukon Territory (1898), and the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan (1905).Nunavut will be created form the eastern part of the territory in 1999.

The economy still relies to some extent on the traditional pursuits of trapping, huntingand fishing. Mining is also very important. Some of the more important minerals minedare lead, zinc and gold. Diamonds will soon be mined as well. There is somecommercial fishing, and small amounts of farming and logging. Tourism is an industrywhose importance is growing. The transportation and communication industries alsoemploy quite a large number of people. There is some hydroelectric powerdevelopment, but most of the power is generated by diesel generators.

Denmark (Kingdom of Denmark)

Area: 43 075 km2

Population: 5 180 000 (1997),mostly Scandinavian, with a smallGerman minority

Capital: Copenhagen

Population: 1 700 000 (1997)

The government is both arepresentative democracy and aconstitutional monarchy. There is aone chamber parliament called theFolketing. It has 179 members: 135of the seats are elected proportionally in 17 electoral districts, 40 are for parties whoshare the popular vote but have not received sufficient returns to elect members, 2 arefor the Faroe Islands and 2 are for Greenland.

The government is led by a Prime Minister and cabinet. The government's normal termis four years, but elections may be called sooner. Citizens must be 21 years or older tovote or to run for office.

BEST COPY AVAIIABLE

1 5

There are 225 municipalities in Denmark, each of which is governed by an electedmayor and council. Sixty-one percent of the land is arable land. Jutland, the main partof the country, is surrounded by the sea on three sides. In some places water courseshave been altered to reclaim land for agriculture. Crude oil, natural gas, fish, salt,limestone, clay and gravel are found within the country's borders. The economy is athriving one even though the country is relatively poor in natural resources. Agriculture(barley and root crops for animal feed, chickens, pigs and cattle) and fishing have beenmainstays of the economy in the past, but manufacturing and trade are particularlyimportant to the economy today. Industries include food processing (bacon, butter,cheeses, beers), the manufacture of machinery and equipment (most raw materialshave to be imported), textiles and clothing, chemical products, electronics, construction,and furniture. Denmark has a merchant marine fleet of nearly 3000 vessels, andtogether with other Scandinavian countries operates the Scandinavian Airline System(SAS). Denmark is a supporter of free trade, yet it has developed extensive socialprograms over the past hundred years.

The bulk of Denmark's trade is done with Belgium, Finland, France, Germany (itsbiggest trading partner), Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, UK and the USA. Its GNP percapita is US$25 930 (1992).

Its HDI is 0.912, making it #15 in world ranking in 1992.

In international relations Denmark is a member of the UN, NATO, OECD*, the Councilof Europe* and the Nordic Council.

The Nordic Council was established in 1952 to provide a common forum for cooperativeendeavours of the Nordic nations. Members include Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norwayand Sweden. The autonomous areas of Aland Islands (Finland), Faroe Islands andGreenland (Denmark) hold special status. Some areas of cooperation in the Councilinclude: coordination of legislation, environmental protection, elimination of trade andtransport barriers, energy supplies, telecommunications, and cultural projects. Underthe terms of the Nordic Council agreement, Scandinavian nationals are free to travel,live and work anywhere in Scandinavia without passport or visa formalities. They arealso entitled to the same medical and social benefits as the citizens of the country theyhave chosen to live in.

Greenland

(Danish possession since 1380)

(Kalaallit Nunaat)

Area: 2 186 000 km2

Population: 53 000 (1997), the majority beingGreenlanders (a mixture of Inuit and Europeanimmigrants) who speak Greenlandic (the languageof the Inuit).

Capital: Nuuk population 13 000 (1997)

The economy relies heavily on commercial fishingfor cod, shrimp and salmon. Many Greenlandersstill earn their livelihood, or part of it, by trappingand hunting: for polar bears, seals and for whiteand blue fox. Cryolite, a mineral used in makingaluminum and glass, is mined. Gold wasdiscovered in 1989. Exploration for offshore oil istaking place. There are some largely undevelopeddeposits of zinc; lead, iron ore, coal, and uranium.

Some Greenlanders are employed in the manufacturing, construction and serviceindustries. There is only a small amount of agriculture: cabbage and potatoes are grownfor domestic consumption; hay is grown to provide food for small herds of cattle andsheep. Only about 1% of the land can be used for meadows and pastures.

Greenland suffers from a continuing large trade deficit. It imports many goods includingmachinery, fuel and foodstuffs (a recent air link has been established by First Air toprovide fresh foods regularly from Canada). Processed fish (canned, frozen and salted),fresh fish and cryolite are exported.

Because of the topography, there is neither a railroad nor a highway system inGreenland. Transportation must be undertaken by boat along the coast, by air, bydogteam or by snow machine.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Finland (Republic of Finland)

Area: 338 145 km2

Population: 5 132 000 (1997)

Capital: Helsinki - population 525 031 (1997)

Finland is a republic and a representativedemocracy. The style of government is acombination of a British parliamentary andan American-style presidency.

A president, who is elected for six yearterms by direct popular vote, is head of stateand has extensive powers. Most legislativeproposals introduced in parliament arebased on bills presented by the president.He/she can refuse assent to parliamentarylegislation unless it is passed a second time.He/she is in charge of foreign policy andmakes all important decisions in this sphere.

The president also has the right to appointthe members of the Council of State (the prime minister and cabinet) or to dismiss acabinet that has lost the confidence of parliament. He/she serves as a mediator inhelping coalition governments to form and appoints the highest government officials, aswell as being the commander in chief of defence forces. The President may only beelected for two consecutive terms.

There is a one chamber parliament in Finland. It is made up of 200 members electedproportionally froml5 electoral districts. Day to day government is under the authority ofa Prime Minister and cabinet, so long as they enjoy the support of a majority inparliament. Most coalition governments in modern times have tended to be centre-left intheir ideological orientation. The term of a parliament is four years but elections can beheld sooner. Those who are 18 years and older can vote or run for office.

As far as local government is concerned, there are 460 communes in the country, eachgoverned by an elected council. Communes can associate with other communes toundertake major works such as hospitals and vocational schools.

In international affairs Finland is generally neutral. It is a member of the UN, and one ofthe most consistent providers of peace-keeping forces for UN operations. It is also amember of the Nordic Council, OECD, EFTA*, the Council of Europe and the EuropeanUnion [EU] *.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

is

The economy of Finland has changed dramatically since World War II when the majorityof the population was still engaged in agriculture and forestry. Since that time, however,it has become highly industrialized. Because of the small domestic market, internationaltrade is very important to Finland. The economy is based on private ownership and freeenterprise, however, there are some state owned companies that enjoy monopolies(e.g. airline, railway, oil refining, electricity production). The public sector's share ofindustrial production averages about 16%; it is almost half of transportation andcommunication, but only about 1% of trade and agriculture. An important industry hasalways been wood processing, including pulp and paper. Metal and engineeringindustries have developed rapidly and today are the largest sources of industrialemployment. The chemical, graphics, food, textile and electrochemical industries arealso important to the economy. Mining is relatively unimportant, but the country doesproduce about one-half its own needs in nickel and copper.

The country's industry has a high reliance on energy. Energy is supplied by imports ofoil, coal, natural gas and electricity, and by the production of electricity locally by nuclearplants, by burning peat and by hydro development. Though small, the agriculture sectorproduces a surplus of dairy products, eggs and meat. It also produces wheat, rye,barley, hay, oats and potatoes. Self-sufficiency is maintained in basic farm commodities.

About 18.5% of the budget is spent on social expenditures, providing a social welfaresystem that covers most potential risks: a national pension scheme, unemploymentassistance and benefits, accident and health insurance, assistance for the handicappedand the elderly.

The bulk of Finland's trade is with Germany (one of its two biggest trading partners),Russia, Spain, Sweden (the other of its two biggest trading partners), Switzerland, UKand the USA. The country's GNP per capita is US$18 845 (1994). Its HDI is 0.911,making it #16 in world ranking in 1992.

Iceland (Republic of Iceland)

Area: 102 819 km2

Population: 265 000 (1994),almost entirely Icelandic, ahomogeneous mixture ofdescendants of Norwegiansand Celts. There is not anindigenous population.

Capital: Reykjavikpopulation: 102 000 - 1993.

1.9BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Iceland is a republic and a representative democracy. The country is led by a presidentwho is elected by direct popular vote for 4 year terms.

A parliament called the Althing is comprised of 63 members. It forms itself into twohouses: the Upper House has one-third of the members and the Lower House hastwo-thirds of the members. Each House has special duties and powers. Of the 63 seats,54 are distributed among 8 electoral districts. Of the remaining nine, 8 are assigned toconstituencies proportional to the number of registered voters, and 1 seat is given to theparty with the fewest seats compared to the number of votes it gets. Those who are18 years or older can vote and run for office.

Executive power is exercised under the President by a Prime Minister and cabinet, all ofwhom are members of the parliament.

As for local government, there are 217 communes, each governed by an electedcouncil. Communes can unite to form district councils if they wish.

In international relations, Iceland is a member of the UN, EFTA, OECD, NATO, theCouncil of Europe and the Nordic Council.

The economy of Iceland is basically capitalistic, but the country does have an extensivewelfare system. The economy depends very heavily on the sea, since the coastalwaters are rich in fish and other sea life. Fishing brings in about 75% of exportearnings. Apart from the sea, there are relatively few natural resources. Only about 2%of the land is suitable for farming: sheep are raised for wool, meat and skins, and cattleare raised for dairy products. Potatoes and turnips are also grown. Recently, successfulattempts have been made to use the abundant hot springs on the island as a source ofheat for greenhouses in which a variety of fruits and vegetables are grown. Thisgeothermal power is also used for heating homes. There is an abundance ofhydropower which is used for the smelting of imported aluminum. Tourists visit Icelandto enjoy its unusual sights as well as to ski, hike in the mountains or fish for salmon. Thecountry relies heavily on trade. The bulk of Iceland's trade is carried on with Belgium,Denmark, Finland, France, Germany (its biggest trading partner), Japan, Netherlands,Norway, Sweden, Russia, UK and the USA.

The country's GNP per capita is US$19,383 (1989). Its HDI is 0.914, making it #14 inworld ranking in1992.

0

Norway (Kingdom of Norway)

Area: 386 958 km2, including islands

Population: 4 315 000 (1997)

Capital: Oslo - population 480 000(1995)

Norway is a representative democracyand a constitutional monarchy.

It is a unitary state, like Britain, ratherthan a federal state, like Canada. Inplace of provincial government, thecountry has a system of strongmunicipal government.

Executive power is vested formally inthe King, but he exercises it through aPrime Minister and cabinet.

A parliament (Storting), having 165members, is elected every four years by proportional representation from candidates in19 electoral districts. Eight of the seats are "seats at large" to be distributed amongparties which, in relation to the total number of votes cast in the country as a whole,would otherwise be under represented in parliament. This enables a higher degree ofproportionality. For some purposes, the Storting divides itself into two Houses, theLasting (one-quarter of the members) and the Oldesting (three-quarters of themembers). Each House has special duties and powers. Those who are 18 years orolder can vote and run for office.

The Norwegian parliament is unique in a number of ways. There is no constitutionalprovision for dissolution of parliament in midterm, so parties are forced to negotiate tofind workable coalitions. Representatives are not seated in the Storting according toparty affiliation, but according to the county they represent, thus the forces ofgovernment and opposition are not ranged against each other, and the atmosphere isless confrontational and more restrained than in many other assemblies. Thisatmosphere is further cultivated by strict rules that forbid heckling, shouting or applause.Members who are present cannot abstain from voting. Standing Committees ofparliament are established that parallel the government's ministries and cooperateclosely with the ministries. Every member of parliament is appointed to only one ofthese committees, and is thus drawn into the decision making process. This alsotends to reduce confrontation.

Ministers are drawn largely from the ranks of leading party politicians. Once selected for

21 c. EST COPY AVAILABLE

a cabinet post, the representative is no longer a member of the Storting, but ministerscan be requested to meet in parliament to answer questions from the floor. Ministerscan be selected from outside the ranks of parliamentary representatives.

For administration purposes, there are 19 counties. The central government isrepresented in each county by a county governor. There are also 448 municipalities thatare,governed by elected councils. In international relations, Norway is a member of theUN, NATO, EFTA, OECD, the Nordic Council, and the Council of Europe. It has appliedfor membership in the European Union.

The economy has undergone major structural changes since 1980. There has been adecline in the traditional industries of farming and fishing, and an increase in serviceindustries and in oil-related industries. The offshore oil and gas industry accounts forabout 15% of the gross domestic product. Hydroelectric power is also important toNorway both as an industry in itself and as a critical factor that gives Norwegian industrya competitive edge in international markets. Norway has also recently developed theworld's fourth largest merchant marine fleet. The country is rich in natural resources:crude oil, natural gas, copper, nickel, pyrites, lead, zinc, iron ore, timber, fish andhydropower. The economy is operated from a free enterprise base, but tempered by abroad social welfare system under which assistance in time of need is viewed almost asa right. Like other Scandinavian countries, Norway has always maintained some degreeof government engagement in key industries such as energy, and it subsidizes fishingand agriculture.

Norway's main trading partners are Denmark, Finland, Germany (its second biggesttrading partner), Sweden (its biggest trading partner), UK and the USA.

Norway's GNP per capita is US$25,800 (1992). Its HDI is 0.928, making it #5 in worldranking in1992.

Russia (Russian Federation)

Area: 17 075 383 km2 (the largestcountry in the world)

Population: 149 608 953 (1994)

Capital: Moscow - population9,000,000 (1992 estimate)

Russia is the main country that hasarisen out of the collapse anddisintegration of the former SovietUnion. Russia is a republic and afederal state. Its government is in

2 2 BEST COPY AVAILABLE

transition from oligarchy to representative democracy. It is led by an elected Presidentas well as a Prime minister and cabinet. The extent of presidential powers is just nowbeing determined in the turmoil of transition.

The supreme legislative body is the elected Congress of People's Deputies which hasmore than two thousand members (about one-third of these members are actuallyappointed). Out of the Congress in turn is elected the 542 member Supreme Sovietwhich, because it is more manageable in size than the Congress, has gained power bydefault. All citizens 18 years or older are entitled to vote.

The country is made up of Russians (82%), Tartars (4%), Ukr6inians (3%), and others(including indigenous peoples (11%). Altogether there are people of 130 nationalitiesliving in the federation. The country is divided into 16 autonomous republics, 5autonomous regions and 10 autonomous areas. These autonomous politicaljurisdictions are necessitated by the diversity of nationalities in the federation.

There are about 950 000 indigenous northern peoples in 25 different national groups,the most numerous groups being the Karelians, Komis and Yakuts. Smaller groupsinclude the Inuit and Chukchis.

In international relations Russia is a member of Commonwealth of Independent Statesand the UN. It may soon be invited to join the G-7 states, the most powerful economiesin the world.

The economy of Russia has undergone a major transformation in recent years. It is,with much difficulty, slowly making its way from being the centralized, planned andtightly controlled economy it was in the former Soviet Union, to being a western stylemarket-driven economy. In this transition, the government has privatized smallbusinesses such as shops, restaurants and other service establishments. Privatizingfactories has proven more difficult, because it is hard to evaluate the financial worth ofthe enterprises and because bidders are reluctant to get saddled with old technologyand equipment. For example, Russia's machine-building sector is large and significant,but it lags behind the rest of the world in efficiency of operation and quality ofproduction. Social problems are resulting from the turmoil. Unemployment is one of themore serious social problems, since workers lose their jobs when outdated factoriesshut down and when other factories begin to operate more efficiently under freeenterprise. Inflation is a problem as well (it was 89% in 1991), and so is the prevalenceof organized crime, as Russians scramble to take advantage of new economicopportunities. Nevertheless the transition continues: market institutions are beingcreated, and there are a number of stock and commodities exchanges operating.

The vast land area of Russia, its remarkable range of natural resources, and its largepopulation, combine to make an enormous resource development potential. There are220 million hectares of farmland in Russia. Forests cover two-fifths of the territory.There are enormous fresh water reserves in thousands upon thousands of rivers andlakes. Its mineral lands contain virtually all known chemical elements, plus a large share

3

of the world's gas, oil and coal reserves.

Russia's industries include all the following: mining and extractive industries (oil, gas,chemicals, coal, metals); machine building, from rolling mills to high performanceaircraft and space vehicles; shipbuilding; communications equipment; agriculturalmachinery; road and rail transportation equipment; electric power generating andtransmitting equipment; construction equipment; scientific instruments; grain; meat;milk; vegetables and fruits.

(Note: Since Russia is presently in transition and undergoing some turmoil, surprisinglylittle up-to-date information was available from the Russian embassy itself. In addition towhat was acquired from that source, information on the new Russia was obtained fromthe "Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States", EuropaPublications Ltd., 1992, and from "The Commonwealth of Independent States", MaryJane Behrends Clark, The Millbrook Press, Brookfield, Conn., 1992, "Russia, Then andNow", Phylliis Arnold and David Rees, Arnold Publishing, Edmonton, AB, 1993, as wellas from the other sources listed at the end of this Strand).

Sweden (Kingdom of Sweden)

Area: 449 964 km2

Population: 8 844 499 (1997)

Capital: Stockholm population 718 462(1997)

Sweden is a constitutional monarchy. Itsgovernment is a representative democracy inthe parliamentary style. The monarch (king orqueen) is the Head of State, but he/she hasonly ceremonial unctions and does notparticipate in the governance of the country.There is a one house parliament called theRiksdag. It is made up of 349 members, 310 ofthese members are directly elected by thepeople for three year terms. They are electedfrom 28 electoral districts under a system ofproportional representation that is designed to Den mar

enable representation in the Riksdag to mirrorthe electorate's vote as closely as possible.

The remaining 39 seats are a nationwide pool which are distributed in proportion to thepopular vote to any party that receives at least 4% of that vote. If a party gets less than4% nationally, it can still participate in constituency distribution in any constituency

BEST COPY RUMBLE

where it gets at least 12% of the popular vote. Political parties that can win at least oneseat in parliament, or 2.6% of the votes throughout the whole country, are eligible forlimited government subsidies to help them maintain their offices and promote theirideas. Those who are 18 years of age can vote or run for office.

The government is led by a Prime Minister and cabinet. The Speaker of the parliamentis chosen by the Riksdag and in turn appoints the prime minister, who then choosesother ministers. As a rule, political initiatives come from the cabinet. Because ofproportional representation, the country is often led by coalition governments.

The cabinet ministries are only small policy making units with 100 to 150 employees.Day-to-day operations of government are not handled by these ministries.

For administrative purposes, there are 24 counties with deliberative councils that areelected every three years. The central government is represented in each county by acabinet appointed county governor and a county administrative board. CountygovernMents handle health care, regional transit and certain educational institutions.

There are 284 municipalities with elected councils in Sweden. These councils areelected every three years at the same time as the national election is held. Localcouncils are very important because they handle many more programs than arehandled by local governments in most countries: schools, child care programs, servicesfor the elderly, other social programs, sanitation, libraries, cultural and recreationalfacilities. Local governments depend on central government subsidies, as well as localtaxes, to finance programs.

Sweden gave the office of Ombudsman to the world (there has been an Ombudsman inSweden since 1809). This official's role is to protect individuals against arbitrarytreatment by government bureaucrats.

In international relations, Sweden remains neutral where conflicts are concerned. It is amember of the UN, the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), the Council ofEurope, the Nordic Council and the Organization for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (OECD). The country has recently become a member in the EuropeanUnion (EU).

Sweden's economy is founded on rich natural supplies of coniferous forest, hydroelectricity, iron ore, copper, silver, lead, zinc, uranium and some good farmland in thecentral and southern parts of the country. Manufacturing and trade have become asignificant part of the Swedish economy. The country manufactures motor vehicles,pharmaceuticals and telecommunications equipment. High quality steel is made andused in the manufacture of ball bearings, Volvo and Saab automobiles, high voltagecable and other electrical equipment. Lumber, paper and furniture are alsomanufactured. Seventy-five percent of farm income is derived from livestock and dairyproducts. Hay, wheat, oats and barley are grown as fodder. Despite a commonmisconception to the contrary, nearly 90% of Sweden's industrial production comes

from private businesses.

The country has an extensive social welfare system which includes health insurance,child care leave and subsidized child care centres, free instruction, books and lunchesin the public schools, various employment security programs, disability pensions and oldage pensions.

Germany is Sweden's biggest trading partner. Other important countries for trade are:Denmark, Finland, France, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, UK and the USA.

The country's GNP per capita is US$27 500 (1993). Its HDI is 0.928, making it #4 inworld rankings in1992.

United States of America

Area: 9 372 610 km2

Population: 265 283 783 (1996)

Capital: Washington, D.C. - population 3 923 574 (1990)

The USA is a republic, a representative democracy and a federal state. It has apresidential style of government, with the powers of government strictly divided intothree branches: the executive, legislative and judiciary. The executive branch is headedby the President. He/she is elected every four years, and he/she appoints the cabinetfrom among competent people in the country at large. Every eligible voter can votedirectly for his/her choice of president. The legislative branch is focussed on Congress.Congress is made up of the Senate (100 senators serving six year terms) and theHouse of Representatives (435 representatives serving two year terms). Each Househas specific powers and duties. The judicial branch is made up of the Supreme Courtand other federal courts. Supreme Court judges are appointed by the President andmust be confirmed by the Senate.

There are 50 states, each with an elected governor and assembly. All state assembliesexcept Nebraska are made up of two houses. There are thousands of municipalgovernments throughout the country.

In international relations the USA is a member of the UN, OAS, NATO, OECD, ColomboPlan and the G-7.

The economy is clearly based on private ownership and free enterprise. There are fewpublic corporations and social welfare programs are generally held to a minimumdeemed to be necessary, although the Clinton administration announced its intention tointroduce a national health care scheme. More than in the other circumpolar countries,individuals are expected to look after their own welfare.

The bulk of US trade is carried on with Canada (its biggest single country tradingpartner), the EU and Japan (the USA buys nearly as much from Japan as it does fromCanada, but it sells much less to Japan).

The USA GNP per capita is US$23,120 (1992). Its HDI is 0.925, making it #8 in worldrankings in 1992.

Yukon Territory (Canadian Circumpolar territory)

Area: 483,450 km2

Population: 30,766 (1996)

Capital: Whitehorse population 22907 (est. 1993)

The government is led by a premierwho is the leader of the politicalparty that wins the largest number ofseats in the legislative assembly.Cabinet ministers are selected fromthe winning party. There are 17seats in the assembly.

The Yukon is represented by onesenator and one Member ofParliament in the federal parliamentin Ottawa. The territory was createdJune 13, 1898.

Besides the traditional pursuits ofhunting, trapping and fishing amongthe aboriginal people, the economyrelies very heavily on mining. Thereare deposits of lead, zinc and gold. Tourism is a very important industry. There aresmall amounts of agriculture: hay, oats and garden vegetables are grown.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

27

Alaska (an American State in the Circumpolar Region)

Area: 1 530 582 km2

Population: 611 300 (1996)

Capital: Juneau - population29,813 (1997)

The Alaska state government isled by a Governor and anappointed cabinet. The statelegislature has two houses: asenate which has 20 members,elected for 4 year terms, and aHouse of Representatives whichhas 40 members, elected for 2year terms. Citizens 18 years orolder have the right to vote andrun for office.

Aleutian- / Islands

t"yCRussia}

Arctic Odean

Bering Sea

Eaal.14

ITV Y' ANY

II

(Gulf of Aieska\

11,r

WY-

1979'

4 Mil

The state of Alaska relies very heavily on income from petroleum production, as the oilindustry is a very important part of the state's economy. Much of the oil is produced onthe north slope around Prudhoe Bay. It is then transported across Alaska by pipeline tothe port of Valdez. From there it is loaded onto oceangoing tankers and shipped to thecontinental USA and elsewhere.

Fishing is very important to Alaska as well. The seas produce salmon, king crabs, snowcrabs, halibut, shrimp, cod, herring, scallops and clams. Because of the strikinglybeautiful scenery in Alaska, tourism brings many dollars to Alaska and provides manyjobs. There is only a small amount of agriculture. Some of the main farm products arebarley, oats, hay, potatoes, cabbage, milk and eggs. Grains are raised mainly as fodderfor livestock. The Aboriginal people of Alaska still hunt whales, seals, moose andcaribou. Logging and the production of paper are important in some parts of the state.There is some mining of gold, coal, lead, silver, platinum, barite and gemstones.Despite the fact that the state has suitable rivers for hydro power, very little has beendeveloped. Most electricity is produced by coal, natural gas and petroleum generatingstations.

Scandinavia

Scandinavia is a term that has been used for thousands of years to describe thenorthernmost part of Europe. Originally the term was used to encompass the threemodern states of Norway, Sweden and Denmark, whose histories have been linkedsince the earliest recorded times. More recently it has been broadened to include

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Finland, Iceland and the North Atlantic islands.

During the era of Viking explorations near the end of the first millennium, Scandinaviawas the focus of power in northern Europe. It possessed ships that could make seavoyages and it had effective military technology. It was a leader in exploration, trade,economics and military power.

Coalition

A government formed by temporarily uniting the efforts of two or more political parties.Cabinet ministers in the government are selected proportionally from the parties incoalition. This type of government is sometimes created where no single party hasgained enough seats in an election to control the legislature. Coalition governments aremost common in countries that elect members by a proportional representation system,or in countries that have large numbers of political parties.

Constitutional Monarchy

A country, such as Canada or Britain, that has a monarch (king or queen) as its Head ofState, but where the monarch does not have absolute or sovereign power (the latter iscalled an absolute monarchy) and does not have a significant role in the day to daygovernance of the country. The monarch's limited powers are spelled out in aconstitution, or are determined by custom. The monarch is subject to all the laws of thecountry.

Federation

A nation that is created by an agreement among preexisting states, where each of thosestates constitutionally retains certain powers following the creation of the nation oftenvery significant powers. Canada and the USA are examples of federations. The nationalgovernment of a federation is often called the federal government, as distinct fromprovincial or state governments.

Nunavut

An eastern Arctic territory that will be created in 1999 when the Northwest Territories isofficially divided by an Act of the federal parliament. The majority of the people living inNunavut will be Inuit. The word Nunavut means "our land" in Inuktitut, the language ofthe Inuit.

Parliamentary Government

A style of government where the governing party is determined by elections to alegislature. The leader of the political party that wins the greatest number of seats in thelegislature is appointed as the Prime Minister (Premier) and serves as the chiefexecutive officer of the government. The Prime Minister generally chooses his/hercabinet from among the members of the elected legislature. The Prime Minister and

30

cabinet then require the continuing support (confidence) of the legislature in order toretain and exercise their power.

Political Organization

Any organizing done, or any organization established, with a view to acquiring andexercising power. One of the most common kinds of political organization is the politicalparty. Parties are often founded on ideologies (e.g. socialism or capitalism) or onspecial interests (e.g. labour, national heritage).

Presidential Government

Presidential government is a style of government where the executive branch ofgovernment is separated from the legislative branch. A president (the chief executiveofficer of government) is given a direct mandate from the people, in a presidentialelection, to govern the country by exercising certain broad, but nevertheless limited,powers which are spelled out in the country's constitution. The president is free toappoint his/her cabinet from the citizenry at large, though cabinet ministers may have tobe approved by the legislature. The president's term in office is set by law and his/hercontinuance in office does not depend on the continuing support of the legislature(unless he/she is impeached for serious malpractice). The United States of America isan example of a presidential style of government.

Proportional Representation

This is a method of allocating seats in a parliament to political parties in proportion tothe percentage of the total popular vote each party receives in an election. It is generallyaccomplished by dividing the country into several multi-member electoral districts. Eachregistered party in each district lists its own candidates in an order of preference.

Electors vote for their preferred party on election day, and when the votes are countedand percentages for each party are known, seats are allocated in accordance with thosepercentages. If a particular party has won only one seat, that seat will go to thecandidate at the top of its priority list; if it has won two seats, its top two candidates willbe selected, and so on.

Proportional representation has the advantage of ensuring that voters' wishes as awhole are reflected in the makeup of the legislature and that smaller partiesrepresenting minority opinions are given a reasonable chance of having their voicesheard in the legislature's deliberations. It avoids the kind of situation that can arise incountries like Canada (which uses single-member constituencies and a so-called "firstpast the post" electoral system) where a small party can win perhaps ten percent of thepopular vote yet not win any seats in parliament, or even where the main oppositionparty can win perhaps thirty or thirty-five percent of the popular vote, yet not win a singleseat in the legislature.

31

Proportional representation has the disadvantage that it is very difficult under thissystem to elect a stable majority government. More often than not coalitiongovernments will have to be formed.

Two relatively recent elections will illustrate the difference between proportionalrepresentation and "first past the post".

Finland - Proportional Representation - 1991 election

Centre Party - 55 seats 24.8% of the voteSocial Democratic Party 48 seats 22.1% of the voteNational Coalition Party - 40 seats 19.3% of the voteLeft Wing Alliance 19 seats 10.1% of the voteSwedish People's Party -12 seats 5.5% of the voteThe Greens 10 seats - 6.8% of the voteFinnish Christian Union - 8 seats 3.0% of the voteFinnish Rural Party 7 seats 4.8% of the voteLiberal Party of Finland - 1 seat .8% of the vote

There are 200 seats in the Finnish parliament. The government was formed by acoalition of Centre, National Coalition and Swedish People's Party. Ministers werechosen from these parties and serve under a Prime Minister from the Centre Party.Under this system there is a close relationship between the percentage of seats won(e.g. Centre Party - 27.5%) and the percentage of the popular vote received (e.g.Centre Party - 24.8%).

Canada - First Past the Post - 1993 election

Liberal Party 177 seats 41% of the voteBloc Quebecois - 54 seats 14% of the voteReform Party 52 seats 19% of the voteNew Democratic Party - 9 seats 7% of the voteProgressive Conservatives 2 seats 16% of the voteIndependent 1 seat 3% of the vote

There were at that time 295 seats in the Canadian parliament. The Liberal Party formeda majority government with its leader being named as Prime Minister. Under this systemthere is much less of a relationship between the percentage of seats won (e.g. Liberals -60 %) and the percentage of the popular vote received (e.g. Liberals 41%).

Republic

A republic is a state in which the sovereign power very clearly resides in the hands ofthe people. The people elect representatives to exercise this power and they make the

elected representatives accountable to them for its use. Most specifically, a republic willnot accept hereditary or appointed leaders. It will not have a monarch (king or queen) asits Head of State, but rather will elect a president. France and the USA are examples ofa republic.

Social Organization

Any organizing done, or any organization established, to effect social purposes.Families and communities might be called natural social organizations. Other socialorganizations can range from complex financial institutions to single purpose self-helpgroups.

Societies

A society is an identifiable social group, the individuals comprising which often share acommon culture, or some other common interest, and live in proximity to one another inorder to address common interests and to realize mutual benefits. More than onesociety may live within the boundaries of a single state.

Q

Issue #1 How should circumpolar nations resolve the conflict betweenresource development and environmental degradation?

The "how" depends upon the goals of the group(s) involved. This in turn raises thematter of conflict between national and local goals that must first be resolved. Whenlocal groups very clearly wish to belong to larger nations in order to enjoy the benefits ofbelonging, then it is clear that local goals must sometimes be sacrificed to larger needs.The issue is not so clear however, when local groups have been absorbed into largernations against their wishes.

In any event, values and goals clarification is a good place to begin to try to resolvedifficult issues like this. What relative value is placed upon productive work activity,upon a reasonable level of prosperity, upon a pristine environment, upon traditionversus change, upon justice and upon the wellbeing of future generations? What are themost important elements of human wellbeing anyway?

Going through this process makes it clear that not everything that is valued can berealized that the attainment of some values necessarily means the loss of others. Italso becomes clear that many matters under consideration are not monolithic - that theycan be analyzed and measured in degrees. Therefore, as a hierarchy of values isestablished, it often becomes possible to see where compromises can be made: whereelements of some values can be sacrificed to the significant attainment of other valuesa little less opportunity for prosperity, for example, in order to maintain a healthyenvironment; or a generally agreed upon safe level of industrial chemicals released intowater in order to enable employment of local labour.

In this exercise of assigning priority to values, it is important to give adequateconsideration to the unique features of the circumpolar environment that couldcompound the effects of environmental damage, hamper emergency control measuresand/or make environmental recovery a much longer process.

Issue #2 Should major economic developments in the circumpolar world facestringent environmental reviews before being allowed to proceed?

Unique characteristics of the circumpolar environment seem to make this a non-issue.The answer is 'Yes'. Slow biological growth rates, long recovery times, remoteness thatprecludes the ready availability of emergency personnel, equipment and supplies,weather conditions that could hamper or prevent cleanup efforts for critical periods oftime, the widespread dependence of indigenous peoples for sustenance andsupplementary income on traditional land related pursuits - all of these considerations

J4

support stringent environmental reviews, keeping in mind that stringent does not meanirrationally obstructive.

On the other side, it must be borne in mind that people everywhere, includingindigenous peoples in the circumpolar region, require productive work activity in order tomaintain a reasonable standard of living. With reduced infant mortality, improving healthcare and social assistance in times of shortage, indigenous populations are growing.The productiveness of the land's traditional resources, however, does not growproportionately. This means that land resources cannot sustain a growing populationsolely in traditional ways. Thus employment generated by the activities of a moderneconomy are to some extent necessary if all indigenous peoples are going to enjoy adignified existence with a reasonable level of prosperity.

Needless to say, some economic activities are less of a threat to the environment thanare others. To the extent that it is possible, these activities should be focussed uponwhen development is being considered. But this is not a matter that is entirely in thehands of human beings. Economic activities are governed to an important extent by theavailability of resources, the accessibility of markets and other forces. We can only dowhat it is possible to do. But innovative thinkers have often shown that what it ispossible to do is often surprisingly broad when thought and effort are applied - lesslimited than we at first imagine.

35

1. For those close enough to do so, visit the large globe at the Prince of WalesHeritage Centrein Yellowknife in order to get a good three dimensional view ofthe circumpolar world.

2. Write a letter to the Canadian embassy of each circumpolar nation asking forup-to-date information on the government of the nation, on self-governmentinitiatives for their indigenous peoples, and on the nation's links to Canada.

3. Create political maps that are centered on the north pole (polar projections) andthat show political boundaries and main population centres in the circumpolarworld.

4. Invite visitors from other circumpolar countries who happen to be visiting yourcommunity to speak to your class about political problems faced in their country.

5. Choose a community in another circumpolar country. Send a package ofinformation on your community to a school in that other community, making surethat government in your community and region are adequately explained. Ask fora return package.

6. Use the Internet (chats, moos, ftp, www, e-mail. Ex: Schoolnet) to make contactwith a class in a different circumpolar country. Exchange information of a morepersonal nature such as recreational activities, housing, pets, school work,weather, travel, hobbies, etc.

7 Have the entire class make a circumpolar mural in your classroom depicting allnorthern peoples.

8. View videos depicting life in other circumpolar countries. Try to determinewhether the lives of people in those countries are freer or more limited than ours.

9. Work on a class project that illustrates in a tangible way the cultures andgovernments of the entire circumpolar world. Invite people from your communityto view the display.

10. Create a chart that compares the levels of autonomy enjoyed by variousindigenous peoples in the circumpolar countries.

11. Prepare and present a northern pageant with costumes, flags, dialogue andnarration, describing life in each of the circumpolar countries. Have some class

36

members speak on behalf of public government and some speak on behalf of thevarious indigenous peoples, describing attainments and ongoing problems.

12. Prepare an exhibit describing a particular northern people: their traditional andmodern culture, dress, language, economic activity, and method of government.

13. Compare the responsibilities of a Swedish municipal government with theresponsibilities of a municipal government in Canada.

14. Create a propaganda pamphlet for some particular circumpolar countrydescribing and defending that nation's treatment of its indigenous peoples.

.15. Write and deliver a speech for a native leader in one of the circumpolar countrieschallenging the nation's treatment of his/her people.

16. Make illustrated charts/posters identifying the various peoples living in eachcircumpolar country.

17. Research and report on the structure and style of government in one circumpolarnation other than Canada.

18. Write an essay that assesses Canada's role as a circumpolar nation, andassesses whether or not we should attempt to develop closer formal relationswith other circumpolar countries.

37

7.2.1 Commentary on the Theme

7.2.2 Information on the Theme

7.2.3 Concepts Related to the Theme

7.2.4 Issues Related to the Theme

Issue #1

Issue #2

Should countries that have circumpolar regions develop policies toprotect and support the Aboriginal peoples who live in thoseregions?

Should northern Aboriginal peoples have the opportunity toexercise self-government? If so, how, at what level and to whatextent?

7.2.5 Activities Related to the Theme

33

The material in this theme is important because itensures that students are up to date concerningpolitical developments in the circumpolar world.These developments will have an impact onstudents' lives.

It will also help them to understand that socialconditions (the relative power of individuals andvarious groups, the status of governments, thelocation of boundaries, the assertion and guaranteeof rights, etc.) are dynamic, never static, and thatthey can be modified for better or worse by theactions of individuals working alone or with others.

39

Nunayut Al P si gni ng , Idloolik,;1992,

BESTCOPYAVAILABLE

One of the important political features of circumpolar countries is the presence ofindigenous peoples within the boundaries of national states (with the exception ofIceland). These peoples were invariably self-sufficient and self-governing before beingabsorbed into a national structure and made subject to the laws of nationalgovernments.

The most significant political changes in the circumpolar world are those being broughtabout by the efforts of indigenous peoples to win a measure of self-government and toforge linkages with one another to advance their interests. In addition to changes beingbrought about by Aboriginal peoples, there are very significant political changespresently taking place in the former Soviet Union. It is now reduced in size and calledthe Russian Federation.

Canada

Indigenous peoples in Canada include the following: Inuit, Inuvialuit, Inuinnait, the Deneof the Northwest Territories; the Slavey, Chipewyan, Dogrib, Yellowknives, Hare, andGwich'in as well as a broad range of Indian tribes - Naskapi, Montagnais, Beothuk,Micmac, various Iroquoian, Huron, Ojibwa, Chipewyan, Cree, Assiniboine, variousBlackfoot, Gros Ventre, Piegan, Blood, Kootenay, Sarcee, Shuswap, Salish, Chilcotin,Nootka, Bella Coo la, Bella Bella, Haida, Tsimshian, Nishga, Carrier, Beaver, Sekani,Tsetsaut, Tlingit, Tahltan.

According to the 1996 census there are the following numbers of Aboriginal people inCanada: Inuit: 40 225; Metis: 204 115; Indian: 529 035. This makes a total Aboriginalpopulation in Canada of 773 375 individuals. In addition to this there are a large numberof "non-status" Aboriginal people. In the NWT, according to 1993 estimates, there is atotal population of 64 125 individuals of which 39 690.are Aboriginal and 24 435 arenon-Aboriginal. Of the Aboriginal, there are 24 505 Inuit, 11 070 Dene and 3 745 Metis.

Gwich'in Land Claim

The land claim agreement between the Government of Canada and the Gwich'in givesthe Gwich'in private ownership of 22 422 sq km of land in the Mackenzie Delta region ofthe Northwest Territories. This figure includes 6 158 square kilometres of land in whichthe Gwich'in own the subsurface mineral rights as well. There is an additional 1 554 sqkm of land that they own the surface rights to in the Yukon. In exchange for the certaintyof ownership of this land, the Gwich'in have been required to give up any further claim

40

to land or resources in Canada.

The Gwich'in will also receive a tax-free capital transfer of $75 million (1990 dollars)over a period of 15 years from the time of signing in 1991. In addition, in their settlementarea, they have extensive and detailed wildlife harvesting rights; guaranteedparticipation in decision making structures to be established for the management ofwildlife and the regulation of land, water and the environment; and rights of first refusalto a variety of commercial wildlife activities.

The agreement also provides for negotiation of self-government arrangements whichwill be brought into effect through legislation as agreements are reached.

Nothing in the land claim agreement removes from the Gwich'in their identity as anAboriginal people nor affects any existing or future constitutional rights for them asAboriginal people.

A similar land claim agreement was signed by the people of the Sahtu region nearGreat Bear Lake, and another is presently being negotiated by the Dogrib people northof Great Slave Lake.

Inuit Land Claim

The Inuit land claim was ratified by the Inuit in late 1992 and by the federal governmentin early1993.

The Inuit have been granted private ownership of 353 610 sq km of land in the NunavutSettlement Area. Of this total, 36 257 sq km of land will include ownership rights to thesubsurface, specifically including oil, gas and minerals. The agreement also provides forguaranteed wildlife harvesting rights; guaranteed participation in regimes established tomanage wildlife, to regulate the use of the land and water and to protect theenvironment in Nunavut; and for guaranteed Inuit involvement in major economicdevelopments in the settlement area. In exchange for these benefits the Inuit haveagreed not to make any further claim to land or resources in Canada. They do howeverretain all their other rights as Aboriginal people.

The agreement provides for financial compensation of $580 million (1989 dollars), plusinterest, over a period of 14 years.

The claim agreement also includes an.obligation on the part of the federal governmentto negotiate a political accord for dividing the Northwest Territories and creating aNunavut territorial government in the eastern Arctic. The federal government waspersuaded to accept this proposal because the people of the NWT had accepteddivision in principle in a plebiscite held in 1982, and confirmed the boundary to dividethe NWT in a plebiscite in 1992. The creation of Nunavut is expected to occur in 1999.

41

While the government of Nunavut will be a public government and not an Inuitself-government, Inuit will comprise a large majority in the new territory. They willtherefore have the opportunity to shape public policy in ways that support and fosterInuit interests while still safeguarding fundamental rights for all citizens of Nunavut.

Inuvialuit Land Claim

The Inuvialuit land claim was signed in 1984. It guaranteed that the Inuvialuit wouldreceive $45 million (1977 dollars) over a period of thirteen years from 1984 to 1997.

The Inuvia'luit received private ownership of approximately 91 000 sq km of land in thesettlement area, the Mackenzie Delta and Beaufort Sea regions. 11 000 sq km of thistotal includes the full ownership (all minerals) of subsurface as well as surface rights.On some additional lands the Inuvialuit own subsurface rights to sand and gravel butnot to oil and gas. In exchange for certain ownership of this land the Inuvialuit havegiven up any further claim to the ownership of land or resources in Canada.

Under the agreement the Inuvialuit have special rights to wildlife harvesting andguaranteed participation on wildlife management, land and water management andenvironmental protection boards.

Despite having given up any further claim to land and resources in Canada, theInuvialuit retain all their other rights as an Aboriginal people.

James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement

This agreement was signed in 1975 between the James Bay Cree and the Inuit ofnorthern Quebec on the one hand and the governments of Canada and Quebec andQuebec Hydro on the other. In the agreement, the Inuit and Cree surrender any claim toland in Quebec in exchange for specified rights. It is specifically stated that they do not,in signing the agreement, prejudice their rights as citizens of Quebec and Canada, nordo they lose any entitlements under the Indian Act.

In exchange for surrendering a general claim to land, the Inuit and Cree each receivedcash compensation of $75 million, ownership of certain specified lands and specialentitlements to hunting fishing and trapping. They received certain rights to establishself-government institutions, particularly concerning education, health and socialservices. They were also given guarantees that appropriate regimes would beestablished to offer environmental and social protection against the negative effects ofindustrial development in the area.

Northeastern Quebec Agreement

42

This agreement was signed in 1978 by the Naskapi Indians of northeastern Quebec onthe one hand and the governments of Canada and Quebec and Quebec Hydro on theother. It essentially follows the pattern of agreement reached with the Inuit and Cree inthe James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement. This smaller group received a cashcompensation of $6 million.

Yukon Indian Land Claim

An umbrella agreement was signed to establish the general principles that would applyto all First Nations in the Yukon. Each band then negotiated the specific provisions thatwould apply to it.

As required in other claims, the Yukon Indian people give up the right to claim any otherland or resources in Canada in exchange for the specific provisions set forth in thisagreement. But they are guaranteed that any future Aboriginal rights identified will applyto them as they do to other Indians in Canada. Also, they continue to receive all otherbenefits due to them as native people and citizens of Canada.

The agreement guarantees a certain amount of land ownership to First Nations. Itincludes the land already set aside in the existing reserves of each First Nation. Thetotal amount of settlement land is 40 960 sq km. On certain limited lands, the FirstNations will own the subsurface as well as the surface rights.

The Yukon First Nations will have guarantees concerning traditional pursuits of hunting,trapping and fishing. They will have significant representation on land use, developmentand water and wildlife management boards. For surrendering their claim upon land, theywill receive $232 million (1988 dollars) cash compensation through instalments over a15 year period. Any tax exemptions that apply to the six Yukon Indian reserves, or toany Yukon Indian person, will cease. In exchange, Yukon First Nations will share acompensating payment of $12.6 million at once, as well as an additional $13.9 million in10 annual instalments. The First Nations will also share in royalties on onshore mineralsreceived by the Yukon government (50% of the first $2 million and 10% of anyadditional royalties).

Yukon First Nations will have the right to negotiate self-government agreements that willreplace the existing Indian Act bands. The items that may be negotiated with the federalgovernment as suitable jurisdiction for these First Nations governments are, amongothers: health, social services, culture, Aboriginal languages, justice, economicdevelopment, and local government

Alaska - N.Slope Burrough

For the North Slope area of Alaska, between the Brooks Range and the Arctic Ocean,there are 227 840 sq km of land subject to an Inupiat home rule government called The

43

North Slope Borough. Its main community, Barrow, is the northernmost community inthe United States.

The North Slope Borough government was established in 1972 following the settlementof the Inupiat land claim in 1971.

There are eight villages in the Borough, containing 6,290 residents, and 70% of thepopulation is Intipiat. Many still practice some of the traditional activities: hunting forcaribou, walrus, seal, and most importantly, the bowhead whale.

Revenue from oil production on Prudhoe Bay is the greatest single source of operatingrevenue for the Borough government. The Borough government has responsibility forsuch things as: wildlife resource management; public safety and fire protection; searchand rescue; provision of water and power; sewage and solid waste disposal; planningand zoning; health and social service programs; housing; providing local transportationservices; planning and constructing public facilities; plowing roads and runways; andoperating schools.

Schools provide a standard curriculum blended with classes on Inupiat language,history and culture. Health services provide video image links between the smallcommunities and Barrow, enabling the long-range diagnosis of injuries and illness. TheBorough also employs a traditional medicine practitioner who travels to each village.The Borough government's cultural services include promoting Inupiat life throughactivities, research and special celebrations, developing an Inupiat writing system anddictionary, establishing archives, sponsoring elders' and other cultural conferences.

The borough government and the village corporations set up under the land claim arethe area's biggest employers. The Borough government and the Borough school districttogether employee about 60% of the area's employed labour force.

Regional meetings and educational classes are often held by making use of astate-of-the-art teleconference network owned and operated by the Boroughgovernment.

Greenland - Home Rule Government

The Greenland Home Rule Act was passed in 1978; home rule was introduced inGreenland in1979 and completed in 1981.

Under the Home Rule Act, Greenland has a 27 member assembly called the Landsting.It is elected directly by Greenlandic people in secret ballot elections, and its membersserve four year terms. The assembly chooses an executive council called theLandsstyre which is headed by the Prime Minister.

The Home Rule government may exercise authority in the following areas: organization

44

of local government; direct and indirect taxes; renewable resource management;conservation and environmental protection; commerce and the licensing of businesses;social welfare; health services; labour market affairs; education; cultural affairs;economic development; housing services; internal transportation of passengers andgoods. The Danish government handles other matters such as defence and foreignaffairs.

Disputes between the Danish government and the Home Rule government aboutjurisdiction as set out in the Home Rule Act are referred to a seven person Board forsettlement.

Greenlandic is designated as the principal language, but Danish must be taught"thoroughly". Either language may be used for official purposes.

The Danish government's chief representative in Greenland is the Rigsombudsmand(Commissioner). He must be informed of all acts and regulations passed by the HomeRule government. The Home Rule government can request the Danish government totake special measures to represent Greenlandic interests in international affairs. Whereextra measures are taken, the Greenlandic government can be expected to pay forthem.

There are 18 local government divisions throughout Greenland.

The Sarni

There is a population of approximately 40 000 Sami in Norway, 17 000 in Sweden, 5700 in Finland and 2 000 in Russia, a total of close to 65 000 in all (these figures varyfrom source to source). The Sami were formerly called Lapps by other people but that isnot the name they call themselves.

Finland has a Finnish Sami Parliament, composed of 20 representatives chosen by theSami. Elections are held every fourth year. This parliament concerns itself with Samirights and supports Sami social, economic and cultural development. It is funded by,and is subject to the authority of, the Finnish government. It participates with Samigroups in other countries in a Nordic Sami Council, an international body created toadvance the interests of all Sami.

Finnish Sami do have some opportunity in school for learning about their mothertongue, and for learning in their mother tongue. Wherever possible and necessary, theyalso have the right to use their language before public authorities, under limits definedby Finnish laws.

Since 1989 Norway has also had a Sami Assembly (the Sameting). It is comprised of 39members who are elected by Sami through direct elections every fourth year, on thesame day as elections for the Norwegian National Assembly. The main job of the

Sametinget is to protect and develop the Sami language, culture and way of life. TheSametinget is an advisory body subject to the laws of Norway.

Sami children in Norway are legally entitled to be instructed on and in their ownlanguage. Through the agency of the Nordic Sami Council, Norwegian Sami participatein the World Council of Indigenous Peoples (WCIP), which is a worldwide organizationwhose main aim is to encourage solidarity among indigenous peoples. The first worldconference of WCIP was held in Port Alberni, British Columbia, Canada in 1975.

Like other Scandinavian governments, the government of Norway regards the Sami asNorwegian citizens with the same rights and duties as all other Norwegians. It hasdecided, though, that some special treatment is necessary for the Sami because of theirindigenous status, their small numbers, and the relatively little political power theycontrol.

A recent law has been passed in Sweden that establishes the Sameting, a popularlyelected council of Sami. It has thirty-one members who serve four year terms. Thisinstitution will give the Sami an opportunity, besides using the Swedish parliament, topresent their minority issues to the Swedish people in an effective way. The Sametinghas the following powers: it can allocate money from state grants and from other moneyin the Sami fund derived from sources including the sale of hunting and fishing rights, orthe sale of rights to use land in reindeer breeding areas for public purposes; it can directSami language projects; appoint the board of the Sami school system; monitor how wellSami needs are being taken into account by the government of Sweden; makerepresentations to government; and distribute information about the Sami.

It is not a self-governing body. Rather, it is a special state agency under the purview ofthe Swedish government. Nevertheless, it has quite a far-reaching independence for apublic agency.

Under Swedish law, the Sami do not own the land in the reindeer breeding areas butthey do enjoy strong stewardship rights to the land and water in the area, and they havespecial hunting and fishing rights as well.

Just as in other Scandinavian countries, in Sweden there are conflicts between Samireindeer owners (the main traditional occupation) and settlers. Winter sports, modernforestry and the development of hydroelectric power (flooded land and blockedmigration routes) all have an impact on reindeer herding. Yet the reindeer thrive and theherds are growing. The Sami do sometimes get compensation for encroachment anddamage. Their language is being lost, but handicrafts, theatre and other artistic andliterary activities of the Sami are thriving.

48

Home-rule Government

This is a particular name given to the Greenlandic government by the Danes. It is asemiautonomous government controlled by the Inuit of Greenland, but ultimately subjectto the power of Denmark.

Indigenous

Indigenous carries the meaning that some group of people has arisen naturally in aregion and that it has been there from the very beginning. The word is similar inmeaning to Aboriginal, although the latter allows for the nuance of having been there fora very long time if not from the beginning.

Self-determination

The concept "self-determination" implies the argument that identifiable cultural groupshave the right to decide for themselves as to how and by whom they will be governed. Itis in some ways linked to the concept "consent of the governed" which is often cited asbeing fundamental to democracy, yet there are democrats who would not defend theright of every small cultural group to attain national sovereignty. Though oftenproclaimed as a right, self-determination only becomes a reality when a group hassufficient power to assert the idea and bring it to fruition.

Self-government

This is a term frequently used to describe Aboriginal aspirations for a large measure ofautonomy within a national structure, featuring Aboriginal ownership of land andresources, and Aboriginal control over many of the traditional powers of government,such as education, justice, health care, social services and economic development.

Sovereignty

Sovereignty means a group's enjoyment of supreme rule - a circumstance where it isnot subject to any governmental rule except its own. Sovereignty is a state of nationalindependence.

47

Issue #1 Should countries that have circumpolar regions develop policies toprotect and support the Aboriginal peoples who live in thoseregions?

In order to highlight certain elements of the issue, it could perhaps be restated in ageneral way as the following: Should governments of nations develop policies to protectand support particular groups of people within their borders?

If a democratically elected government which is committed to treating all its citizensequally were to create such policies, the government might run the risk of creatingtensions and animosities among its citizens. Those citizens who felt they were notreceiving the same support might feel there was inequity or injustice in such policiesbeing implemented. These general questions could be asked: Should individuals whowish to re-build the culture and identity of their particular group be responsible for doingthat on their own? Should individuals from other groups, or individuals who identify withno group whatsoever except that of the nation, be expected to bear part of theresponsibility and the cost of such a policy?

These are challenging questions. They do not seem so challenging, however, when the'special groups of people' in question are Indian, Inuit and Metis. In Canada, forexample, these groups are constitutionally recognized as 'Aboriginal people'. Theirsituation is unique because Aboriginal people in the circumpolar world, and elsewhere,did not come from other lands to become part of the existing nation. Rather, unlikevarious groups of immigrants, their presence preexisted that of the nation. They wereabsorbed into the nation and made subject to its laws, often against their will. Theirself-government was impaired, their culture disrupted and their self-sufficiencysometimes eroded by the encroachment of others. In Canada, at least both theindividual and collective rights of Aboriginal people are recognized in the constitution.The government of Canada does not adhere to a policy of 'treating all its citizens thesame'. It is one of the distinguishing characteristics of the Canadian constitution. Grouprights have ongoing impact on issues such as the re-building of cultural identity andlanguage by these groups, and government policies which support the efforts of theseparticular groups. Beyond issues of fairness, therefore, there are also issues of justiceaccording to the law of the land.

In any event, as the policies of governments in these areas are followed in variousnations, the people of these nations will need to recognize that there will be significantongoing implications for rights (individual versus collective), finances (parallelinstitutions, sufficient land and resources to make the policy workable), unity(antagonisms raised by perceived inequity) and sovereignty (entities that thrive

48

invariably want to exercise and extend their growing power, even to the internationalsphere). How these issues are resolved will be determined by the attitudes of all thecitizens.

Discussions about this issue should take account of the fact that a policy of support fora group's rebuilding of their cultural identity need not be opposed simply by a policy orattitude of ignorance and antagonism. One may not agree that a government shouldactively and formally protect and support certain groups within a society, yet still acceptthat Aboriginal groups should be left free, within defined limits, to promote their ownidentity and welfare. If one finds limits of any kind unacceptable, then the question ofAboriginal sovereignty begins to arise, and that is another issue.

Issue #2 Should northern Aboriginal peoples have the opportunity to exerciseself-government? If so, how, at what level and to what extent?

The right to Aboriginal self-government is asserted by virtually all Aboriginal people inCanada, including those in the Northwest Territories. Those who assert that right,however, do not necessarily wish to exercise it as a first choice of options. In theMackenzie Delta, for example, the Inuvialuit and the Gwich'in (who have negotiatedself-government provisions in their land claim agreement) indicated in late 1993 thatthey would prefer to establish a public regional government with significant powers,rather than opt for Aboriginal self-government. (They did, however, justify this pursuit ofmodified public government by pointing to their Aboriginal right to self-government).They recognized that Aboriginal self-government would face great complexities in acommunity like Inuvik where there are significant numbers of non- Aboriginal people aswell. If a suitable regional government can not be negotiated, however, the Inuvialuitand the Gwich'in will almost certainly opt for Aboriginal self-government. On the sametopic, the Inuit view Nunavut as a public government proposal, not as an Aboriginalself-government proposal. Nevertheless, they proposed to the federal government thatInuit self-government be implemented at the regional level.

Because of respect in democracies for the principle "consent of the governed", and thewidespread public support in Canada for regarding Aboriginal people as having specialrights, any reasonable claim to Aboriginal self-government in Canada would be verydifficult to ignore. This means that the federal and territorial governments will almostcertainly cooperate in establishing Aboriginal self-government in the NorthwestTerritories whenever legitimate demands for it are advanced.

It seems that it is not the question of whether Aboriginal self-government should beaccepted that has to be addressed then, but rather the questions of when? where?how? and to what extent?

These latter questions will undoubtedly be decided by negotiation, and the results ofnegotiations may differ for different Aboriginal groups across the country. There is onlya limited amount of government power available. Presently this power is shared among

49

federal, provincial (territorial) and municipal governments. Wherever Aboriginalself-government is established, its power will have to be transferred from'one, or acombination, of the three existing levels of government. Municipal powers are probablythe simplest to transfer. But they are not necessarily the powers that Aboriginal peopleare most interested in acquiring. Rather, provincial powers such as education, culturalaffairs, language, economic development, health and social services and theadministration of justice are often seen as the most important tools to be used. SomeAboriginal groups would like to be able to exercise some federal powers such as theright to make international agreements with other Aboriginal peoples.

One important question that will have to be answered is whether the power of Aboriginalself governments will extend to all members of a band or tribe in question, or only tothose members living in a specified land area. Another key question is how thesegovernments will be financed. Governments without adequate financial resources arevery limited in what they can do.

50

1. Prepare a chart which, compares the levels of autonomy of various indigenouspeoples.

2. Pair students up and debate the issue as to whether the federal and territorialgovernments are adopting appropriate policies for the north's Aboriginal' peoples.

3. Have each student prepare a report, with some element of analysis, on aparticular land claim agreement in Canada, or a particular government system inthe circumpolar world.

4. Have each student prepare a report: Sami Then and Now (or Inuit, or Gwich'inor Inupiat), focussing on self-government. There should be an assessment ofrecent political changes.

5. Have the class make a collection of the official documents which detailagreements between government and northern Aboriginal peoples. Display them.

6. Have each student write a simple position paper pointing out the need for somepolitical change in the circumpolar world.

7. Have each student write a brief biography, with pictures if possible, of somenortherner who has helped to bring about political change.

8. Have each student prepare and deliver a speech calling for some change ingovernment policy.

9. Have each student write and deliver a speech reacting positively or negatively tosome recent political change in the north.

10. Have pairs of students write and role play a discussion between an Aboriginalcitizen and a non-Aboriginal citizen with regard to the need for political change.

11. Have the class visualize and describe an imaginary Sami state, or an Inuit state,that transcends present political boundaries. Identify problems that might stand inthe way of creating such a state. Assess the state's likely strengths andweaknesses.

12. Have each student make a prediction about the next big political change tooccur. Discuss these predictions in class.

13. Discuss and create a profile showing what it takes to be "a good citizen" in the

51

NWT today.

14. Invite an individual involved in political change into the classroom to discuss withthe students what changes they are promoting, and why. This might include anegotiator for a land claim, a politician, or a community-based activist amongothers.

52

7.3.1 Commentary on the Theme

7.3.2 Information on the Theme

7.3.3 Concepts Related to the Theme

7.3.4 Issues Related to the Theme

"anhi0, 0 n

Should circumpolar governments and people seek to strengthen not merelycultural and economic ties but political ties with one another?

7.3.5 Activities Related to the Theme

In their studies in future years, students willlearnabout Canada's links to foreign countries,and about the possibilities and problems thatarise ininternational relations. This theme marks theirintroduction to international affairs in that it dealswith Canada's relations with other circumpolarcountries.

There are a considerable number of areas inwhich relations between nations, and betweenthe citizens of nations, can be fruitful. Theseinclude: political activities, resource management,trade, environmental protection, culture and sport.

54

Signpost, at Icangeylussuaq Airport

The eight circumpolar nations are Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, theRussian Federation, Sweden and the USA. Although it has a home-rule government,Greenland is still a possession of Denmark.

There are very few instances where these particular nations have linked themselvestogether formally and regularly in their capacity as circumpolar nations (for example,they all belong to the United Nations of course, but their motivation for joining thatorganization has nothing to do with their specific capacity as northern nations). Themost important linkage is one that has been made in order to protect the Arcticenvironment.

The First Ministerial Conference on the Protection of the Arctic EmAronment was held atRovaniemi, Finland in 1991. It was attended by appropriate cabinet ministers from theeight circumpolar countries. Deeply concerned with threats to the Arctic environment,the ministers adopted an environmental protection strategy and committed themselvesto joint action in order to implement the strategy. The strategy includes a monitoring andassessment program (particularly to monitor radionuclides, heavy metals and persistentorganic pollutants), a marine environment protection program, an emergencypreparedness program and a program aimed at conserving Arctic flora and fauna. TheConference recognized "the special relationship of the indigenous peoples and localpopulations to the Arctic and their unique contribution to the protection and conservationof the Arctic environment and to Arctic investigations". It was agreed that theConference should formalize itself and meet regularly every two years (working groupsestablished by the Conference meet more frequently). In a spirit of cooperation withArctic indigenous peoples, representatives of their organizations were invited to allfuture meetings of the Conference as observers.

The second Conference meeting was held in Nuuk, Greenland, in September of 1993.In attendance, as observers only, there were delegates from the Inuit CircumpolarConference (ICC), the Sami Council, the Russian Association of Peoples of the North,as well as delegates from Chile, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, the United NationsEnvironment Program, the Nordic Council, the Northern Forum, and the InternationalArctic Science Committee. In addition to other things, the Conference reaffirmed acommitment to sustainable development, including the sustainable use of renewableresources by indigenous peoples. It also recognized "the special role of the indigenouspeoples in environmental management and development in the Arctic, and of thesignificance of their knowledge and traditional practices" and promised to "promote theireffective participation in the achievement of sustainable development in the Arctic".

In 1994, the Canadian government made a decision to provide greater focus oncircumpolar affairs and to strengthen Canada's relations with its Arctic neighbours

55

through the creation of the position of Ambassador of Circumpolar Affairs. The firstCircumpolar Affairs Ambassador is Mary Simon, a former president of the InuitCircumpolar Conference. A priority goal of the Arctic Ambassador was the negotiation ofthe Arctic Council, an intergovernmental forum which would build on the success of theArctic Environmental Protection Strategy, as outlined by the third AEPS MinisterialMeeting in Inuvik in March of 1996. In September 1996, the Arctic Council was officiallyinaugurated in Ottawa and, as was the case with the AEPS, consists of the eight Arcticstates and three indigenous organizations. The Council will take a lead role in bringingcircumpolar countries together to address a wide range of circumpolar issues, includingthe environmental principles of the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy.

In addition to these important links, there are other formal agreements such as thosedeveloped for the management of migrating animals such as caribou, polar bear andvarious birds. In these matters Canada has bilateral agreements with the USA and ithas signed international agreements for the protection of endangered species. Canadaand the USA also have the North American Air Defence Agreement (NORAD), abilateral agreement for the defence of the continent against attacks from the north.

Apart from formal government-to-government links, there are also formalquasi-government and non-government links between various groups of Canadians andsimilar groups of people in other circumpolar countries. For example, Canadian Inuitparticipate in the Inuit Circumpolar Conference, which includes Inuit from Greenlandand Alaska, with an invitation having been extended to those in Russia as well. TheArctic Winter Games includes participants from Alaska, Canada, Greenland and Russia.Delegates are sent to participate in sports and in cultural events. The Games areorganized and managed by a quasi-independent Arctic Winter Games Corporation. Thenorthern architectural and engineering firm, Ferguson, Simek and Clark, has hadcontracts with Russia to design and build a Siberian village. More contracts arepresently being negotiated (for example, the building of an air terminal at Yakutsk). Andmore Canadian firms are looking for opportunities to do business in Russia. There iseven an effort underway to establish regular air links.

As to less formal links, there are Americans, Canadians, Finns, Russians and Swedesplaying in the National Hockey League. There are social/cultural visits between Alaska'sInupiat and the Inuvialuit of the Beaufort Sea area; between Baffin and GreenlandicInuit. Some MLA's from the NWT have visited state legislators in Alaska and home-ruleofficials in Greenland.

Canada has signed bilateral agreements with many countries around the world to coverspecial situations that arise in the modern world. An example of one such set ofagreements is found in Canada's relations with Finland, a circumpolar country. There isa visa agreement by which no visa is required for a maximum stay of three months as atourist; a tax agreement to avoid double taxation and to prevent income tax evasion; anagreement concerning nuclear material, equipment, facilities and information transferredbetween the two countries; an extradition treaty; and an air services agreement.

56

Compromise

This concept carries the meaning of a mutual promise to abide by a decision. Oftencompromise is the result of negotiation in which one or both or all parties have had tomake concessions in order to reach a decision. Negotiation and compromise areexcellent means of resolving significant differences among parties without resort toviolence. They are much used in democratic countries as a way of solving problems andkeeping the peace.

Foreign Policy

The policy (a settled course of action) of a nation toward other nations: Foreign policy isoften founded on certain principles, for example: to maintain friendly relations with allnations that do not display aggression; to deny aid to nations that violate human rights;to support nations that have a similar culture and religion, and so on. When theseprinciples are applied, they can result in differing treatment for differing nations. Foreignpolicy often has implications in the areas of defence, trade, finance, aid and humanrights.

Mutual Benefit

Having common needs and differing resources for satisfying them, nations as well asindividual human beings can find benefit through cooperation. Where there is mutualbenefit through cooperation, both parties benefit, though not necessarily in identicalways. One may find security while another finds prosperity, yet both are satisfied ingaining something they have wanted.

Negotiation

Negotiation is the act of one party holding formal talks with another party (parties) inorder to reach agreement on some difficult question. It is assumed that negotiation willrequire compromise from all sides. Negotiation, because it necessarily involvescompromise, implies that all parties believe they cannot get all they want by any otheracceptable (legal/moral) means. If they thought they could attain their ends by othermeans, they would not sit down to negotiate. Negotiation is used widely and frequentlyby citizens in democracies, and by democratic nations themselves when they aredealing with other nations.

57

Issue: Should circumpolar governments and peoples seek to strengthennot merely cultural and economic ties but political ties with oneanother?

The circumpolar world is a region which, because of climate and topography, does nothave a well developed transportation and communication infrastructure. The relativelysmall numbers of people that have to be serviced in the region, combined with the vastdistances that have to be covered, make the costs of such development prohibitive.Moreover, apart from the Scandinavian commonalities, the circumpolar nations haverather different cultures and languages. This means that the natural flow of foreignactivity for Canada has been and still is in other directions. It would take much morethan an act of will to draw all circumpolar nations closer together. If an attempt weremade to forge closer links despite the obstacles that exist, the resulting communitywould be one whose practicality and solidarity were frequently tested by an extravagantuse of time and money.

It is possible that Arctic infrastructure development, satellite communications anddevelopments in submarine transport will make extensive contacts more likely in thefuture. Preliminary work has already been done to investigate the possibility of a regularair link between Siberia and northern Canada. Recently, too, an expedition undertook todrive in two specially equipped automobiles from Europe to North America via Siberiaand the Bering Strait in order to demonstrate the possibilities of overland transport.Satellite technology is already available, and it simply remains for other developmentsto take place in order to make regular communications viable. And finally, if bulktransport by submarine is not likely for some time to come, it is possible that thedevelopment of gigantic, heavy-duty dirigibles will precede it and open northern traderoutes.

Notwithstanding official government inclinations that may arise to the contrary, it isalmost certain that the northern indigenous peoples will take advantage of everyopportunity to maintain, broaden and strengthen their contacts with one another. Acommon lifestyle, common interests and common concerns prompt them to do so.

58

1. Have groups of students research and prepare reports dealing with internationalagreements to manage whales, polar bears, caribou and migrating birds,especially as these bear upon the circumpolar world.

2. Have groups of students research and prepare reports on environmental dangersin the north and on international agreements to protect the Arctic environment.

3. Have groups of students research and prepare reports on Canada's participationin NORAD, in the Inuit Circumpolar Conference, in the Arctic Winter Games.

4. Have the class create a large polar projection showing Canada's formal andinformal links to other circumpolar countries.

5. Have students write an essay comparing the benefits to Canada of links to acircumpolar nation (other than the USA) and to a non-circumpolar nation.

Have students prepare and debate the desirability of bringing Scandinavian andRussian players into the National Hockey League.

7. Have the class analyze and discuss the reasons why Canada is not a part of theNordic Council.

8. Have each student prepare a speech in which he/she advocates theestablishment or further development of a Canadian linkage with anothercircumpolar country.

REMINDER: For a review of civics, the current events focus for Strand Seven is onnews stories that deal with activities of local (municipal) governments. For informationon local government in the Northwest Territories see Strand Four in the Department'spublication Civics in the Elementary Social Studies Curriculum.

59

This resource list is intended to be a dynamic document. If teachers know of a resourceuseful to the teaching of this strand that is not indicated here, please forward thebibliographical information with brief comments on how the resource is useful. Newresource lists will be published as appropriate to reflect current materials available.

These can be sent to:

Social Studies CoordinatorEarly Childhood and School ServicesG.N.W.T.P.O. Box 1320YELLOWKNIFE, NWTX1A 2L9

Various pamphlet and leaflet-style publications describing political structure, economy,lifestyle, etc., in the circumpolar countries, are available through the Canadianembassies of these countries.

ADDRESSES

To obtain embassy addresses, the addresses of various institutions, organizations, etc.,use: the latest edition of the Canadian Almanac and Directory, from Canadian Almanacand Directory Publishing Company Ltd., Toronto.

Assembly of First Nations55 Murray StreetOttawa, ON K1N 5M3

Dene National OfficeBox 2338Yellowknife, NT X1A 2P7

Inuit Tapirisat of Canada#510, 170 Laurier Avenue WestOttawa, ON K1P 5V5

60

Native Women's Association of Canada#600, 251 Laurier Avenue WestOttawa, ON K1P 5J6

Native Council of Canada9012 112 AvenueBox 6084 Station CEdmonton, AB T5B 4K5

Embassy of Denmark47 Clarence StreetSuite 450Ottawa ON KIP 6L5

The Sami Agency CommitteeMinistry of Education and ScienceS-103 33 StockholmSweden

Embassy of Sweden377 Dalhousie StreetOttawa, ON K1N 9N8

Royal Norwegian Embassy#532, 90 Sparks StreetOttawa, ON KIP 5B4

Embassy of the Russian Federation285 Charlotte StreetOttawa, ON K1N 8L5

Hon. Consul General of Iceland#575, 1981 McGill College AvenueMontreal, PQ H3A 2X1

Embassy of the USA100 Wellington StreetOttawa, ON K1P 5T1

Embassy of Finland#850, 55 Metcalfe StreetOttawa, ON K1P 6L5

National Union of Swedish Sami PeopleSvenska Samernas RiksforbundBrogatan 5S-903 25 UmeaSweden

61

Primary Book

MacQuarrie, Bob. The Northern Circumpolar World; Reidmore Books Inc., Edmonton1-895073-23-0Teachers' Resource Book 1-895073-22-7

Books for Students

Iceland in Pictures; "Visual Geography Series"; Lerner Publications Company,Minneapolis,1991 0-8225-1892-9

James, Alan. Lapps: Reindeer Herders of Lapland, "Original Peoples Series"; RourkePublications, Inc., Vero Beach, FL, 1989 0-86625-263-0

Kalman, Bobbie. The Arctic Land; "The Arctic World Series"; Crabtree PublishingCompany, NY, 1988 0-86505-144-5

Kendall, Russ. Eskimo Boy: Life in an Inupiaq Eskimo Village; Scholastic Inc., NewYork, 1992 0-590-43695-3

Kent, Zachary. The Story of Admiral Peary at the North Pole; Children's Press, Chicago;1988 0-516-04738-8

Lander, Patricia and Claudette Charbonneau. The Land and People of Finland; J.B.Lippincott, NY, 1990 0-397-32357-3

Maestro, Betsy and Giulio. The Discovery of the Americas; Lothrop, Lee and ShepardBooks, NY, 1991 0-688-06838-3

Nach, James. Alaska in Pictures; Visual Geography Series; Lerner PublicationCompany, Minneapolis; 1979

Nach, James and others. Canada in Pictures; Visual Geography Series; LernerPublication Company, Minneapolis; 1989

Norway in Pictures; "Visual Geography Series"; Lerner Publications Company,Minneapolis,1990 0-8225-1871-6

Odijk, Pamela. The Vikings; "The Ancient World Series"; Silver Burdett Press,Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1989 0-382-09893-5

Reiss, Toby A. Denmark in Pictures; Visual Geography Series; Lerner PublicationCompany, Minneapolis; 1991

Russia Then and Now; Lerner Publications Company, Minneapolis, 1992 0-8225-2805-3

Sandak, Cass R. The Arctic and the Antarctic; Franklin Watts, Toronto; 19870-531-10137-1

Shepherd, Jenifer. Canada: Enchantment of the World; Children's Press, Chicago, 19870-516-02757-3

Sipiera, Paul P. The World's Great Explorers: Roald Amundsen and Robert Scott;Children's Press, Chicago; 1990 0-516-03056-6

Smith, J.H. Greg, Eskimos: The Inuit of the Arctic; Original Peoples Series; RourkePublications Inc., Vero Beach, FL, 1987 0-086625-257-6

Steiger, Bob and Will. Italia; Abdo and Daughters, Bloomington, Minnesota, 19900-939179-97-0

Sweden in Pictures; "Visual Geography Series"; Lerner Publications Company,Minneapolis,1990 0-8225-1872-4

Taylor, Barbara. Arctic and Antarctica; Stoddart Publishing Company Limited, Toronto,1995 0-7737-2843-0

Taylor, Barbara. Maps and Mapping; Kingfisher Books, NY 1993 1-85697-863-X'

Tempelman-Kluit, Anne. Yukon;"Discover Canada Series"; Grolier Limited, Toronto,1994 0-7172-2810-X

Triggs, Tony D. Viking Warriors; "Beginning History Series"; Wayland Publishers Ltd.,Hove, UK, 1990 1-85210-907-6

Vitebsky, Piers. Sami of Lapland; "Threatened Cultures Series"; Wayland PublishersLtd., Hove, UK, 1993 0-7502-0876-7

Wenzel, Dorothy. Ann Bancroft on Top of the World; Dillon Press Inc., Minneapolis,1990 0-87518-418-9

Williams, Lawrence and Collinson, Allan. Understanding the Polar Lands; EvansBrothers Limited, London; 1990 0-237-51105-3

Books for Teachers

63

Abel, Kerry, Drum Songs: Glimpses of Dene History; McGill-Queen's University Press,Montreal, 1993 0-7735-0092-5

The Alaska Almanac: Facts About Alaska; 18th Edition, Edited by Carolyn Smith, AlaskaNorthwest Books, Anchorage; 1994 ISBN 0-88240-459-8

Bastedo, Jamie. Shield Country: Life and Times of the Oldest Piece of the Planet; TheArctic Institute of North America, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, 1994 ISBN0-919034-79-9

Blondin, George. When the World Was New: Stories of the Sahtu Dene; Outcrop,Yellowknife,1990 1-919315-21-6

Bobrick, Benson. East of the Sun: The Epic Conquest and Tragic History of Siberia;Henry Holt and Company, New York; 1992 ISBN 0-8050-2981-9

Bruemmer, Fred. Arctic Animals; McClelland and Stewart, Toronto, 1986 0-7710-1717-0

Bruemmer, Fred. The Arctic World; Key Porter Books Ltd., Toronto, 19850-919493-54-8

Burt, Page. Barren land Beauties: Showy Plants of the Arctic Coast; Outcrop Ltd.,Yellowknife, 1991 0-919315-25-9

Canada North of Sixty; Jurgen F. Boden and Elke Boden, eds., McClelland and StewartInc., Toronto, 1991 0-7710-1581-X

Cellura, Dominique. Travelers of the Cold: Sled Dogs of the Far North; AlaskaNorthwest Books, Anchorage, 1989 0-88240-374-5

Clark, Mary Jane Behrends. The Commonwealth of Independent States, [Russia etal];The Millbrook Press, Brookfield, Conn., 1992

Counter, S. Allen. North Pole Legacy: Black, White and Eskimo; The University ofMassachusetts Press, Amherst; 1991 ISBN 0-87023-736-5

Crowe, Keith J. A History of the Original Peoples of Northern Canada; McGill-Queen'sUniversity Press, Montreal; Rev. Ed. 1991 0-7735-0880-5

Dickson, Olive Patricia. Canada's First Nations: A History of Founding Peoples fromEarliest Times; McClelland and Stewart Inc., Toronto, 1992 0-7710-2801-6

Dumond, Don E. The Eskimos and Aleuts; Thames and Hudson Ltd., London; Rev. Ed.1987

Card Catalogue No. 87-50399

64

Foster, Janet. Journey to the Top of the World; Greey De Pencier Books, Toronto; 1987ISBN 0-920775-17-9

Hamilton, John David. Arctic Revolution: Social Change in the Northwest Territories,1935-1994; Dundurn Press, Toronto, 1994 1-55002-206-7

Lynge, Aqqaluk. Inuit: The Story of the Inuit Circumpolar Conference; I.C.C.,Atuakkiorfik, Nuuk; 1993 ISBN 87-558-0642-2

Marsden, Walter. Lapland; from the Time-Life Series: "The World's Wild Places";Time-Life Books, Amsterdam; 1976 ISBN 7054-0161-8

Newman, Peter C. Empire of the Bay: An Illustrated History of the Hudson's BayCompany; A Viking Studio/Madison Press , Penguin Books Canada Limited,Markham, ON 1989 ISBN 0-670-882969-2

Njal's Saga; Tr. by Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Palsson. Penguin Books,London; 1960 ISBN 0-14-044103-4

People and Caribou in the Northwest Territories; Edited by Ed Hall. Department ofRenewable Resources, Government of the Northwest Territories, Yellowknife,1989 ISBN 0-7708-7181-X

Ray, Arthur J. Indians in the Fur Trade; University of Toronto Press, Toronto; 19740-8020-6226-1

Girji, Davvi. The Sami People; Nordic Sami Institute, N-9520 Kautokeino, Norway82-7374-061-7

Schofield, Janice J. Discovering Wild Plants: Alaska, Western Canada, The Northwest;Alaska Northwest Books, Anchorage, 1989 0-88240-355-9

Severin, Tim. The Brendan Voyage; McGraw-Hill Book Company, NY, 19780-07-056335-7

Starokadomskiy, L.M. Charting the Russian Northern Sea Route; Arctic Institute ofNorth America, McGill-Queen's University Press, Montreal, 1976 0-7735-0210-6

Stonehouse, Bernard. North Pole, South Pole; McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd., Scarborough,ON,1990 0-07-551067-7

Struzik, Edward. Northwest Passage: The Quest for an Arctic Route to the East; KeyPorter Books Limited, Toronto, 1991 1-55013-181-8

Trelawny, John G. Wildflowers of the Yukon, Alaska and Northwestern Canada; SonoNis Press, Victoria, BC, Rev. Ed. 1988 0-919203-95-7

85

Wallace, Joseph. The Arctic; Michael Friedman Publishing Group Inc., NY, 19800-8317-0391-1

Periodicals for Teachers or Students

Above and Beyond; Above and Beyond Ltd., Box 2348, Yellowknife, NT X1A 2P7 ISSN0843-7815

Arctic Anthropology; Journal Division; The University of Wisconsin Press, 114 NorthMurray Street, Madison, Wisconsin, USA 53715 ISSN 0066-6939

Arctic Circle; Nortext, Box 8, lqaluit, NT XOA OHO - six issues per year

Arctic: Journal of the Arctic Institute of North America; The University of Calgary Press,2500 University Drive, N.W., Calgary, AB T2N 1N4 ISSN 0004-0843

The Beaver: Exploring Canada's History; The Hudson's Bay Company; 450 PortageAvenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3C 0E7 ISSN 0005-7517

Canadian Geographic; The Royal Canadian Geographical Society, 39 McArthurAvenue, Vanier, ON, Canada K1L 8L7 ISSN 0706-2168

Information North; Arctic Institute of North America; University of Calgary - 4 issues peryear

Inuktitut Magazine; 170 Laurier Avenue West, Suite 510, Ottawa, ON K1P 5V5

The National Geographic Magazine; National Geographic Society; Washington, D.C.20036 ISSN 0027-9358

Northern Perspectives; Canadian Arctic Resources Committee, 1 Nicholas Street, Suite412, Ottawa, ON K1N 7B7

NWT Air Explorer; Outcrop Ltd.; Box 1350, Yellowknife, NT X1A 2N9 - 6 issues per year

Polar Record: Journal of the Scott Polar Research Institute; University of Cambridge,Cambridge, UK CB2 lER ISSN 0032-2474

Tumivut: The Cultural Magazine of the Nunavik Inuit; Avataq Cultural Institute, 650,32nd Ave., S. 304, Lachine, QC H8T 3K5 or Avataq Cultural Institute, Inukjuak,QC, JOM 1 MO

Up-here: Life in Canada's North; Outcrop Ltd., Box 1350, Yellowknife, NT, Canada X1A2N9 ISSN 0828-4253

66

Films and Videos

The Alaska Experience 30 minutes from the series: North of 60° : Destiny UncertainTV Ontario

Braving Alaska - 59 minutes - colour video National Geographic

The Greenlanders - 38 minutes NFB

High Arctic Close-up 25 minutes - Karvonen Films

Man and His World Series: # 4 Changing Greenland; #14 Industrial Region in Sweden;#24

A Norwiegan Fjord; #37 Timber in Finland - each approximately 15 minutes

North of 60°: Destiny Uncertain Series 13 programs - 30 minutes each - TV Ontario

Siberia 25 minutes - National Geographic

Yukon: The Invisible History 30 minutes - from the series: North of 60°: DestinyUncertain TV Ontario

Yukon Passage - 59 minutes - colour video National Geographic

Audio-Visual Addresses

TV Ontario, 2180 Yonge Street, Box 200, Station Q, Toronto, ON, M4T 2T1, Tel. 416484 2613, Fax 416 484 2896

Films for the Humanities, P.O. Box 1051, Fort Erie, ON, L2A 5N8

Thomas Howe Media, 1100 Homer Street, Vancouver, B.C., V6B 2X6, Tel. 604 6874215, Fax 604 688 8349

National Geographic Educational Services, 211 Watline Avenue, Mississauga, ON, L4Z1P3, Tel. 1 800 268 2948

Karvonen Films, 373 Wyecliff, 22560 Wye Road, Sherwood Park, AB, T8A 4T6, Tel.403 467 7167, Fax 403 467 7162

National Film Board of Canada, Canada Place, Room 120, 9700 Jasper Avenue,Edmonton, AB, T5J 4C3, 403 495 3010 or NFB Library 1 800 267 7710

67

Literrtu e' ResourcesocialTSTddies aoficovew~5.41,404 fr..1

RL = Reading Level IL = Interest LevelFiction

George, Jean Craighead. Julie of the Wolves; Fitzhenry, 1978 0-88902-374-3 RL 5/6

Godfrey, Martyn. Mystery in the Frozen Lands; Lorimer, 1988 1-55028-144-5 RL 5/6

Houston, James, Drifting Snow McClelland, 1992 0-7710-4283-3 RL 4, IL4+ FrozenFire McClelland, 1986 0-7710-4244-2

Markoosie. Harpoon of the Hunter; McGill-Queen's University Press, 19700-7735-0232-7

Matheson, S.S. Flying Ghosts; General Publishing, 1993 0-7736-7400-4 RL 6, IL 6-8

Meredith, Don H. Dog Runner; Douglas and McIntyre, 1989 0-88833-293-9 RL 7, IL6-10

Mowat, Farley. Curse of the Viking Grave; McClelland, 1987 0-7710-6680-5

- Lost in the Barrens; McClelland, 1987 0-7710-6681-3 RL 6

Osborne, Chester G. The Memory String (Siberian peninsula 30,000 years ago); RL7

Paulsen, Gary. Dogsong; Bradbury, 1985 0-02-770180-8 RL5/6

Rogers, Jean. Goodbye My Island; Greenwillow, 1983 0-688-01965-X RL4

Wallis, Velma. Bird Girl and the Man Who Followed the Sun: An Athabaskan Legendfrom Alaska; Epicenter Press 0-945397-34-8 RL6

Two Old Women: An Alaskan Legend of Betrayal, Courage and Survival; HarperCollins, 1994 0-06-097584-9 RL5

Biography

Berton, Laura. I Married the Klondike; McClelland, 1961 0-7710-1240-3 RL7

Blondin, George. When the World Was New: Stories of the Sahtu Dene; Outcrop, 1989

Cruiskshank, Julie. Life Lived Like a Story: Life Stories of Three Yukon Elders; UBC

63

Press,1991 0-7748-0413-0- RL9

Ekoomiak, Normee. Arctic Memories; NC Press, 1990 1-55021-059-9 RL5

Freeman, Minnie Aodla. Life Among the Qallunaat; RL9

French, Alice. The Restless Nomad; Pemmican, 1991 0-921827-16-4 RL8

Green, Paul. I am Eskimo: Aknik My Name; RL6

Hager, Barbara. Honour Song: A Tribute; Raincoast, 1996 1-55192-042-5 (includesRosemary Kuptana and Susan Aglukark) RL5

Harper, Kenn. Give Me My Father's Body: The Life of Minik, The New York Eskimo; RL9

Holmes, Douglas. Northerners: Profiles of People of the Northwest Territories; RL6

Inuit Cultural Institute Autobiography SeriesRecollections of Martha Angugatiaq UngallaqRecollections of Levi lqalujjuaq: The Life of a Baffin Hunter

-Recollections of Inuit Elders: In the Days of the Whalers, and Other StoriesRecollections of Helen Paungat

Inuit Cultural Institute Cultural SeriesOn Snowmobile and Foot: Travels Across the Barren lands

Igoltiorte, John. An Inuk Boy Becomes a Hunter; Nimbus, 1994 1-55109-051-1(Northern Labrador) RL5, IL5+

Jenness, Aylette and Alice Rivers. In Two Worlds: A Yup'ik Eskimo Family; HoughtonMifflin, 1989 0-395-42797-5 RL6

Lyall, Ernie. An Arctic Man; Goodread Biographies, 1983 0-88780-106-4 RL7

Pitseolak, Peter. Peter Pitseolak: Inuit Historian of Seekooseelak; McGill-Queen'sUniversity Press, 1982 0-7735-0400-1 RL5

Pitseolak, Peter and Dorothy Harley Eber. People from our Side: A Life Story withPhotographs and Oral Biography; McGill-Queen's University Press,0-7735-1118-0 RL7

Tetso, John. Trapping Is My Life; Stoddart, 1995 0-7736-7430-6 RL6/7

Tulurialik, Ruth Annaqtuusi and David F.Pelly. Images of Inuit Life; (pictures) RL7

History

69

Ryan, Joan. Doing Things the Right Way: Dene Traditional Justice in Lac La Marte;NWT UCP, 1995 1-895176-62X

Tester, Frank James and Peter Kulchyski. Tammarniit: Inuit Relocation in the EasternArctic, 1939-1963; UBC Press, 1994 0-7748-0494-7

Anthologies

Bierhorst, John. The Dancing Fox: Arctic Folktales; Mary Okheena, Illustrator Morrow,1997 0-688-14406-3 RL5

Gedalof, Robin, ed. Paper Stays Put: A Collection of Inuit Writing; Hurtig, 19800-88830-181-2 RL5-8

Harper, Kenn. Christmas in the Big Igloo: True Tales from the Canadian Arctic; Outcrop,1983 0-919315-07-0 RL8-9

Petrone, Penny, ed. Northern Voices: Inuit Writing in English; UTP, 19920-8020-7717-X (Teacher Resource)

Shapiro, Jane Ann, ed. Voice from the Eastern Arctic; Outcrop, 1987 0-919315-18-6RL7

Picture Books

Andrews, Jan. Very Last First Time; Groundwood, 1985 0-88899-043-X

Cleaver, Elizabeth. The Enchanted Caribou; Oxford, 1995 0-19-541074-2

Hoyt-Goldsmith, Diane. Arctic Hunter; (photographs)

Steltzer, Ul li. Building an Igloo; Groundwood, 1990 0-88899-118-5 (photographs)

Poetry

Maki, Joel T. Steal My Rage: New Native Voices; Douglas & McIntyre, 19951-55054-401-2 (includes Richard Van Camp) RL9, IL9-12

Video

Curse of the Viking Grave, IL3-9

History of Nunavik: In the Footsteps of our Ancestors, Parts 1 & 2, IL8+

Lost in the Barrens, IL 3-9

70

Theme A: Geography of the Circumpolar World

Theme B: Changes in the Circumpolar World

Theme C: Connections: Canada and the Circumpolar World

Extension Activities

Theme A: Geography of the Circumpolar World

Student Reference:-Anderson. Madelyn Klein. Siberia-The Arctic World Series: The Arctic Land;Arctic Community. Arctic Animals; ArcticWhales and WhalingClark, Geography of the Soviet Union

-Hargreaves, Ed. The Arctic: Seas and Oceans-MacQuarrie. The Northern Circumpolar World

arr- I- -

) e

Student Literature:-Igoltiorte. An. Inuk Boy Becomes A Hunter ---

_,Markoosie, Harpo-oh_of the Hunter -

-Mowat, Lost in the-Barrens -

-Wallis. Bird Girl and the Man who followed the_Sun: An Athabascan Legend from Alaska

Picture Books:-Cleaver, The Enchanted Caribou

THEME A -Steltzor, Building and Igloo

Geographiof- . , CircumpolarTeacher Reference:- - or-The Alaska Al inaria c:. e'aCts About Alaska;

18th Edition; Edited by Carolyn Smith-Arctic:Jburnal of the Arctic Institute of North

America`.- A,

.47--Bastedo, Shield Country: Life.and.Times.. d

r-*-The Oldest Piece ofthe Planet-Canadian Geographic; The..Royal

Geographical Society-Information North: Arctic Institute of North

AmericaHall, Ed.; People. and.Caiibdti of the NWTQ

"tr..

Teacher Guide:,:r..--MacQuarrie, The Northern Circumpolar World

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

71

-:

Theme B: Changes in the Circumpolar World

Student Reference:-Brown, The Search for the Northwest Passage-Bytes, Life in the Polar Lands; Scholastic-MacQuarrie, The Northern Circumpolar World-Pitseolak and Eber. People from Our Side-Arnold and Rees, eds., Russia Then and Now-Tulurialik and Pelly, Images of Inuit of Life (pictures)

Teacher Guide-MaoQuarrie, The Northern Circumpolar World

Teacher Reference:-The Beaver: Exploring Canada's History-Bobrick, East of the Sun: The Epic Conquest and

Tragic History of Siberia-Counter, S. Allen, North'Pole Legacy:

Black, White and Eskimo-Dickson, Canada's First Nations: A History of the

Founding Peoples from Earliest Times-Hamilton, Arctic Revolution: Social Change in the

Northwest Territories, 1935.1994-Harper, Give Me My Father's Body: The Life of Minik,

The New York Eskimo

Student Literature:-Bierhorst, The Dancing Fox: Arctic Folk Tales-Blondin, When the World Was New: Stories of the

Sahtu Dene--Cruilshank. Life Lived Like a Story-Mowat, Curse of the Viking Grave-Wallis, Two Old Woman: An Alaskan Legend of

Betrayal. Courage and Survival

Picture_Books:-Andrews, Very Last First Time

THEME BCHANGES IN THE

CIRCUMPOLARWORLD Teacher Reference:

-Newman. Empire of the Bay: An Illustrated Historyof the Hudson's Bay Company.

-Inuit Cultural Institute Autobiography Series-Inuit Cultural lnstitue Cultural Series: On Snowmobileand Foot Travels across the Barrenlands

-Ryan. Doing _Things the Right Way: Dene TraditionalJustice in Lac La Mart, NWt

-Struzik, Northwest Passage: The Quest for an ArcticRoute to th-e East

-Tester and Kulchyski, Tammarniit: Inuit Relocation inthe Eastern Arctic, 1939-63

?".

Il

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

72

Theme C: Connections: Canada and the Circumpolar World

Student Reference:-MaQuarrie, The Northern Circumpol'arWorld-Hager, Honour Song: A Tribute '

Teacher Reference:-Clark, The Commonwealth of Independent

States [Russia a et al]

Girji, The Sami People-Hoyt-Goldsmith, Arctic Hunter (photographs)-..renness and Rivers, In Two Worlds: AYup'ik

Eskimo Family-Lynge, Aqqaluk. Inuit: The Story of the Inuit

Circumpolar Conference-Polar Record: Journal of the

Institute

2 .7.7i

Student Literature:-Craighead, Julie of the Wolves-Meredith, Dog Runner-Paper Stays Put A Collection of Inuit Writing,

Gedalof, ed.-Paulsen, Dogsong-Peetrone, ed. Northern Voices: Inuit Writing in

English

THEME C .-

Connections:Canada and the

Circumpolar World--eacher GuideMacQu a rrie, The Northern Circumpolar Conference

I

Scott Polar Research

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

7 3

Extension Activities

Student Reference:-Arctic Animals: Department of Renewable Resources

Graves and Hall, Ed.- Odijk, The Vikings; "The Ancient World Series-Taylor,"Aictic and Antartica-GNWT information website:

Teacher Reference:-Burt, Barrenland Beauties: Showy Plants

of the Arctic Coast-Nial's Saga; Tr. by Magnus Magnusson and

Hermann Palsson-Prince of Wales Heritage Centre. Yelloknife.-Archives and photo data base

vebsite: pvuihc.Iearnnet.nt.ca

Student Literature:

ExtensionActivities

Teacher Guide

Jes

011A

elkAAA.2

EST COPY AVAILABLE

74

The Circumpolar World

471 ..,_--mf11911`

\Daarle OCearr2r ifs

'S ..P Bering Sea Sea or'N

041ra*

;au

E.Siberran ", );X

Canad Sea `z

/7-"--11;---oo;Greenland)" Barents\l" Green'and

);sea"K

-Sea ,

's .04,::, .....:

i1,..; :., \ ,,,,,--1ilf ) p...3

it 'VI Fi rilaiid'',.1,1Iceland/ Norway] \.pt: A'

Mantic Ocean!

L--,,P.v..:A );.(e-tah S71-,re'de9,.\--..e--"\-, i\\;;-_,.N.3 r::7-

---/11._1,--'..5-'

.0)"--?"......----"-

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

75

The Arctic Ocean

mr.E

\\

RUssi a_A ion;

I . I

ISara

I

I

..... 7----14-___i--4,1Sea 0,-,s

.X.,_

Greeni andt y Barents1Greenland \ SeaY

Sea

JIM

-Iceland; Norway.i,

VrY,No rtht)? ""

Atkintic OceanSea

,Svhdert

1,,e;172

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

7 6

Northwest Territory Map

A' r76V .1117,17, if WI? tY7,SIN qt, X /An" fir Orrom

rI

its:41.4 _.s... \ \ t

\-r-

..., n.' ah, ay, \+.11 salt'iYUKON ;

,

anys..1,,,...

41 / r".......1

LS910: Ir''''''',.41 .re\ NIA

/ ...t -4.11\:-..--r-, .

t-48r

Ii ..,,..., ._f,

.....,nr",/ 1 d

0 9 ..,I '

k-i ; ..

11

GUM

,artr A

1 flid^.117,_, ..\, ' TM inCOLUMBIA / .""''.--.

1I .

orris. CP ;\ *- WC, .1 ray07 him-----4..4. -_,4__ ._,__-,mr.T Aeut mew

/ want ; 1,

i 1

\e"?-'141 \

Spat\ W.

77

Yukon

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

78

Yukon

1: EST COPY AVAILABLE

7 9

Denmark

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

so

Greenland

T. I MI'

f ,;Arctic Ocecm \\..." \

's

ts Greenland

t, Sea\,

1

i ' ,I

/ _ 4-/rA, Baffin'

1 t/Bcryl Greenland ,, t,

Davis/ Siraz 1

-----

ti

'',Denrnarri

AtlanticOcean t

ckrA-3

BEST COPY AVAILA

81

fe LE

Finland

Norway

11,-(\\

- - _Arctic Orcie

Sweden i e-

TGurfofBothrl7Q

I Baltic Sear3-*

>"Guti of Finlind,,ti

AFT

EST COPY AVAIIABLE

82

Iceland

0.14' flYl

Greenland Sea.

Jr.

NorwegianSea 4

DenmarkI Strait

Atlantic Ocean

Arche Ocean

.reenland5 Noiway er.z.,45 -...i

144,--,,land

ie7%,

ilce c A1 Miff. 1.,./llossa &irrii i.itticairticSkkan

BEST COPY AVAIIABLE

83

Norway

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

84

Russia

thw

*Y11;

t, \,

Nozway Bayentsr

il9V--"--e-It , `. tz '". , We,-, ..../ .0.-1 .

V. Kara--,%",i4den.7'-''',,,i

\)i-Sea1, ..,..* .1 , SeaFinland

I i , ?lie S'ea-s, 4-1/ so, -.

Belaruh`,. Il\ *..i.

NeN )

Arctic Ocean

5" Chukchi

E. Siberian!17°}t

--,Sea140.6

.

Sea

Aaw

ti 17^ it:

Sea ofOkhotsk cov

i...s (7.s,..,p'spi -.L., -

Kazakhstan 1,..,

---.

.. ic.,';Se Mongolia. r -.

2 21

"N. ....f,'.,11t.....^""7::;;* ki, r

:41 Sea,of,,V

jc-' , ----o apan

rsV.3)-::-.)-1 r

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

83

Sweden

EST COPY AVAILABLE

86

Alaska

EST COPY AVAILABLE

87

The Circumpolar World(latitude & longitude featured)

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

88

BCE (Before Common Era) This neutral designation refers to the same time period asBC

CE (Common Era) This neutral designation refers to the same period as AD

Commonwealth The Commonwealth is made up of 53 developed and developingnations around the world. It is a voluntary association of independent sovereign statesspread over every continent and ocean. The Commonwealth has no charter. QueenElizabeth II is accepted by all members as the symbol of their free association and thusHead of the Commonwealth. A Commonwealth Secretary-General is elected by Headsof Government.

Council of Europe is an international organization based in the French city ofStrasbourg. Its main role is to strengthen democracy, human rights and the rule of lawthroughout its member states. The Council of Europe is also active in enhancingEurope's cultural heritage, and acts as forum for examining a social problems.

EFTA The European Free Trade Association was founded in 1960 by Austria, Denmark,Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK. The objective of EFTA's foundingmembers was to remove trade barriers in relation to each other.

EU (European Union) The European Union now-numbers fifteen Member States. Theultimate goal of the European Union is to promote economic and social progress whichis balanced and sustainable, assert the European identity on the international sceneand introduce a European citizenship for the nationals of the Member States.

GDP (Gross Domestic Product) is the total value of goods produced and servicesprovided in a country in one year.

GNP (Gross National Product) The cash value of all the goods and services producedby a country minus payments (of dividends and profits) to people abroad plus paymentsto the home country by its citizens who live and work abroad.

G-7 (Group of 7 ) Those countries which have the most powerful economies in theworld (Canada, the USA, Britain, France, Germany, Japan and Italy are members).

HDI is an abbreviation for Human Development Index, a statistic which is now usedaround the world. It is a measurement of the quality of life in a country based on acombination of longevity (life-expectancy) , knowledge (level of literacy and years ofschooling) and prosperity (based on real *GDP per capita). The scale is expressed to

89

three decimal places. It is a descending scale from 1 to 0, a 'perfect' country scoring1.000.

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) A security alliance composed of countriesprimarily in Western Europe and North America based on mutual defense and socialand economic cooperation. The common unifying element was these countries'opposition to expanding communist influence after the Second World War.

OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) The OECDbrings together countries sharing the principles of the market economy, pluralistdemocracy and respect for human rights. The original members of the OECD were thecountries of Europe and North America.

OAS (Organization of American States) OAS is the world's oldest regionalorganization; it is the principal forum in the western hemisphere for dialogue on political,economic and social issues.

90

8.1 Theme One - Government Through theAges

8.2 Theme 2 - Toward Freedom, Justice &Equality

8.3 Theme Three - Toward Internationalism

8.4

0,

-81

1°,Sphynx and_pyramid atGiza

Additional Resources for Strand EightCivics

Greek Poseiden Temple Ruins

iv

91

EST COPY AVAIIABLE

8.1.1 Commentary on the Theme

8.1.2 Information on the Theme

8.1.3 Concepts Related to the Theme

8.1.4 Issues Related to the Theme

8.1.5 Activities Related to the Theme

The brief case studies in this Strand will help students to appreciate the need for some form ofgovernment in every age. In a general way, government is needed to enforce standards ofbehaviour that are commonly agreed upon by the community; to protect persons and property; tosupport and assist orderly relations among individuals, social groups and businesses; to establishinstitutions, build infrastructure and erect safe public works that no individual would findpractical or profitable to undertake; to keep the peace within the community and to organizeprotection against external threats.

The case studies will also help students to assess government, and thereby eventually to developa concepts of "good government". It will help them to appreciate the fact that good governmentdoes not arise spontaneously, but that it must be won by inspired and enlightened leadership. Itmust be won at the cost of significant individual effort, of faithful observance of duty, ofreadiness to challenge inadequacies, and to take risks and make sacrifices if necessary. Onceattained, good government is preserved by intelligence, vigilance and commitment; it is lost byignorance, cowardice and apathy.

In observing government throughout the ages, students will see that the institutions ofgovernment are not frozen - they change in time. Changes in the government of people have notalways been positive and progressive. There are many examples of negative and regressivechange as well. Governments change because of changing demographic and politicalcircumstances around them. They also change because of the influence of new ideologies, orperhaps because of the aggressive actions of ambitious individuals.

There is an old saying that people get the kind of government they deserve. Whether that is

92

always true or not, there is much to be said for the fact that whatever the state of governmentmight be at any given time, it can very likely be improved if people will only make the effort toimprove it.

Studying this theme, students should come to appreciated the efforts that have been madethroughout history by many individuals to bring good government back to the people. Theyshould come to appreciate the struggle for freedom that is still going on, and appreciate thesacrifices that heroic individuals have made in that struggle. They should come to understand theparticular kind of government we live under today as well as the alternatives that are available tous. They should recognize that modifications to our present political institutions might benecessary or desirable. and that these can be made if there is a will to do so.

Governments are categorized in several ways: by the physical extent of a government'sjurisdiction; by the amount of freedom available to those who are governed; by the structure ofthe government; by the principles upon which government is founded; by the nature of the nationwhich is governed. There is much overlap among all of these categories. In this section,understanding and learning the principles, concepts and terminology concerning government ismore important for students that remembering the historical details of the cases studied.

Categorizing Government:

Geographical ExtentAmount of Freedom Given to CitizensNature of the StateCategorizing Government:

Categorizing Government - Geographical Extent

The smallest group which might be thought of as having government is a group of families whocast their lost together. The Inuit in northern Canada traditionally organized themselves in thisway. Government was less rigid in structure than those of a modern parliamentary democracy,but nonetheless sophisticated in practice. The group was guided by customary standards ofbehaviour with respect to many important matters: the bearing and rearing of children, huntingrituals, the sharing of food, marriage, the treatment of aged, and so on. Consensus decisionmaking was generally practiced, but the wisdom, experienced and abilities of individuals had asignificant influence in arriving at a consensus.

The band or tribe is another unit of social organization and one of the earliest forms of society.

93

Here, culturally related families came together to share their lives and to practice a commonlifestyle. The size of the tribe would be fluid as bands alternately joined together and separated,depending on the time of year and the nature of the activity they were pursuing. Depending onthe size and stability of the group, government had often evolved to be a fairly complex, formalstructure. Leaders would be chosen according to their ability, or the choice would be hereditary.Any one of the many Indian tribes of North or South America can be examined to learn abouttheir traditional form of government. Tribal government in Africa, or the former clan system inthe highlands of Scotland, might also provide an interesting alternative.

Very early in history another unit of government evolved: that of the city-state. In a city-state,large numbers of families - occasionally unrelated and culturally dissimilar - come together, eachwith the intention of promoting its own economic well being. These families create acircumstance of thriving interdependence. They may be governed by a local king, or othermember of a self-proclaimed nobility, or by a council of aristocratic families, or by leadersselected under the terms of some community-wide agreement. Some examples of city-statesthrough history are Sumer and Sparta in ancient times, Genoa, Florence, Venice and Naples inthe Middle Ages, and perhaps Singapore comes closest to being a city-state in the modern age.Occasionally city-states grow in power until they dominate the countryside for a significantdistance around them. In this way they develop into nations and even occasionally (as in the caseof Rome, which started as a city-state) into empires.

Nation-states, or nations, generally occupy clearly bounded geographic regions, whether large orsmall, and they most often include more than one ethnic group within their boundaries. Nationsgenerally require subdivisions of government within the national boundaries in order to providefor regional and municipal government. These sub-governments often reflect the fact of anearlier, independent history of regions within the nation, or of culturally identifiable groupsliving in their traditional areas. The world today is largely comprised of nation-states. Two goodexamples for study might be the USA with its pre-existing states (Virginia, Massachusetts, etc.),or the United Kingdom with its quite distinct peoples who earlier lived in separate countries andhad different histories (England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales).

Some nation-states in history have set out on aggressive campaigns of conquest and control,practicing what is known as imperialism. The result has been the establishment of empires.These are the largest units of government that have been established in the world to date. Anyone of the following might be suitable for study: the Persian Empire, the Roman Empire, theArabian Empire, the Mongolian Empire, the British Empire, the Japanese Empire or the recentlycollapsed empire of Russia and the Soviet Union.

Imperialism often has its origins in a nation-state seeking economic or military security. One ofimperialism's common outgrowths is colonialism, in which the dominant nation state treats othernations and peoples within its imposed boundaries as second class citizens. It uses them to fulfilits own purposes.

Categorizing Government - Amount of Freedom Given to Citizens

94

Anarchy is a type of social system that has sometimes been advocated to preserve individualfreedom. It is the belief that every form of government regulation is wrong and that publicgovernment should be destroyed. It calls for a form of social organization where no individualhas the power to rule over any individual. It expects that people will live with one anothervoluntarily, and that community decisions will be made only with the full consent of those whoare expected to abide by them. Traditional Inuit life comes closest to the practice of theanarchical ideal, but the Inuit adopted that way of life not as a the result of following aphilosophical ideology, but because it suited their circumstances: they were small in number andlived in broad expanses. In fact, in circumstances where large numbers of people live closetogether, anarchy cannot successfully stand against power that organizes itself. It has nottherefore become the governmental system of any large group of people, or any nation,anywhere in the world. (There were anarchist representatives in the republican government ofSpain in the 1930's.)

Autocracy is the general name given to government that permits only a minimal amount ofpolitical freedom to its citizens. In the strictest sense, it refers to a circumstance where only oneperson holds the supreme power, but over the years it has taken on a broader meaning. It is usedto describe any government where one person, or one group, has taken control of all the branchesof government without the consent of the governed.

The most ancient form of autocracy is perhaps absolute monarchy. This is the kind ofgovernment where a monarch (usually an hereditary king or queen) holds absolute power, rulesby decree and regards him or herself as being above the law. Some places where absolutemonarchy prevailed are ancient Egypt, ancient Babylon, and the ancient dynasties in China, aswell as France in the Middle Ages, or Saudi Arabia today. In ancient Egypt people wereencouraged to believe that the king (pharaoh) was a god. He was an absolute ruler but he neededassistants to help implement his rule. Various officials served as his deputies and carried out his"divine" commands, under the general supervision of a prime minister (vizier). The mainofficials were the chief treasurer, the chief tax collector, the minister of public works and thearmy commander. The king appointed the governors of provinces, while mayors governedvillages and were responsible to the prime minister. All these positions help us to understand thenature and extent of early forms of government.

We are further aided in understanding early forms of government and social organization bynoting that in Babylon at the time of the great lawgiver, Hammurabi, for example, officials aredrawn from the upper classes, an aristocracy that includes the families of priests, governmentofficials, ranking military officers, land owners and some traders. In addition to this class, thereare the common people: craftsmen, clerks and farmers. And at the bottom of society there is thelowest class, of slaves.

Dictatorship is similar to absolute monarchy, except that the dictator has probably taken powerby the strength of his actions rather than inherited it, and, initially at least, makes no pretense tohaving "royal blood". Dictators may have noble or ignoble aims when they seize power. Theyrule by decree and hold themselves above the law. Octavian who became Augustus Caesar inRome, Oliver Cromwell in England, Napoleon in France, Porfirio Diaz in Mexico, AugustoPinochet in Chile, or Fidel Castro in Cuba, are examples of dictators through the years.

95

Oligarchy is another type of autocracy. Here a few people share power as a result of havinginherited it or seized it. They rule without the consent of the governed. They may be anhereditary aristocracy or a brotherhood of officers or ideologues. The second Triumvirate inancient Rome - Antony, Lepidus and Octavian - was an example of oligarchy. Other examplesinclude the regime in Venice during the Renaissance when a small group of wealthy familiescontrolled the city, the Committee of Public Safety - Carnot, Collot d'Herbois, Danton andRobespierre - in France during the revolution. The present government of the People's Republicof China is a modern example.

When autocracy is combined with theology, the result is theocracy. In a theocracy there is anattempt to enforce the general practice of a particular religion, and the observance of thatreligion's values by incorporating them into a nation's laws. Priests are very influential intheocracies; in the exercise of their power, there is very little distinction between priests andother government officials. Indeed, as in ancient Assyria, the king was sometimes regarded asthe chief priest of a principal god.

Many ancient governments, including that of Egypt, were theocracies. The extent to whichancient Egypt was a theocracy may be seen by the turmoil that was caused by the pharaohAmenhotep IV (Akhenaton) when he attempted to change the state religion in the 14th centuryBefore Common Era (BCE) from the worship of many gods to the worship of one, asrepresented by Aton, the life-giving sun. On his death, priests forced his son-in-law,Tutankhamon, to return to the practice of the old religion.

Many of the medieval city-states in Europe were theocracies, as is the modern state of Iran. Westill see the remnants of theocratic government in nations such as Britain and Norway that havewhat are called "established" churches. These churches are given preferential treatment by thestate. Other countries such as the United States, however, attempt to maintain a completeseparation of church and state. In the latter kind of country people are left free to practisewhatever religion they want, or none at all if they choose, while the state and its governmentshow no partiality for, and give no support to, any religion whatsoever. Notwithstanding, theconstitutional provision that demands the separation of church and state, many Christianfundamentalists would like the USA to become a Christian state, upholding Christian values.

Totalitarian government is a pervasive kind of autocratic government that puts no limitswhatsoever on the functional jurisdiction of a public government. Ordinary dictators seize powerwith some limited political, military or economic aim in mind, or perhaps merely to serve theirown interests. A totalitarian government, however, is a government that seeks to control the totallives of the people, often with the fulfilment of some ideology in mind. Theocratic governmentsare often totalitarian. So was the communist "dictatorship of the proletariat" under Joseph Stalin.The most unabashedly totalitarian ideology, however, is fascism which regards the individual asless important than the state. It seeks to control the lives of citizens through control of the press,the school curriculum, cultural industries, science, the churches, and so on, for the benefit of thestate. Mussolini in Italy and Hitler in Germany were fascism's most notorious advocates.

A unique form of autocracy that involves serfdom has reared its head from time to time throughhistory. Serfdom is a situation in which many lower class individuals find themselves

96

somewhere between being freemen and slaves: bonded to the land, with obligations of serviceand payment to their lord, but possessing certain rights of which they can not justly be deprived,and owning a crude house, a small plot of land, a few animals and a share in surrounding fields.

This social condition is often found under a system of government known as feudalism.Feudalism is a form of government where there are solemn agreements worked out betweenlords and their vassals, the highest lord being the king. Vassals receive control of their fiefs(estates and peasants) from the king, govern the serfs who life on them, hold court, executesentences, collect taxes, get a significant portion of produce from the common fields andconscript labour for public works. The vassals possess their lands so long as they perform theirfeudal duties in return; remaining loyal to the king, turning over a portion of taxes to him,providing soldiers as needed, and so on. In the hierarchy, each lord is expected to protect hisvassals and uphold their rights; each vassal is expected to serve his lord.

Feudalism is practiced in medieval Europe. It was also practiced in Japan, where there was awarrior class (the samurai) in power, right up to the middle of the 19th century. The emperorwas the nominal and ceremonial hed of the Japanese nation, but real power was exercised forcenturies by Shogun (great general). He ruled the nation along with his feudal vassals (daimios),each a lord in his own right.

Democracy is a form of government that offers a significant amount of freedom to all citizens.The word, derived for the Greek work demos, meaning "the people", implies that political poweris placed in the hands of the people. Abraham Lincoln called democracy "government of thepeople, by the people and for the people". Democracy does not imply unbridled freedom forindividuals (that is anarchy), but rather freedom under law. Freedom under law is freedom thatfinds it's limits in the rights of other people.

Some of the key principle of democracy are: consent of the governed; the division of poweramong several branches of government; periodic elections to renew mandate; equality for allindividuals before and under the law; the universal opportunity to vote and to fun for office;majority rule; and respect for the rights of individuals. Moreover, in a democracy thegovernment is held to be fully responsible for it's decisions and accountable to the people whoelect it, either directly, or through elected representatives.

We can find some elements of democracy in ancient Greece or Rome. Greece - particularly thecity of Athens - is said to be its point of origin (as already noted, the word has Greek roots).Elements of democracy were established in Athens in the 6th century BCE by Cleishenes whoimplemented principles that had been drawn up some eighty years earlier by Solon. In Athens,however, democracy was extended only to free, male citizens. Women and slaves were notallowed to participate in public decisionmaking.

Under Athenian democracy all free, male citizens over twenty were entitled to participate in anassembly that met approximately once a month in a large open space to decide what needed tobe done. To aid decisions of the assembly, a smaller council, whose members were chosenannually by lot and who were paid for their work (those chosen were expected to serve),prepared laws and policies for the assembly's approval. An even smaller group, like a modern

97

cabinet, met everyday and made sure that the laws were carried out.

Judges in Athens were also chosen by lot. Citizens appearing before the judge had to speak forthemselves, but they could pay someone to help them prepare for their appearance. Militarygenerals were not chosen by lot, but elected.

The most unrestricted from of democracy is know as direct democracy. Under direct democracycitizens are given as much control of the process of governance, and as much opportunity forparticipation, as it is practical to allow. This is done by using plebiscites and referendums tomake public decisions, by allowing citizens to propose direct legislation through votes atelection time, and by enabling voters to recall representatives in midterm whom they feel havenot served the public well. Various states in the United States commonly use one or more ofthese features of direct democracy (for example, Arizona, California and Michigan; also the NewEngland states where powerful citizen assemblies called "town hall meetings" are still held).Because of its opportunities for citizen participation, direct democracy is appealing on thesurface, but it is not without its problems. Plebiscites and referendums reduce complex issues tosimplistic Yes or No alternatives that may not adequately reflect an issue. Direct legislation canpreempt and disrupt the planned program of a thoughtful, progressive government. Recall candiminish a representative's willingness to exercise his/her best independent judgment in servingthe public's widest and longest-ranging interests and encourage his/her instead to cater to popularprejudices. In general, there is a concern that in a direct democracy public policy will too oftenbe controlled by people who are unenlightened and uninformed.

Representative democracy is the style of government where representatives are periodicallygiven mandates by the electorate to govern. Once elected, these representatives generally makedecisions without referring back to the people until the next election. This form of governmentoffers the opportunity for enlightened, informed leadership combined with periodicaccountability. It also carries the danger, however, that its leaders will be too insensitive to theexpressed will of the people. Most nation states in the western world today, including Canada,are governed as representative democracies.

In every democracy, people govern themselves. Citizens in a democracy therefore have dutiesthat they are obliged to fulfil if the government of their society is to be effective. They ought toshare the burden of governance by running for public office, or by serving on boards andcommissions, or volunteer community agencies, according to the level of their ability. Theyought to vote whenever they have the opportunity to do so, and they ought to inform themselvesabout the issues before voting. They ought to obey the laws of the land. They ought to usepeaceful means for resolving disputes. They ought to respect public property. They ought tomaintain integrity in accessing public programs. They ought to be vigilant about freedom andhuman rights.

Categorizing Government - Nature of the State

National governments are always organized as either unitary or federal states.

A federal system is one in which a number of pre-existing political jurisdictions join together to

98

form one nation that is called a federation. The preexisting jurisdictions then become provinces(states) within the federation. The central (national) government is called the federalgovernment. The constitution of a federation usually divides the powers of government betweenthe federal and provincial governments. In this type of system, local (municipal) governmentsare usually controlled by the provincial (state) governments. Canada and the USA are federalsystems.

A unitary system is one in which the principal powers of government are in the hands of thecentral (national) government. It may then delegate some of its powers to regional or localgovernments. The United Kingdom and Communist China are unitary systems.

Categorizing Government - Structure

Most representative democracies today are either republics or constitutional monarchies.

A modern republic is a government that retains no vestige of an aristocracy or nobility. Allsignificant positions are elective rather than hereditary. The head of government may be called aPrime Minister or Premier while the head of state is a President rather than a king or queen.Egypt, South Korea, France and Switzerland are examples of republics. Ancient Rome was aform of republic between 507 BCE when the rule of kings was overthrown and 27 BCE whenOctavian took the title Augustus Caesar and made himself Emperor. (Augustus did retain thetrappings of a republic by continuing to support an advisory senate.) The USA was the firstmodern republic when it was founded following the American Revolution in the late 18thcentury.

A constitutional monarchy is a representative government that has a Prime Minister or Premieras the head of government, but which has a king or queen as the head of state. The monarch,however, has strictly limited powers as set forth in a constitution, and is subject to all the laws ofthe land. Britain, Japan and Sweden are examples of constitutional monarchies.

Constitution

A constitution is the basic set of rules by which a country is run. It often defines the relationshipof the parts to the whole, details the nature and power of various offices and levels ofgovernment, sets forth the terms that fundamentally govern citizenship, elections, the right tovote, to run for office, and so on. In the interests of providing stability through the years, aconstitution is generally written with an amendment provision that makes the constitution fairlydifficult to alter (USA/France). England's constitution is an example of an unwritten constitution,based on oral history, traditions, and Common Law.

99

Democratization

This is a recently coined word. It is used to describe a trend that has occurred in relatively recenttimes by which one or more elements of democracy are introduced into the operational conductof previously autocratic governments. Supporters might say it is a prudent means of introducingdemocracy at a rate that maintains harmony and stability in a country. Cynics might say, rather,it is a means of evading or delaying the implementation of democracy.

Feudalism

Feudalism is a form of government where there are solemn agreements worked out betweenlords and their vassals (those who are subordinate to them). For more details, refer to the section"Information on the Theme" in Section 8.1.2.

Revolution

A revolution is a political event in which some very significant change is brought about rapidly,perhaps accompanied by violence. It is in contrast with peaceful evolution. An attemptedrevolution that does not succeed is often scornfully called a "rebellion" by those who remain inpower.

Is representative democracy better than other systems of government?

Resolving this issue perhaps depends very much on what is meant by the word "better". If it istaken to mean the ease and swiftness with which decisions are made, then representativedemocracy does not acquit itself very well. Because democracy demands that the public willshould be reflected, time needs to be taken for consultation and for reconciling divergent views.This can be costly as well as time consuming. If someone should think, on the other hand, thatunanimity and order are the most important characteristics of a well functioning society,democracy will not rate highly here either.

Plato thought that a society would be well governed only when the most enlightened decisionswere made on every occasion - and this would occur, according to him, either when kingsbecome philosophers, or philosophers become kings. However, even if obedience to thedictates of an enlightened monarch were a desirable form of government (and there are manycogent arguments to explain why it is not), there is not much reason to suppose that Plato'svision will become a reality very soon. Those who seek enlightenment and those who seekautocratic political power are seldom the same kind of person.

Some libertarians, on the other hand, believe in the slogan, "that government is best whichgoverns least". They tend to prefer a minimum of government intervention, and a greater

100

measure of direct democracy through the use of plebiscites, recall and direct legislation. There isa potential problem here, however, in that decisions made in a direct democracy might well bepopular, but they might be unenlightened as well since they would too often be made by apopulace that demanded the right to be obeyed, but which perhaps paid little heed to theobligation to be informed.

John Stuart Mill tended to take a middle course. He thought representative democracy was thebest form of government because it provides an opportunity for individual growth anddevelopment and for widespread participation, as well as allowing for the popular will to bereflected. It permits an opportunity for informed leadership to be combined with accountabilityto the public. Even Mill, however, would concede that it is not a perfect form of government.Given the imperfections of human beings, it is obvious that we shall never create a perfect formof government. Readily acknowledging the shortcomings of representative democracy, WinstonChurchill is reported to have said that it is the worst form of government there is - except for allthe others.

1. Have each student research and prepare a report on a society selected from a particularage in history. The report should particularly cover the following: the style and structureof government in that society; the rights and freedoms of ordinary citizens; the privilegesof particular classes; the limitations on equality; the respective roles of custom and law.

2. Have each student research and prepare a report on one of the following topics, tracing itsdevelopment through history in various societies: the role of women; the treatment ofchildren; the practice of slavery; the division of society into classes.

3. Have each student research and prepare a report that analyzes how a technological,scientific or economic advancement in history brought about a change in the organizationof society and government.

4. Organize the class into teams, and have students debate the merits of allowing greater (orless) freedom than is enjoyed in our society at the present time. Some areas to focus onmight be the censorship of television or films, or the establishment of abortion clinics, orthe practice of assisted suicides for the terminally ill, or the commercialization of newscientific techniques that have ethical implications (i.e genetic engineering orreproductive technology), or drug and alcohol usage.

5. Have small groups of students research and report on the similarities in government andsocial organization between an historical and a modern society.

101

6 . Have small groups of students research and report on the differences in government andsocial organization between two modern societies.

7. Have small groups of students research and prepare a report on the role of religion andpriests in various societies through history, paying particular attention to the amount ofinfluence or control they had over government.

8. Have the class prepare a series of maps illustrating the political changes that haveoccurred in one geographical region (e.g. the Middle East or the Canadian northwest)over the centuries since the beginning of recorded history - that is, showing whoexercised political control. In an accompanying text, note particularly the changes in thelevels of rights and freedoms that local people enjoyed. Also, note any changes in whothe local inhabitants are.

9. Divide the class into three groups. Have each group consider and list the duties of whatmight be considered a good citizen in each of an ancient society, a middle society and amodern democracy. Analyze the results in a whole-class discussion, particularly notingcommonalities and differences.

102

8.2.1 Commentary on the Theme

8.2.2 Information on the Theme

8.2.3 Concepts Related to the Theme

8.2.4 Issues Related to the Theme

8.2.5 Activities Related to the Theme

Unfortunately, there are those in government, as well as those outside of it, who are only tooready to control, exploit and abuse others in order to serve their own interests. To do this, theywill use not only their own power, but the public power they may have access to. It is importantfor students to understand and appreciate the struggle that has taken place in history for freedom,justice and equality. They must see that good government always has an important role to play insecuring these things, because each of us simply cannot guarantee survival, justice, rights andfreedom for ourselves, and those we care about, without the aid of other right-thinkingindividuals. Yet it is true too, unfortunately, that governments themselves can become, and attimes have become, oppressors of individuals. So students must learn too that the price offreedom is vigilance, courage and sometimes personal sacrifice.

Most importantly, students must learn that democratic government is not merely a workadayfeature of western culture that has no greater value than various features of other cultures.Rather, because it is potentially such an important avenue to individual freedom and fulfilment,it is a precious, yet vulnerable, attainment that has value for the whole of humanity. Accordingly,there are movements toward democracy in every part of the globe.

103

The development of representative democracy, of freedom under law, of justice and rights for allhas been gradual, but nevertheless it can be marked by some moments in history whensignificant advances occurred.

Out of the mists of primitive times, when small bands of people informally organized themselvesand roamed in search of comfortable survival, we see emerging in the earliest pages of writtenhistory a time when kings and queens were already established in many areas. We might supposethese were men and women who had early learned the advantage that accrues to organizedpower, who had installed themselves as masters over others from whom they exacted tribute andwho had eventually dignified themselves with the name of king or queen and their decrees withthe name of law.

This was the case in ancient Rome around 507 BCE, when the Tarquin family held politicalpower, and Lucius Tarquinius the Proud was king. He had a reputation as a tyrant who abusedhis power and allowed his family to do so as well. Then something occurred that caused thepeople to revolt and throw off the yoke of kings. We do not know with certainty what broughtabout this significant change, but legend says that one of the Tarquin princes, Sextus Tarquinius,one day saw a beautiful woman, Lucretia, who was married to Collatinus. Accustomed to doingas he wanted, the prince raped her. Lucretia informed her family and then, mortified becausesociety devalued a "tarnished" woman, she killed herself. This incident set off a reaction thatbegan to change the world. Appalled by this injustice and its shocking consequence, as well asby other long-felt grievances against the "royal" family, many ordinary people rebelled againstTarquin rule. The family was overthrown, the monarchy rejected, and a form of republicestablished.

The new Rome, as Livy describes it, was "a free nation, governed by annually elected officers ofstate and subject not to the caprice of individual men, but to the overriding authority of law".Still, it was a society in which patricians (the upper class or aristocracy), and not plebeians (thecommon people), filled the main decisionmaking roles. The patrician senate chose two newconsuls each year to execute its decisions. The consuls were very powerful men during their yearin office. Electing two of them meant that each served as a counterbalance to the other's power.Several years later the practice was adopted of allowing assemblies of the people annually toelect officials called tribunes who had the authority to protect the common people from abusesof power by the consuls or the senate. Some fifty years after the republic was established, Romeattempted to improve its system of government. It sent three envoys to Greece to study theprinciples of government that had been enunciated by the famous Solon. The reforms resulting .from this contact did not work well or last long.

104

Equality

Equality, as the word is used in its political sense in a democracy, is not meant to say anythingabout individual ability, or material possessions, or standard of living, nor does it say anythingabout self-identified groups. Rather, it means that each individual citizen is regarded by thenation as having fundamental worth as a human being equal to that of each other individualcitizen, as well as equal rights and equal opportunities before and under the law. Most often thisequality is asserted as prevailing without regard to race, sex or religion. The concept of equalityis one of the underpinnings of democracy, in as much as systemic preference and entrenchedadvantage are forever challenged. Despite movements toward greater equality, there are stillmany countries where equality, and rights, and freedom from discrimination, are guaranteed onlyto certain segments of society; for example, women, homosexuals, the elderly and racial andreligious minorities often suffer from inequality.

Freedom

Freedom, as the word is used in its political sense in a democracy, refers to freedom under law.This is where the freedom of one individual is limited by the rights of other individuals. Thecommonly cited example of freedom under law is that the freedom of one individual to swing hisfist ends just before the point where the next individual's nose begins. Freedom under law in ademocracy is not the same, and was never intended to be the same, as license, a largelyunrestrained liberty that allows individuals to do pretty well whatever they are capable of doing.License, which may have been the condition that prevailed in the most primitive of socialcircumstances long ago, is not tolerated in a civilized society. Genuine democracies live by thegeneral rule of granting as much individual freedom as possible commensurate with the rights ofothers and the well being of all.

Justice

Justice is the concept that each individual should be treated by other individuals, and by thenation, according to his moral merit; that is according to the way he treats others. To merit justtreatment, each individual is under an obligation to treat all others justly.

If one is accused of committing a crime - since guilt is not yet established justice demands thatthe individual accused be given access to safeguards adequate to ensure that the process used todetermine guilt or innocence is expeditious and fair, and that the verdict finally pronounced isthe right verdict. Once guilt is established, however, societies generally do not feel obliged totreat criminals in the same way they treat other innocent individuals. They often deny convictsrights and freedoms for a period of time, and is some cases, take their lives.

105

Pluralism

In most modem nation states there live people who come from a variety of racial, cultural,linguistic and religious backgrounds. Pluralism, in it's social sense, is the official tolerance andopen acceptance of these differences.

Slavery

Slavery is the condition of being held in bondage, so that one's person and services are under thecontrol of another who considers himself to be owner or master.

Should men and women be identified and treated differently in the nation'spolicies and laws?

There are obvious tangible differences between men and women - differences of structure (bonestructure, musculature, some organs, sexual characteristics, hormones, etc.) and differences offunction (child-bearing and nursing) that lead to different problems and different needs. Onecould perhaps make the case that natural-need differences are greater between men and womenall over the world than they are between people of different racial and cultural groups.

Besides physical differences, there are also differences in the customary roles that men andwomen play in many parts of the world. These roles, while possibly suggested in the first placeby physical differences, have become thoughtlessly and rigidly entrenched in many societies, insome cases denying freedom and equality to women. The roles are being challenged, particularlyby women, and the stereotypes that were long operative in many countries are slowly beingdismantled and destroyed. Nevertheless, where these roles are still played out (the expectation,for example, that child-care is a woman's responsibility), they too can create artificial, butconsequential, differences in needs.

All of this seems to support strongly the argument that men and women should be treateddifferently in a nation's laws and policies. Yet, fundamentally, men and women are simplyhuman beings, equally citizens of the nation. And the argument that, to preserve equality, anation's laws and policies should not deal differently with one citizen than they do with another,seems to have some force as well.

Perhaps the way out of the dilemma is to consider whether democracy's demand for equalityamong the citizens of a nation is always a demand for identical treatment. Can fair and equaltreatment ever actually mean differentiated treatment? It appears that it can if it is associatedwith the servicing of needs. Each individual is treated equally with all other individuals when all

106

have their fundamental needs serviced adequately. This concept is well understood by parents inevery family: the fair treatment of each of their children always takes into account differentiatedneeds and results in somewhat differentiated treatment. Adherence to a rigid standard of equalityin this case (i.e. precisely the same amount of money must be spent on each child, and the sametype of lessons be given, and the same kind and amount of food, etc.) seems positivelyunenlightened.

If men's and women's fundamental needs are indeed different in some respects, then, it shouldnot be a cause for alarm that a nation's laws and policies attempt to address those differentneeds. Rather, it may be cause for some satisfaction.

In the end, though, it seems that any departure from a strictly equal treatment of its citizens by anation that professes to be democratic must always be fully justified and must be of no greatermagnitude and of no longer duration than is absolutely necessary.

1. Have the class prepare a mural and a time-line that identifies and celebrates significantchanges for individual and group freedom in the world.

2. Have small groups of students research and report on the historical progress of women'sfreedom in the world up to the present day.

3. Have small groups of students research and report on the history of the abolition ofslavery in its various forms up to the present day.

4. Have small groups of students research and report on the disintegration of slavery inAmerica or the caste system in India or apartheid in South Africa.

5. Have small groups of students research and report on the American, French or Russianrevolution, paying particular attention to the political changes that were being sought bythe earliest revolutionaries, and then to the changes that actually occurred.

6. Have each student prepare and present a speech advocating some new right for children,or alternatively, the implementation of a right that children already supposedly have butdo not in fact enjoy.

7. In a class discussion, assess the justice system in Canada. Is its purpose to keep innocentpeople safe? to keep order? to punish wrongdoers? Is the system fulfilling its purposeeffectively or not? If not, what changes are needed to make it work better? Is the systemfair to those who are accused of wrongdoing? How does traditional Aboriginal

107

approaches to justice differ from those used in many European traditions?

8. In a class discussion, debate whether collectives should have special constitutional rightswithin societies: i.e. groups that are of a sexual, religious, linguistic, ethnic or racialcharacter.

9. Invite an appropriate representative to speak to the class about the state of freedom,justice or equality in Canada for women, or the elderly, or the disabled, or a member of aracial minority.

108

8.3.1 Commentary on the Theme

8.3.2 Information on theTheme

8.3.3 Concepts Related to the Theme

8.3.4 Issues Related to theTheme:

Issue #1 Should the "haves" try tohelp the "have nots" withing andbeyond...?

Issue #2 Should societies try tocontrol the of change?

8.3.5 Activities Related to the Theme

Woman working in Mica processing, June 1990, Ottawa

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

109

.g

E

E

In their active concern for the rights of people even beyond their own borders, Thomas Paine andthe Marquis De Lafayette were somewhat unusual for their time. In recent years, we seeindividuals acting as citizens of the world, rather than as citizens of a single country who feelthey must confine their judgments, and their concern for human welfare, to its limited borders.Such people regard humanity as one. They feel free to question and challenge all wrongdoing, nomatter where it occurs. They feel justified in intervening across national boundaries, particularlyin regard to those matters that affect, or can affect, all human beings: degradation of theenvironment, violent assaults on peaceful people, violations of fundamental human rights.

Students should be helped to understand that this relatively new phenomenon has undoubtedlyarisen because technological advances in the fields of transportation and communication haveenabled the world to be viewed as - to use the phrase coined by Marshall McLuhan - a "globalvillage", and the great variety of humankind to be viewed as one. (In fact, McLuhan thought thatthe advent of electronic communications would eventually mean the end of individualism andnationalism, and lead to the growth of a new international community). At the same time, othertechnological advances in many areas have produced more grave and more widespread threatsto the environment, to peace and security and to fundamental human rights than ever before.There are nuclear bombs, chemical and biological weapons, radioactive and chemical pollutants,the rapacious exploitation of resources, and threats to human rights from repressive ideologies(religious and political) that can take advantage of the latest technologies in every area of life.

We can see more clearly than ever before that no matter where human beings live in the world,we have common needs and common rights, and we can best act together to address andsecure them. There is one world and we are one people in it; all human individuals with acommon destiny. This understanding is expressed by many astronauts who have literally seen theworld as one. They emphasize that they see no borders diViding nation from nation or peoplefrom people. They say this observation "makes you feel like a citizen of the planet".

The recognition of humanity's common needs and rights has given rise to internationalinstitutions such as common markets, free-trade zones, the United Nations Organization with allits specialized agencies, Greenpeace, and so on. Some even think it is time for an attempt toestablish world government, but that idea has not gathered very much support. Despite the factthat our world is shrinking, it is still too big and too diverse, not to mention too heavilypopulated, to make world government a likely development in the foreseeable future. Indeed,we still see very strong currents of ethnocentrism and parochialism in the world - so strong, theyoften lead to violent conflict. So the movement toward greater internationalism, while it appealsto many people, is by no means assured of early or easy success.

1 0

The movement toward internationalism had its first, unspectacular, beginnings long ago. Itoccurred as a result of increased human understanding coupled with technological change. Thisprocess has continued down through history and is still going on today.

One of the earliest very significant developments of this type was the development ofagriculture: animals were domesticated for easier access to their products; the power of animalsharnessed in order to do work; the seeds of nutritious plants were sown and harvested year afteryear in the same locale. The development of agriculture had several very significant socialimpacts.

The developments and growth of agriculture gradually started bringing and end to the nomadiclifestyle of hunting and gathering societies. People settled down in one place. Communities werestarted. The increased security of food supply enabled larger populations to grow, and to livetogether in relatively small areas. With the development of new needs (for tools, equipment andmachinery for example), work specialization increased and this brought with it an increased needfor interdependence. Markets were established. Communities grew in size. It was common forfamilies that might once have been isolated to come into contact with ever-large numbers ofpeople.

Although knowledge grew and technology advanced in every age, there were certaindevelopments such as agriculture that brought about large-scale social change in a relativelyshort period of time. Another such development was the invention of the seagoing caravel inwestern Europe in the 15th century. These vessels made far-ranging voyages of explorationpossible they stimulated regular international trade. To bring trading expeditions together, largesums of money were needed, so banking and finance were fostered. Big businesses which soughtprivate investment were created. All of this gave rise to urbanization, to more specialization, andto greater interdependence. It encouraged the establishment of larger political units and thedevelopment of national governments. Human contacts became far-reaching and much morevaried than ever before. The outlook of people was becoming broader all the time.

The invention of steam power and it's development in the 18th century caused another enormouschange. Work could be done by machines that never tired; production took a great leapforward. Access to raw materials had to be broadened and markets had to be expanded. Theseinitiatives meant further contact on an international level. Unfortunately, these contacts oftenwere not enlightened, productive and peaceful. It is true that the developments which havebrought about significant social change and advances in the quality of human life have almostalways brought about significant social problems as well. These problems have to be addressedin every age. Among the more common problems have been job loss, the need to learn newskills, the overturning of traditional ideas and ways of doing things, the pressures of lifestyle andlanguage.

The most recent developments that have brought about further movement towardinternationalism are advances in the areas of transportation and communication. These advanceshave truly made the world into "a global village". International contacts are frequent and broadranging. Even those who stay at home have the rest of the world brought to their doorstep; itscommodities, its services, its news. Internationally there are now common needs and commoninterests. This has prompted the development of international institutions and international law.

There are a variety of international organizations which have been established to help humanbeings around the globe to meet their common needs. Some of these organizations are trulyinternational in the sense that they are open to all nations of the world. Others are calledinternational only because their membership is comprised of more than one nation and theiractivities extend beyond national borders, yet their membership is limited to nations of particularregion (European Union) or of a particular character (the Commonwealth). Some of theseinstitutions are founded on the initiative of the governments, and their membership is comprisedof government representatives. Others are founded on the initiative of private individuals andtheir membership is open to all individuals who share the interest.

One of the major weaknesses of international institutions is that they generally lack the means toenforce their decisions. They must rely on the good will and support of nation states before theycan be effective. It appears that an international moral force is growing, a force that nation statesand international corporations will find it ever more difficult to ignore.

There are many important international organizations that have been established in relativelyrecent times which reflect this growing sense of internationalism. Some of the more importantone are noted below.

The United Nations (UN) was established in 1945 following the demise of its short-livedpredecessor, the League of Nations, which had been established in 1919. The major organs ofthe UN are: the Secretariat (which play the role of the Executive in the UN); the GeneralAssembly (to represent all members); the Security Council (to help keep the peace); theInternational Court of Justice (to settle international legal disputes); the Economic and SocialCouncil (to advance human rights and help people better their lives). The UN is committed toattaining peace in the world and to advancing the general well being of individuals everywhere.It has created peace keeping forces to operate in trouble spots around the world. It has passed theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights to set a standard for human rights in the world. It hasestablished agencies to help improve the lives of people around the world.

Some of the more important specialized agencies of the UN are the following: the World HealthOrganization (WHO), committed to improving human health in all parts of the world; theInternational Labour Organization (ILO), dedicated to improving working and living conditions;the International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICF), dedicated to improving the lot of theworld's children; the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), dedicated to maintainingsafety in air travel by setting international standards and regulations; the IntergovernmentalMaritime Consultative Organization (IMCO), pursuing cooperation in shipping practices andregulations; UN General Assembly, c. 1950 the International Telecommunication Union (ITU),promoting cooperation to solve problems concerning radio, television and satellite

112

communication; the Universal PostalUnion (UPU), promoting cooperation inthe delivery of mail; the International Bankfor Reconstruction and Development (theWorld Bank), established with the aim ofassisting economic development in thethird world countries; the Food andAgriculture Organization (FAO),dedicated to improving the production offarms, forests and fisheries; and, theWorld Meteorological Organization(WMO), dedicated to cooperation inweather forecasting.

UN Assembly, c. 1950

There are international organization that have a cultural or linguistic characteristic; for example,the Commonwealth, La Fancophonie, and Indigenous Survival International. While membershipis limited, groups such as these lead countries away from a narrow, nationally focussed approachto problem solving and toward greater international understanding. The same is true witheconomically based organizations such as the European Union and the Nordic Council, which,besides establishing a preferred or free trade zone, make it possible for citizens of the membercountries to work, travel and receive various benefits beyond their own nation's borders. Freetrade agreements such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), and the NorthAmerican Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), promote an international outlook as well.

There are international organizations that operate at arms length from government, yet whichcould not survive without government cooperation and funding. Such is the InternationalOlympic Committee (IOC), which organizes and administers the quadrennial Olympic Games.Despite its indirect reliance on government support, however, the Committee accepts noinstructions on voting from any government.

There are also international initiatives that are taken quite apart from government sponsorship.These initiatives have resulted in the founding of organizations that are motivated by somematter of strong general concern. The organizations are able to finance themselves and functioneffectively because many people in many countries support their goals. Some of the best knownamong these are the International Red Cross, providing food, clothing and medical aid inemergency situations (the Red Crescent Society is the equivalent organization in Islamiccountries); Greenpeace, dedicated to protecting the environment and to reducing the threat fromnuclear weaponry; and Amnesty International, dedicated to protecting fundamental humanrights, particularly for prisoners of conscience around the world.

Undoubtedly, this international outlook is becoming more common as widespread travelbecomes easily available to vast numbers of people and as the modern mass media instantlybring the plight of people who live far away right into our living rooms. Individuals in manyparts of the world become interested in the problems they learn about through travel or themedia, and believe they have a right to express their concern, and even to intervene, wherever

113

fundamental human rights are violated or placed in jeopardy. Such individuals believe that anattack upon the security, or health, or dignity of other human beings, or an attack upon theenvironment - no matter where in the world - is an attack upon humanity and therefore an attackupon themselves. And if they are not moved to act altruistically for the benefit of others, they areprompted to act for the protection of their own long term interests. Threats of serious,widespread pollution and the loss of important economic resources (fish and forests, forexample) will almost certainly generate greater international activism in the years to come.

Ethical Issue

An issue is an unresolved problem, concerning which there seems to be some reasonablesupport for the arguments of both opposing positions. If this were not the case, there would beno issue, for the answer would be obvious to all.

An ethical issue is an issue in which not only facts may be unclear or in dispute, but values aswell. In dealing with ethical issues, human beings introduce into the equation the notion ofsomething as being "good" or "bad", or "right" or "wrong", in a moral sense. Various positionsare taken on an issue based on the differing values that are held.

In attempting to deal with ethical issues, it is important to respect the sincerity of those withopposing views (unless there is clear evidence to indicate the contrary). It is important to hearthem out, to try to understand their point of view, and to try then to cooperate with them toresolve the issue in a peaceful, rational way. In a democracy, when an issue has been resolvedfor the time being (in the absence of definitive evidence, ethical issues are never absolutely andfinally resolved), the good citizen has an obligation to accept the decision for society, if not forhimself, and to work to change it only in peaceful ways. For example, if a democratic society hasdecided that abortions will be allowed, the good citizen, no matter how wrong he/she maybelieve abortion is,or how vigorously he/she works to change the law, will not resort to violencein order to oppose it.

There is one school of thought, however - associated with Henry David Thoreau and others -that considers it acceptable for the citizen in a a democracy, where matters of conscience areconcerned, to resort to certain illegal, but peaceful, measures, to oppose government position.This ideology recommends a deliberate and public refusal to obey the law, followed be a willingacceptance of the punishment. This is known as civil disobedience, and it must be distinguishedfrom riot, rebellion or revolution. There are other social philosophers who believe that it is neverright to break the law in a democracy, for the opportunity to change the law by peaceful andlegal means is always present. They think that defiance of any law leads to contempt for all lawand undermines a civil society. This disagreement is in itself then an example of an ethical issue.

114

International

This concept refers to any activity that crosses at least one national boundary and impacts on twoor more nations. A project that involve only Russia and Canada, for example, can properly becalled an international project. Yet the word is also used to mean those circumstances wheremany, or virtually all, nations of the world are involved. The UN, for example, is truly andinternational organization.

Moral Suasion

Individuals and nations need power in order to effect their purposes. Power can be of manykinds: physical, military, legal, financial, or personal (having strength, charm, charisma or goodlooks). There is also an important kind of power that derives from being in a position that ismorally right, and is recognized to be so, even by those who have an interest of personal stake inan opposing view. This power is called moral suasion. For example, while aboriginal peopleactually have little political or economic power anywhere in the world, they are able to advancetheir interests to some extent because of moral suasion; they compel the recognition by manyother people that there is an element of moral rightness in their position.

Social Issue

A social issue is an issue that has implications beyond a single individual and those in theimmediate field of caring. Ethical issues (euthanasia) as well as non-ethical issues (free trade)can be called social issues because they are in the realm of public policy. They impact onsociety.

[Note: some would argue that all social issues, including free trade, have ethical implications.]

Issue #1 Should the "haves" try to help the "have-nots" within and beyond thenation's borders?

A moral argument is sometimes made, based upon biblical authority, that each of us is hisbrother's keeper, that charity is obligatory. Not everyone accepts biblical authority, however,and the validity of the moral argument comes into dispute. The Scottish philosopher, AdamSmith, for example, taught that society can survive (though not comfortably) in the absence ofbenevolence (doing good to others), while it cannot survive at all in the absence of justice (notdoing to others what you would not want them to do to you; being fair).

There is a practical argument to support the notion that the "haves" should help the "have-nots"which is perhaps not so easily discounted. The argument is this: if there is any injustice

115

responsible for the "haves" having and the "have-nots" not having - or even any perception ofinjustice - then there will be discontent and unrest in society, perhaps even violent behaviour. Itis argued that the results of this discontent - whether it manifests itself in alcohol and drug abuseor criminality on the home front, or revolution and war beyond - will compel the "haves" to paymany times over, in more ways than one, for not sharing their abundance in the first place.

Others would make the counter argument that, regardless of the perception, if there is noinjustice involved in creating the disparate economic conditions, then there is no obligation toshare one's fairly earned possessions; in fact, that doing so in these circumstances contributes toundermining any determination the disadvantaged may have to succeed on their own. Moremoderate individuals might argue that help should nevertheless be given if there is manifestreason as to why people are unable to help themselves, but not be given otherwise.

Very few would argue that assistance should be withheld even in the throes of a dire emergency.Most human beings respond with help in this circumstance, recognizing that they would seekand probably expect help themselves if the situations were reversed. This fact seems to indicatethat reluctance to aid in other cases may be related to the perception of culpability: if thosedisadvantaged are thought to have been apathetic or imprudent, and thereby responsible for theirown condition, then there is a fairly widespread reluctance to help; but if circumstances are seento be outside their control, there is more of a willingness to help. Whether or not this is the wayhuman beings ought to respond is still an open question.

With respect to helping "within" or "beyond" one's borders, if the rightness of providing aid isargued on principle, then it seems there should be no distinction made between the two locales.If, however, the giving of aid is argued pragmatically, then whether one should aid in one orother of the two locales will be determined by the relative advantages of doing so, and therelative disadvantages of not doing so.

Issue #2 Should societies try to control the rate of change?

New ideas, new initiatives, new technologies, all affect the rate of social change. We are nowmoving into an era when, because of the knowledge explosion (each new idea spawns othernew ideas), the rate of change is increasing, and is continuing to accelerate. New capabilities arearising that have important social implications: the cloning of cells; genetic engineering; variousreproductive technologies (particularly sex selection by parents); biological, chemical andnuclear weapons; and, sophisticated media techniques, with a resulting flood of advertising andentertainment of questionable value. It is clear that there will be many more such innovations.

It seems that society cannot in the future assure individuals of a value-guided, peaceful, orderly,enhancing lifestyle if it does nothing to control valueless change driven by technology andunlimited by anything but the ingenuity of aggressive individuals pursuing their own short-terminterests. Rather, in the absence of prudent social control, there will arise a libertarian approachto life with chaotic activity approaching a state of anarchy. Individuals who prefer to live in anordered society enjoying freedom under law see significant dangers resulting from such chaos.Acceptance in principle of some level of social control seems to them to be necessary

116

(otherwise, if every individual must be left free to do what he is capable of doing, we tend torevert to anarchy).

Preserving an optimal amount of free thought and free action for individuals, commensurate withthe good of all, is extremely important. While some attempt to control the rate and nature ofchange is probably necessary [note: Canada's recent commission dealing with reproductivetechnologies, or international agreements on arms limitation and reduction, or televisionnetworks being told to police their own programming], the regime under which controls areapplied must be democratic and the controls, while applied expeditiously enough to be effective,must nevertheless be applied only after a good deal of consideration.

Some of the questions that must be addressed are these: What is it that needs to be controlledand why? What are the dangers if it is not controlled? Are those dangers significant enough towarrant a limitation on freedom? What are the options for control, and which of the optionsoffers hope of the best result, all things - including the value of individual freedom -considered?Are proposed controls focussed and precise, or are they broader than necessary?What are the likely effects of imposing controls? Are those effects tolerable in a democraticsociety?

1. Have small groups of students research and prepare illustrated reports on the commonway of life of Canadian children: their education, food, clothing, play, sports and culturalactivities, music and other entertainment. Send these reports to classrooms in othercountries and ask for return packages.

2. Divide the class into pairs. Debate the merits of Canada's social safety net (incomesupport program, work retraining, national or international aid).

3. Have each student report on an event in which citizens from one nation rally, ordemonstrate, over a social or ethical concern in some other nation (for example,Clayoquot Sound, Amazon rain forest, Chinese student demonstrators, South Africansanctions, Israeli treatment of Palestinians, living conditions for aboriginal peoples, thetorture of prisoners, US troops in a foreign country, etc)

4. Have small groups of students research and report on the efforts that are being made todemocratize some of the world's countries.

5. Have each student review a film, book, TV show, or radio program that brings someother parts of the world to our doorstep (or our world to someone else's doorstep), withcomments on its content and effectiveness.

117

6. Invite speakers who have lived in or visited other lands to tell the class about theirexperiences.

7. With the class, list all the ways in which all peoples of the world are essentially the same;that is, have the same physical, mental and emotional characteristics, the same needs, thesame interests, the same desires, the same beginning and the same end. Discuss theimplications of the results.

8. With the class, create Mr. and Mrs. 21st Century, the prototypes of the next generation ofhuman individuals. What are their physical, mental and emotional characteristics? Whatis their culture(s)? What is their language(s)? What problems and issues will they face?What will be the condition of their freedom? justice? equality?

9. Using airline travel schedules, have the class determine how quickly one can travelaround the world. Discuss whether the world is truly becoming a "global village", and,whatever the answer may be to that condition, discuss what the implications are forCanadians.

10. Have each member of the class identify and list international personalities andinternational works that they know of in the field of art, music, drama, business andscience. Combine these lists into one classroom list and discuss the results. What doesthis list imply about the future of the world?

11. As a class, discuss whether the Canadian government, on behalf of Canadians, should getinvolved in ethical issues arising in other nations. If not, why not? If so, to what extent?

12. Select certain current international issues. Divide the students into pairs. Assign each pairone of the issues, and have them debate whether the Canadian government (or Canadiansas individuals) should be involved.

13. Have small groups of students research and report on similarities in the governments oftwo different countries. They should explain why these similarities exist.

14. Have the class discuss and agree upon suitable foreign policy for Canada with respect toaid to third-world countries, to peacemaking (in contrast to peacekeeping), to usingCanadian troops to facilitate the delivery of humanitarian aid in areas of violent conflict,to overfishing, to the cutting of rainforests, to international pollution. What price shouldCanadian be expected to pay in order to create effective and workable policies?

15. Have the class discuss and develop a profile of the kind of political leader needed inCanada for the twenty-first century. Most particularly will she/he need to be nationalistor internationalist in outlook?

16. Have class members each write an essay discussing the characteristics of what makestoday's man or woman a good citizen of the world.

118

REMINDER : The current events focus is on news stories that deal with activities of theterritorial government. For information about the Government of the Northwest Territories seeStrand Six in the Department's publication entitled Civics in the Elementary Social StudiesCurriculum.

119

esoutces

This resource list is intended to be a dynamic document. If teachers know of a resource useful tothe teaching of this strand that is not indicated here, please forward the bibliographicalinformation with brief comments on how the resource is useful. New resource lists will bepublished as appropriate to reflect current materials available.

These can be sent to:

Social Studies CoordinatorEarly Childhood and School ServicesG.N.W.T.P.O. Box 1320YELLOWKNIFE, NWTX1A 2L9

8.4.1 Resources for Strand Eight Civics

8.4.2 Resources for Strand Eight Social Studies

8.4.3 Literature Resources to Support Integration of Social Studies & Civics w/ Language Arts

8.4.4 Ready Referenced Resources

Evans, David et al. Technology and Change in Canada; 1990.Weigl Educational Publishers Ltd.;[LRDC]

Flaiz and Gabin. Finding Your Voice; you and your government. Riedmore Books; 1997.1-895073-31-6 (LRDC Alberta Education)

Parsons and Jamieson. Canadians Responding to Change; 1990. Reidmore Books [LearningResources and Distributing Centre (LRDC) - Alberta Education]

Tradition and Change; The Jacaranda Press, John Wiley and Sons; 0-7016-1756-X

120

Primary Books

Atlas of the Environment; Nelson Canada, 1991 - excellent resource for dealing with issues thatarise from development - Theme C (possibly good for Theme C, Strand 7 and 9 as well)

Canadian Oxford School Atlas, 6th Ed.; Oxford University Press, Toronto;

Greenblatt and Lemmo. Human Heritage - covers theme A and some of theme B

Kahn et al. People Through the Ages; Peguis Publishers Ltd.; 520 Hargrave Street, WinnipegR3A 0X8; 1992 1-895-411-45-9

Parsons and Jamieson. Canadians Responding to Change; Reidmore Books Inc; Edmonton;1990- has information for Theme C, which is lacking in others - has Teacher's Resource aswell

Teacher Guide also available

Support Resources for Students

Bender, Lionel. Invention; Eyewitness Books, Random House of Canada, 1991 0-679-80782-9IL 5+

Bennett, Paul. What it was like Before Electricity; Read All About It Series, RaintreeSteck-Vaughn Publishers, 1995 0-8114-5734-6 IL 1-8

BonBernard. Life in Changing China; Arnold Publishing Ltd. Edmonton; 1987 - excellent forstudents - Theme C

Burley. Culture Quest; Prentice Hall Canada Inc.; 1993 - Themes A and B

Burrell, Roy. Oxford First Ancient History; Oxford University Press, 1994 0-19-521058-1 IL4-8

Cairns, Trevor. Europe Rules the World; Cambridge University Press, 1981 0-521-22710-0 IL7+

Canadian Citizenship in Action; Weigl Educational Publishers Ltd., Edmonton; 1992 - could be

121

used for focussing on issues in Theme C

Chrisp, Peter. Ancient Rome; World Book, Incorporated, 1997 0-7166-9401-8

Crosher. Peoples of the Past: The Greeks; Silver Burdett Press, 1985 - excellent as a studentresource for Theme A

Dawood. Brazil: Land of Contrasts; Reidmore Books, Edmonton; 1989 also has Teacher'sGuide Theme C

Deary, Terry. Rotten Romans; Scholastic Canada, Incorporated, 1997 0-590-73893-3

Dudley, William, ed. The Industrial Revolution; Greenhaven Press, Incorporated, 19971-56510-706-3

Evans and Yu. China: Our Pacific Neighbour; Reidmore Books Inc., Edmonton, 1992 Theme C

Evans et al. Technology and Change in Canada;. Weigl Educational Publishers Ltd., Edmonton,1990 - excellent for Theme C, change in the modern world - has Teacher Guide

Farndon, John. What Happens When: You turn on the TV, Flick on a Light, Mail a Letter,Scholastic Canada, Limited, 1996 0-590-84754-6

Harrison and Harrison. Folen's World Atlas; Folens Publishers Inc, California, 1993 - Theme C

Hart, George. Ancient Egypt; Eyewitness Books, Random House of Canada, 19900-679-80742-A IL 5+

Kerrod, Robin. Amazing Flying Machines; Eyewitness Juniors Series, Random House ofCanada, 1992 0-679-92765-4 IL 1-5

Living in History; Funfax Eyewitness Library. DK Publishing, Incorporated, 19970-7894-1839-8

Matthews. Nelson Intermediate Atlas. Nelson Canada, 1989 - Themes A and B - shows locationsof some ancient and aboriginal societies

Millard, Anne. Eyewitness Atlas of Ancient Worlds; D.K. Publishing, Incorporated, 19941-56458-679-0 IL5+

Mummies; Eyewitness Files Series; DK Publishing, Incorporated, 1998 0-7894-2792-3 IL 3-10

Neering et al. Exploring Our World: Other People, Other Lands. Douglas and McIntyre(Educational) Ltd., Vancouver, 1986 - Theme C

Parsons, Jim. Japan: Its People and Culture; Reidmore Books Inc., Edmonton, 1988 - Theme C

122

Parsons et al. Greece: Discovering the Past; Reidmore Books, Edmonton, 1992 - excellent as astudent resource for Theme A

Pearson, Anne. Ancient Greece; Eyewitness Books, Alfred A. Knopf Books for YoungReaders, 1992 0-679-81682-8 IL 5+

People and Places Series; Silver Burdett Press, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1988 - includes: Brazil,Canada, China, France, Japan, Southeast Asia, United Kingdom - deals with modernsocieties as they are built on traditions

Pollard and Wilkinson. The Industrial Revolution; The Greatest Discoveries and InventionsSeries; Chelsea House Publisher, 1995 0-7910-2767-8

Power for the People; Cambridge Introduction to History Series, Cambridge University Press,1980 0-8225-0808-7 IL 5+

Reeves, Nicholas and Nan Froman. Into the Mummy's Tomb: The Real Life Discovery ofTutankhamen's Treasures; Scholastic, 1993 0-590-45753-5 RL4, IL4-9

Rutland, Jonathan . See Inside an Ancient Greek Town. Kingfisher Books Ltd., London, 1986.

- See Inside a Roman Town. Kingfisher Books Ltd., London, 1986.

Shuter, Jane. The Ancient Romans; History Opens windows Series; Rigby Interactive Library,1997 1-57572-591-6

Simpson, Judith. Ancient Rome; Time-Life, Incorporated, 1997 0-7835-4909-1

Snedden, Robert. Technology in the Time of Ancient Rome; Raintree Steck-Vaughn Publishers,1998 0-8172-4876-5

The Old Regime and the Revolution; Cambridge Introduction to History Series, CambridgeUniversity Press, 1980 0-8225-0807-9 IL 5+

Welpy and Adam. The Human Story: Mediterranean Civilizations; Silver Burdett Press,Morristown, NJ, 1987 very good student resource

Woods, Geraldine. Science in Ancient Egypt; Grolier Educational Associates, 19880-531+10486-9 IL5-8

Support Resources for Teachers

Beers. World History: Patterns of Civilization; Prentice-Hall Canada Inc., 1989 - a very goodteacher resource for Themes B and C, but possible student use as well

123

Burger. The Gaia Atlas of First Peoples; Anchor Books Doubleday, 1990 - perhaps useful forteacher in the last sections of Theme C

Coblence. The Human Story: Asian Civilizations; Silver Burdett Press, Englewood Cliffs, NJ;1988 - excellent teacher resource for Themes A and B, but possibly good for student useas well

Coupe and Scanlan. Threads of Time: Junior World History 400-1750; Longman Cheshire,Longman House, King's Garden, 95 Coventry Street, Melbourne 3205 Australia -excellent information on middle societies

Cruxton and Wilson. Flashback Canada; Oxford University Press, Toronto; 1987 - support forstudents as well as teachers on Theme C - last few chapters on social change: women,etc.

James. Origins of Western Civilization; Pergamon Press Inc., Toronto; 1973 - good teacherresource for Themes B and C

Leinwand, Gerald. The Pageant of World History; Allyn and Bacon, Inc., Newton, Mass.; 1986- Themes A and B

McGhee. Canadian Arctic Prehistory; Canadian Museum of Civilization, 1990 - Theme A

Molyneux and MacKenzie. World Prospects: A Contemporary Study; Prentice-Hall Canadalnc.;1987 - information for Theme C

Odijk. The Ancient World: The Greeks and The Vikings; Silver Burdett Press; EnglewoodCliffs, NJ; 1989 - could perhaps be used by advanced students Theme A and Theme B

Pierre. Events of Yesteryear: The Renaissance; Silver Burdett Press, Morristown, NJ, 1985 -excellent for Theme B

Reed. The World Now; Bell and Hyman, Denmark House, 37-39 Queen Elizabeth Street,London SE1 2QB possible student use as well, for Theme C

Stanford. The Global Challenge: A Study of World Issues. Oxford University Press, Toronto;1990 - excellent resource for Theme C

Trueman and Trueman. The Enduring Past: The Earliest Times to the Sixteenth Century.McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd., 1982

Films and Videos

Carthage - 30 minutes - colour - Films for the Humanities

124

Europe in the Middle Ages Series: The Birth of the Middle Ages - 43 minutes - colour TheCityof God - 39 minutes - colour Charlemagne and the Holy Roman Empire - 31 minutes- colour

The Feudal System - 36 minutes - colour Christians, Jews and Moslems in Medieval Spain - 33minutes - colour Byzantium: From Splendour to Ruin - 43 minutes - colour Vikings andNormans - 37 minutes colour - Films for the Humanities

The Greeks Series: The Greek Beginning - 52 minutes colour The Classical Age - 52 minutes -colour Heroes and Men - 52 minutes - colour The Minds of Men - 52 minutes - colour -Films for the Humanities

Intimate Details of Roman Life - 27 minutes - colour - Films for the Humanities

Legacy - Origins of Civilization Series: Central America - The Burden of Time; China - TheMandate of Heaven; Egypt - The Habit of Civilization; India - Empire of the Spirit; Iraq -The Cradle of Civilization; The Barbarian West each 60 minutes - Thomas Howe Media

Magna Carta - 22 minutes - colour - Films for the Humanities

Pompeii: Daily Life of the Ancient Romans - 45 minutes - colour Filmsfor the Humanities

To obtain addresses for audiovisual aids, refer to Strand 7, "Other Aids"

Ancient Societies

Alcock, Vivian. Singer to the Sea God; Reed, 0-7497-1284-8

Anderson, Scoular. A Puzzling Day in the Land of the Pharaohs; Candlewick Press, 19961-56402-877-1 IL 1-5

Bunting, Eve. I am the Mummy Heb-Nefer; Harcourt Brace & Company, 1997 0-15-200479-3

Clements, Andrew. Temple Cat; Houghton Mifflin, 1996 0-395-69842-1 IL 1-3

Levitin, Sonia. Escape from Egypt; Puffin, 0-14-037537-6

McDonald, Fiona. The World in the Time of Alexander the Great; Dillon Press, 19970-382-39742-8

Orgel, Doris. Ariandne, Awake!; Penguin Books Canada, Limited, 1994 0-670-85158-2 IL 1-3

Speare, Elizabeth George. The Bronze Bow; Houghton Mifflin, 0-395-13719-5

Sutcliff, Rosemary. The Eagle of the Ninth. Puffin, 0-14-030890-3

125

The Outcast; Puffin, 0-14-031715-5

The Shield Ring; Puffin, 0-14-034969-3

Talley, Linda. Plato's Journey; Marsh Media, 1998 1-55942-100-2 IL 1-4

Wroble, Lisa. Kids in Ancient Greece; Rosen Publishing Group, 1997 0-8239-5122-7

Middle Societies

Fiction

Alder, Elizabeth. The King's Shadow; Bantam Doubleday, 0-440-22011-4

Bradford, Karleen. Shadows on a Sword; Harper Collins, 0-00-648108-6

Bradford, Karleen. There Will Be Wolves; Harper Collins, 1992 0-00-647938-3 (1096 A.D.,young woman healer, Crusades) RL 5+

Brouwer, Sigmund. Winds of Light Series; Scripture Press Publications

Barbarians from the Isle, 1992 0-89693-116-1A City of Dreams, 1993 1-56476-048-0Foresaken Crusade, 1992 0-89693-118-8Legend of Burning Water, 1992 0-89693-117-XMerlin's Destiny, 1993 1-56476-049-9Wings of an Angel, 1992 0-89693-115-3

Cushman, Karen. Catherine Called Birdy; Harper Trophy, 0-06-440584-2

The Midwife's Apprentice; Harper Trophy, 0-06-440630-X

Dana, Barbara. Young Joan; Harper Trophy, 0-06-44-661-X

de Angeli. The Door in the Wall; Bantam Doubleday, 0-440-80356-X

Dickens, Charles. David Copperfield; Bantam, 1988 0553-211-897

Oliver Twist; Wordsworth Edition, Ltd., 1996 185-326-012-6A Tale of Two Cities; Wordsworth Edition, 1993 185-326-039-8Bleak House; 014-04-34-968

Garden, Nancy. The Dove and the Sword A Novel of Joan of Arc; Scholastic, 0-590-92949-6

Jinks, Catherine. Pagan's Crusade; Hodder & Stoughton, 0-340-60859-5

126

Konigsburg, E.L. Proud Taste of Scarlet and Miniver; Bantam Doubleday, 0-440-47201-6

Llorente, Pilar Molina. The Apprentice; Farar, Strang and Giroux, 0-374-40432-1

Murphy, Jill. Jefferey Strangeways; Candlewick, 1-56402-283-8

Nickel, B.K. The Secret Wish of Nannerl Mozart Second Story, 1996 0-929005-89-9 (historicalfiction of Mozart's sister) RL 5, IL 4-8

Smucker, Barbara. Garth and the. Mermaid; Penguin, 1992 0-670-84614-7 (14th centuryEngland, time travel novel) RL 5, IL 4-6

Stevenson, Robert Louis. The Black Arrow; Russell, Geddes and Gosset, 1-85534-509-9

Temple, Frances. The Ramsay Scallop; Harper Collins, 0-06-440601-6

Treece. Henry. The Children's Crusade; Puffin, 0-14-030214-X

Tomlinson, Theresa. The Forestwife; Random House, 0-09-926431-5

Voigt, Cynthia, Jackaroo; Scholastic, 0-590-48595-4

Picture Books

Oberman, Sheldon. The Always Prayer Shawl; Boyd Mills Press, 1993 1-878093-22-3 (Jewishboy flees Czarist Russia) RL 4, IL 2-7

Video

Beethoven Lives Upstairs, IL3+

Marco Polo: Queen of the Seas, IL7+

Modern Societies

Fiction

Doherty, Berlie. Street Child; Harper Collins, 0-00-674020-0

Garfield, Leon. Smith; Puffin, 0-14-036458-7

Lingard, Joan. Freedom Machine; Penguin Books Canada, Limited, 1988 0-14-032369-4 IL 6-9

Manes, Stephen. It's New! It's Improved! It's Terrible!; Bantam Books for Young Readers, 1989

127

0-553-15682-9 IL 6

Nesbit, E. The Railway Children; Puffin, 0-14-036671-7

Patterson, Katherine. Lyddie; Puffin, 0-14-034981-2

Scarantino, Barbara. Hubert in Heaven; A High-Tech Angel Gets His Wings; New WaveConsultants, 1995 0-943172-88-8 IL 3-6

Theme A - Ancient Societies

History

Reeves, Nicholas and Nan Froman. Into the Mummy's Tomb: The Real Life Discovery ofTutankhamen's Treasures; Scholastic, 1993 0-590-45753-5 RL4, IL4-9

Fiction

Alcock, Vivian. Singer to the Sea God; Reed, 0-7497-1284-8

Levitin, Sonia. Escape from Egypt; Puffin, 0-14-037537-6

Speare, Elizabeth George. The Bronze Bow; Houghton Mifflin, 0-395-13719-5

Sutcliff, Rosemary. The Eagle of the Ninth. Puffin, 0-14-030890-3

The Outcast; Puffin, 0-14-031715-5

The Shield Ring; Puffin, 0-14-034969-3

Theme B - Middle Societies

Fiction

Alder, Elizabeth. The King's Shadow; Bantam Doubleday, 0-440-22011-4

Bradford, Karleen. Shadows on a Sword; Harper Collins, 0-00-648108-6

128

Bradford, Karleen. There Will Be Wolves; Harper Collins, 1992 0-00-647938-3 (1096 A.D.,young woman healer, Crusades) RL5+

Brouwer, Sigmund. Winds of Light Series; Scripture Press Publications

Barbarians from the Isle; 1992 0-89693-116-1

A City of Dreams; 1993 1-56476-048-0

Forsaken Crusade; 1992 0-89693-118-8

Legend of Burning Water; 1992 0-89693-117-X

Merlin's Destiny; 1993 1-56476-049-9

Wings of an Angel; 1992 0-89693-115-3

Legend of Burning Water; 1992 0-89693-117-X

Cushman, Karen. Catherine Called Birdy; Harper Trophy, 0-06-440584-2

The Midwife's Apprentice; Harper Trophy, 0-06-440630-X

Dana, Barbara. Young Joan; Harper Trophy, 0-06-44-661-X

de Angeli. The Door in the Wall; Bantam Doubleday, 0-440-80356-X

Garden, Nancy. The Dove and the Sword - A Novel of Joan of Arc; Scholastic,0-590-92949-6

Jinks, Catherine. Pagan's Crusade; Hodder & Stoughton, 0-340-60859-5

Konigsburg, E.L. Proud Taste of Scarlet and Miniver; Bantam Doubleday, 0-440-47201-6

Llorente, Pilar Molina. The Apprentice; Farar, Strang and Giroux, 0-374-40432-1

Murphy, Jill. Jefferey Strangeways; Candlewick, 1-56402-283-8

Nickel, B.K. The Secret Wish of Nannerl Mozart Second Story; 1996 0-929005-89-9 (historicalfiction of Wolfgang's sister) RL5, IL4-8

Smucker, Barbara. Garth and the Mermaid; Penguin, 1992 0-670-84614-7 (14th centuryEngland, time travel novel) RL5, IL4-6

Stevenson, Robert Louis. The Black Arrow; Russell, Geddes and Gosset, 1-85534-509-9

129

Temple, Frances. The Ramsay Scallop; Harper Collins, 0-06-440601-6

Treece. Henry. The Children's Crusade; Puffin, 0-14-030214-X

Tomlinson, Theresa. The Forestwife; Random House, 0-09-926431-5

Voigt, Cynthia, Jackaroo; Scholastic, 0-590-48595-4

Picture Books

Oberman, Sheldon. The Always Prayer Shawl; Boyd Mills Press, 1993 1-878093-22-3 (Jewishboy flees Czarist Russia) RL4, IL2-7

Video

Beethoven Lives Upstairs, IL3+

Marco Polo: Queen of the Seas, IL7+

Theme C - Modern Societies

Fiction

Doherty, Berlie. Street Child; Harper Collins, 0-00-674020-0

Garfield, Leon. Smith; Puffin, 0-14-036458-7

Nesbit, E. The Railway Children; Puffin, 0-14-036671-7

Patterson, Katherine. Lyddie; Puffin, 0-14-034981-2

Theme A - Ancient Societies

Theme B - Middle Societies

Theme C - Modern Societies

Extension Activities

130

Theme A- Ancient Societies

BEST COPY AVAIIA

131

LE

I

rSliir dent Reteretnce.* ' '''416-Beers World History Patterns 01 CivilizationtBurley`Tulturettirst`?".' -:- V* 4. ° ° rr ' :.,4,t i«,b,w .4,-. Tx .«%57(stif," ' . '11' *7."' i.- 4 ii,i1-Coupe- etSoanlan Thie-ads,o Juniorunior World. 4,t,.4 4.14;,%.;4414-1Y4.4.4*''' ik 1...°61r4ttler y t -. ''"".- 41H istoryi,9,00-1750 : i it-4-04,-,%,,,,t , ,,; .., -,,

Greenblattaiid Lernmo; Human Heritager--14,- "-katinkell14Peo,pleghrough`theAges - 'I-tuThtthevie.-V,Ielion,infeimediate'Atlas`A'

' -CelijiT.lie Ancient World rrhe.sOrelts'and....

4 ,kTheafikingSi: , >* 4.t, ..;4,- 1. ' El

, 1 4 ' r'.

2 Ai,,,-- -

THE''>, ' 3 ,

Teacher R'..ftZ1::rt-

eference:tz.) .-: ,0-Beers WprldiHistory Patterns ot bi»ilization

-C'cbleri`ge ihe'Hiiman,Story Asian Civilizationse yi,-Coupeet,Bcanlin Threads ot Time 'Junior World

.,History 4010-1750 '

.-James Origins o1 1.111estern Civilization

IN-Oaijk Thercient World The Greeks andin The'slikingl.

-Pierre- Eyent.'; ot Yesteryear The

-Trueman andltue.man The Enduring Past TheEarliest Timesito the Si>cterithCetitu'n.,., --414

IT- Itt. Ar lor 4-NECIr

tA, *

Student-Bradford Thieremoill be Wolves-BniuwkiPr -Minds ot Light Series, Barbanans,trom

the Isle:A City c:f Dreams, Foresaken Crusade,Legend ot the Burning Water, Merlin's Destiny, rifttingsof a -

Davi:d«Cop,pejfield, Otiv4i Twist, A Tale ofTwit) Cities:ItleAlcHouse

The Secret Wish or riannerl Moiart`SecondI-Story

Smucker earth and the Mermaid

MEBDLEMID

SOLI ETIESTeacher Guide:

-Tradition and Change, The Jacaranda Pre3S-khan et al , People Through the kges, Teacher

Resource Binder

-4, 1,

ta

I

ri )6'6-Beeitt W.irld;HIstOriiPai-tem%' at ,'

A.p.a,app-BonBemard Life in Changing China-

--CanadianCrtizenshipin Action Weigl Educational- Cruxton and Wilson" Flashback - Canada-Gawood Brazil Land of Contrastst'w,-Evans et'al Technology and;Change in Canada-Evans and Yu China Our Pacitic Neighbour-Jims,ipatsons Japan fts People and Culture

4 -1.147-ineet al .Ekplonng Our World,Other People, Other LandsPeople and Places Senes, Silver Burdett Press..

-Reed,:Bell and Hyman The World Now0 P

-Greenblatt and Lemmo HumariMentage,

t;

I I '

Publishers',-T

Teacher Reference:-Atlas ot the Environment, Nelson Canada 1Q91-Beers World History Patterns of Civilization

1

The e Gala tar of First Peoples-Crtucton^andellbilson Flashback Canada-Harrmn and Ham-on Folen's World AtlasJames Ongins of lille5tem

I-IkIvrieutt and Mackenzie World ProspectsA Contemporary Study

- Parsons and Jamieson Canadians Respondingto Chanie, 194 t-Reed, Bell and Hyman The World Now-Stantord The Global Challenge A:Study. or 'till'orld Issues

'4 4 `' cont'dR. - t 3IN et-r-tVik

y.

s:taeniLiteraturet,,-Ungird Freedom tuttichine-

It's'improvAllt's2Temblel,-Scarantino: Hubert-in Heavan, A High-Tech Angel

Gets His Wings

THEME CMODERNSOCIETIES'

Teacher Guide:- Oawood, Brazil Land of Contrasts-Parsons and Jamieson Canadians Respondingto Change, 1990-Tradition and Change, The Jacaranda Press-Vans et al Technology and Change in Canada, 1Q90

Teacher Reference Cont'd-vans et al Technology and Change in Canada, 1990-Greenblatt and Lernmo Human Heritage

Sti.717crerit Reterprice-: Studs ?it Literature:1.2eirivuandThe713angeant btlitforrd.Hitorst,

7-17, ,;EXTENSIONACTIVITIES

TreachertReference:ri.-Leintroand The Pangeant oriltiorld Huton;

=

Teacher Guide:

9.1 Theme One -Laying theFoundation

9.2 Theme Two - TheCreation ofCanada

9.3 Theme Three -Some InternationalLinks

9.4 AdditionalResources forStrand Nine

9.5 Maps Related tothe Evolution ofCanada

4 61,

:11M1'..1

11-1;jikiI r.

Canada 1867

1i C3urnitiorrolincesBrItIsliTerritom

I 'uU km

0

W

P('.

Jimr, %I.! .7..,

.U'.ra

'RI

Parliament Buildings,Centre Block,Ottawa, Ontario,ca.1867

A , A A Ai L

ith-A`-

41111111.1,

5")-24e.' a,>

I()c

. .

Parliament buildings, Centre Block, Ottavy, Ontaiio.Ea 4867

BEST COPY AVM

135; 3 LE

9.1.1 Commentary on the Theme

9.1.2 Information on the Theme

9.1.3 Concepts Related to the Theme

9.1.4 Issues Related to the Theme

9.1.5 Activities Related to the Theme

Knowing the socio-political circumstances that existed in the northern part of the NorthAmerican continent before the creation of Canada, students will then better understand andappreciate the nature of their homeland - the nation that was born out of those circumstances.

Many of the Aboriginal peoples of Canada call themselves the First Nations (the Indians'national political organization is called the Assembly of First Nations, or AFN). Anthropologicaland archeological evidence seems to indicate that Aboriginal peoples migrated to this area fromAsia beginning more than twelve thousand years ago, although many First Nations' own variousgroups eventually established themselves in different regions of what is now called Canada.Each group or tribe was autonomous. Its people governed themselves according to practices thathad evolved over hundreds or thousands of years. The groups related to one another as sovereignnations. Their political affairs were not unlike those of European nation-states, whose citizensthey would soon encounter. The groups traded with one another, raided one another to acquireresources, took prisoners and kept slaves, warred with one another, made peace pacts, andentered alliances.

Alliances were often made for limited purposes and were intended to exist for only a limited

136

time. Some went beyond that, however. There are, for example, the interesting examples of theBlackfoot and Six Nations Confederacies. The Blackfoot Confederacy included the Blackfoot,Blood and Piegan, along with an unrelated, adopted tribe, the Sarcee. The more constitutionallycomplex Six Nations Confederacy (also called the Iroquois Confederacy, and originally the FiveNations), was made up of the Mohawk, Onondaga, Seneca, Oneida and Cayuga tribes, alongwith the late-joining Tuscaroras. It was established before the arrival of Europeans. Eachmember nation was governed by its own chiefs, and was generally free to determine its ownaffairs. The Confederacy Council confined itself to preserving the internal freedom of eachnation, to maintaining peace among member nations, to ensuring free access to each other'shunting grounds, and to guaranteeing religious freedom.

This, and plenty of other sound evidence, makes it abundantly clear that Aboriginal peopleshistorically exercised and enjoyed self-government of various structures and styles. They weretruly the First Nations on this continent.

(Note: for a fairly comprehensive listing of the First Nations that existed in northern NorthAmerica before the birth of Canada, see 1.2.2 in Strand 7. Some First Nations' political leadersof this period whom the class might wish to study include the following: Thanadelther,Chipewyan, born circa 1700; Pontiac, Ottawa, born 1720; Thayendanegea (Joseph Brant),Matonabbee, Chipewyan, born circa 1736; Mohawk, born 1742; Tecumseh, Shawnee, born1768; Shinguaconse, Ojibwa, born 1773; Edzo, Dogrib, born circa 1780; Akaitcho,Yellowknives, born circa 1786; Crowfoot, Blackfoot, born 1821; Mistahimaskwa (Big Bear),Cree, born 1825; Maquinna, Nootka, born 1835; Edeirbing, Baffin Inuit, born 1837;Qitdlarssuak, Pond Inlet Inuit; Pitikwahanapiwtyin (Poundmaker), Cree, born 1842; Louis Riel,Metis, born 1844)

As the years passed, the people of the working classes living in Upper and Lower Canadabegan to express their discontent with the rule of the elite. By 1837 this discontent had reachedcritical proportions and armed rebellions broke out. These were led by William Lyon Mackenziein Upper Canada, and by Louis Joseph Papineau in Lower Canada. These uprisings were soonquelled and their leaders were forced to flee to the USA for their safety. The British governmentwas compelled, however, to recognize that if it did not change the way it governed its remainingcolonies, it would sooner or later lose them as well. So it sent Lord Durham out to the Canadasto study the situation.

Lord Durham recommended that the two Canadas be united as one colony. This was madepossible with the passage of the Act of Union in 1840 and implemented in 1841. Upper Canadabecame known as Canada West in the united colony and Lower Canada became known asCanada East. Durham further recommended that the united colony should be grantedresponsible government, which meant that the Governor and his executive council should acceptthe will of the elected assembly, which after all was answerable to the people. Durham'srecommendation was accepted by the British. They sent Lord Elgin out as Governor of theunited colony, and he was given instructions to accept responsible government. He did this ineffect when he signed the Rebellion Losses Bill in 1848, thus accepting a Bill that had beenapproved by the representative assembly but which was extremely unpopular with the previouslypowerful elite. Elgin was stoned and spat upon by the outraged aristocracy in protest of his

137

approval, but he stuck to his guns and government in Canada was never quite the same again.

By the middle of the nineteenth century a string both of organized British colonies, and ofunincorporated British territory, spanned the area north of the United States of America. It wasknown in general as British North America. Vancouver Island had become a British colony in1849. Mainland British Columbia was established as a colony in 1858. The two were united asone colony in 1866. There was Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory governed by theHudson's Bay Company, and there were also settlements in the Red River area of Manitoba. Inaddition, Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland allexisted as independent colonies. Their institutions of government were becoming moresophisticated and more responsible to the electorate and less and less under the direct control ofBritain. By the 1860s the stage was set for the creation of a new country, Canada, and for itsfuture growth and development.

Autonomy

Autonomy is a condition in which one is able, and free, to operate by oneself withoutdependency on, or direction by, another. Despite the literal meaning of the term, however, inmodern politics it is often used to refer to a subordinate political jurisdiction which is left free torun many of its own affairs within a sovereign state, but which is not itself a sovereign state. Infact, a so-called "autonomous republic" (or other autonomous region) remains subject in anumber of ways to the power of the sovereign state it is a part of.

Colonialism

Colonialism is practiced by imperial powers. It is a condition where a nation conquers foreignlands and then uses its power to establish colonies of its own people in the conquered lands. Italso uses its power to control the people of the conquered lands, extinguishing the latter'sinstitutions of government, or manipulating them to suit its own interests. "Puppet" governments,comprised of well-treated, and therefore friendly nationals, are a favourite device used byimperial powers to control their colonies. These puppet governments are supported by thearmed forces of the imperial power.

Imperialism

Imperialism is the establishment by a nation of an empire. The nation uses its power to conquerand impose its will on one or more foreign nations. The purpose is often to secure access toimportant resources, to open up new markets for the nation's products, to relieve populationpressures by the establishment of colonies, to make transportation routes secure, or to increasemilitary and economic security generally.

138

Sovereign

Sovereign means "having no superior". Independent nations are said to be sovereign because,having the force of arms, they are able to do largely what they want to do in their own domains.Their power is unchecked by any other body. In the modern world the sovereignty of nations isbeing limited to some small extent by the implementation of international agreements andinternational law. Limitations on sovereignty are not always effective, however, because there isnot yet any encompassing and consistent means of enforcing the international will, even on therelatively few occasions where the rightness or wrongness of a particular circumstance seems tobe agreed upon by a majority of nations. Each country is reluctant to set any precedent ofintervention that might later be turned around to undermine its own sovereignty.

Should Canada constitutionally recognize self-government for First Nations?

It has already been pointed out that First Nations have a history of self-government. They weretreated as separate (if not sovereign) nations by the first Europeans to come to this continent,and continued to be so treated by successive British and Canadian governments. This status isconfirmed by the evidence of signed treaties.

Today, some who are reluctant to differentiate on the basis of race or ethnicity would say thatthere is little reason for Aboriginal self-government. There is a considerable history, especiallyin the Northwest Territories, of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal peoples living successfullytogether in a single society under a common public government. Further, it is noted, in an agethat is fastidious about guaranteeing individual rights, that Aboriginal individuals throughoutCanada presently enjoy in fullest measure the rights of citizenship.

This was not always so. In an earlier age in Canada Aboriginal peoples were herded ontoreserves - reserves that often had inadequate economic resources - and at one point werecompelled to get special permission to leave them. They were denied the right to drink alcohol,and, much more fundamentally, were denied the right to vote. They often lived, and in manycases still do live, in deprivation. Their enforced separation confirmed in the minds of manyAboriginal individuals that they were indeed a separate people and should continue to remain so- not remaining passive and compliant, however, but fighting for their dignity, freedom andprosperity. To them, self-government is part of the answer to their problems. With access toadequate resources, they believe they will be able to solve their problems themselves.

Establishing an Aboriginal self-government regime would certainly complicate the system ofgovernment in Canada, and possibly make it more costly. It might even further divide the peopleof Canada - or at least entrench divisions that already exist. Despite these possibilities, however,many Aboriginal people want self-government, and a majority of Canadians are willing to accept

139

it if it does not entail sovereignty and is not too costly. Further, the government of Jean Chretienhas declared itself willing to begin immediately to negotiate self-government agreements withvarious Aboriginal peoples. In fact, the Mulroney government (1988-93) had already negotiateda self-government agreement with the Sechelt band in British Columbia, and formally declaredits willingness to do so with the Gwich'in and the Sahtu people in the Northwest Territories. Ittherefore appears almost certain that Aboriginal self-government will become a reality across thenation in the years to come.

Whether or not the right to Aboriginal self-government should be entrenched in the constitutionis an important issue. The attempt to do so was made when the Mulroney government negotiateda constitutional package called the Charlottetown Accord in 1992. But that accord was heavilydefeated when it was put to a vote of the people in a referendum, and it was defeated byAboriginal people in the same proportion as other Canadians. As a result of this defeat, theChretien government declared that it would not embark on constitutional change; it wouldconcentrate on the economy. Further, it declared that the Aboriginal right to self-government isalready recognized in Article 35 of the constitution. In this line of thinking, specificconstitutional entrenchment of the right is therefore not needed. This does not sit well withAboriginal leaders. Nevertheless, if they wish to realize self-government within the next fewyears, it appears they will have to do so without benefit of formal entrenchment.

It should be noted that rights can be satisfactorily guaranteed without specific mention in aconstitution. No country in the world is more conscientious about free speech than Britain. Itwas to enjoy the British guarantee of free speech, for example, that the communist, Karl Marx,moved there in the 19th century. Yet Britain does not have a written charter that guarantees theright of free speech - it merely exists as a result of a firm, unwritten understanding andagreement among its people. Nevertheless, the British experience does not impress Aboriginalleaders. They feel they have too often been betrayed by government promises in the past,- andthey want the security of constitutional entrenchment. Rather than settle for something less now,they may prefer to wait until they get it.

1. Have the class prepare a large wall map that provides information about the First Nationsprior to the coming of Europeans, and, of course, prior to the present political boundaries:the names of the tribes, their locations, their populations, their political relationships.

2. Have each student research and report on the traditional form of government of a FirstNation.

3. Have a group of students research and report on the relations between the Huron and theIroquois prior to, and subsequent to, European contact.

140

4. Have a group of students research and report on the history and structure of the BlackfootConfederacy or the Six Nations Confederacy.

5. Have each student research and report on an Indian or Inuit political leader - eitherhistorical or current - in what is now Canada.

6. Invite an Aboriginal political leader to class to speak on self-government.

7. Have students review a new/recent self government agreement (e.g. Yukon) and what'shappening as First Nations try to implement them. Have the class research, then discuss,the historical pursuit and use of power by one or other of the First Nations: why and howpolitical, military and economic power were generally acquired; what the acquired powerwas used to accomplish, and whether their power was always used in moral ways.

8. Have various groups of students research and report on British (or French) colonialinitiatives: their resource and trade needs, their military conquests, their colonizationpolicies and practices, their dealings with "subject" peoples, and whether their power wasalways used in moral ways.

9. Have the class create a large,wall map showing the earliest European colonies in Canada:their locations, their dates of establishment, their sponsoring governments, the numbersand nature of the first people to inhabit them, their rates of growth until Confederation.Text should be added to explain the reasons for the founders having chosen particularlocations.

10. Have various groups of students research and report on decisive conflicts betweenvarious First Nations, between the British and the Dutch, between-the British and theFrench, between the British and the Americans.

11. Have a group of students report on the Proclamation of 1763 and analyze its importanceto subsequent Canadian history.

12. Have a group of students report on the Quebec Act of 1774 and analyze its importance tosubsequent Canadian history.

13. Have each student write an essay discussing whether William Lyon Mackenzie (or LouisJoseph Papineau) was a good citizen.

141

9.2.1 Commentary on the Theme

9.2.2 Information on the Theme

9.2.3 Concepts Related to the Theme

9.2.4 Issues Related to the Theme

Issue #1 Should Canadians weaken their Central Government in order toaccomodate regionalism?

Issue #2 Should governments ever apologize and compensate for thepolicies of previous governments?

9.2.5 Activities Related to the Theme

Students should be helped to understand the creation of the nation of Canada as a specific

political act, by a specific group of people, at a specific time in history, arising out of, yetseparate from, events that had created the social circumstances that existed in 1867. Therefore,while it was a significant event, it was not a natural event (it did not just happen; someone had tothink it up), and it was not a necessary event (that is, it might not have taken place at all, or itmight have taken place based on different principles, or it might have taken place involvingdifferent participants). This approach should help students to understand why Aboriginal peoplesare not conventionally considered to be among the founding peoples of the nation of Canada,but also why they might yet be given a significant role in its ongoing development.

142

By 1866 a number of independent British colonies existed north of the United States of America.These were British Columbia, Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Islandand Newfoundland. Each had its own history, its own lifestyle, its own institutions ofgovernment, its own Governor appointed by the British monarch, and thus its own direct link toBritain. The colonies were not linked together in any formal way, except for the fact that theywere all British colonies.

There were some ardent nationalists in the young United States of America who said it was their"manifest destiny" to control the North American continent. Their aggressiveness made people inthe British colonies uneasy. This unease was heightened when a huge American army wasbrought together to fight the American Civil War. Some British colonials had visions of thatarmy being sent northward after the civil war to conquer them and their territory.

Concerned political leaders in the British colonies began to think it might be prudent to establisha formal association with other British colonies for mutual protection. The idea commendeditself because it could possibly bring economic advantages to all the colonies as well, and itwould undoubtedly lead in due course to greater independence from Britain. So the thought ofcreating a new federated nation - one that was more secure, more prosperous and moreindependent than any one of the individual colonies - was born.

The idea of creating a new nation originated in the colony of Canada. Its assembly heard of ameeting that was being planned in Charlottetown to consider a "Maritime Union" - that is, aunion of the maritime colonies. The Canadian assembly proposed that the meeting be broadenedto include representatives of all the central and eastern British colonies, and that the agendafocus on a larger union that included Canada. Lukewarm to the idea, the maritime governmentsnevertheless were willing at least to hear and discuss the Canadian proposal. [Note: noAboriginal representatives were invited to participate in the meetings.] Delegates including JohnA. Macdonald, Georges-Etienne Cartier, and Alexander Galt were sent from Canada toCharlottetown in September, 1864. Their proposals for union were not greeted with greatenthusiasm by the eastern delegates, but the creation of a larger union than that originallyconceived by the maritime colonies did remain the focus of discussions. A further meeting wasscheduled for Quebec City in the following month. Newfoundland decided not to proceed anyfurther on the matter, and Prince Edward Island was sceptical.

The meeting in Quebec City in October, 1864, framed the principles that would become thefocus of the confederation debates over the next couple of years. Newfoundland and PrinceEdward Island were unenthusiastic about the proposal for confederation, althoughrepresentatives from their two colonies continued to remain involved, many people in NewBrunswick and Nova Scotia disliked the idea as well. They were suspicious of the union becausethey would have to yield some of their sovereignty to the newly proposed federal government -and they might well wind up being dominated by the Canadas in a federation. However, two

143

influential leaders, Charles Tupper from Nova Scotia and Leonard Tilley from New Brunswick,supported the idea and fostered it among their people. Despite very strong opposition fromothers such as the eloquent newspaper editor, Joseph Howe, the idea was eventually accepted,and these two colonies were committed to union with the Canadas.

Among those principles eventually accepted by all the remaining participants were the principlesthat Quebec should have special rights regarding the use of the French language, that it should beallowed to retain French civil law and to establish Catholic schools. It was also accepted by theassociating colonies that Aboriginal people should fall under the jurisdiction of thesoon-to-be-created federal government. First Nations and their governments were not givenanyadditional recognition or status in the constitution.

All the articles that had beenagreed upon were carried toBritain where negotiations thentook place with the Britishgovernment. The final agreementwas written up as an Act of theBritish parliament called theBritish North America Act, 1867(BNA Act). [Note: This Actwas renamed the ConstitutionAct, 1867, when Canada'sconstitution was patriated in1982.]

This Act, passed March 29, 1867,was to become the constitution ofthe new country which wouldtake the name, the "Dominion ofCanada". [Note: the colony ofCanada had relinquished its nameso that the new nation could useit.] The BNA Act came into effect,

Canada 1867

Outittin provinctsBrithiacrooryltatkfincd bonly

lun

PrhreEalmfird

!slim]

&Nit la

and Canada came into being as a nation, on July 1, 1867. Thenew nation had four provinces: Ontario (formerly Canada West), Quebec (formerly CanadaEast), New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.

EST COPY AVAILABLE

144

Parliament buildings, Centre Block (view from western approach),Ottawa, Ontario, after 1880.

Confederation

Confederation is the word used to describe the joining together of British colonies to create thenation of Canada. The colonies, which became the provinces of the new country, kept importantpowers for themselves and had them entrenched in the constitution. They agreed to relinquishonly limited, yet very significant, powers to the newly created national government. Thisconstitutional division of powers between two levels of government is the key characteristic of afederation. Because Canada is a federation, the word "confederation" was adopted to describethe act of its formerly independent parts joining together to form one nation.

Immigration

Migration is the movement of peoples. Emigration is the movement of peoples away from theirhomelands in pursuit of new homes. Immigration is the movement of peoples into a new areawhere they intend to establish permanent residency. Immigration has been a feature of Canadiansocial policy almost from the founding of the nation. All non-Aboriginal people who live inCanada are either immigrants or are descended from immigrants. In fact, Aboriginal people canbe considered to be immigrants as well, inasmuch as they are thought to have migrated fromAsia in prehistoric times.

Political Regions

145BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Political regions are regions of a country which have boundaries based primarily on politicalconsiderations. Political considerations may, of course, take into account geographical,demographic, or other factors. Political regions may specifically be designated as autonomousregions, provinces, states, territories, counties or municipalities.

Treaty

A treaty is a solemn agreement struck, usually, between two sovereign entities - for peace,alliance, or economic cooperation. Treaties have a quasi-legal nature. Because they arenegotiated by sovereign entities, there is often no independent means to enforce them. In thesecases, if the terms of treaties are to be upheld, it is the good will of the signatories that willuphold them.

In Canada the word "treaty" has been used to describe solemn agreements reached between theGovernment of Canada and various Aboriginal peoples. The implication of using this word isthat Aboriginal peoples were seen by the Government of Canada from the very beginning ashaving a special status, different from that of the ordinary body politic in Canada.

Issue #1 Should Canadians weaken their central government in order toaccommodate regionalism?

Canada was born out of regionalism. Some of the country's regions existed as independentpolitical jurisdictions before the nation itself existed. They had their own history, their owngovernment, their own lifestyle. When the country was created, the provinces retainedjurisdiction over their own lands and resources (the federal government claims legal ownershipof the land in the territories, as well as sovereignty over all the lands of the nation). Moreover,Canada is extremely large in area, and is very diverse in topography, climate, resources. Thisengenders a diversity of needs, interests and lifestyles. It seems that the land is too vast and toocomplex to be governed successfully by a single government. For all these reasons it is notsurprising that there are some fairly strong tendencies toward regionalism in Canada.

Yet, in working toward Confederation, the founders deliberately created a strong centralgovernment. The federal government was given a power of disallowance over provinciallegislation. It was given the residual power, which is the power to act upon whatever is notspecifically named in the constitution as being a provincial power. It was given the power to taxby any manner or means, whereas provinces are limited to the power of direct taxation. It wasgiven the power to expropriate provincial lands for projects vital to the national interest. All ofthis makes the intention of the founders clear: they wanted a federation in which the central,federal government had an edge in power over the provincial governments.

146

Neither the original independent status of the individual colonies on the one hand, nor the slightcentralist bias given to the country by its founders on the other hand, need necessarily be adetermining factor into the future. Surely present needs should decide the issue - yet these do notpoint either to any single, conclusive answer in the matter of whether we should move towardmore or less regionalism. From the point of view of regionalists, our diverse peoples cannot getalong if we are expected to conform too rigidly to a single pattern. Moreover, they say, contraryto the intentions of the founders, the federal government has become too powerful, particularlywith its access to revenues that are actually needed to service unexpectedly expensive programsarising out of provincial jurisdictions such as education, health care, social services andhighways. Meanwhile the federalists insist that regional politicians excessively exploitopportunities to criticize the federal government simply to win points with local voters. Theybelieve we do not appreciate our country as much as we should; that despite occasionalaggravations, Canadians are among the most fortunate people in the world. They feel that all ofus must make greater efforts to take the grander view - to be considerate of the needs of otherCanadians, to cooperate and to try to get along.

Whether the federal government should be weakened in order to accommodate regionalismcannot easily be answered. One thing in all of this seems clear though. If it is to be successful,any constitutional change that is proposed must be negotiated change no matter how tedious orhow frustrating that process might be. Arbitrary and unilateral action will not work successfullyfor any length of time in a complex country like ours.

Issue #2 Should governments ever apologize and compensate for the policies ofprevious governments?

There are cases in Canada where individuals have clearly been dealt with unjustly bygovernment as a result of unwarranted discriminatory policies. The best known case is that ofJapanese Canadians during World War II. They were stripped of their major assets by theCanadian government: homes, farms, fishing boats and businesses. The people themselves wereconfined to detention camps. Their assets were sold at giveaway prices, and from the receiptswere deducted any government assistance that had been given to them. All of this was done tothem (they were citizens of Canada!) merely because they were of Japanese ancestry, and Japanwas at war with Canada. There was never even any attempt to weigh the loyalty of individuals;in fact, not one of them was ever charged with disloyalty to Canada. They were condemned as agroup based purely on prejudice and unfounded suspicions.

The Mulroney government did apologize and compensate in this case. A previous Trudeaugovernment had declined to do so, believing it unwise of a government to try to rewrite historyand redress the supposed wrongs of previous governments. People who agree with the Trudeaupoint of view raise many arguments in support. They say there are many different memories ofhistorical events - many different perceptions of what occurred - and there is no way ofdetermining absolutely who is right and who is wrong. Moreover, attitudes were different inprevious ages because of differing circumstances, and conceptions of right and wrongconcerning certain behaviour were different too. They say you can't fairly judge yesterday'sactions by today's standards. They also say that any government trying to rewrite history by

147

redressing past injustices will find itself caught up in a never-ending trail of claims (for example,the Inuit have made a claim concerning the transfer of people from Arctic Quebec to Grise Fiordand Resolute Bay in the 1950's, and Chinese Canadians have made a claim concerning theirtreatment during and following the building of the Canadian Pacific railroad). Today's time andingenuity and money, in their view, are better used to solve today's problems. If governmentshave learned lessons from the past, the best thing they can do to make amends is to apply thebenefit of those lessons to future action.

Others would argue that, while it is true that what is right and what is wrong is not alwaysclearly visible in some circumstances, it certainly is in others. They might cite the Japaneseinternment as a case in point. There are fundamental principles of justice, as well as principles ofcivil right, that have been agreed upon and endorsed in western societies for hundreds of years.These were clearly violated in dealing with the Japanese Canadians. War hysteria is the onlyexcuse that can be offered in defence, and it is a weak one. The war was neither present norpressing on the Canadian people and their government. The circumstances simply did notwarrant precipitate, mass action. It seems in a case like this that a government ought to apologizeand compensate. Perhaps all citizens should demand that it do so, lest the principle beestablished that a state has no moral accountability for its actions after the fact because aparticular, former government has committed them. In this view, surely each successivegovernment is the successor and heir to the consequences of action of previous governments aswell as to the power and authority of the state. It is in the interests of every citizen to makecertain that all citizens are treated justly by every Canadian government on every occasion.

This is not to say that every claim of injustice has merit and must be redressed. Each problemthat is raised is different and must be reviewed and judged separately.

Nevertheless, the principle remains the same: if injustice can be clearly established, thensomething surely ought to be done to redress the situation. Wherever injustice is demonstrated, apractical argument recommends itself in favour of apology and compensation as well. Thedescendants of those treated unjustly will not forget what happened to their forebears. Theirresentment will fester. The tranquility and stability of the state is bound to suffer until amendsare made.

1. Have students write a script and roleplay the arguments used to defend or attack the ideaof confederation by the various parties at the Charlottetown conference.

2. Have the class make a large map showing the date, areas and peoples covered by eachAboriginal treaty.

3. Have students identify, chart and compare the special provisions made for French and

148

Native peoples in the constitution of Canada as well as in other definitive legislation andtreaties.

4. Identify, chart and compare changes that French and Native peoples would still like tosee in the constitution and in other definitive legislation.

5. Debate the issue of providing special rights and status for groups in Canada other thanthe French and Aboriginal peoples.

6. Have the class create a large wall map that illustrates the boundaries of Canada as itgrows and changes from its birth in 1867 through to the creation of Nunavut in 1999.

7. Have each student write and deliver a speech that an Indian leader might have made at anearlier time in history lamenting the failure of the Fathers of Confederation to includeAboriginal peoples as founding peoples of this nation.

8. Have each student write and deliver a speech that an Aboriginal leader might makelooking for rights and justice in Canada (or simply dramatize one that has actually beenmade already, current or historical).

9. Have the class make a chart showing the main powers that were given to the provincesand the federal government respectively in the BNA Act. Illustrate the informationgained in a collage that separately depicts federal and provincial governmentjurisdictions.

10. Have each student write an essay discussing whether Louis Riel was a good citizen.

149

Summary of Differencesbetween community structures in the Northwest Territories

Settlement SettlementCorporation

CharterCommunity

Legal Status

Criteria forStatus

Request orMinister'sinitiative

SettlementCorporation

Minister satisfiedresidents desire it

MunicipalCorporation

Public request orMinister'sinitiative

Establishment By Order

Council

Taxation

By Order, afterconsultation

(No provisions for Elected underelected council) LAEA according

to establishingOrder

Property taxespaid to GNWT

Financial None

Authority

By-laws

Funding Minister'sdiscretion

Property taxespaid to GNWT

Budgeting,banking, chargesfor services. Nolending,borroWing ormaking grants.

By Order &Charter, afterconsultation &plebiscite

Elected underLAEA accordingto CommunityCharter

Property taxespaid to GNWT.Option to becomeMunicipal TaxingAuthority

Budgeting,banking, chargesfor services, shortterm borrowing to10% of revenues,grants up to 2% ofexpenditures. No

Hamlet Village Town City

Municipal Municipal Municipal MunicipalCorporation Corporation Corporation Corporation

Public request or Minimum Minimum MinimumMinister's assessment base assessment base assessment bainitiative of $10 Million. of $50 million. of $200 millic

Council request Council request Council requeor Minister's or Minister's Minister'sinitiative initiative initiative

By Order By Order By Order By Order

Elected underLAEA 2 yearstaggered terms

Property taxespaid to GNWT.Option to becomeMunicipal TaxingAuthority

Budgeting,banking, chargesfor services, shortterm borrowing to10% of revenues,grants up to 2% ofexpenditures. No

lending. lending.

No by-law making By-law makingpowers powers may be

restricted byCharter

Negotiated

Full by-lawmaking powers

Formula funding Formula fundingfor O&M. Capital for O&M. Capitalfunding on 5 year funding on 5 yearplan. plan.

ne orivard

150

Elected underLAEA 3 yearstraight terms

MunicipalTaxingAuthority, leviesand collectsproperty taxes

Budgeting,banking, chargesfor services,short termborrowing to85% of revenues,long termborrowing to10% ofassessment base,grants to $5,000.No lending.

Full by-lawmaking powers

O&M and capitalfunding byproperty taxation.GNWT providesequalizationpayments

Elected underLAEA 3 yearstraight terms

Elected underLAEA 3 yearstraight terms

Municipal Municipal Ta;Taxing Authority, levAuthority, levies and collectsand collects property taxesproperty taxes

Budgeting,banking, chargesfor services,short termborrowing to85% of revenues,long termborrowing to20% ofassessment base,grants to $5,000.No lending.

Budgeting,banking, char)for services, s:term borrowin85% of reventlong termborrowing to :of assessmentbase, grants tc$5,000. Nolending.

Full by-law Full by-lawmaking powers making power

O&M and capital O&M and capfunding by funding byproperty taxation. property taxatGNWT provides GNWT provicequalization equalizationpayments payments

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

COMMUNITY STATUS - JANUARY 31, 1991

COMMUNITIES (No Legal Municipal Status)

1. Bathurst Inlet2. Dettah3. Jean Marie River4. Kakisa Lake

5. Nahanni Butte6. Nanisivik7. Rae Lakes8. Snare Lake

9. Snowdrift10.Trout Lake11.Tungsten12.Wrigley

SETTLEMENTS SETTLEMENT CORPORATIONS

1. Colville Lake,2. Fort Good Hope,

HAMLETS

July 12, 1990 1. Arctic Red River,August 14, 1991 2. Enterprise,

3. Fort Resolution,

1. Aklavik, January 1, 19742. Arctic Bay, July 1, 19763. Arviat, December 1, 19774. Baker Lake, April 6, 19775. Broughton Island, August 31, 19796. Cambridge Bay, April 1, 19847. Cape Dorset, April 1, 19828. Chesterfield Inlet, April 1, 19809. Clyde River, July 1, 197810.Coppermine, April 1, 198111.Coral Harbour, April 1, 197212.Fort Franklin, April 1, 197213.Fort Liard, April 1, 198714.Fort McPherson, November 1, 198615.Fort Norman, April 1, 198416.Fort Providence, January 1, 198717.Gjoa Haven, April 1, 198118.Grise Fiord, October 2, 1987

CHARTER COMMUNITIES

None

19. Hall Beach,20. Holman,21. Igloolik,22. Lac La Martre,23. Lake Harbour,24. Pangnirtung,25. Paulatuk,26. Pelly Bay,27. Pond Inlet,28. Rae Edzo,29. Rankin Inlet,30. Repulse Bay,31. Resolute Bay,32. Sachs Harbour,33. Sanikiluaq,34. Spence Bay,35. Tuktoyaktuk,36. Whale Cove,

151

January, 1990July 1, 1988

April 1, 1988

April 1, 1978April 1, 1984April 1, 1976April 1, 1986April 1, 1982April 1, 1972April 1, 1987April 1, 1972April 1, 1975April 1, 1971

January 20, 1975July 1, 1978

November 3, 1987April 1, 1986

April 20, 1976April 1, 1981April 1, 1970

July 1, 1976

VILLAGES

1. Fort Simpson,2. Norman Wells,

TOWNS

1. Fort Smith,2. Hay River,3. Inuvik,

4. Icialuit,

5. Pine Point,

CITIES

1. Yellowknife,

January 1, 1973; Hamlet - July 1, 1969April 1, 1986; Hamlet - April 1, 1981; to become aTown - April 1, 1992

October 1, 1966; Village - L.A.D. - 1958July 18, 1963; Village - 1953; Hamlet - 1949January 1, 1970; Village - April, 1967October 1, 1980; Village - April 1, 1974; Hamlet -1971April 1, 1974; Village - January 1, 1973; Hamlet -June 1, 1969 (technical designation only - town nowabandoned.)

January 1, 1970; Town - July 18, 1963; MunicipalDistrict June 30, 1953; L.A.D. - December 18, 1939

Note - dates above indicate the date of incorporation

The above material on municipal governments (valid as of December, 1991) has been provided by the Department ofMunicipal and Community Affairs, Government of the Northwest Territories. The department's co-operation and help isgratefully acknowledged.

Back Theme ll Home Forward

152

9.3.1 Commentary on the Theme

9.3.2 Information on the Theme

9.3.3 Concepts Related to the Theme

9.3.4 Issues Related to the Theme

Issue #1

Issue #2

Should Canada tie environmental practices to trade policies?

Should Canada develop closer ties with the USA?

9.3.5 Activities Related to the Theme

Once a nation becomes sovereign, it also becomes a participant in international affairs. It mustdetermine and set its foreign policy so that it will have orderly relations with other sovereignnations. A new nation is not entirely free to pluck its foreign policy out of the air, for this policyis necessarily shaped by the nation's history, by its former relations, by its geographical location,by interests that it has in common with other nations, and so on. The foreign policy pudding islargely cooked using ready-made ingredients.

One measure of Canada's growth as a fully independent nation can be seen in the steps it hastaken toward the objective of forging its own foreign policy.

In the early years following Confederation, Canada's foreign policy was very much shaped byBritain and by British interests. Canada was a part of the Empire and its successor, theCommonwealth. Its trade relations, and other international relations, were to quite a large extentpre-determined by the British connection. This fact is confirmed in Canada's participation in theBoer War and World War I. Neither of these conflicts was brought about by events that

153

threatened Canada's interests. Rather, Britain's interests (described as the Empire's interests)were at stake, and Canada was expected to help defend them. Indeed, because of the ties thatbound the two countries, many Canadians of British origin were happy to defend them. Butmany Canadians of French origin were not. Conscription to support the war effort became amajor issue that divided French and English Canadians during World War I.

Despite the internal controversy surrounding its participation, Canada's significant role in WW Iwas instrumental in winning the new nation a greater measure of independence. It took its ownplace at the peace talks following the war. Before long it was looking for the right ofindependent action from Britain in all but constitutional matters. This independence was gainedwhen Britain passed the Statute of Westminster in 1931. This document established thetheoretical right of the Dominions in the British Commonwealth to full legislative autonomy.And this autonomy was clearly and deliberately exercised when Canada waited one full weekafter Britain had declared war on Germany in 1939 in order to do so herself.

Britain's economy and its empire were both shaken by World War II. Although British ties withits old dominions were retained through the Commonwealth after the war, Britain of necessityturned its attention to a newly revitalized Europe to avoid the possibility of becoming isolatedand impotent. Canada, economically, was more and more left to fend for itself.

In this vacuum, Canada began to forge closer ties and to strengthen its relations with the UnitedStates of America. Militarily and economically, the USA gradually became Canada's majorassociate. Today many Canadians would consider the USA to be Canada's main friend and ally.This development is not at all surprising, since the two countries have much in common. Bothcountries have their origins in British values and traditions. Both use English as a majorlanguage and share many other features of a common culture. Being in geographical proximity,both countries have many natural links. Commenting on this relationship, John Kennedy oncesaid in a speech to the Canadian parliament: "Geography has made us neighbours, history hasmade us friends, economics has made us partners and necessity has made us allies."

/r.

O

2,

P./44 g

NAFTA signing, San. Antonio TX, Oct 6, 1992

154 BEST COPY HAMA LE

The natural friendship of Canadians and Americans has been reflected in nearly 150 years ofessentially peaceful relations. Disputes that have arisen have been resolved peacefully, bynegotiation. This continuing friendship is also reflected in the world's longest undefendedborder. Canadians and Americans freely visit one another's countries without visas or passports.

Militarily the two countries are linked in NATO and NORAD. They are cooperating in buildingthe North Warning System, and until recently they had an agreement to test American Cruisemissiles over Canadian territory. Economically, the USA has long been Canada's largest tradingpartner by far. The two countries are linked together in an Auto Pact, in a bilateral Free TradeAgreement (FTA) and in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) with Mexico.More informally, there is a constant and massive two-way flow of people and information inbusiness, sport and vacation travel, and in radio, television, film and magazine productions.

Canada's relationship with the USA is not without its problems, however, even today. Tradeissues constantly arise, whether over fish, or grain, or lumber for example. There is the issue ofcross-boundary pollution, particularly acid rain. There is the issue of control over the NorthwestPassage. As noted earlier, these and other similar issues have to date been solved peacefully, bynegotiation. To solve such bilateral problems, Canada and the USA have often successfullyresorted to a mechanism called the Joint Commission. Each Commission is made up of an equalnumber of representatives from each country, and often has a neutral chairman. The Commissioncollects the facts, examines them, and then makes a recommendation to the two countries. Oftenthese recommendations are accepted, thus enabling the two countries to remain at peace. In thepast Commission recommendations have been made with respect to boundaries, defence, trade,water and fisheries.

These Canadian links with the USA, our nearest neighbour, are a good place for students tobegin their study of international relations.

Alliances

Nations, like individuals, need power in one or more of its many forms in order to be able tofulfil their needs. When.they do not have adequate power to act successfully unilaterally, theyattempt to join their power to that of one or more other nations to meet their needs. Naturally,they seek out nations that have either similar or complementary interests, so that both or all willbenefit in some important way from their working together.

When the need in question is a security need, and there is an intention to combine militarypower, "alliance" is the word that is commonly used today to describe the resulting pact.

155

Free Trade

Throughout history, in most countries of the world, governments at one time or another haveimposed taxes (called tariffs) on foreign goods entering their country. Their aim has sometimesbeen simply to raise revenue. Often the aim has been to make foreign goods more expensive inthe expectation that citizens will then buy domestic products. This is a way of trying to protectlocal businesses and the jobs that those businesses yield. At the same time, however, thispractice causes prices to consumers to be higher than necessary. It also protects inefficientbusinesses from competition. They then have no incentive to produce a range of high qualityproducts at the lowest possible prices.

Free trade is a policy of removing protectionist tariffs on foreign goods entering a country. Onthe positive side, free trade does compel local businesses to become competitive and it doeshave the effect of lowering prices to consumers. It also has the incidental effect of fostering aninternational outlook. On the negative side, it can result in some local businesses being closeddown (particularly those that are inefficient) and in some loss of jobs. Because neither thepositive nor negative impacts are clearly predominant and easily identifiable, free trade has beena matter of dispute for hundreds of years. The issue has arisen in Canada's political history fromtime to time, and the political parties involved in the dispute have even changed their stances onthe issue with the passage of years. For example, the Conservative Party which recentlycommitted Canada to the Free Trade Agreement was once the party that authored the NationalPolicy, a policy of protectionism in the latter half of the 19th century.

International Organization

An international organization can be defined as any organization that includes two or morenations in its structure. More commonly, however, it is taken to mean an organization that isopen to all countries of the world, such as the United Nations (UN) , the World HealthOrganization (WHO) or International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).

International Trade

Trade that takes place across any national boundary can be called international trade.International trade is often embarked upon by businesses that want to expand the market fortheir goods and services after having largely satisfied the home market. International trade isconducted under laws imposed both by the exporting and importing countries. These laws mayprohibit the international sale of certain strategic resources; they may prohibit the sale of certainstrategic resources to certain countries that are deemed to be hostile in some way to theexporting country's interests; they may limit imports or exports; they may set conditions forimport or export; and they may impose import or export tariffs. In recent years, there has beenan international effort - through the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) talks - tochallenge protectionism and to reduce barriers to international trade. This is done in the belief(some say mistaken) that freer trade in the long run will be beneficial to all individuals in allnations.

156

Peacekeeping

Peacekeeping is a new international phenomenon that arose with the creation of the UnitedNations. Under the sponsorship of the UN, troops are brought together from several countriesto attempt to maintain peace in a situation where warring parties have at last reached anegotiated settlement but are unable to trust one another to observe the terms of the peaceagreement. Canada has played an important role in peacekeeping efforts - it has participatedconsistently and effectively.

Some would like to see the UN become more aggressive in its activities directed toward peace.They would like it to intervene in wars - even in internal wars as it did in Korea - to try toimpose a peace on the warring parties. Others believe that this is impractical because it does notsolve the root problems of the conflict, and would also be unwise because peacekeepingcountries might be thrust into taking sides, perhaps unfairly, in the absence of real knowledge ofthe issues. The UN's complex role in the former Yugoslavia is under scrutiny at the present timeand may well help to determine the future of such efforts.

Undefended Border

Many borders in the world, where countries have been, or are, potentially hostile to one another,are defended by periodic fortifications, by the emplacement of troops, by border police withguard dogs and automatic weapons. An undefended border is one where the only officials alongthe border are customs officers at border crossing points, to ensure that travellers haveappropriate accreditation, and to ensure that trade laws are being observed. Countries that trustone another, and that have peaceful relations with one another, prefer to have undefendedborders for reasons of economy as much as for any other reason. Practicality - the length of theborder, as well as the cost of defending it - makes it virtually impossible for any countrycompletely to seal off its borders with other countries. The Communist government of EastGermany did manage to do it for years between East and West Berlin, but this was within theconfines of a single city.

Passport

A passport is a document issued by a government to one of its citizens who wishes to embarkon international travel. It affirms that the carrier (whose picture is enclosed) is an accreditedcitizen of the issuing country. This document gives receiving countries more confidence inallowing foreigners to enter their country. They know they are bona fide visitors who have ahomeland to return to. A passport also gives the carriers some assurance that they will receivethe help of their country's emissaries in the foreign lands they visit if they should need it.

Visa

A visa is a permit that is issued by a receiving country that allows a foreigner the right to visit ora specified purpose and a specified period of time. Wherever visas are required, visitors cannotenter the country without one. There are many countries, however, that dispense with visarequirements for visitors from certain other preferred countries.

157

Issue #1 Should Canada tie environmental practices to trade policies?

Pollution of the physical environment affects all human beings. When it gets into the water andinto the air, it does not stop at international borders. The unwise use of resources such as theworld's fisheries and forests can affect people internationally as well. These matters shouldtherefore be a significant concern of all governments and all citizens.

In international relations, Canada must deal with sovereign nations that do not recognize anyauthority higher than themselves when it comes to dealing with activities inside their borders. Ifthere are some nations that do not respect the environment, and do not sign accord that areintended to protect it, then it might be argued that some way must be found to pressure them tobecome more responsible. Tying the potential benefits of trade to their environmental practices isone form of leverage that can be used. President Clinton of the USA, for example insisted onlinking a side agreement on environment to the North America Free Trade Agreement before hewould ratify it.

Some people would argue that there should be no connection between a country's trade policiesand what night be considered "moral" issues. They say that a country should simply pursue itsown best interests in the matter of trade. There are too may similar issues of concern that mightget drawn in as well: human rights, treatment of minorities, treatment of prisoners, and so on. If anation once gets involved in being a moral policeman, where does it stop? These people say thatif a country insists on being "right" on all such issues, and insists on attempting to compel othernations to act morally as well, that it could undermine its own position and economic strength,and thereafter be less able to have a significant impact for good in the world by its own practicesand example.

If a nation is right to act in its own best interests then it must recognize that its own best interestsdo not lie entirely in short-term economic interests. Its interests also lie in a healthy environment.A seriously damaged environment will undoubtedly have significant implications for the health,prosperity and future well being of its citizens. It surely must take whatever steps it can tomaintain a clean environment and ensure the prudent use of the world's resources. If that in turnmeans using whatever leverage it can to influence the environmental decisions of other nations,perhaps it should be willing to do so - even threatening to withhold trade where satisfactoryenvironmental standards are not met.

Issue #2 Should Canada develop closer ties with the USA?

It must be first understood that Canada's present ties with the United States are very closealready. The USA is our main military ally. It is our main source of imports and the maindestination for our exports. The recently signed free trade agreements will have the effect ofintermeshing our economics even more closely. The USA is our main international travel

158

destination. It is our main source of films, magazines and television entertainment. It is hard tosee how we could develop even closer ties with the USA without becoming permanently linkedin some formal way - as partners in a larger federation, perhaps adopting a common position inthe conduct of foreign affairs.

It seems that most Canadians would not find the prospect of a permanent, formal relationshipattractive. As mush as we wish to share in the American culture, and wish materially to extendthe benefits of association with the USA as much as possible - and we do demonstrate thereality of these wishes regularly by voting our dollars and our TV tuners - we still wish tomaintain our separate identity.

As Canadians, we see ourselves as being different from Americans - perhaps more tolerant ofcultural variety, perhaps less prone to violence. If these are valid perceptions, perhaps theattitudes behind them spring from the events of our history. Canada was founded partly by alarge group of people who had rejected the violence of the American Revolution - who wereinclined to put up with grievances a little longer if necessary until peaceful solutions could benegotiated. And Canada was characterized from its birth by the need to reconcile the differinginterests of "two founding nations", the French and the English.

People who hold to the idea that the Canadian identity is significantly different form theAmerican identity, and wish to preserve it, have another reason for rejecting closer ties with theUSA. They fear becoming completely overshadowed and dominated - even absorbed - by ourpowerful neighbor. They do not wish to become merely a state in the union. They do not wish tobe subordinated to American foreign and military policy. They fear this latter development ispossible whether Canada takes conscious steps to get closer or not.

Given the widespread Canadian desire for material prosperity and popular American culture onthe one hand, and the right of independent action on the other, it seems most likely that for manyyears to come - as long as the American need for resources does not reach a critical stage - thatthe economies and cultures of our two countries will indeed become more completely integrated.But it also seems certain that Canadians will cling steadfastly to an independent political identityto independent political institutions and action. This latter status will not be compromisedmerely by the fact that Canada may often side with the USA on international issues. Commoninterests will quite naturally produce this result on many occasions.

159

1. Have a group of students chart the main elements of Canadian history and the mainelements of American history, and compare and contrast the two - with respect to thetolerance of differences, and with respect to the use of violence to advance goals.

2. In multimedia presentations, have groups of students identify and demonstrate the waysin which Canada is different from the USA today.

3. Have the class discuss the kinds of values Americans and Canadians seem to hold incommon, and those which we differ on.

4. Pair up students and have them debate the merits of free trade.

5. Have each student prepare an illustrated essay which assesses the impact of American art,music, film, television or fashion on Canadian lifestyle and values.

6. Have the class research and assess the impact of the USA on the prosperity of Canadians.

7. Have groups of students assess and report on opportunities for Canadians in variousAmerican markets: cultural, scientific, economic, sports, etc..

8. Have groups of students analyze and report on areas of Canadian disagreement withAmerican economic activity or foreign policy (political and military interventions).

9. Have groups of students analyze and report on incidents of Canadian-Americancooperation in international affairs.

10. Pair students up and have them debate the proposition that Canada should seek to becomea part of the United States of America.

REMINDER - Strand Nine focus for civics is on news stories that deal with the activities of thefederal government.

160

This resource list is intended to be a dynamic document. If teachers know of a resource useful tothe teaching of this strand that is not indicated here, please forward the bibliographicalinformation with brief comments on how the resource is useful. New resource lists will bepublished as appropriate to reflect current materials available.

These can be sent to:

Social Studies CoordinatorEarly Childhood and School ServicesG.N.W.T.P.O. Box 1320YELLOWKNIFE, NWTX1A 2L9

9.4.1 Resources for Strand Nine Civics

9.4.2 Resources for Strand Nine Social Studies

9.4.3 Literature Resources to Support the Integration of Social Studies and Civics withLanguage Arts

Baldwin and Odynak. Canada's Political Heritage: Conflict and Change; Weigl EducationalPublishers Ltd., 1985

Campbell and Fretts. Canada in the World: Choosing a Role; Weigl Educational Publishers Ltd.;1985

Clark and McKay. Canada Revisited: A Social and Political History of Canada to 1911; ArnoldPublishing Ltd., 1992

Price, Legacy: Indian Treaty Relationship; Plains Publishing Inc., Edmonton, 1991

161

Primary Books

Burley and Latimer. A Geography of Canada and the United States. Arnold Publishing Ltd.,Edmonton; 1990 - links Canada and the US geographically, common pollution problems,etc. - excellent for Theme C - has Teacher's Resource Package

Clark and McKay. Canada Revisited: A Social and Political History of Canada to 1911; ArnoldPublishing Ltd., Edmonton; 1992 - excellent for Theme B - has Teacher's Manual as well

Garrod et al. Canada: Growth of a Nation; Fitzhenry and Whiteside Ltd., Toronto, 1981 -excellent for the social, historical and political science elements of this strand - Theme B- has a teacher's manual

Massey. Our Country, Canada. Ginn Publishing Canada Inc., 1992 - plus a Teacher's ResourceBook - combines history and geography - includes Aboriginal people as it goes throughthe regions

Matthews. Nelson Canadian Atlas (also has teacher's edition). Nelson Canada; 1988 - excellentfor teaching geography skills, also good informational support for the social/historicalsections

Origins: A History of Canada; Boiteau et al, Fitzhenry and Whiteside; 1991 - Theme B - writtenin conjunction with TV Ontario video series (also available)

Student Resources for Students

Allen, Patricia. Metenpenagiag: New Brunswick's Oldest Village; Goose Lane, 19940-86492-139-X (Miramichi Micmac) RL6, IL 5-8

Baldwin and Odynak. Canada's Political'Heritage: Conflict and Change; Weigl EducationalPublishers Ltd., Edmonton; 1985 - has a teacher's guide Theme B - excellent for civicscontent

Beattie, Owen and John Geiger. Buried in Ice; Douglas& McIntyre, 1989 1-55054-048-3 RL4,IL 4-9

Berton, Pierre. Adventures in Canadian History Series; McClellend RL 4, IL 4-7.

Attack on Montreal, 1995 0-7710-1419-8

162

The Battle of Lake Erie; 1994 0-7710-1424-4Bonanza Gold; 1991 0-7710-1432-5Canada Under Siege; 1991 0-7710-1431-7The Capture of Detroit; 1991 0-7710-1425-2City of Gold; 1993 0-7710-1445-7The Death of Issac Brock; 1991 0-7710-1426-0The Death of Tecumseh; 1994 0-7710-1423-6Dr. Kane of the Arctic Seas; 1993 0-7710-1446-5Jane Franklin's Obsession; 1992 0-7710-1435-XThe Klondike Stampede; 1991 0-7710-1433-3The Men in Sheepskin Coats;Parry of the Arctic; 1992 0-7710-1434-1A Prairie Nightmare;1992 0-7710-1440-6The Railway PathfindersRevenge of the Tribes; 1991 0-7710-1429-5Steel Across the PlainsSteel Across the Shield; 1994 0-7710-1422-8Trails of '98; 1992 0-7710-1444-9Trapped in the Arctic; 1993 0-7710-1447-3

Bliss. Confederation: A New Nationality; Grolier Ltd., Toronto; 1981

Bryan. Canada: A History to the Twentieth Century; Reidmore Books, Edmonton; 1993 -text and

Campbell and Fretts. Canada in the World: Choosing a Role; Weigl Educational Publishers Ltd.,Edmonton; 1985 - good for Theme C - explains what foreign policy is, then deals withissues

Canada's Visual History; slides from the NFB and McIntyre Media Ltd., Rexdale, ON

Canada: Symbols of Nationhood; Department of the Secretary of State of Canada - containsflags, name explanations, etc.

Canada: A Book of Maps; Edward Owen Ed.; Clare Educational Development Inc., NorthVancouver; 1985 an excellent student resource: Aboriginal peoples, trading posts,routes, etc. - Themes A and B

Canadian Oxford School Atlas; 6th Ed.; Oxford University Press, Toronto - some value forCanada's links

Canadian Native Peoples Series: The Huron; Corn Planters of the Eastern Woodlands; Kelly;Nelson Canada; 1986 - Theme B

Canadian Citizenship in Action; Weigl Education Publishers Ltd., Edmonton; 1992 - good forcivics support

153

Canadiana Scrapbook Series; Prentice-Hall Canada Inc.; 1984 - includes: Canadian-AmericanRelations

Canadians at Work, Pioneer Settlements in Canada 1763-1895; A Nation Launched, A NationBeckons, Discovery and Exploration, Canada's Native people, Canada: Windows on theWorld, Multiculturalism

Canada's People, Les Canadiens: The French in Canada 1600-1867; etc. - an excellent studentresource - Themes B and C

Cardinal and Ripley. Canada's People: The Metis; Plains Publishing Company Inc., Edmonton;1987 - has a teacher's guide

Deny and Nash. Geo Canada; McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. 1990 - Theme A

Early Peoples: Origins: A History of Canada; a separate part of the earlier noted "Origin" series

Garrod. Confederation; Fitzhenry and Whiteside, Toronto; 1982

Gorrel, Gena K., North Star to Freedom: The Story of the Underground Railway; Stoddart,1996 0-7737-2988-7 RL5, IL5+

Greenwood, Barbara, A Pioneer Story Kids Can (life of 1840 pioneer families), 19941-55074-128-4 RL4, 1L3-8

Hannell and Harshman. Across Canada: Resources and Regions; John Wiley and Sons, Toronto;1981

Theme A - detailed geography of Canada; - includes a teacher's manual and a student workbook

Hello Canada Series; (all provinces and territories except PEI; environmental studies, maps,photos, biographies, fun facts) Theme A

Hill. Trials and Triumphs: The Story of African Canadians; Umbrella Press, Toronto; 1993 -perhaps for human geography, Theme A, or settlement, Theme B

Huntley. Canada: Immigrants and Settlers Gage Educational Publishing Company, Toronto;1991

Jackdaw Folios (various, on Canadian history); Clarke, Irwin and Company Ltd.

Kalman, Bobbie, Historic Communities Series, Crabtree RL3-4, IL4-6

A Child's Day; 1994 0-86505-494-0Children's Clothing of the 1800's; 1995 0-86505-480-0Colonial Crafts; 1992 0-86505-511-4

164

Customs and Traditions; 1994 0-86505-515-718th Century Clothing; 1993 0-86505-492-4Fort Life; 1994 0-86505-516-5Games of Long Ago; 1995 0-86505-521-1The Gristmill; 1990 0-86505-506-8Home Crafts; 1990 0-86505-505-XThe Kitchen; 1990 0-86505-504-119th Century Clothing; 1993 0-86505-513-0Old Time Toys; 1995 0-86505-520-3A One Room School; 1994 0-86505-517-3Settler Sayings; 1994 0-86505-518-1Tools and Gadgets; 1991 0-86505-508-4Visiting a Village; 1990 0-86505-507-4

Kenna, Kathleen, A People Apart, Somerville House, 1995 1-895897-59-9 (photo essay of OldOrder Mennonites) RL4, IL all

Last et al. Canada: The Land and Its People. Gage Education Publishing Company, Toronto;1985 - Themes A and C

Livesey and Smith. Discovering Canada: The Fur Traders. Stoddart Publishing Company Ltd.,Toronto; 1989 - Theme B

Livesey, Robert and A.G. Smith. Discovering Canada: The Fur Traders. Stoddart, 19890-7737-5304-4

The Vikings. Stoddart, 19989 0-7737-5209-9

Lunn, Janet and Christopher Moore. The Story of Canada; Key Porter, 1996 1-895555-88-4 RL5

Marcotte. Ordinary People In Canada's Past. Arnold Publishing Company, Edmonton; 1990 -Theme B

Marcotte. Ordinary People in Alberta's Past. Arnold Publishing Ltd., Edmonton; 1993 - Theme B

Marshal, Ingeborg. The Beothuk of Newfoundland; Breakwater, 1989 0-920911-18-8 RL4 IL4-8

Massey. Canada: Its Land, Its People. Reidmore Pocol Enterprises Ltd., Edmonton; 1986 -Theme A

Merrit, Susan E. Her Story: Women of Canada's Past (before 1900); Vanwelli, 19951-55125-022-5 RL5 IL5+

Native Peoples and Explorers of Canada Series; Prentice-Hall Canada Inc.; 1986 - Theme B

Odynak. Early Canada.Weigl Educational Publishers Ltd., Edmonton; 1989 - Theme B

165

Omotani. Canada's Links; Plains Publishing Inc., Edmonton; 1991 - useful for Theme C

Owens, Ann-Maureen and Jane Yealland. Forts of Canada; Kids Can, 1995 1-55074-271-X(up tolate 1800's, how built, fort life) RL6, IL4-8

Pard et al. The Peigan: A Nation in Transition. Plains Publishing Inc., Edmonton; 1985 - ThemeB

Parry, Caroline. Eleanora's Diary; Scholastic, 1994 0-590-74096-2 (pioneer life in the 1830's)RL5; IL5-8

Price. Legacy: Indian Treaty Relationships. Plains Publishing Inc., Edmonton; 1991 - excellentresource for both students and teachers - excellent for civics component - Theme B

Ray, Arthur J. I Have Lived Here Since The World Began: An Illustrated History of Canada'sNative People; Key Porter, 1996 1-895555-94-9 (Teacher Resource)

Schreiber et al. Alberta's Metis: People of the Western Prairie. Reidmore Books, Edmonton;1988 - Theme B

We Are Canadians; Canadian Heritage Learning Resources; Queen's University, Kingston -

this is a multimedia approach, and ongoing

Wernick, Morris. The Time Traveller Book of New France; RL4, IL3-7

Support Resources for Teachers

Cartwright and Pierce. Contact Canada. Oxford University Press, Toronto; 1987 - an excellentteacher resource - Themes A and C

Cruxton and Walker. Community Canada. Oxford University Press, Toronto; 1990

Cruxton and Wilson. Flashback Canada. Oxford University Press, Toronto; 1987

Dunlop. Towards Tomorrow: Canada in a Changing World. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Canada;1987 also a teacher's guide Themes A and C

First People, First Voices; ed. Penny Petrone, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1983.

Garvin. Bushland People. Arctic Institute of North America; U of C; 1992 - perhaps for ThemeA, human geography

Growth of a Nation Series; Fitzhenry and Whiteside; 1986 - has cameo booklets on many times/places in Canada, including: Journeys of Exploration - very good for Theme B, but older- can be used by advanced students

166

Indian Oratory: Famous Speeches by Noted Indian Chieftains; compiled by W.C. Vanderwerth;University of Oklahoma Press, Norman Oklahoma; 1971

Matthews. Nelson World Atlas. Nelson Canada; 1991

Matthews and Morrow. Canada and the World: An Atlas Resource. Prentice-Hall Canada Inc.;1985 - text and Teacher's Guide

McGhee. Canadian Arctic Prehistory. Canadian Museum of Civilization; 1990 - Theme B

McInnis. Canada: A Political and Social History. Holt, Rinehart and Winston of Canada Ltd.;1982

Morse. Fur Trade Canoe Routes of Canada: Then and Now. University of Toronto Press; 1969

Symbols of Nationhood; The Secretary of State, Ministry of Supply and Services, Canada, 1991- all themes

Periodicals - Other Aids - Films and Videos - Mapping Canada

Periodicals

The Beaver: Exploring Canada's History; 450 Portage Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3C 0E7 - 6issues per year

Canadian Geographic; The Royal Canadian Geographic Society, 488 Wilbrod Street, Ottawa ONK1N 6M8

Horizon Canada: A New Way to Discover the History of Canada; 531 Deslauriers Street, Office444 Saint- Lauren, Quebec H4N 1W2

Other Aids

Our Home and Native Land; National Film Board; 1989 - a catalogue of video and film "forAboriginal Canadians"

Films and Videos

Canada - The Great Experiment Series -14 programs - each 30 minutes - hosted by Canada'sfirst Prime Minister, John A. Macdonald (played by Colin Fox) TV Ontario

The Canada Series II: Soverignty; Basement Suite (Creative Thinking); The Birch RiverCampaign (Citizenship Participation); Canada's Relationship With the Rest of the World;I.D. Canada (Identity) - each 15 minutes - TV Ontario

167

Mapping Canada

Origins - A History of Canada Series: A New World; The First Nations; Lost Civilizations; TheFirst Europeans; The Treasure Hunt; The Key to Canada; God and Mammon; Partners inTrade; Displaced Persons; Empire Builders; Balance of Power; The Fall of New France;The Parting of the Ways; Struggle for Survival; Growing Pains; Forming a Nation - each30 minutes - TV Ontario

Reckoning - The Political Economy of Canada Series: At the Crossroads; In Bed With anElephant; Riding the Tornado; The Rise and Fall of American Business Culture; ShiftChange - each 30 minutes - National Film Board

To obtain addresses for audiovisual aids, refer to Strand Seven, "Other Aids".

Theme A Geography

Theme B History to the Twentieth Century

Theme C- International Connection

Theme A - Geography (Political, Physical, Human, Economic)

RL = Reading Level IL = Interest Level

Fiction

Lottridge, Celia. Ticket to Curlew; Groundwood, 1992 0-88899-163-0 (Alberta prairie, 1915)RL5, IL3-7

Picture Books

Carrier, Roch. A Happy New Year's Day; Tundra, 1991 0-88776-267-0 (small Quebec village)RL4, IL1-5

Davidge, Bud. The Mummer's Song; Groundwood, 1993 0-88899-178-9 (Christmas in ruralNewfoundland) RL2, IL all

168

Jam, Teddy. The Year of the Fire Groundwood; 1992 0-88899-154-1 (maple sugar camp,grandfather's past) RL3, IL2-5

McGugan, Jim, Josepha, A Prairie Boy's Story; Red Deer College Press, 1995 0-88995-142-X(emigre pioneers) RL3, IL all

Reynold's, Marilynn. Belle's Journey; Orca, 1994 1-55143-021-5 (prairies, 1920's) RL3, IL1-4

Theme B - History to the Twentieth Century

RL = Reading Level IL = Interest Level

Fiction History Biography Picture Books Anthologies Videos CD Roms

Fiction

Barkhouse, Joyce. Yesterday's Children; Lancelot, 1993 0-88999-522-2 (Canadian adventurestories set in the past) RL5

Brandis, Marianne. Rebellion: A Novel of Upper Canada; Porcupine Quill, 1996 0-88984-175-6(1837, teen finds work in Toronto paper mill) RL5, IL 7+

Buffie, Margaret. My Mother's Ghost; Kids Can, 1992 1-55074-091-1 (Alberta ranch, past andpresent) RL6, IL6-10

Choyce, Lesley. Wrong Time, Wrong Place; Formac, 1991 0-88780-340-7 (Halifax, blackheritage) RL5, IL5-8

Clark, Joan. The Dream Carvers; Penguin, 1995 0-670-85858-7

(Osweet of Newfoundland capture Greenlandic boy) RL5, IL5-9

Edwards, M.B. The Ocean Between; Napoleon, 1993 0-929141-19-9 (1874, family leavesFrance for Canada) RL6, IL5-8

Horne, Constance. Trapped by Coal; Pacific Educational, 1994 0-88865-091-4 (1916, BCmining family) RL5, IL3-7

Hutchins, Hazel. Within a Painted Past; Annick, 1994 1-55037-989-5 (Canmore, 1800s, mining)RL5, IL4-6

Ibbitson, John. 1812: Jeremy and the General; (Brock, York) RL6, IL7-12

Katz, W.W. Out of the Dark; Groundwood, 1995 0-88899-241-6 (boy imagines he is a Viking

1:61

shipbuilder) RL7, IL7-12

Lawson, Julie. White Jade Tiger; Beach Holme, 1993 0-88878-332-9 (Chinatown, 1880s) RL6,IL6-12

MacDonald, T. The Time of the Wolf; Maxwell Macmillan, 1994 0-02-954255-3 (1800s) RL5,IL5-8

Montgomery, L.M. Anne of Green Gables; Seal 0-7704-2205-5

Anne of Avonlea; Seal 0-7704-2206-3 RL4-6

Richards, David. Soldier Boys; Thistledown, 1993 1-895449-34-0 (two teens, 1885 RielRebellion) RL5, IL5

Silverthorne, Judith. The Secret of Sentinel Rock; Coteau, 1996 1-55050-103-8 (pioneers firstsettle prairies) RL4, IL4-9

Smucker, Barbara. Underground to Canada; Penguin, 1978 0-14-031122-X(slave underground railway) RL5, M5-11

Spalding, Andrea. Finders Keepers; Beach Holme, 1995 0-88878-359-0 (Peigan and non-nativeboy find 8,000 year old arrowhead) RL6, IL6-9

Spencer, Anne. The Memory Book; Key Porter, 1995 1-55013-711-5(wooden schooners, Nova Scotia) RL4, IL4

Taylor, Cora. Ghost Voyages; Scholastic, 1992 0-590-74058-X (time traveller goes back tovoyages of the Northcote and the Nonsuch) RL5, IL4-8

History

Allen, Patricia. Metepenagiag: New Brunswick's Oldest Village; Goose Lane, 19940-86492-139-X (Miramichi Micmac) RL6, IL5-8

Beattie, Owen and John Geiger. Buried In Ice; Douglas & McIntyre, 1989 1-55054-048-3 RL4,IL4-9

Berton, Pierre. Adventures in Canadian History Series; McClelland RL4, IL4-7

Attack on Montreal; 1995 0-7710-1419-8

The Battle of Lake Erie; 1994 0-7710-1424-4

Bonanza Gold; 1991 0-7710-1432-5

170

Canada Under Siege; 1991 0-7710-1431-7

The Capture of Detroit; 1991 0-7710-1425-2

City of Gold; 1993 0-7710-1445-7

The Death of Isaac Brock; 1991 0-7710-1426-0

The Death of Tecumseh; 1994 0-7710-1423-6

Dr. Kane of the Arctic Seas; 1993 0-7710-1446-5

Jane Franklin's Obsession; 1992 0-7710-1435-X

The Klondike Stampede; 1991 0-7710-1433-3

The Men in Sheepskin Coats;

Parry of the Arctic; 1992 0-7710-1434-1

A Prairie Nightmare; 1992 0-7710-1440-6

The Railway Pathfinders

Revenge of the Tribes 1991 0-7710-1429-5

Steel Across the Plains

Steel Across the Shield 1994 0-7710-1422-8

Trails of '98 1992 0-7710-1444-9

Trapped in the Arctic 1993 0-7710-1447-3

Boulton, Marsha, Just A Minute: Glimpses of our Great Canadian Heritage Little, Brown, 19940-316-10369-1 RL7, IL5+

Gorrell, Gena K., North Star to Freedom: The Story of the Underground Railway Stoddart,1996 0-7737-2988-7 RL5, IL5+

Greenwood, Barbara, A Pioneer Story Kids Can, 1994 1-55074-128-4 (life of 1840 pioneerfamily) RL4, IL3-8

Hill, Lawrence, Trials and Triumphs: The Story of African Canadians RL6, IL6-9

171

Kalman, Bobbie, Historic Communities Series Crabtree RL3-4, IL4-6

A Child's Day 1994 0-86505-494-0

Children's Clothing of the 1800's 1995 0-86505-480-0

Colonial Crafts 1992 0-86505-511-4

Customs and Traditions 1994 0-86505-515-7

18th Century Clothing 1993 0-86505-492-4

Fort Life 1994 0-86505-516-5

Games From Long Ago 1995 0-86505-521-1

The Gristmill 1990 0-86505-506-8

Home Crafts 1990 0-86505-505-X

The IGtchen 1990 0-86505-504-1

19th Century Clothing 1993 0-86505-513-0

Old Time Toys 1995 0-86505-520-3

A One-Room School 1994 0-86505-517-3

Settler Sayings 1994 0-86505-518-1

Tools and Gadgets 1991 0-86505-508-4

Visiting a Village 1990 0-86505-507-6

Kenna, Kathleen, A People Apart Somerville House, 1995 1-895897-59-9 (photo essay of OldOrder Mennonites) RL4, IL all

Livesey, Robert, Discovering Canada Series Stoddart RL5, IL4-6

The Defenders 1994 0-7737-5665-5The Native Peoples 1993 0-7737-5602-7New France 1990 0-7737-5341-9Livesey, Robert and A.G. Smith, The Fur Traders Stoddart, 1989 0-7737-5304-4The Vikings Stoddart, 1989 0-7737-5209-9

Lunn, Janet and Christopher Moore. The Story of Canada; Key Porter, 1996 1-895555-88-4 RL5

172

Marshall, Ingeborg. The Beothuk of Newfoundland; Breakwater, 1989 0-920911-18-8 RL4,IL4-8

Merritt, Susan E. Her Story: Women from Canada's Past; Vanwell, 1995 1-55125-022-5 (before1900) RL5, IL5+

Owens, Ann-Maureen and Jane Yealland. Forts of Canada; Kids Can, 1995 1-55074-271-X (upto late 1800s, how built, fort life) RL6, IL5+

Parry, Caroline. Eleanora's Diary; Scholastic, 1994 0-590-74096-2 (pioneer life in the 1830s)RL5, IL4-8

Ray, Arthur J. I Have Lived Here Since The World Began: An Illustrated History of Canada'sNative People; Key Porter, 1996 1-895555-94-9 (Teacher Resource)

Wernick, Morris. The Time Traveller Book of New France; RL4, IL3-7

Biography

Bruce, Harry. Maud: The Life of L.M. Montgomery; Seal, 1994 0-7704-2559-3 RL5

Grant, Agnes. James McKay: a Metis Builder of Canada; Pemmican, 1994 0-921827-38-5 (sonof immigrant trader and Metis mother, Manitoba) RL6, IL7+

Sadlier, Rosemary. Leading the Way: Black Women in Canada; Umbrella, 1994 1-895642-11-6RL6

Sterling, Shirley. My Name Is Seepeetza; Groundwood, 1992 0-88899-165-7 (Coast Salish,residential school) RL6, IL5-8

Yee, Paul. Struggle and Hope: Chinese in Canada; Umbrella, 1995 1-895642-14-0 (since 1858to present) RL6, IL5+

Picture Books

Bouchard, Dave. The Elders Are Watching; (view of colonization) RL4, IL4+

King, Thomas. A Coyote Columbus Story; Groundwood, 1992 0-88899-155-X (view ofcolonization) RL3, IL3-adult

Kusugak, Michael. Northern Lights: The Soccer Trails; Annick, 1993 1-55037-338-2 RL2, IL1-5

Manson, Ainslie. A Dog Came Too; Groundwood, 1993 0-88899-187-8 (1793, AlexanderMackenzie) RL3, IL1-4

Mills, Judith C. The Stonehook Schooner; Key Porter, 1995 1-55013-719-0 R12, ILpre-2

173

Smucker, Barbara. Selina and the Bear Paw Quilt; Stoddart, 1996 0-7737-5837-2 (1860's,Mennonite girl flees to Canada) RL3, IL1-4

Valgardson, W.D. Sarah and the People of Sand River; Groundwood, 1996 0-88899-255-6(northern Manitoba Icelandic immigrants and native people) RL4, IL2+

White, Jacquelinne. Coyote Winter; Stoddart, 1991 1-895555-14-0 (prairie Hutterite school)RL2, ILpre5

Yee, Paul. Roses Sing on New Snow Groundwood, 1991 0-88899-217-3 (VancouverChinatown) RL3, IL1-5

Ghost Train; Groundwood, 1996 0-88899-257-2 (Chinese building CPR in the Rockies) RL4,IL3+

Anthologies

Ahenakew, Freda, et al ed. Native Voices; McGraw, 1993 0-07-551448-6 RL9

Roman, Trish, ed. Voices Under One Sky; Nelson, 1993 0-17-603979-1 RL9

Video

Duncan Campbell Scott: The Poet and the Indians (spearheaded an assimilation program) IL7+

Hands of History; (women artists) IL8+

Lacrosse: The Creator's Game; IL6+

Race to Freedom: The Underground Railroad; IL5-11

Speak It!: From the Heart of Black Nova Scotia; (black students in a predominantly white highschool discover heritage) IL6+

Tom Alone; Canada's Allstar Series. Atlantis Films, 1990. Distributed by Magic LanternCommunications. 90 minutes. (1800s boy travels west in search of father) IL5-9

The Village of Thirty Centuries; (Micmac village on the Miramichi, Metepenagiag) IL6+

CD ROM

Making History: Louis Riel and the Northwest. Rebellion of 1885 (documentary and pictorial,teacher's guide)

174

Theme C - International Connection

RL = Reading Level IL = Interest Level

Kusher, Donn, The Night Voyagers; Stoddart, 1995 1-895555-69-8 (Central American familyflees to Canada) RL6, IL 5-9

Wiseman, Eva. A Place Not Home; Stoddart, 1996 0-7737-5834-8 (family flees Hungary afterthe revolution to live in Montreal) RL 5, IL 4-

175

r A

El

it

,..t"*t'41;IL , : '

SC' eference esautices

/ /

.

11

41

-

p

U.

: a "V:: ?'ili),;77,%-pw k.kiikr

"V" ..-!" - -, Theme B

'17 111:90I cif. Iv'44 r A.1

fA ,11.111,A.4_r,A,0*-Aqh..:1-1,A74434Ga t) a d 6: History to

COX ). , 'ql./.Wei. ^ /,,,C*))ride,r,r

' theATwe nt e t It

'Teacher Reference:.4=The Beaver Exploring Canada's History

-Canadian Arctic Prehistory

et4%Lower Reading Level Student Literature'',4s,.....",--Berton, Adventures in Canadian HieStOri RL 4, 1L4-7

-001 AA,rHistoric Communities Series RL3-4, IL 4-6

-Liveiev. Discovering Capila 7i es. RL 6. 1L46Eton/ of Canada RL 5

.4'13PSO Dog Came Too Rl!3 Ii 4PorittleirviSnow RL 3. I t

-170 host:3'1a nAR

440

, A

Teacher Guide-Baldwin and Odynak, Canida's Political Heritage

Conflict and Chari"ge!',.,..-Boiteau et al, Origins A History of Canada,

(video series also-Bryan, Canada A HiStoryto.the Twebath;Centu'ry.-Garrod et al. Canada,,,GrOvuth ofNátion-Clark.and Mckay, eariada,Remsited rA.Social'and

Political,HistorykofeCanad'a1941--Massey:13'4455-1C

tt.&Intl; r, '0:aa,cliii<i'AttlAki: .'

--Ao

,

I

V:;;Teacher Reference:Canadian Geographic

ri

ta!`1104....11.

""047 I -a

ra.@V"

THEME Aa -

GEOGRAPHY OF:, t.CANADA

Teacher Guide(?eograph or Canada and the United States

-tots si-ev, Our Country, Canada- Nelson Canadian ,Atlas

olso has teacher's edition)

1

1

IMb

rr

Teacher Reference:-Cambell and Frett2, Canada in the

fhoozing a Role.-Omotani, Canada"! Linliz

1

. .

.

THEME C,'.Canada: International

ConnectionsTeacher Guide

-Burley and Latimer, A Oe.Ogr3phy of Canadaand the United State!

-Dunlop. Toward:. Tomorroliii Canada in aChanging 'all'orld

II

t- 4

" z. t f

44,

Teacher Reference:-Cambell and Frett, Canada in the World

Choosing a Role-Canada Symbols ot Nationhood, Department of

1/4' the Secretary ot State ot Canada - contains flags,

name explanations, etc-Garvin. Elushland People ,

Trials and TriumphszYhe 'Shins of AfricanCanadians s

oro-Petrone. ed, First People. First voices;401'

-.Price°;tAilacw TrreatRPlationshIP3410004,-,,,%.,,40,04.

a.EOZ*i ;A-4 At.

EXTENSION

ACTIVITIES

it)

t - = -_if 5, °

Teacher Guide

I

Canada 1867

6:

r3

Canada 1867

I-7 (Imam reerince.s1111:1SIITerritory

- - Uirkilned

'30,111m

-vdnunilhad

PrinceEdwardbland

./ wu Sankt

Nonurwl irk

US4

EST COPY AVAILABLE

180

Canada 1873

Canada 1873

==i Canadian territoryI= British territory

Undefined boundary

PrincedwardIsl and

NovaScotia

NewBrunswick

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

1.81

Canada 1912

No

Canada 1912

Canadian pnni nem= Canadian tenitrits= British Territory

Undefined 13onier

NMI Ian

rq found! and

Ontario0

Pri nee

&Man/Island

Mna

lb-wick

EST COPY AVAILABLE

182

U.S. Department of EducationOffice of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI)

National Library of Education (NLE)Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC)

NOTICE

REPRODUCTION BASIS

IC

This document is covered by a signed "Reproduction Release(Blanket) form (on file within the ERIC system), encompassing allor classes of documents from its source organization and, therefore,does not require a "Specific Document" Release form.

This document is Federally-funded, or carries its own permission toreproduce, or is otherwise in the public domain and, therefore, maybe reproduced by ERIC without a signed Reproduction Release form(either "Specific Document" or "Blanket").

EFF-089 (9/97)