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PS 031 117
Smale, Jim, Editor
Following Footsteps: ECD Tracer Studies.
Bernard Van Leer Foundation, The Hague (Netherlands).ISSN-1387-9553
2002-12-0061p.; For 2001 edition, see ED 458 971. Only one issuepublished in 2002.
Bernard van Leer Foundation, P.O. Box 82334, 2508 EH, TheHague, The Netherlands. Tel: 31-(0)-70-351-2040; Fax: 31 -(0)-70- 350 -2373; e-mail: registry @bvleerf.nl; Web site: http://www.bernardvanleer.org.Collected Works Serials (022)Early Childhood Matters; n100 Dec 2002EDRS Price MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.
Developed Nations; Developing Nations; *Early-ChildhoodEducation; *Followup Studies; Foreign Countries; *Outcomes ofEducation; Parents; *Program Effectiveness; ProgramEvaluation; *Young Children
Botswana; Caribbean; Honduras; Ireland; Israel; Kenya; Spain;United States
This document consists of the single 2002 issue of TheBernard van Leer Foundation's "Early Childhood Matters," a periodicaladdressed to practitioners in the field of early childhood education andincluding information on projects funded by the Foundation. Articles in thisissue focus on early childhood development tracer studies of formerparticipants in early childhood programs, addressing theory and practice,reflection and planning, methodology, findings, and policy and programming.The articles include: (1) "Following Footsteps: ECD Tracer Studies" (JimSmale); (2) "Tracer Studies: An Opportunity and a Challenge" (David P.Weikart); (3) "The Story Behind the Story: Tracing San Children inBotswana" (Willemien le Roux and Gaolatlhe Eirene Thupe); (4) "Tracer Studiesand the Caribbean Support Initiative" (Susan Branker); (5) "Family SupportProgrammes" (Ann S. Epstein, Jeanne Montie, and David P. Weikart); (6)
"Gender Differences in Personality Development" (Anne Njenga and MargaretKabiru); and (7) "The Implications of Tracer Studies for ProgrammeDevelopment" (Henriette Heimgaertner). The issue includes information onFoundation publications and announcements related to Foundation activities.(HTH)
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.
U.S
. DE
PA
RT
ME
NT
OF
ED
UC
AT
ION
Offi
ce o
f Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rch
and
Impr
ovem
ent
ED
UC
AT
ION
AL
RE
SO
UR
CE
S IN
FO
RM
AT
ION
CE
NT
ER
(E
RIC
)'T
his
docu
men
t has
bee
n re
prod
uced
as
rece
ived
from
the
pers
on o
r or
gani
zatio
nor
igin
atin
g it.
Min
or c
hang
es h
ave
been
mad
e to
impr
ove
repr
oduc
tion
qual
ity.
Poi
nts
of v
iew
or
opin
ions
sta
ted
in th
isdo
cum
ent d
o no
t nec
essa
rily
repr
esen
tof
ficia
l OE
RI p
ositi
on o
r po
licy.
PE
RM
ISS
ION
TO
RE
PR
OD
UC
E A
ND
DIS
SE
MIN
AT
E T
HIS
MA
TE
RIA
L H
AS
BE
EN
GR
AN
TE
D B
Y
Cet
te_1
1
TO
TH
E E
DU
CA
TIO
NA
L R
ES
OU
RC
ES
INF
OR
MA
TIO
N C
EN
TE
R (
ER
IC)
1
the
bulle
tin o
f the
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n
*_ft
-;-1
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9111
41-
1f
h-7rr
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.
yeti
r-D
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IrPr
;1"?
i it
1.1
II2
.)JJ
.'1U
U
i.
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
is p
ublis
hed
thre
e tim
es a
yea
r, b
y th
e
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n
PO
Box
823
34, 2
508
EH
The
Hag
ue, T
he N
ethe
rland
s
Tel
: +31
(0)
70 3
31 2
200
Fax
: +31
(0)
70 3
50 2
373
emai
l: re
gist
ry(b
vlee
rf.n
1
ww
w.b
erna
rdva
nlee
r.or
g
Ser
ies
Edi
tor:
Jim
Sm
ale
Jim
.Sm
ale
@bv
leer
f.nl
Des
ign
& P
rodu
ctio
n: H
omem
ade
Coo
kies
by
Wor
k fe
atur
ed in
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
is n
ot
nece
ssar
ily fu
nded
by
the
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n.
The
vie
ws
expr
esse
d ar
e th
ose
of th
e in
divi
dual
auth
ors
and
not n
eces
saril
y th
ose
of th
e F
ound
atio
n.
Mat
eria
l fro
m E
arly
Chi
ldho
od M
atte
rs m
ay b
e re
prod
uced
or
tran
slat
ed w
ithou
t per
mis
sion
, pro
vide
d th
at it
is n
ot
dist
ribut
ed fo
r pr
ofit.
It m
ust b
e at
trib
uted
to th
e or
igin
al
.aut
hor(
s), E
arly
Chi
ldho
od M
atte
rs a
nd th
e B
erna
rd v
an L
eer
Fou
ndat
ion.
If yo
u ar
e in
tere
sted
in c
ontr
ibut
ing
to E
arly
Chi
ldho
od
Mat
ters
, ple
ase
cont
act t
he E
dito
r fo
r a
prel
imin
ary
disc
ussi
on a
nd to
obt
ain
a co
py o
f our
'Gui
de fo
r A
utho
rs'.
Con
trib
utio
ns m
ust b
e re
late
d to
ear
ly c
hild
hood
deve
lopm
ent a
nd s
houl
d dr
aw o
n di
rect
pra
ctic
al e
xper
ienc
e
with
you
ng c
hild
ren,
thei
r fa
mili
es a
nd c
omm
uniti
es.
Ple
ase
note
that
the
Fou
ndat
ion
does
not
pay
for
cont
ribut
ions
bec
ause
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
is g
ener
ally
dist
ribut
ed fr
ee o
f cha
rge.
Ple
ase
also
not
e th
at w
e al
low
free
copy
ing
for
non-
com
mer
cial
pur
pose
s.
ISS
N 1
387-
9553
Cov
er: K
enya
Sta
ndar
d 1
girls
in E
mbu
dis
tric
t cen
tre
for
EC
E
phot
o: M
wan
a M
wen
de p
roje
ct
Insi
de fr
ont c
over
: Trin
idad
& T
obag
o G
irl s
harin
g a
secr
et
phot
o: S
ervo
)
Bac
k co
ver:
Pos
ter
Com
petit
ion
2002
phot
o: M
Mut
hu
As
wel
l as
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
the
Fou
ndat
ion
prod
uces
a w
ide
rang
e of
pub
licat
ions
abo
ut e
arly
chi
ldho
od
deve
lopm
ent.
All
are
avai
labl
e -
free
of c
harg
e fo
r si
ngle
copi
es -
to o
rgan
isat
ions
or
indi
vidu
als
inte
rest
ed in
this
field
. A p
ublic
atio
ns li
st is
als
o av
aila
ble:
ple
ase
cont
act t
he
Fou
ndat
ion
at th
e ad
dres
ses
abov
e an
d on
the
back
cov
er.
Con
tent
sIn
trod
uctio
n:F
ollo
win
g F
oots
teps
: EC
D tr
acer
stu
Fol
low
ing
Foo
tste
ps: w
hy, h
ow a
ln
The
stu
dies
so
far
The
ory
and
prac
tice:
Tra
cer
stud
ies:
an
oppo
rtun
ity a
nd a
cha
lleng
e
Insi
de o
r ou
tsid
e re
sear
cher
s?
Jim
Sim
ile
e to
Rut
h N
Coh
en
To
com
pare
or
n
The
sto
ry b
ehin
Will
eini
en le
Ro
Ref
lect
ion
and
plT
race
r st
udie
s an
d
The
cha
lleng
e of
as
Dav
id P
Wei
kart
is c
om a
re?
Kat
hy S
ylva
for
sing
San
chi
ldre
n in
Bot
swan
a
le E
iren
e T
hupe
ri. c
an S
uppo
rt In
itiat
ive
Susa
n B
rank
er
men
tP3
elia
Arm
esto
Rod
rigu
ez
Sha
ring
expe
rienc
es M
na I
sabe
l Mej
ia
Why
we
did
a tr
acer
stu
4
How
thes
e tr
acer
stu
dies
The
indi
vidu
ality
-com
mun
ity a
xis
.71,
14a
Shaf
ran
Chi
ldre
n's
carn
ival
s as
a tr
acer
met
ibb
S
Find
ings
:F
amily
sup
port
pro
gram
mes
Ann
S E
pste
in, J
ean
antic
& D
avid
P W
eika
rt
Nur
turin
g ch
ildre
nJe
an D
Gri
ffith
Wha
t hap
pene
d to
the
child
ren?
Rol
i Deg
azon
-Joh
nson
Gen
der
diffe
renc
es in
per
sona
lity
deve
lopm
ent
Ann
e N
jeng
a &
Mar
gare
t Kab
iru
Com
mun
ity M
othe
rsB
rend
a M
ollo
y
Polic
y an
d pr
ogra
mm
ing:
Can
Fol
low
ing
Foo
tste
ps a
ffect
pol
icy?
Rut
h N
Coh
en
The
impl
icat
ions
of t
race
r st
udie
s fo
r pr
ogra
mm
e de
velo
pmen
tH
enri
ette
Hei
mga
ertn
er
Follo
win
g Fo
otst
eps
publ
icat
ions
Follo
win
g Fo
otst
eps:
EC
D tr
acer
stud
ies
Wha
t hap
pens
to p
eopl
e af
ter
they
hav
ebe
en in
an
earl
y ch
ildho
od p
rogr
amm
e?Is
a c
hild
dif
fere
nt a
t the
age
of
10be
caus
e sh
e w
as in
a p
rogr
amm
e w
hen
she
was
fou
r an
d fi
ve y
ears
old
? D
oes
a12
yea
r ol
d be
nefi
t bec
ause
his
mot
her
was
in a
par
entin
g pr
ogra
mm
e w
hen
she
was
an
adol
esce
nt?
Do
peop
le r
eally
chan
ge b
ecau
se th
ey p
artic
ipat
ed a
spa
rent
s, o
r w
ere
trai
ned
to w
ork
asca
regi
vers
, in
an E
CD
pro
gram
me?
.;>,,
To
help
ans
wer
thes
e ki
nds
of q
uest
ions
,th
e B
erna
rd v
an L
eer
Foun
datio
nla
unch
ed a
prp
gram
me
of tr
acer
stu
dies
in 1
998
to f
ollo
w th
e fo
otst
eps
of f
orm
erpa
rtic
ipan
ts in
ear
ly c
hild
hood
prog
ram
mes
, fiv
e or
mor
e ye
ars
on, a
ndfi
nd o
ut w
hat h
ad h
appe
ned
to th
em.
Thi
s ed
ition
of
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
is a
bout
thes
e tr
acer
stu
dies
, and
rev
iew
sth
eir
natu
re, w
hat t
hey
can
do, a
nd h
owth
eir
appr
oach
es, m
etho
dolo
gies
and
find
ings
fit
with
mor
e fo
rmal
inve
stig
atio
ns. I
t has
bee
n pu
t tog
ethe
rby
Rut
h N
Coh
en, S
enio
r Pr
ogra
mm
eSp
ecia
list a
t the
Fou
ndat
ion,
who
is th
eco
ordi
nato
r of
the
stud
ies.
The
trac
er s
tudi
es p
rese
nted
in th
ised
ition
incl
ude
thos
e of
pas
tpa
rtic
ipan
ts in
a r
ange
of
proj
ects
,m
any
of th
em s
uppo
rted
by
the
Foun
datio
na
com
plet
e lis
t of
thos
eco
mpl
eted
so
far
can
be f
ound
on
page
14.
Alth
ough
eac
h is
dis
tinct
fro
mth
e ot
hers
, mos
t sha
re a
num
ber
ofco
mm
on c
hara
cter
istic
s:th
ey f
ollo
w u
p th
e pr
ogre
ss o
f th
ech
ildre
n, th
eir
fam
ilies
, pro
gram
me
staf
f, th
e co
mm
uniti
es o
r th
eor
gani
satio
ns, f
ive
or m
ore
year
saf
ter
they
par
ticip
ated
, to
find
out
how
they
are
far
ing;
they
are
gen
eral
ly s
mal
l in
scal
e(t
ens
rath
er th
an h
undr
eds
ofre
spon
dent
s) a
nd s
hort
in d
urat
ion
(mon
ths
rath
er th
an y
ears
);th
ey a
re q
ualit
ativ
e ra
ther
than
quan
titat
ive
in n
atur
e;ea
ch is
des
igne
d lo
cally
and
ove
rall
cont
rol i
s in
the
hand
s of
the
prog
ram
mes
, eve
n w
hen
the
stud
y is
unde
rtak
en b
y in
depe
nden
t out
side
rese
arch
ers;
the
emph
asis
on
qual
itativ
e m
etho
dsan
d th
e us
e of
quo
tatio
ns m
eans
that
rep
orts
hel
p re
ader
s to
get
to
the
'sto
ry b
ehin
d th
e st
ory'
;th
e m
etho
ds u
sed
are
unde
rsta
ndab
le f
or v
irtu
ally
all
thos
ein
volv
ed in
the
stud
y; a
ndth
e st
udie
s ar
e m
anag
eabl
e in
a w
ide
vari
ety
of c
ircu
mst
ance
s.
Tra
cer
stud
ies
wer
e no
t inv
ente
d by
the
Foun
datio
n. I
nste
ad a
s R
uth
N C
ohen
show
s (p
age
8) w
e m
ade
conn
ectio
nsbe
twee
n th
e id
eas
and
met
hods
of
aha
ndfu
l of
stud
ies
that
wer
e kn
own
abou
t in
1998
, and
des
igne
d th
e st
udie
sar
ound
a s
et o
f fa
irly
ope
n pa
ram
eter
sth
at w
ere
used
to e
ncou
rage
ear
lych
ildho
od p
rogr
amm
es to
und
erta
kesi
mila
r st
udie
s. W
e sa
w th
is a
s a
pilo
tex
erci
se in
whi
ch m
etho
dolo
gies
cou
ldbe
exp
lore
d an
d de
velo
ped
and,
whi
lew
e w
ere
hope
ful,
we
real
ly h
ad li
ttle
idea
of
the
outc
omes
.
Why
trac
er s
tudi
es?
As
Rut
h N
Coh
en p
oint
s ou
t (pa
ge 9
)ac
adem
ic r
esea
rch
is v
alua
ble
but i
t is
also
exp
ensi
ve a
nd, b
y its
ver
y na
ture
,of
ten
long
term
and
infl
exib
le. W
e w
ere
look
ing
for
anot
her
form
of
rese
arch
,
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 3
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
one
that
wou
ld b
e m
ore
imm
edia
te,
achi
evab
le b
y sm
alle
r pr
ogra
mm
es th
atdi
d no
t hav
e ac
cess
to v
ast r
esou
rces
,an
d ad
apta
ble
to lo
cal n
eeds
and
capa
citie
s. T
he p
oint
was
to g
ain
usef
ulin
sigh
ts a
bout
act
ual i
mpa
ctor
the
lack
of
iton
chi
ldre
n, p
eopl
e, f
amili
esan
d co
mm
uniti
es, a
nd h
ow th
is lo
oked
whe
n co
nsid
ered
in r
elat
ion
to th
eas
pira
tions
of
the
proj
ect.
We
reco
gnis
ed e
arly
on
that
thes
ein
sigh
ts w
ould
oft
en b
e pe
rson
al a
ndsu
bjec
tive
rath
er th
an o
bjec
tive;
wou
ldbe
har
d to
sub
stan
tiate
by,
for
exa
mpl
e,st
atis
tical
mea
sure
s; a
nd w
ould
nee
dsy
mpa
thet
ic s
iftin
g an
d co
nsid
erat
ion.
In a
dditi
on, w
e so
on s
aw th
at s
ome
ofth
e em
ergi
ng d
ata
coul
d be
link
ed to
som
ethi
ng th
at is
oft
en u
nder
rate
d:in
tuiti
on a
bout
wha
t is
happ
enin
g. T
hat
does
n't m
ean
that
the
data
nec
essa
rily
conf
irm
ed in
tuiti
ons
or f
eelin
gs, r
athe
rth
at th
ey h
elpe
d us
to s
ee h
ow a
ccur
ate
thes
e w
ere.
In s
ome
way
s, th
e m
ost e
xciti
ngou
tcom
es f
rom
the
stud
ies
wer
e th
atth
ey g
ave
us in
sigh
ts in
to a
spec
ts o
f
-,e
,
*
Hon
dura
s: E
arly
Stim
ulat
ion
Pro
gram
me
(Chr
istia
n C
hild
ren'
s F
und)
Enr
ique
, pla
ying
with
sof
tdrin
k ca
ns.
Pho
to: E
lain
e M
enot
ti, H
AR
T F
ello
w fr
om th
e C
entr
e fo
r D
ocum
enta
ry S
tudi
es, U
SA
prog
ram
mes
that
we
did
not e
ven
know
wer
e th
ere;
and
that
they
sho
wed
in v
ery
real
way
s th
e ki
nds
of c
hang
es th
at e
arly
child
hood
pro
gram
mes
can
mak
e to
peop
le th
emse
lves
.
Gen
eral
ly, a
s D
avid
P W
eika
rt p
uts
it:`T
he tr
acer
stu
dies
ask
dif
ficu
ltqu
estio
ns r
egar
ding
eff
ectiv
enes
s of
serv
ices
that
the
broa
der
fiel
d of
rese
arch
and
eva
luat
ion
ofte
n ov
erlo
oks'
(pag
e 16
). T
hey
repr
esen
t a p
ract
ical
rese
arch
tool
that
can
allo
w p
rogr
amm
esin
the
fiel
d to
look
dee
per
into
thei
r ow
nw
ork.
Thi
s is
esp
ecia
lly s
o be
caus
e th
eyar
e lo
cally
det
erm
ined
and
con
trol
led.
Idea
lly, t
hey
can
be s
uch
a na
tura
l par
tof
a p
rogr
amm
e's
oper
atio
ns th
at th
eir
proc
esse
s an
d fi
ndin
gs f
eed
back
toen
hanc
e qu
ality
, eff
ectiv
enes
s an
d ef
fect
sfo
r al
l con
cern
ed.
How
trac
er s
tudi
es fi
t with
mor
e fo
rmal
inve
stig
atio
ns
Tra
cer
stud
ies
shou
ld n
ot b
e se
en a
sal
tern
ativ
es to
mor
e fo
rmal
inve
stig
atio
ns: t
hey
shou
ld b
e se
en a
sco
mpl
emen
ting
them
by
addi
ng f
indi
ngs
abou
t asp
ects
of
prog
ram
me
effe
ctiv
enes
s th
at f
ixed
-foc
us,
quan
titat
ive
stud
ies
are
unlik
ely
tore
veal
. For
exa
mpl
e, q
uant
itativ
ere
sear
ch c
an r
evea
l the
num
ber
of th
ose
who
se b
ehav
iour
s w
ere
seem
ingl
ych
ange
d in
spe
cifi
ed w
ays
by th
eir
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 4
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
asso
ciat
ion
with
ear
ly c
hild
hood
deve
lopm
ent p
rogr
amm
es.
But
it is
less
suc
cess
ful i
n re
veal
ing
the
stor
y of
how
peo
ple
have
cha
nged
, the
impa
ct th
at th
is h
ad o
n th
eir
lives
, and
the
way
s in
whi
ch th
is h
as f
ed th
roug
hin
to th
eir
fam
ilies
, com
mun
ities
or
soci
etie
s. B
oth
sets
of
find
ings
are
nece
ssar
y an
d ha
ve to
be
cons
ider
edto
geth
er.
A s
imila
r ar
gum
ent c
an b
e m
ade
abou
tre
sear
ch th
at s
ets
out t
o te
st o
r va
lidat
ehy
poth
eses
or
theo
ry. M
ost o
f th
ose
rela
ted
to e
arly
chi
ldho
od d
evel
opm
ent
com
e fr
om r
ich
'Wes
tern
' cou
ntri
es a
nd,
in s
ome
setti
ngs,
asp
ects
of
them
may
sit
unea
sily
with
suc
h fa
ctor
s as
loca
lcu
ltura
l und
erst
andi
ngs,
pra
ctic
aliti
esan
d en
viro
nmen
tal r
ealit
ies.
Res
earc
hth
at s
ets
out t
o de
mon
stra
te th
ead
equa
cy o
f su
ch h
ypot
hese
s an
dth
eori
es m
ay b
e se
t up
to ta
ke a
ccou
ntof
thes
e bu
t muc
h of
it is
con
ceiv
edfr
om a
dis
tanc
e w
ith o
nly
seco
ndar
ylo
cal i
nvol
vem
ent.
Of
cour
se s
uch
rese
arch
is v
alua
ble
but a
gain
, its
usef
ulne
ss m
ay r
eadi
ly b
e co
mpl
emen
ted
with
the
outc
omes
of
trac
er s
tudi
esbe
caus
e th
ese
com
e fr
om a
n ap
proa
chth
at is
alm
ost a
t the
opp
osite
end
of
the
rese
arch
spe
ctru
m. T
race
r st
udie
s ar
eun
hind
ered
by
havi
ng to
rel
ate
to a
nyfo
rmal
theo
ry; o
rigi
nate
fro
m w
ithin
proj
ects
; and
set
out
to le
arn
from
wha
t
is th
ere
espe
cial
ly f
rom
the
kind
s of
pers
onal
out
com
es th
at p
artic
ipan
tsre
veal
. In
addi
tion,
the
mas
s of
info
rmat
ion
that
res
ults
is o
ften
of
imm
edia
te u
se: k
now
ing
abou
t act
ual
impa
ct o
n pe
ople
can
be
dire
ctly
rel
ated
to th
e co
ncep
tual
isat
ion
and
oper
atio
nof
a p
rogr
amm
e, c
hang
ing
or r
efin
ing
how
eff
ectiv
enes
s is
per
ceiv
ed,
mod
ifyi
ng o
r ad
ding
to th
epr
ogra
mm
e's
obje
ctiv
es, a
nd p
erha
psfi
ne-t
unin
g pr
ogra
mm
e co
nten
t or
chan
ging
the
way
s in
whi
ch it
isst
ruct
ured
and
run
.
The
art
icle
s in
this
edi
tion
Mos
t of
the
artic
les
in th
is e
ditio
n ar
ear
rang
ed in
fou
r gr
oups
and
toge
ther
offe
r re
ader
s a
tour
of
diff
eren
t asp
ects
of th
e tr
acer
stu
dies
. We
star
t with
an
artic
le th
at s
erve
s as
an
intr
oduc
tion
toth
ese
trac
er s
tudi
es (
page
8).
Wri
tten
byR
uth
N C
ohen
, it o
utlin
es th
eFo
unda
tion'
s re
ason
s fo
r en
ablin
g th
est
udie
s, th
en f
ocus
es o
n ho
w th
e tr
acer
stud
ies
wer
e se
t up
and
impl
emen
ted,
and
on h
ow th
e re
sulti
ng d
ata
wer
ean
alys
ed. I
t con
clud
es w
ith a
rev
iew
of
som
e of
the
find
ings
; and
isco
mpl
emen
ted
by a
n ov
ervi
ew o
f th
est
udie
s so
far
(pa
ges
14 a
nd 1
5).
The
ory
and
prac
tice
A g
roup
abo
ut th
eory
and
pra
ctic
e st
arts
with
a c
ontr
ibut
ion
from
Dav
id
C)
P W
eika
rt (
page
16)
that
see
s tr
acer
stud
ies
as b
oth
an o
ppor
tuni
ty a
nd a
chal
leng
e fo
r th
e br
oade
r fi
eld
ofed
ucat
iona
l res
earc
h. F
or h
im, t
hest
udie
s pr
ovid
e an
opp
ortu
nity
not
just
beca
use
of th
eir
wid
e ge
ogra
phic
and
cultu
ral s
ettin
gs o
r be
caus
e ea
ch o
f th
epa
rtic
ipat
ing
proj
ects
is f
unda
men
tally
dem
ocra
tic, b
ut b
ecau
se th
ey lo
ok a
tpr
ojec
t par
ticip
ant o
utco
mes
ove
r tim
e.In
see
ing
the
stud
ies
as a
cha
lleng
e, h
em
eans
that
they
are
cha
lleng
ed b
y th
em
ains
trea
m f
ield
of
rese
arch
and
eval
uatio
n; th
at m
any
of th
e tr
acer
stud
ies
focu
s on
pro
gram
me
idea
sun
derg
oing
dev
elop
men
t; an
d th
atin
terv
iew
s w
ith p
artic
ipan
ts a
ndju
dgm
ents
are
hig
hly
susp
ect a
sou
tcom
e in
form
atio
n. N
one-
the-
less
, he
conc
lude
s th
at th
e tr
acer
stu
dies
gene
rate
man
y le
sson
s, a
nd th
at th
ebr
oade
r fi
eld
of e
duca
tiona
l res
earc
han
d ev
alua
tion
can
lear
n ex
tens
ivel
yfr
om th
em.
How
do
you
cond
uct t
he r
ight
kin
d of
inve
stig
atio
n in
to s
omet
hing
as
com
plex
as p
rogr
amm
e im
pact
on
peop
le in
the
med
ium
to lo
ng te
rm?
In th
e Fo
llow
ing
Foot
step
s tr
acer
stu
dies
wor
ksho
p in
Jam
aica
in 2
002,
par
ticip
ants
con
side
red
this
in s
ome
deta
il. O
ne q
uest
ion
they
expl
ored
toge
ther
was
whe
ther
rese
arch
ers
shou
ld c
ome
from
insi
de o
rou
tsid
e th
e pr
ojec
ts. T
he c
hart
on
page
19 s
ets
out t
heir
del
iber
atio
ns. T
heir
Hon
dura
s: E
arly
Stim
ulat
ion
Pro
gram
me
(Chr
istia
n C
hild
ren'
s F
und)
Ped
ro A
guila
r an
d M
adre
s G
uias
in s
essi
on.
Pho
to: E
lain
e M
enot
ti, H
AR
T F
ello
w fr
om th
e C
entr
e fo
r D
ocum
enta
ry S
tudi
es, U
SA
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 5
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
Ken
ya: M
wan
a M
wen
de p
roje
ct
Pre
scho
ol c
hild
ren
clea
ring
up a
fter
play
.
idea
s ar
e co
mpl
emen
ted
by th
ose
ofPr
ofes
sor
Kat
hy S
ylva
(pa
ge 2
0). S
here
view
s th
e im
port
ance
of
com
pari
son
grou
ps a
nd th
e si
gnif
ican
ce o
f sa
mpl
esi
zes.
She
als
o po
ints
out
how
qual
itativ
e an
d qu
antit
ativ
e st
udie
s ca
nno
t jus
t coe
xist
, but
com
bine
to o
ffer
mor
e m
eani
ngfu
l fin
ding
s an
din
terp
reta
tions
.
To
com
plet
e th
e gr
oup
on th
eory
and
prac
tice,
the
artic
le b
y W
illem
ien
leR
oux
and
Gao
latlh
e E
iren
e T
hupe
(pag
e 22
) re
flec
ts o
n th
e is
sues
that
aros
e fo
r th
em a
s th
ey s
et u
p an
d
oper
ated
a tr
acer
stu
dy o
n pa
rtic
ipan
tsin
a p
resc
hool
pro
gram
me
for
San
child
ren
in w
este
rn B
otsw
ana.
It c
an b
ese
en a
s an
exa
mpl
e of
how
theo
ry a
ndpr
actic
e re
ally
look
whe
n yo
u ar
eac
tual
ly e
ngag
ed in
a s
tudy
. It a
lso
show
son
e ou
tcom
e: a
sna
psho
t of
the
situ
atio
n th
at tr
usts
the
read
er to
see
beyo
nd th
e lim
itatio
ns o
f w
hat a
nor
mal
`sci
entif
ic' s
tudy
wou
ld h
ave
been
. It
conc
lude
s th
at 'w
e fo
und
conf
irm
atio
nof
thin
gs w
e ha
d to
impr
ove
and
we
foun
d w
hat w
e al
so k
new
intu
itive
lyth
roug
h ex
peri
ence
.'
Ref
lect
ion
and
plan
ning
The
sec
ond
grou
p of
art
icle
s co
vers
refl
ectio
n an
d pl
anni
ng. T
he f
irst
feat
ure
by S
usan
Bra
nker
(pa
ge 2
6)co
nsis
ts o
f an
arg
umen
t for
fitt
ing
trac
erst
udie
s in
to a
sys
tem
of
mon
itori
ng a
ndev
alua
tion
that
is b
uilt
into
the
Car
ibbe
an S
uppo
rt I
nitia
tive.
Thi
s is
aFo
unda
tion-
supp
orte
d, f
ive-
year
regi
onal
pro
gram
me
on p
aren
ting
initi
ativ
es. T
he s
econ
d fe
atur
eby
Cel
iaA
rmes
to R
odri
guez
disc
usse
s th
eim
port
ance
of
anal
ysis
and
ref
lect
ion
asor
gani
c el
emen
ts o
f th
e Pr
eesc
olar
na
Cas
a pr
ojec
t (pa
ge 2
9). T
he p
roje
ct,
whi
ch o
pera
tes
a pa
rent
edu
catio
npr
ogra
mm
e in
rur
al a
reas
of
Gal
icia
,N
orth
Wes
tern
Spa
in, o
nce
reje
cted
trac
er s
tudi
es a
s ir
rele
vant
but
is n
owre
-eva
luat
ing
them
as
valu
able
tool
s th
atca
n he
lp to
fur
ther
enh
ance
pro
gram
me
effe
ctiv
enes
s.
In h
er tu
rn, M
yrna
Isa
bel M
ejia
desc
ribe
s ho
w th
e E
arly
Stim
ulat
ion
Prog
ram
me
for
child
ren
aged
zer
o to
six
year
s th
at is
run
by
the
Chr
istia
nC
hild
ren'
s Fu
nd (
Hon
dura
s), d
ecid
edth
at tr
acer
stu
dies
met
the
proj
ect's
nee
dfo
r a
qual
itativ
e st
udy
to a
sses
s th
eim
pact
of
the
prog
ram
me
on th
e qu
ality
of li
fe o
f th
e ch
ildre
n an
d th
eir
fam
ilies
(pag
e 32
). S
he g
oes
on to
sho
w h
ow th
est
udie
s ad
apte
d an
d ev
olve
d to
cop
ew
ith th
e re
aliti
es o
f th
e w
ork;
and
how
the
unfo
rese
en to
pics
that
aro
se th
roug
h
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 6
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
the
stud
y w
ere
inco
rpor
ated
into
its
find
ings
with
out d
isto
rtin
g its
ori
gina
lpu
rpos
e. T
he f
inal
fea
ture
in th
is g
roup
is a
noth
er p
rodu
ct o
f th
e Ja
mai
can
Wor
ksho
p m
entio
ned
earl
ier:
a c
hart
that
rec
ords
the
reas
ons
why
pro
ject
sun
dert
ook
trac
er s
tudi
es (
page
34)
.
How
thes
e tr
acer
stu
dies
wer
e co
nduc
ted
The
thir
d gr
oup
of a
rtic
les
look
ses
peci
ally
at h
ow tr
acer
stu
dies
wer
eca
rrie
d ou
t. M
iri L
evin
-Roz
alis
and
Naa
ma
Shaf
ran
disc
uss
a tr
acer
stu
dyth
at in
volv
ed a
ver
y pa
rtic
ular
gro
up o
fpe
ople
: Eth
iopi
an J
ews
who
arr
ived
inIs
rael
in la
rge
num
bers
and
who
had
toad
apt t
o a
very
dif
fere
nt w
ay o
f lif
e(p
age
36).
The
stu
dy lo
oked
into
the
impa
ct o
f th
e Pa
rent
Coo
pera
tive
Kin
derg
arte
n op
erat
ed b
y A
lmay
a fo
rch
ildre
n ag
ed 1
8 m
onth
s to
4 y
ears
,fo
cusi
ng e
spec
ially
on
how
wel
l for
mer
part
icip
ants
in th
e ki
nder
gart
enpr
ogra
mm
e ac
quir
ed to
ols
nece
ssar
y to
bette
r in
tegr
ate
into
Isr
aeli
soci
ety.
Usi
ng a
chi
ldre
n's
carn
ival
as
a m
etho
din
a tr
acer
stu
dy s
ound
s un
likel
y, b
utS
Ana
ndal
aksh
my
show
s w
hy it
was
appr
opri
ate
and
how
wel
l it f
unct
ione
d(p
age
38).
Thi
s no
vel a
ppro
ach
brou
ght
toge
ther
hug
e nu
mbe
rs o
f re
spon
dent
sw
ho h
ad b
een
invo
lved
in th
e ch
ildca
rece
ntre
s an
d cr
eche
s of
the
Self
Em
ploy
ed W
omen
's A
ssoc
iatio
n si
tuat
edin
the
Stat
e of
Guj
arat
in I
ndia
. Jus
t as
impo
rtan
t, it
suck
ed in
rel
evan
tG
over
nmen
t off
icia
ls s
o th
eir
help
cou
ldbe
enl
iste
d to
gai
n m
ore
spac
e fo
r th
ecr
eche
s.
Find
ings
The
fou
rth
grou
p of
art
icle
s su
rvey
sfi
ndin
gs o
f tr
acer
stu
dies
. The
fir
st, b
yA
nn S
Eps
tein
, Jea
nne
Mon
tie a
ndD
avid
P W
eika
rt (
page
40)
is a
bout
ast
udy
of e
lem
ents
of
a pa
rent
-to-
pare
ntpr
ogra
mm
e th
at n
o lo
nger
exi
sts,
incu
rren
t pro
gram
mes
off
ered
to f
amili
esw
ith y
oung
chi
ldre
n at
the
sam
e si
tes.
The
stu
dy s
peci
fica
lly s
ough
t sim
ilari
ties
to th
e ph
iloso
phic
al p
rinc
iple
s an
dim
plem
enta
tion
guid
elin
es o
f th
eor
igin
al m
odel
.
In th
e ne
xt a
rtic
le in
this
gro
up, J
ean
DG
riff
ith (
page
42)
dis
cuss
es th
e ef
fect
s of
the
Ado
lesc
ent D
evel
opm
ent
Prog
ram
me
in T
rini
dad
on a
sam
ple
of40
you
ng m
en a
nd w
omen
som
e 10
year
s af
ter
thei
r pa
rtic
ipat
ion,
and
com
pare
s th
ese
with
ano
ther
gro
up w
ithsi
mila
r ch
arac
teri
stic
s. D
r R
oli D
egaz
on-
John
son
(pag
e 44
) th
en d
iscu
sses
the
find
ings
of
a tr
acer
stu
dy o
f th
e T
eena
geM
othe
rs P
roje
ct in
rur
al J
amai
ca. T
hest
udy
was
a f
ollo
w-u
p to
an
earl
ier
piec
eof
res
earc
h th
at tr
aced
the
impa
ct o
f th
epr
ojec
t on
mot
hers
and
chi
ldre
n w
how
ere
part
icip
ants
bet
wee
n 19
86an
d 19
89.
00
Ann
e N
jeng
a &
Mar
gare
t Kab
iru
from
Ken
ya (
page
46)
foc
us o
n ge
nder
diff
eren
ces
in r
epor
ting
the
find
ings
of
a tr
acer
stu
dy th
at lo
oked
at t
he e
ffec
tsof
trai
ning
for
pre
scho
ol te
ache
rs o
n th
ech
ildre
n th
ey h
ave
care
d fo
r, in
the
Em
bu d
istr
ict o
f K
enya
. Fro
m I
rela
nd,
Bre
nda
Mol
loy
conc
lude
s th
is g
roup
of
artic
les
by r
epor
ting
on a
sev
en-y
ear
follo
w-u
p st
udy
of m
othe
rs a
ndch
ildre
n w
ho p
artic
ipat
ed in
the
Com
mun
ity M
othe
rs P
rogr
amm
e in
Irel
and
(pag
e 48
). T
his
is a
hom
evi
sitin
g su
ppor
t pro
gram
me
that
supp
orts
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f pa
rent
ing
skill
s of
fir
st ti
me
(and
som
e se
cond
time)
par
ents
of
child
ren
aged
0 to
24
mon
ths
who
live
in m
ainl
ydi
sadv
anta
ged
area
s.
Polic
y an
d pr
ogra
mm
ing
Can
trac
er s
tudi
es a
ffec
t pol
icy?
Thi
s is
aqu
estio
n th
at R
uth
N C
ohen
put
to f
our
peop
le a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith a
wid
e va
riet
y of
diff
eren
t stu
dies
, in
a ra
nge
of s
ettin
gs(s
ee p
age
50).
Whi
le a
ckno
wle
dgin
g th
atno
stu
dy c
an c
oncl
usiv
ely
show
a c
ausa
llin
k, th
ree
of th
em s
aw th
at th
e re
sults
of th
e st
udie
s ha
ve c
ontr
ibut
ed to
chan
ges
in th
inki
ng a
nd, v
ery
poss
ibly
,to
shi
fts
in th
e al
loca
tion
of r
esou
rces
.
In th
e fi
nal a
rtic
le in
this
edi
tion,
Hen
riet
te H
eim
gaer
tner
, Fou
ndat
ion
Prog
ram
me
Spec
ialis
t with
resp
onsi
bilit
y fo
r de
velo
ping
EC
D
prog
ram
mes
in a
num
ber
of c
ount
ries
in C
entr
al a
nd W
este
rn E
urop
e, s
how
sho
w th
e Fo
unda
tion
itsel
f ca
n le
arn
from
the
trac
er s
tudi
es (
page
54)
.Sh
e ex
amin
es f
ive
proj
ects
and
, as
anex
ampl
e of
wha
t can
be
glea
ned,
iden
tifie
s tw
o 'p
rogr
amm
atic
land
mar
ks'
(tim
ings
or
oppo
rtun
ities
) th
at th
etr
acer
stu
dies
sho
w to
be
espe
cial
lysi
gnif
ican
t if
proj
ects
are
to b
e ef
fect
ive.
The
se a
re: t
he m
ost o
ppor
tune
tim
e to
offe
r su
ppor
t for
par
ents
; and
the
time
of tr
ansi
tion
from
pre
scho
ol to
prim
ary
scho
ol.
Wha
t nex
t?E
ssen
tially
, thi
s ed
ition
of
Ear
lyC
hild
hood
Mat
ters
is a
'sam
pler
' tha
t we
hope
will
enc
oura
ge y
ou to
look
in m
ore
deta
il at
the
trac
er s
tudi
es th
at h
ave
been
com
plet
ed. A
ful
l lis
t of
publ
icat
ions
abou
t the
se c
an b
e fo
und
on p
age
58.
For
the
futu
re, w
e ar
e al
so c
onsi
deri
ngco
mpi
ling
all o
f th
em o
nto
a C
D r
om.
Mor
e in
form
atio
n on
this
will
app
ear
onou
r w
ebsi
tew
ww
.ber
nard
vanl
eer.
org
in d
ue c
ours
e. M
eanw
hile
the
stud
ies
them
selv
es c
an b
e do
wnl
oade
d fr
om th
ew
ebsi
te a
nd h
ard
copi
es a
re a
vaila
ble
from
the
Foun
datio
n at
the
addr
esse
ssh
own
on th
e in
side
and
bac
k co
vers
.T
hese
are
fre
e of
cha
rge
for
sing
le c
opie
s.
We
are
also
con
side
ring
a f
urth
er s
erie
sof
trac
er s
tudi
es to
bot
h en
hanc
e ou
rkn
owle
dge
abou
t wha
t wor
ks in
EC
D
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 7
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
prog
ram
mes
, and
to d
evel
op tr
acer
stud
ies
as a
pra
ctic
al e
valu
atio
n to
ol f
orus
e by
pro
ject
s. I
n te
rms
of a
ddin
g to
our
own
know
ledg
e, w
e ar
e al
soin
tere
sted
in h
eari
ng a
bout
any
expe
rien
ces
you
may
hav
e.
We
expe
ct to
pub
lish
Intr
oduc
ing
trac
erst
udie
s by
Rut
h N
Coh
en d
urin
g 20
03.
Thi
s w
ill f
ocus
on
the
appr
oach
es a
ndm
etho
dolo
gies
of
trac
er s
tudi
es; a
nd w
illbe
a p
ract
ical
gui
de f
or th
ose
inte
rest
edin
impl
emen
ting
sim
ilar
stud
ies
in th
eir
own
setti
ngs.
0
Jim
Sm
ale
Edi
tor
Our
apo
logi
es f
or th
e lo
ng d
elay
betw
een
this
edi
tion
of E
arly
Chi
ldho
od M
atte
rs a
nd th
e pr
evio
used
ition
. We
expe
ct to
res
ume
norm
al
publ
icat
ion
duri
ng 2
003.
To
the
man
or
wom
an in
the
stre
et it
seem
s fa
irly
obv
ious
that
a s
mal
l chi
ldw
hose
hea
lth, n
utri
tion
and
mat
eria
lne
eds
have
bee
n at
tend
ed to
, who
has
been
stim
ulat
ed a
nd g
iven
lovi
ng c
are
and
atte
ntio
n, is
mor
e lik
ely
to d
obe
tter
in s
choo
l and
late
r lif
e th
an th
ech
ild w
ho h
as n
ot h
ad s
uch
bene
fits
.T
his
is th
e ba
sic
prem
ise
on w
hich
man
y ea
rly
child
hood
pro
gram
mes
are
base
d, b
ut v
ery
few
pro
gram
mes
hav
ete
sted
whe
ther
the
fact
s fi
t the
theo
ry.
And
whi
le in
tuiti
on is
oft
en v
ery
Follo
win
g Fo
otst
eps:
why
, how
and
whe
reto
Rut
h N
I C
ohen
The
aut
hor,
as
Seni
or P
rogr
amm
e Sp
ecia
list,
has
coor
dina
ted
a se
ries
of
trac
er s
tudi
esfo
r th
e B
erna
rd v
an L
eer
Foun
datio
n si
nce
1998
. The
se s
tudi
es h
ave
all s
et o
ut to
fol
low
the
foot
step
s of
for
mer
par
ticip
ants
in e
arly
chi
ldho
od d
evel
opm
ent (
EcD
) pr
ogra
mm
esto
fin
d ou
t wha
t has
hap
pene
d to
them
fiv
e or
mor
e ye
ars
afte
r pa
rtic
ipat
ion.
In
this
art
icle
,sh
e se
ts o
ut th
e Fo
unda
tion'
s re
ason
s fo
r la
unch
ing
the
seri
es. D
raw
ing
on e
xam
ples
fro
mth
e st
udie
s an
d on
dis
cuss
ions
dur
ing
the
five
-day
Fol
low
ing
Foot
step
s tr
acer
stu
dies
wor
ksho
p in
Apr
il 20
02 in
Kin
gsto
n, J
amai
ca, s
he th
en r
efle
cts
on h
ow th
ese
trac
er s
tudi
esw
ere
set u
p an
d im
plem
ente
d an
d on
how
the
resu
lting
dat
a w
ere
anal
ysed
. Fin
ally
, she
intr
oduc
es s
ome
of th
e fi
ndin
gs, s
how
ing
how
thes
e ca
n af
fect
bot
h pr
actic
e an
d po
licy.
unde
rrat
ed, t
he g
athe
ring
of
empi
rica
lda
ta c
an d
o m
uch
mor
e th
an h
elp
usdi
scov
er w
heth
er o
ur in
stin
cts
wer
eac
cura
te: i
t can
giv
e us
insi
ghts
into
aspe
cts
of o
ur p
rogr
amm
es th
at w
epo
ssib
ly d
id n
ot e
ven
know
wer
e th
ere.
Man
y qu
estio
ns a
rise
fro
m th
issu
ppos
ition
, par
ticul
arly
thos
e th
atco
ncer
n th
e ef
fect
s of
pro
gram
mes
on
indi
vidu
als
for
exam
ple:
in w
hat w
ays
are
child
ren
chan
ged
and
how
doe
s th
isim
pact
on
the
way
s in
whi
ch th
ey
expe
rien
ce a
nd m
anag
e th
eir
lives
? A
ndw
hat o
f th
e ad
ults
invo
lved
in th
epr
ogra
mm
esth
e pa
rent
s,pa
rapr
ofes
sion
als,
pai
d w
orke
rs,
com
mun
ity m
embe
rs?
Are
they
chan
ged
by th
eir
expe
rien
ces?
And
if s
o,ho
w a
nd w
ith w
hat k
inds
of
cons
eque
nces
? W
ere
the
chan
ges
plan
ned
for
and
antic
ipat
ed?
Or
acci
dent
al a
nd u
nfor
esee
n? W
ere
the
chan
ges
good
or
unde
sira
ble?
Wha
t did
the
prog
ram
me
do th
at s
eem
s to
hav
eca
used
cha
nge?
How
goo
d w
as it
at
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 8
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
brin
ging
abo
ut d
esir
able
cha
nge?
Wha
tca
n it
lear
n fr
om f
orm
er p
artic
ipan
tsth
at c
ould
enh
ance
its
effe
ctiv
enes
s in
the
futu
re?
Perh
aps
we
shou
ld a
lso
adm
it th
at o
nem
otiv
atio
n fo
r th
ese
stud
ies
was
prof
essi
onal
cur
iosi
tyw
here
did
all
the
child
ren
go?
Wha
t hap
pene
d to
them
som
e ye
ars
late
r? D
id th
e E
CD
prog
ram
me
mak
e an
y di
ffer
ence
toth
eir
lives
in th
e m
ediu
m te
rm?
To
find
out,
we
used
a s
trat
egy
in w
hich
eac
h
part
icip
atin
g pr
ogra
mm
e se
t out
toge
nera
te a
mas
s of
qua
litat
ive,
oft
ensu
bjec
tive,
dat
a: th
e th
ough
ts a
ndre
flec
tions
of
the
peop
le c
once
rned
, as
they
res
pond
ed to
que
stio
ns. T
here
was
no w
ay o
f kn
owin
g be
fore
hand
wha
tan
y of
them
wou
ld r
epor
tes
peci
ally
sinc
e no
ne o
f th
e pr
ogra
mm
es th
atpa
rtic
ipat
ed h
ad o
rigi
nally
pla
nned
todo
a f
ollo
w-u
p st
udy.
To
cope
with
this
,th
ese
trac
er s
tudi
es a
sses
s an
d an
alys
eda
ta s
ympa
thet
ical
ly, h
oldi
ng o
n to
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f w
hat p
eopl
e sa
y ab
out
wha
t hap
pene
d to
them
and
how
itch
ange
d th
em, w
hile
tryi
ng to
synt
hesi
se m
eani
ngfu
l les
sons
that
can
feed
into
pra
ctic
e. T
his
may
see
mda
untin
g bu
t, as
the
artic
les
in th
ised
ition
of
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
show
, it i
s po
ssib
le, e
ven
whe
nou
tcom
es w
ere
nega
tive.
Bey
ond
eval
uatio
n
It w
as n
ot p
ure
coin
cide
nce
that
the
Foun
datio
n de
cide
d to
exp
lore
this
form
of
stud
y at
the
time
that
it d
id.
The
Fou
ndat
ion
firs
t sup
port
ed a
maj
orea
rly
child
hood
pro
gram
me
in 1
965
and
now
has
ove
r 30
yea
rs o
f ex
peri
ence
wor
king
in th
is f
ield
. Thr
ough
out t
his
time
we
have
str
esse
d th
e im
port
ance
of
eval
uatio
n bu
t usu
ally
onl
y du
ring
and
at th
e en
d of
a p
roje
ct o
r ph
ase
of a
proj
ect.
Dur
ing
the
mid
-199
0s w
e st
arte
d to
thin
k be
yond
eva
luat
ion,
to d
ig a
littl
ede
eper
, to
see
a lit
tle f
urth
er. W
e ca
rrie
dou
t an
inte
rnal
pro
ject
to s
umm
aris
eth
e ex
peri
ence
s of
mor
e th
an 1
20pr
ogra
mm
es th
at w
e ha
d su
ppor
ted
over
the
year
s (s
ee th
e H
isto
rica
l Pro
ject
Dat
abas
e at
ww
w.b
erna
rdva
nlee
r.or
g)an
d th
is e
xper
ienc
e ra
ised
man
yqu
estio
ns. O
ne o
utco
me
of o
urqu
estio
ning
was
the
Eff
ectiv
enes
sIn
itiat
ive,
an
in-d
epth
inve
stig
atio
n in
tow
hat m
akes
EC
Dpr
ogra
mm
es w
ork
for
the
peop
le w
ho ta
ke p
art i
n th
em (
see
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
93,
96
and
99);
and
anot
her
was
this
set
of
trac
erst
udie
s. T
here
is, i
n fa
ct, s
ome
over
lap
in th
at s
ever
al o
f th
e pr
ogra
mm
esin
volv
ed in
the
Eff
ectiv
enes
s In
itiat
ive
have
und
erta
ken
a tr
acer
stu
dy a
s pa
rtof
thei
r in
vest
igat
ions
.
Ano
ther
maj
or c
onsi
dera
tion
was
the
need
for
dat
a on
the
effe
cts,
and
effe
ctiv
enes
s, o
f ea
rly
child
hood
prog
ram
mes
out
side
of
the
rich
Wes
tern
cou
ntri
es. M
uch
of th
e pr
actic
ein
ear
ly c
hild
hood
has
bee
n ba
sed
onth
eori
es d
evel
oped
in th
e W
est,
and
rese
arch
fin
ding
s ha
ve c
ome
from
long
itudi
nal s
tudi
es c
arri
ed o
ut in
indu
stri
alis
ed c
ount
ries
. Suc
h st
udie
sar
e ex
pens
ive
and,
by
thei
r ve
ry n
atur
e,lo
ng te
rm. W
e w
ere
look
ing
for
anot
her
form
of
rese
arch
, one
that
wou
ld b
eac
hiev
able
by
smal
ler
prog
ram
mes
that
did
not h
ave
acce
ss to
vas
tre
sour
ces,
and
that
.cou
ld b
ead
apte
d an
d m
ould
ed to
fit
loca
l nee
ds a
nd c
apac
ities
.
The
nat
ure
of th
ese
trac
er
stud
ies
The
trac
er s
tudi
es r
epor
ted
onan
d di
scus
sed
here
are
sum
mar
ised
in th
e ta
ble
'The
stud
ies
so f
ar' o
n pa
ges
14-1
5.T
hey
are
dive
rse,
not
leas
tbe
caus
e of
the
dive
rsity
of
the
part
icip
atin
g pr
ogra
mm
es:
each
is u
niqu
e in
term
s of
its
setti
ng, t
he r
esou
rces
at i
tsdi
spos
al, t
he w
ays
in w
hich
itse
eks
to d
o its
wor
k, th
eco
mm
uniti
es w
ith w
hich
it is
enga
ged,
and
so
on. H
owev
er,
the
prog
ram
mes
als
o ha
veim
port
ant c
hara
cter
istic
s in
com
mon
for
exam
ple,
all
are
impl
emen
ted
by lo
cally
-ba
sed
part
ners
; and
thei
rob
ject
ives
all
cent
re o
n de
velo
ping
and
impr
ovin
g th
e liv
es o
f ch
ildre
n an
dth
eir
fam
ilies
and
com
mun
ities
in th
ehe
re a
nd n
ow, b
ased
on
the
belie
f th
atth
is w
ill la
y th
e fo
unda
tions
for
impr
oved
opp
ortu
nitie
s in
the
futu
re.
Thi
s m
ix o
f di
vers
ity a
nd c
omm
onal
ityis
act
ually
ref
lect
ed in
thes
e tr
acer
stud
ies:
eac
h is
uni
que
in it
s re
spon
se to
the
sam
e ki
nds
of f
acto
rs th
at m
akeK
enya
: Mw
ana
Mw
ende
pro
ject
Sib
lings
at t
he to
y m
akin
g w
orks
hop.
Pho
to: J
oann
a B
oum
a
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 9
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
each
of
the
part
icip
atin
g pr
ogra
mm
esun
ique
. But
com
mon
to a
ll is
impl
emen
tatio
n w
ith lo
cal p
artn
ers,
and
the
obje
ctiv
e of
dis
cove
ry f
or th
epu
rpos
e of
impr
ovem
ent.
The
pro
gram
mes
invo
lved
are
all
actio
npr
ojec
ts: t
hey
have
not
bee
n co
ncei
ved
or im
plem
ente
d as
res
earc
h st
udie
s in
whi
ch c
hild
ren/
fam
ilies
hav
e be
en
/T
he N
ethe
rland
s: S
amen
spel
pro
ject
Fin
gerp
aint
ing
durin
g a
visi
t to
the
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n.
Pho
to: A
ngel
a E
rnst
rand
omly
ass
igne
d to
'tre
atm
ent'
or`c
ontr
ol' g
roup
s; a
nd p
artic
ipan
ts h
ave
not u
sual
ly b
een
subj
ecte
d to
test
s or
othe
r re
sear
ch in
stru
men
ts. B
ecau
seea
ch o
f th
e pr
ogra
mm
es s
tudi
ed is
diff
eren
t in
its ta
rget
gro
up, i
n its
cont
ext,
and
in it
s st
rate
gies
, the
met
hods
use
d to
trac
e fo
rmer
part
icip
ants
and
dis
cove
r th
eir
curr
ent
stat
us a
re a
lmos
t as
vari
ed a
s th
eor
igin
al p
rogr
amm
es.
Cou
pled
with
that
div
ersi
ty is
an
open
ness
to w
hate
ver
com
es o
ut f
rom
the
rese
arch
, to
the
unex
pect
ed a
nd to
the
surp
risi
ng. T
his
open
ness
isva
luab
le, g
over
ned
as it
is b
y th
e sp
ecif
icfo
ci th
at e
ach
trac
er s
tudy
has
, bec
ause
wha
teve
r th
e tr
acer
s di
scov
er c
an b
ese
en a
s an
opp
ortu
nity
to le
arn
and
toun
ders
tand
.
Cre
atin
g a
trac
er s
tudy
Wha
t sho
uld
be th
e m
ain
cons
ider
atio
ns w
hen
cont
empl
atin
g a
trac
er s
tudy
? W
hat a
re th
e ob
ject
ives
of
thos
e in
volv
ed in
suc
h a
stud
y? T
hese
ques
tions
hav
e m
any
poss
ible
ans
wer
s,as
is d
emon
stra
ted
espe
cial
ly in
the
tabl
e 'W
hy w
e di
d a
trac
er s
tudy
' on
page
s 34
-35.
In
addi
tion,
Will
emie
n le
Rou
x an
d G
aola
tlhe
Eir
ene
Thu
peex
plai
n th
e or
igin
s of
, and
obj
ectiv
esfo
r, th
e B
okam
oso
Pres
choo
lPr
ogra
mm
e tr
acer
stu
dy in
Bot
swan
aon
pag
e 22
. The
se in
clud
ed w
antin
g to
rein
forc
e an
d te
st th
e as
sum
ptio
ns o
fpr
actit
ione
rs. I
n pa
ssin
g w
e sh
ould
not
eth
at it
was
this
stu
dy, c
arri
ed o
ut 1
993-
1995
, tha
t ins
pire
d th
e Fo
unda
tion
tolo
ok s
erio
usly
at t
race
r st
udie
s. F
or it
spa
rt, P
rees
cola
r na
Cas
a in
Spa
inco
nsid
ered
and
then
rej
ecte
d th
e id
ea o
fsu
ch a
stu
dy m
ore
than
fiv
e ye
ars
ago.
But
late
r, a
s C
elia
Arm
esto
Rod
rigu
ezex
plai
ns, '
the
idea
of
goin
g be
yond
the
curr
ent r
ealit
y pe
rsis
ted'
and
she
det
ails
the
man
y is
sues
and
que
stio
ns th
at th
epr
ojec
t tea
m a
re e
xplo
ring
bec
ause
,af
ter
25 y
ears
of
oper
atio
n, 'a
sses
smen
tco
ntin
ues
to b
e a
chal
leng
e th
at c
an b
een
hanc
ed b
y in
itiat
ives
suc
h as
trac
erst
udie
s' (
page
29)
.
The
res
earc
h qu
estio
ns
Key
to th
e de
sign
of
any
stud
y is
to a
skth
e ri
ght q
uest
ions
. Thi
s co
uld
mea
nqu
estio
ning
ass
umpt
ions
that
may
not
have
bee
n pr
evio
usly
art
icul
ated
.D
evis
ing
thes
e qu
estio
ns is
som
ethi
ngth
at c
an u
sefu
lly b
e do
ne th
roug
h a
part
icip
ator
y ex
erci
se in
whi
ch a
ll
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 10
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
part
icip
ants
and
sta
keho
lder
s ca
n ha
vea
say.
And
it is
at t
his
earl
y st
age
that
othe
r qu
estio
ns n
eed
to b
e an
swer
ed a
sw
ell.
The
se w
ill in
clud
e so
me
that
dete
rmin
e th
e na
ture
of
the
stud
y, f
orex
ampl
e:w
hose
age
nda
is b
eing
fol
low
edth
at o
f th
e pr
ogra
mm
e, c
omm
unity
,pa
rent
s, f
unde
rs, p
olic
y m
aker
s, a
mix
ture
?Is
the
obje
ctiv
e to
und
erst
and,
toch
ange
, to
pers
uade
, etc
?W
here
and
by
who
m a
re th
e re
sear
chqu
estio
ns to
be
gene
rate
d?W
hat i
s th
e fo
cal u
nit
child
ren,
fam
ilies
, car
egiv
ers,
the
proc
ess
ofch
ange
, etc
?In
wha
t way
s is
the
cont
ext b
eing
take
n in
to a
ccou
nt?
Wha
t ass
umpt
ions
doe
s th
e st
udy
mak
e ab
out t
he p
rogr
amm
e?
The
n th
ere
are
ques
tions
abo
ut h
ow th
est
udy
is to
be
done
:w
hat w
ill b
e th
e ba
sic
desi
gn?
Is th
e st
udy
to b
e m
ainl
y qu
alita
tive,
mai
nly
quan
titat
ive,
a m
ixtu
re?
Who
are
the
info
rman
ts, t
he s
ampl
e?W
ill th
ere
be a
com
pari
son
sam
ple?
(see
art
icle
on
page
20)
Wha
t is
the
timel
ine
for
trac
ing
(how
man
y ye
ars
back
)?W
hat i
s th
e tim
elin
e fo
r ca
rryi
ng o
utth
e re
sear
ch?
Who
is o
n th
e re
sear
ch te
am a
ndw
hat w
ill b
e th
e na
ture
of
the
team
?
Wha
t are
the
rese
arch
inst
rum
ents
,th
e to
ols?
Are
the
find
ings
goi
ng to
be
inte
rpre
ted
as w
ell a
s re
port
ed?
Wha
t for
m w
ill th
e re
port
take
(w
hois
the
audi
ence
)?
The
que
stio
n of
who
sho
uld
unde
rtak
eth
e st
udy
insi
de o
r ou
tsid
e re
sear
cher
sle
d to
ani
mat
ed d
iscu
ssio
ns a
ndsh
arin
g of
exp
erie
nces
dur
ing
the
Jam
aica
Fol
low
ing
Foot
step
s w
orks
hop
in A
pril
2002
bec
ause
peo
ple
from
all
`sid
es' w
ere
pres
ent.
The
pos
itive
asp
ects
and
the
chal
leng
es a
re s
umm
aris
ed o
npa
ge 1
9, b
ut th
e co
nsen
sus
seem
ed to
be
that
a m
ixed
res
earc
h te
am o
f in
side
rsan
d ou
tsid
ers
is th
e be
st s
olut
ion.
How
ever
, as
Myr
na I
sabe
l Mej
ia p
uts
it,`i
t is
nece
ssar
y to
cle
arly
def
ine
the
role
of th
e in
side
per
sonn
el in
the
rese
arch
proc
ess
so th
at o
bjec
tive
resu
lts c
an b
eob
tain
ed' (
page
32)
.
Que
stio
ns th
at w
ere
not a
sked
dur
ing
thes
e tr
acer
stu
dies
con
cern
edhy
poth
eses
and
that
is b
ecau
se th
ese
trac
er s
tudi
es w
ere
not d
evel
oped
inre
spon
se to
spe
cifi
c hy
poth
eses
. All
the
earl
y ch
ildho
od p
rogr
amm
es w
e ar
ede
alin
g w
ith h
ere
have
the
basi
cas
sum
ptio
n th
at th
e pr
ogra
mm
es a
re`d
oing
goo
d' b
ut th
ey s
eldo
m d
esig
nth
eir
prog
ram
mes
aro
und
hypo
thes
es.
We
ther
efor
e be
lieve
that
trac
er s
tudi
essh
ould
be
as o
pen
as p
ossi
ble
and
shou
ld n
ot s
et o
ut to
pro
ve a
spe
cifi
chy
poth
esis
: tha
t the
pro
gram
me
is th
ebe
st e
ver,
or
that
a s
peci
fic
stra
tegy
isth
e be
st m
etho
d, o
r th
at th
e ch
ildre
nge
t hig
her
grad
es in
sch
ool.
A tr
acer
stud
y ne
eds
a sp
ecif
ic f
ocus
, but
with
inth
at it
nee
ds to
be
open
to w
hate
ver
com
es o
ut f
rom
the
rese
arch
, to
beop
en to
the
unex
pect
ed a
nd th
esu
rpri
sing
: whe
ther
it f
its a
ssum
ptio
nsor
not
, it i
s an
opp
ortu
nity
to le
arn
and
to u
nder
stan
d.
Met
hods
and
app
roac
hes
As
the
artic
les
in th
is e
ditio
n of
Ear
lyC
hild
hood
Mat
ters
sho
w, w
ith tr
acer
stud
ies
ther
e is
ple
nty
of c
hoic
e w
hen
it co
mes
to m
etho
ds a
nd a
ppro
ache
s.H
ere
the
advi
ce o
f Pr
ofes
sor
Kat
hySy
lva
duri
ng th
e w
orks
hop
is v
ery
rele
vant
: 'W
here
des
ign
is c
once
rned
,be
met
hodo
logi
cally
pro
mis
cuou
s,ad
vent
urou
s, e
clec
tic.'
And
a p
erfe
ctex
ampl
e of
this
com
es f
rom
Ind
iaw
here
the
Self
Em
ploy
ed W
omen
'sA
ssoc
iatio
n (s
Ew
A)
in G
ujar
atid
entif
ied
a no
vel a
nd h
ighl
y cu
lture
-sp
ecif
ic m
etho
d. S
Ana
ndal
aksh
my
desc
ribe
s ho
wS
EW
Aor
gani
sed
child
ren'
s ca
rniv
als
for
larg
e nu
mbe
rsof
for
mer
cre
che
and
pres
choo
l cen
tre
part
icip
ants
and
use
d th
e ev
ent t
oin
terv
iew
chi
ldre
n an
d m
othe
rs. T
hey
also
invi
ted
Gov
ernm
ent o
ffic
ials
, gav
eth
em v
isib
le r
oles
and
lobb
ied
them
to
Trin
idad
& T
obag
o: S
ervo
! pro
ject
For
res
Par
k Li
fe C
entr
e. F
athe
r w
ith tw
o pr
esch
ool c
hild
ren
help
ing
with
lear
ning
num
bers
.
give
the
prog
ram
me
supp
ort
(pag
e 38
).
The
bes
t lai
d pl
ans
can
go a
stra
y an
dth
is c
an h
appe
n w
ith r
esea
rch
as in
othe
r sp
here
s of
life
. In
this
kin
d of
stud
y it
mus
t be
rem
embe
red
that
rese
arch
is n
ot a
line
ar p
roce
ss, a
ndm
uch
of it
is li
ke tr
ying
to f
ind
your
way
thro
ugh
the
fore
st. I
t is
a m
atte
r of
cont
inua
lly k
eepi
ng th
e co
ntex
t in
min
dth
e pe
ople
, the
com
mun
ity,
trad
ition
s, b
elie
fs, r
esou
rces
, ser
vice
san
d of
bei
ng a
lert
and
ope
n to
the
unex
pect
ed.
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n11
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
Ana
lysi
s of
dat
a an
d re
port
ing
The
qua
litat
ive
natu
re o
f th
e da
ta th
attr
acer
stu
dies
like
thes
e pr
oduc
e cr
eate
sa
maj
or c
halle
nge
for
anal
ysis
. Thi
sin
volv
es a
bal
ance
bet
wee
n th
e de
tail
and
part
icul
arity
of
wha
t has
bee
ndi
scov
ered
on
the
one
hand
and
, on
the
othe
r, f
indi
ng w
ays
to c
reat
e pa
ttern
sfr
om th
e da
ta th
at w
ill a
llow
use
ful
less
ons
to b
e dr
awn
for
futu
re p
ract
ice.
To
do th
is it
is n
eces
sary
to c
reat
eca
tego
ries
that
are
sug
gest
ed b
y th
ena
ture
of
the
data
and
to a
lloca
te th
eda
ta to
app
ropr
iate
cat
egor
ies.
But
the
sam
e da
ta w
ill o
ften
nee
d to
be
used
in
diff
eren
t cat
egor
ies.
It i
s a
bit l
ike
cutti
ng th
e ca
ke in
dif
fere
nt d
irec
tions
hori
zont
ally
, ver
tical
ly, c
ross
wis
ese
vera
l tim
es o
ver.
Eac
h cu
t (ea
chgr
oupi
ng)
reve
als
a di
ffer
ent r
ealit
yab
out t
he c
ake;
and
the
data
are
in p
lay
thro
ugho
ut to
rem
ind
peop
le o
f w
hat
they
hav
e to
con
trib
ute.
Idea
lly, t
he e
stab
lishm
ent o
f th
eca
tego
ries
and
the
allo
catio
n of
dat
a to
the
cate
gori
es, s
houl
d be
a c
olle
ctiv
eef
fort
by
a te
am o
f pe
ople
with
dif
fere
ntpe
rspe
ctiv
es b
ecau
se, f
or e
xam
ple,
the
data
cou
ld s
ugge
st o
ne s
et o
f ca
tego
ries
to a
n ou
tsid
er, a
noth
er to
an
insi
der.
How
doe
s th
is w
ork
in p
ract
ice?
An
exam
ple
of h
ow d
ata
can
be a
naly
sed
atdi
ffer
ent l
evel
s ca
n be
fou
nd in
the
repo
rt o
f th
e tr
acer
stu
dy o
f A
lmay
a's
Pare
nts
Coo
pera
tive
Kin
derg
arte
n in
Isra
el. T
he c
hart
on
page
15
incl
udes
Alm
aya'
s fi
ndin
gs a
bout
a s
hift
for
form
er p
rogr
amm
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts in
the
axis
that
run
s be
twee
n in
divi
dual
ity a
ndco
mm
unity
find
ings
that
ari
se f
rom
cros
s-cu
tting
ana
lysi
s in
whi
ch th
epr
ecis
e in
form
atio
n in
the
orig
inal
dat
are
mai
ned
visi
ble.
The
way
s in
whi
ch f
indi
ngs
are
repo
rted
will
dep
end
very
larg
ely
on th
e in
tend
edau
dien
ce a
nd th
e ob
ject
ives
of
the
stud
y. I
n so
me
case
s it
mig
ht b
epo
ssib
le, o
r ad
visa
ble,
to h
ave
diff
eren
t
vers
ions
in d
iffe
rent
for
mat
s, n
ot w
ithth
e in
tent
ion
to m
isle
ad o
rm
isre
pres
ent,
but t
o en
sure
that
eac
hau
dien
ce g
ets
the
mat
eria
l it i
s m
ost
inte
rest
ed in
, and
in th
e w
ays
that
mak
eit
mos
t use
ful.
Wha
teve
r m
etho
d is
used
, the
voi
ces
and
the
wor
ds o
f th
ere
spon
dent
s m
ust c
ome
thro
ugh
a fe
w
quot
atio
ns c
an e
nliv
en th
e du
llest
of
repo
rts,
and
they
add
rea
lity.
Aft
er a
ll, a
sJe
an D
Gri
ffith
(w
ho r
esea
rche
d th
est
udy
in T
rini
dad)
told
par
ticip
ants
inth
e Fo
llow
ing
Foot
step
s w
orks
hop:
'We
are
oper
atin
g on
the
prin
cipl
e th
at a
shu
man
bei
ngs
we
cann
ot b
e re
duce
d to
any
form
ula.
No
mat
ter
how
wel
l or
how
sci
entif
ical
ly d
esig
ned,
the
rese
arch
cann
ot g
ive
us th
e re
ality
of
this
hum
anps
ycho
-phy
siol
ogy:
The
re a
re m
any
ques
tions
that
can
ari
sedu
ring
the
proc
esse
s of
ana
lysi
s an
dre
port
ing.
Som
e of
thes
e w
ill b
e re
late
dto
the
orig
inal
res
earc
h qu
estio
ns a
ndth
e de
sign
and
impl
emen
tatio
n of
the
stud
y. S
ome
of th
e ot
hers
cou
ld b
e:w
hy d
idn'
t we
find
wha
t we
expe
cted
to f
ind?
If th
e re
sults
are
not
str
ong,
is th
isth
e fa
ult o
f th
e re
sear
chm
etho
dolo
gy o
r th
e pr
ogra
mm
e?W
hat a
re th
e im
plic
atio
ns o
f th
e fa
ctth
at c
hild
ren
are
goin
g in
to a
natio
nally
det
erm
ined
edu
catio
nal
syst
em?
Wha
t can
/sho
uld
be d
one
with
thes
e
data
, the
se f
indi
ngs?
Can
they
infl
uenc
e pr
ogra
mm
ing?
Can
they
infl
uenc
e po
licy?
Who
sho
uld
we
com
mun
icat
e w
ith:
are
ther
e lin
ks to
oth
er a
reas
,pr
ogra
mm
es, o
r se
rvic
es s
uch
aspr
imar
y sc
hool
s?
Lea
rnin
g an
d w
ho b
enef
itsFr
om th
e di
scus
sion
s du
ring
the
Follo
win
g Fo
otst
eps
wor
ksho
p in
Jam
aica
it w
as o
bvio
us th
at p
roje
ct s
taff
and
lead
ers
felt
that
they
had
lear
ned
alo
t fro
m th
ese
stud
ies
and
thei
rpr
oces
ses
and
find
ings
. In
part
icul
ar,
they
had
gai
ned
a de
eper
und
erst
andi
ngof
the
capa
bilit
ies
and
aspi
ratio
ns o
f th
epe
ople
they
wer
e w
orki
ng w
ith; a
nd a
defi
nite
rec
ogni
tion
(or
rem
inde
r) o
fho
w e
ssen
tial i
t is
to b
e in
clus
ive
(not
only
chi
ldre
n, n
ot o
nly
mot
hers
, and
so
on).
It w
as a
lso
fasc
inat
ing
to s
ee h
owth
e ne
ed to
fra
me
rese
arch
que
stio
nsha
d st
imul
ated
dee
per
thin
king
abo
utth
e ob
ject
ives
of
thei
r w
ork
and
the
stra
tegi
es u
sed.
Wor
ksho
p pa
rtic
ipan
tsfe
lt th
at th
ey h
ad b
ecom
e ev
en m
ore
awar
e of
the
com
mun
ities
and
ser
vice
sar
ound
them
and
of
how
, in
som
e ca
ses,
thes
e w
ere
letti
ng d
own
the
form
erpa
rtic
ipan
ts (
for
exam
ple:
poo
r sc
hool
s,la
ck o
f em
ploy
men
t or
trai
ning
oppo
rtun
ities
).
We
are
all s
till a
t the
ear
ly s
tage
s of
lear
ning
and
the
mor
e de
eply
we
look
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 12
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
into
the
stud
ies
that
hav
e be
en c
arri
edou
t so
far,
the
mor
e po
ssib
ilitie
s th
ere
seem
to b
e. T
he s
tudi
es h
ave
an u
nusu
albl
end
of q
uant
itativ
e an
d qu
alita
tive
rese
arch
and
fin
ding
s, a
nd th
is h
as le
dto
ver
y w
ide
lear
ning
pos
sibi
litie
sap
plic
able
with
in a
nd a
cros
s di
ffer
ent
grou
ps o
f pa
rtic
ipan
ts.
At l
ocal
leve
l suc
h gr
oups
incl
ude
part
icip
ants
in a
pro
gram
me;
sta
ff in
the
fiel
d as
wel
l as
thos
e w
ho p
lan,
mon
itor
and
supe
rvis
e pr
ogra
mm
es;
and
mem
bers
of
loca
l com
mun
ities
. At
regi
onal
/nat
iona
l lev
el th
ey c
an in
clud
eth
ose
who
pla
n an
d/or
impl
emen
t oth
erE
CD
pro
gram
mes
, tho
se w
ho a
rein
volv
ed in
non
-EcD
pro
gram
mes
suc
has
hea
lth o
r ed
ucat
ion,
and
thos
e w
hopl
an/im
plem
ent p
olic
y an
d/or
allo
cate
reso
urce
s. I
n th
e C
arib
bean
ther
e is
'ade
arth
of
know
ledg
e ab
out t
he im
pact
of v
ario
us in
terv
entio
ns d
ue to
insu
ffic
ient
mea
sure
men
t and
inad
equa
te m
echa
nism
s to
do
so' a
ndSu
san
Bra
nker
, who
is th
e Pr
ojec
tM
anag
er f
or th
e C
arib
bean
Sup
port
Initi
ativ
e*, s
ees
man
y po
ssib
le b
enef
itsin
the
use
of tr
acer
stu
dies
at d
iffe
rent
leve
ls a
nd f
or v
aryi
ng p
urpo
ses
(pag
e 26
).
At t
he B
erna
rd v
an L
eer
Foun
datio
n w
eca
n al
l use
and
lear
n fr
om th
e m
etho
dsan
d th
e fi
ndin
gs to
hel
p w
ith p
lann
ing,
deve
lopi
ng a
nd m
onito
ring
pro
gram
mes
.
We
can
also
info
rm o
urse
lves
as
we
shar
e ou
r le
arni
ng a
nd r
esou
rces
with
the
fiel
d of
EC
Din
gen
eral
and
with
our
part
ners
and
pee
r or
gani
satio
ns. I
n fa
ct,
the
trac
er s
tudy
tool
fits
wel
l with
our
aspi
ratio
ns to
impr
ove
our
lear
ning
. We
antic
ipat
e us
ing
thes
e to
ols
in th
e fu
ture
to c
ritic
ally
look
at t
he v
alid
ity o
fkn
owle
dge
and
skill
s a
proj
ect i
s tr
ying
to im
part
bec
ause
, as
Hen
riet
teH
eim
gaer
tner
exp
lain
s, 'T
he s
tudi
espr
ovid
e a
rich
sou
rce
of in
form
atio
nan
d so
me
chal
leng
ing
food
for
thou
ght
for
thos
e of
us
enga
ged
in d
efin
ing
para
met
ers
for
prog
ram
me
deve
lopm
ent.
In h
er a
rtic
le o
n pa
ge 5
4sh
e gi
ves
just
two
exam
ples
fro
m m
any
avai
labl
e: p
aren
t sup
port
pro
gram
mes
,an
d th
e co
ntin
uum
bet
wee
n pr
esch
ool
and
prim
ary
scho
ol.
But
ther
e ar
e ve
ry m
any
othe
r to
pics
that
ari
se in
the
stud
ies
so f
ar a
vaila
ble.
To
nam
e ju
st a
few
: gen
der
role
s; th
eim
pact
on
impl
emen
ting
staf
f; w
ays
tore
ach
teen
ager
s; in
flue
ncin
g pa
rent
ing
prac
tices
now
and
in th
e fu
ture
;in
flue
ncin
g th
e he
alth
and
nut
ritio
nof
chi
ldre
n an
d fa
mili
es; t
rans
ition
toth
e fo
rmal
sch
ool s
yste
m; l
angu
age/
cogn
itive
dev
elop
men
t; so
cial
/em
otio
nal d
evel
opm
ent;
pers
onal
pres
enta
tion;
and
thos
e so
met
imes
ill-d
efin
ed c
once
pts
like
empo
wer
men
t,se
lf-e
stee
m, s
elf-
conf
iden
ce, m
otiv
atio
n,re
cipr
ocity
/mut
ualit
y, e
thos
of
equa
lity,
g=r
attit
udes
, bel
iefs
, nor
ms,
phi
loso
phy,
valu
es, t
oler
ance
, und
erst
andi
ng,
soci
alis
ing
child
ren
into
soc
iety
'sno
rms,
pre
pari
ng c
hild
ren
for
the
futu
re, d
isci
plin
e an
d m
oral
gui
danc
e.
To
get a
ful
l pic
ture
it is
nec
essa
ry to
read
the
trac
er s
tudy
pub
licat
ions
(se
epa
ges
58 a
nd 5
9) b
ut to
giv
e so
me
indi
catio
ns o
f th
e br
eadt
h of
cov
erag
ean
d in
sigh
ts, s
ome
shor
t exc
erpt
s ar
ein
clud
ed in
this
edi
tion
of E
arly
Chi
ldho
od M
atte
rs: d
isci
plin
ing
San
child
ren
in B
otsw
ana
(pag
e 24
); w
hat i
sha
ppen
ing
with
fam
ily s
uppo
rtpr
ogra
mm
es in
the
US
A(p
age
40);
attit
udes
to p
aren
ting
and
nurt
urin
g th
ech
ildre
n of
for
mer
par
ticip
ants
of
the
Ado
lesc
ent D
evel
opm
ent P
rogr
amm
e in
Tri
nida
d (p
age
42);
wha
t hap
pene
d to
the
child
ren
of p
artic
ipan
ts in
the
Tee
nage
Mot
hers
Pro
gram
me
inJa
mai
ca (
page
44)
; gen
der
diff
eren
ces,
role
mod
els
and
soci
al c
hang
e in
Ken
ya(p
age
46);
and
mot
ivat
ions
for
volu
ntee
ring
to b
ecom
e a
Com
mun
ityM
othe
r in
Ire
land
(pa
ge 4
8).
Aff
ectin
g po
licy
From
the
tabl
e 'W
hy w
e di
d a
trac
erst
udy'
on
page
34
it is
obv
ious
that
the
eigh
t stu
dies
des
crib
ed h
ad v
aryi
ngob
ject
ives
, wer
e ai
med
at d
iffe
rent
audi
ence
s, a
nd w
ere
inte
nded
to b
eus
ed f
or d
iffe
rent
pur
pose
s. F
or th
ose
who
car
ried
out
the
stud
ies,
the
proc
ess
has
been
an
oppo
rtun
ity to
gain
a d
eepe
r un
ders
tand
ing
of e
ffec
ts a
nd im
pact
and
,w
here
the
prog
ram
me
still
exis
ts, t
o ad
just
and
dev
elop
it. T
his
can,
of
cour
se, h
ave
effe
cts
that
spr
ead
muc
hw
ider
than
the
orig
inal
prog
ram
me,
but
the
ques
tion
rem
ains
: can
Follo
win
g Fo
otst
eps
affe
ctpo
licy?
The
art
icle
on
page
50
brin
gs to
geth
er e
xper
ienc
esfr
om f
our
very
dif
fere
ntco
ntex
tsus
A, K
enya
,
Irel
and
and
Bot
swan
aan
dsh
ows
that
this
is p
ossi
ble
give
n a
num
ber
of s
peci
fic
ingr
edie
nts:
the
orig
inal
prog
ram
me
mus
t be
stro
ngan
d of
goo
d qu
ality
; the
rese
arch
pro
cess
nee
ds to
be
tran
spar
ent a
s w
ell a
sri
goro
us; a
nd th
e ri
ght
peop
le h
ave
to b
e ap
proa
ched
in th
eri
ght w
ays.
And
then
ther
e is
the
spec
ial
impo
rtan
ce o
f fi
gure
s. D
espi
te o
urem
phas
is o
n qu
alita
tive
appr
oach
es,
ther
e is
no
doub
t tha
t pol
icy-
mak
ers,
polit
icia
ns a
nd m
any
fund
ers
are
infl
uenc
ed b
y la
rge
num
bers
of
resp
onde
nts
and
by c
ost-
bene
fit s
tudi
es.
But
thos
e fi
gure
s ne
ed b
acki
ng u
p w
ithth
e w
ords
of
real
peo
ple,
with
the
7-)
",
f
Spa
in: P
rees
cola
r na
Cas
a pr
ojec
t
Pre
parin
g lu
nch
toge
ther
.
Pho
to: M
aria
Xos
e M
irand
a B
arro
s in
La
Cor
una
on o
ne o
f her
hom
e vi
sitin
g da
ys
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 13
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
stor
ies
that
sho
w u
s w
here
thei
rfo
otst
eps
led
them
.0
* T
he C
arib
bean
Sup
port
Ini
tiativ
e is
a
Foun
datio
n-su
ppor
ted,
fiv
e ye
ar r
egio
nal
prog
ram
me
with
a th
emat
ic f
ocus
on
pare
ntin
g in
itiat
ives
in e
arly
chi
ldho
od
deve
lopm
ent.
The
stu
dies
so f
arco
untr
yB
otsw
ana
Irel
and
US
AK
enya
prog
ram
me
stud
ied
abou
t the
stu
dy
rese
arch
erls
)
sam
ple(
s)
findi
ngs
Bok
amos
o Pr
esch
ool
Prog
ram
me,
a tr
aini
ng a
ndm
onito
ring
pro
gram
me
for
San
child
ren
in is
olat
edse
ttlem
ents
a co
mpr
ehen
sive
stu
dy o
f th
epr
ogra
mm
e ca
rrie
d ou
t19
93-1
995
Bok
amos
o te
am m
embe
rs w
how
ere
initi
ally
gui
ded
by a
nou
tsid
e re
sear
cher
172
child
ren
who
had
bee
n in
pres
choo
ls a
nd w
ere
trac
ed in
Stan
dard
s 1-
4 in
7 p
rim
ary
scho
ols
child
ren
who
had
bee
n in
pres
choo
ls w
ere
mos
tly s
till i
nsc
hool
; man
y pa
rent
s w
ere
supp
ortiv
e; d
ropo
ut f
igur
esw
ere
low
er th
an a
ssum
ed;
mai
n pr
oble
ms
wer
e th
ela
ngua
ge g
ap, u
se o
f co
rpor
alpu
nish
men
t, la
ck o
f cu
ltura
lun
ders
tand
ing;
it w
as s
een
that
the
cont
rast
bet
wee
n pr
e an
dpr
imar
y sc
hool
s ca
n cr
eate
anim
osity
and
tens
ion
Com
mun
ity M
othe
rs P
rogr
amm
e,a
hom
e vi
sitin
g pr
ogra
mm
e in
Dub
lin a
imed
at f
irst
tim
e m
othe
rsdu
ring
the
firs
t 12
mon
ths
of th
ech
ild's
life
a fo
llow
-up
stud
y in
199
7-19
98 a
tag
e 8
year
s of
ear
lier
rese
arch
in19
90 a
t age
12
mon
ths
rese
arch
ers
from
the
Hea
lthA
utho
rity
and
Uni
vers
ity in
colla
bora
tion
with
pro
gram
me
staf
f
76 m
othe
r-ch
ild p
airs
rep
rese
ntin
gon
e-th
ird
of th
e or
igin
alra
ndom
ised
con
trol
led
sam
ple;
38 f
rom
the
inte
rven
tion
grou
p,38
fro
m th
e co
ntro
l gro
up
alm
ost a
ll th
e va
riab
les
mea
sure
dfa
vour
ed th
e in
terv
entio
n gr
oup:
imm
unis
atio
ns, n
utri
tion,
chi
ldre
n's
attit
udes
to s
choo
l, ho
mew
ork,
read
ing,
mot
hers
' atti
tude
s to
war
dsch
ildca
re a
nd d
isci
plin
e an
d th
eir
self
-est
eem
, as
wel
l as
effe
cts
onsu
bseq
uent
chi
ldre
n; th
e st
udy
conc
lude
s th
at th
e ch
ange
s in
child
rear
ing
prac
tices
fou
nd in
199
0w
ere
sust
aine
d se
ven
year
s la
ter
Pare
nt-t
o-Pa
rent
(PT
P) D
isse
min
atio
nPr
ogra
mm
e (1
978-
1984
) in
whi
ch a
com
mon
ope
n fr
amew
ork
was
impl
emen
ted
by 7
age
ncie
s ta
rget
ing
vary
ing
popu
latio
ns
a st
udy
in 1
997-
1998
to s
earc
h fo
rev
iden
ce a
nd in
flue
nce
of P
TP
prin
cipl
es a
nd s
trat
egie
s
rese
arch
er e
mpl
oyed
by
Hig
h/Sc
ope
Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rch
Foun
datio
nth
e or
igin
al im
plem
entin
g or
gani
satio
n
four
site
s se
lect
ed f
or d
iver
sity
in te
rms
of c
lient
pop
ulat
ion,
age
ncy
type
,pr
ogra
mm
e an
d co
mm
unity
siz
e;in
terv
iew
ees
wer
e or
igin
al p
artic
ipan
tsan
d st
aff
of c
urre
nt p
rogr
amm
es
alth
ough
non
e of
the
orig
inal
prog
ram
mes
are
stil
l in
exis
tenc
e, a
ndth
ere
wer
e m
any
othe
r in
terv
enin
gfa
ctor
s, s
ever
al a
spec
ts o
f th
eph
iloso
phy
and
prin
cipl
es a
re e
vide
ntin
cur
rent
pro
gram
mes
and
man
yfo
rmer
par
ticip
ants
rem
ain
activ
e; w
ithpr
esen
t wel
fare
res
tric
tions
ther
e is
ala
rge
unm
et n
eed
for
qual
ity c
hild
care
yet t
he n
eeds
of
child
ren
ofte
n ge
tov
erlo
oked
Em
bu D
istr
ict C
entr
e fo
r E
arly
Chi
ldho
od E
duca
tion
(Dic
EcE
),a
2 ye
ar p
resc
hool
teac
her
trai
ning
prog
ram
me
that
is p
art o
f a
natio
nal
prog
ram
me
a st
udy
in 1
998-
1999
look
ing
at th
eef
fect
s of
trai
ning
for
pre
scho
ol te
ache
rson
the
child
ren
they
had
car
ed f
or
rese
arch
ers
from
the
Mw
ana
Mw
ende
Chi
ld D
evel
opm
ent T
rust
, bot
h of
who
m h
ad p
revi
ousl
y w
orke
d in
the
natio
nal t
rain
ing
prog
ram
me
913
child
ren
from
3 c
ohor
ts (
1991
, 199
2,19
93)
wer
e tr
acke
d in
12
prim
ary
scho
ols,
of
whi
ch h
alf
had
had
trai
ned
pres
choo
l tea
cher
s, th
e ot
her
half
untr
aine
d
child
ren
who
had
bee
n w
ith tr
aine
dpr
esch
ool t
each
ers
mad
e th
e tr
ansi
tion
to p
rim
ary
scho
ol m
ore
easi
ly th
an th
eot
hers
, yet
chi
ldre
n's
over
all
perf
orm
ance
s w
ere
affe
cted
by
the
acad
emic
rat
ing
of th
e pr
imar
y sc
hool
s,hi
gh r
epet
ition
and
dro
pout
rat
es, a
sw
ell a
s al
coho
l, dr
ugs,
chi
ldem
ploy
men
t, po
or m
ale
role
mod
els,
and
chan
ging
life
styl
es, v
alue
sys
tem
san
d m
oral
cod
es
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r Fo
unda
tion
14 E
arly
Chi
ldho
od M
atte
rs
coun
try
Jam
aica
Trin
idad
Col
ombi
aIs
rael
prog
ram
me
stud
ied
Tee
nage
Mot
hers
Pro
ject
Ado
lesc
ent D
evel
opm
ent
PRO
ME
SA, r
un b
y C
IND
E, a
imed
at
Pare
nts'
Coo
pera
tive
(TM
P), a
ful
l-tim
e 18
mon
thpr
ogra
mm
e ai
med
at t
eena
gem
othe
rs a
nd th
eir
infa
nts
in a
Prog
ram
me
(AD
P), r
un b
y Se
rvol
,ad
dres
sing
soc
ial,
emot
iona
l, an
dps
ycho
logi
cal n
eeds
of
16-1
8 ye
ar
child
ren
and
com
mun
ities
in a
rem
ote
coas
tal a
rea
to im
prov
e ph
ysic
al,
emot
iona
l and
inte
llect
ual
Kin
derg
arte
n ru
n by
Alm
aya
in 2
are
asof
Bee
r-Sh
eva
for
imm
igra
nt f
amili
esof
Eth
iopi
an o
rigi
n
rura
l are
aol
dsde
velo
pmen
t
abou
t the
stu
dyth
e st
udy,
in 1
999,
trac
ed th
eim
pact
of
the
TM
P on
mot
her-
the
stud
y, in
199
9, lo
oked
at t
heef
fect
s of
par
ticip
atio
n on
for
mer
the
stud
y w
as a
con
tinua
tion
of a
long
itudi
nal i
nves
tigat
ion
that
beg
an in
the
stud
y, c
arri
ed o
ut in
200
0-20
01,
aim
ed to
fin
d ou
t wha
t had
hap
pene
d
child
pai
rs s
ome
10 y
ears
aft
erA
DP
trai
nees
som
e 10
yea
rs a
fter
1978
; ori
gina
lly q
uant
itativ
e, th
is s
tudy
to c
hild
ren
who
had
par
ticip
ated
in th
e
part
icip
atio
nco
mpl
etio
nis
bas
ed o
n in
terv
iew
s ca
rrie
d ou
t in
prog
ram
me
1988
-199
019
99 a
nd 2
001
rese
arch
er(s
)an
out
side
res
earc
her
an o
utsi
de r
esea
rche
rst
aff
of C
IND
Ean
out
side
res
earc
her
who
has
unde
rtak
en e
valu
atio
ns a
nd o
ther
rese
arch
for
Alm
aya
sam
ple(
s)20
mot
her-
child
pai
rs, 1
0 of
21 m
en a
nd 1
9 w
omen
fro
m 4
80 m
othe
rs a
nd 3
9 pr
omot
oras
(w
hoth
e in
terv
entio
n gr
oup
com
pris
ed 3
7
who
m h
ad b
een
in th
e T
MP
and
diff
eren
t AD
P ce
ntre
s; o
utco
mes
had
impl
emen
ted
the
prog
ram
me)
youn
g pe
ople
age
d 12
-17;
a c
ompa
riso
n
10 w
ho h
ad n
otw
ere
com
pare
d w
ith 1
8 m
en a
nd 2
1w
ho h
ad b
een
in th
e pr
ogra
mm
egr
oup
com
pris
ed 3
4 m
atch
ed y
oung
l="
wom
en f
rom
the
sam
e ar
eas
who
1978
-80,
and
a s
elec
tion
of th
eir
peop
le; t
hese
wer
e al
l of
Eth
iopi
an o
rigi
n'n
on-E
thio
pian
'C
r)ha
d no
t bee
n in
the
AD
P(n
ow a
dult)
chi
ldre
nw
hile
a th
ird
grou
p of
25
youn
g pe
ople
was
als
o in
terv
iew
ed
findi
ngs
TM
P m
othe
rs w
ere
all e
mpl
oyed
the
AD
P ga
ve f
orm
er tr
aine
esin
200
1, c
hild
ren
of p
rom
otor
as h
ad a
nit
was
evi
dent
that
the
inte
rven
tion
and
mos
t had
pur
sued
fur
ther
educ
atio
n an
d tr
aini
ng; t
hey
grea
ter
conf
iden
ce, s
elf-
awar
enes
san
d se
lf-e
stee
m, e
nhan
ced
thei
rav
erag
e of
10
year
s sc
hool
ing,
com
pare
d w
ith a
198
9 av
erag
e fo
r th
ech
ildre
n w
ere
esse
ntia
lly d
iffe
rent
fro
mth
eir
Eth
iopi
an-o
rigi
n co
unte
rpar
ts a
nd
wer
e m
ore
self
ass
ured
with
apa
rent
ing
skill
s, in
crea
sed
thei
r le
vel
area
of
6.3
year
s, a
nd 3
.5 y
ears
for
thei
rcl
oser
to th
e Is
rael
i nor
m; t
his
coul
d be
grea
ter
sens
e of
con
trol
ove
rof
tole
ranc
e to
war
ds o
ther
s, a
ndow
n m
othe
rs; t
he p
rom
otor
asse
en in
tend
enci
es to
war
ds
thei
r liv
es th
an th
e co
mpa
riso
nim
prov
ed th
eir
com
mun
icat
ion
expr
esse
d co
mpe
tenc
e an
d se
lf-
indi
vidu
alis
m, a
bilit
ies
to e
xpre
ss
mot
hers
; the
latte
r ha
d gi
ven
skill
s an
d re
latio
nshi
ps w
ith th
eir
conf
iden
ce a
nd w
ere
lead
ers
in th
eem
otio
ns a
nd n
eeds
, res
pons
ible
birt
h to
mor
e th
an tw
ice
aspa
rent
s; m
embe
rs o
f th
eco
mm
unity
; the
re w
ere
man
ybe
havi
our
patte
rns,
and
acq
uisi
tion
of
man
y su
bseq
uent
chi
ldre
n; th
eco
mpa
riso
n gr
oup
wer
e al
soim
prov
emen
ts to
gen
eral
hea
lth a
ndth
e 'to
ols'
that
cou
ld e
nabl
e th
em to
TM
P ch
ildre
n w
ere
give
n hi
gher
gene
rally
per
form
ing
at s
imila
rth
e en
viro
nmen
t as
wel
l as
gene
ral
bette
r in
tegr
ate
into
Isr
aeli
soci
ety
ratin
gs b
y th
eir
teac
hers
than
com
pari
son
child
ren
leve
ls in
thei
r em
ploy
men
t and
life
in g
ener
al
econ
omic
impr
ovem
ents
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 15
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
Tra
cer
stud
ies:
anop
port
unity
and
ach
alle
nge
Dav
id P
Wef
ikar
fc
If w
e w
ant t
o un
ders
tand
whe
re tr
acer
stud
ies
fit i
nto
the
broa
der
rese
arch
fiel
d, w
e ne
ed to
look
bac
k to
the
firs
tpa
rt o
f th
e tw
entie
th c
entu
ry. U
ntil
the
late
193
0s a
ny ty
pe o
f ed
ucat
iona
lre
sear
ch w
as a
sm
all,
occa
sion
al th
ing,
the
prov
ince
of
spec
ialis
ed a
cade
mic
s
with
obs
cure
inte
rest
s. T
hen
cam
e th
ese
cond
Wor
ld W
ar w
hen
effo
rts
toim
prov
e th
e tr
aini
ng a
nd th
eef
fect
iven
ess
of s
ervi
cem
en b
roug
ht to
the
fore
the
psyc
holo
gica
l and
educ
atio
nal a
sses
smen
ts a
vaila
ble
at th
etim
e. T
hey
wer
e fo
und
to b
e sa
dly
lack
ing.
In
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es o
fA
mer
ica,
maj
or f
eder
al in
vest
men
t was
requ
ired
to b
uild
a r
esea
rch
base
tofa
cilit
ate
assi
gnm
ent o
f m
en to
mili
tary
task
s. T
his
inte
rest
and
rec
ogni
sed
need
spill
ed o
ver
into
the
post
war
wor
k of
thes
e pr
ofes
sion
s, a
nd s
erio
us f
ocus
was
give
n to
dev
elop
ing
a bo
dy o
f
Dav
id P
Wei
kart
is th
e fo
unde
r an
d Pr
esid
ent E
mer
itus
of H
igh/
Scop
e E
duca
tiona
l Res
earc
h Fo
unda
tion,
Mic
higa
n,U
SA
soph
istic
ated
res
earc
h de
sign
s,as
sess
men
t met
hods
, and
pro
cedu
res
ofan
alys
is. W
ith in
crea
sed
unde
rsta
ndin
gof
thes
e el
emen
ts, t
his
tren
d ha
sco
ntin
ued,
gre
atly
fac
ilita
ted
by th
eav
aila
bilit
y of
sop
hist
icat
ed c
ompu
ter
prog
ram
mes
to s
impl
ify
com
puta
tions
.
Mos
t of
the
proj
ects
that
cou
ld b
e th
esu
bjec
t of
such
res
earc
h po
sitiv
ely
assi
stth
ose
who
par
ticip
ate:
the
mot
her
with
her
infa
nt; t
he te
enag
er w
ith e
duca
tion;
the
labo
urer
with
ski
lls. B
ut f
rom
apu
blic
or
educ
atio
nal p
olic
y pe
rspe
ctiv
e,pa
rtic
ipan
t sat
isfa
ctio
n is
not
the
poin
t.If
the
serv
ice
idea
is to
hav
e us
e be
yond
thos
e se
rved
in a
sin
gle
loca
le, i
t mus
tde
mon
stra
te th
at in
vest
men
t of
time
and
mon
ey c
an p
rodu
ce s
omet
hing
that
part
icip
ants
cou
ld n
ot o
btai
n w
ithou
tth
e pr
ojec
t. Fu
rthe
r, to
hav
e st
rong
polic
y im
plic
atio
n, th
e pr
ojec
t out
com
es
mus
t be
repl
icat
ed e
lsew
here
with
sim
ilar
indi
vidu
als.
In o
rder
to r
each
thes
e go
als,
one
of
the
mos
t im
port
ant r
esea
rch
elem
ents
reco
gnis
ed to
day
is th
e ab
solu
tere
quir
emen
t of
a pr
oper
ly d
esig
ned
sam
ple
of p
artic
ipan
ts f
or a
ny s
tudy
.A
ll as
pect
s of
a p
roje
ct, t
he d
aily
adm
inis
trat
ion,
the
trai
ning
of
staf
f, th
eeq
uipm
ent a
nd m
ater
ials
ava
ilabl
e, th
een
thus
iasm
of
the
part
icip
ants
, can
be
in p
lace
. How
ever
, if
thos
e as
sign
ed to
part
icip
ate
and
thos
e as
sign
ed n
ot to
part
icip
ate
(the
exp
erim
enta
l and
cont
rol g
roup
s) a
re n
ot s
ampl
ed a
ndas
sign
ed c
orre
ctly
, non
e of
the
proj
ect
info
rmat
ion
will
be
wor
th m
ore
than
pass
ing
inte
rest
. In
a ve
ry r
eal s
ense
, the
way
in w
hich
the
grou
ps a
re e
stab
lishe
dfo
rms
a ri
gid
gate
into
the
valu
e of
the
proj
ect.
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 16
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
It is
on
thes
e is
sues
that
the
trac
erst
udie
s pr
esen
t bot
h an
opp
ortu
nity
and
a ch
alle
nge
for
the
broa
der
fiel
d of
educ
atio
nal r
esea
rch.
Int
erna
tiona
lly,
the
need
to f
ind
effe
ctiv
e m
eans
tosu
ppor
t chi
ldre
n an
d fa
mili
es, e
spec
ially
thos
e liv
ing
in p
over
ty, i
s w
idel
yre
cogn
ised
. The
se s
tudi
es o
ffer
impo
rtan
t inf
orm
atio
n.
An
oppo
rtun
ity
Tra
cer
stud
ies
repr
esen
t an
oppo
rtun
ityfo
r m
any
of th
e ri
ght r
easo
ns. F
irst
, the
proj
ects
rep
rese
nt d
iver
se g
eogr
aphi
cal
loca
tions
and
cul
tura
l set
tings
ser
ving
aw
ide
rang
e of
indi
vidu
als
in v
ery
diff
eren
t cou
ntri
es. T
oo o
ften
our
idea
sab
out w
hat s
ervi
ces
shou
ld b
e pr
ovid
edar
e dr
iven
by
info
rmat
ion
gene
rate
d in
the
econ
omic
ally
aff
luen
t wor
ld,
espe
cial
ly th
e U
nite
d St
ates
of
Am
eric
a.
Thi
s fa
ct is
a n
atur
al r
esul
t of
vast
reso
urce
s an
d la
rge
num
bers
of
wel
l-tr
aine
d st
aff
avai
labl
e fo
r ed
ucat
iona
lpr
ojec
ts. H
owev
er, e
ven
for
the
indu
stri
alis
ed w
orld
, ver
ific
atio
n of
educ
atio
nal a
ppro
ache
s or
ser
vice
proc
esse
s is
req
uire
d. T
he tr
acer
stu
dies
step
into
the
com
plex
ity o
f se
tting
s th
atst
retc
h an
d te
st a
bro
ad r
ange
of
serv
ice
idea
s in
new
way
s.
Seco
nd, t
he p
roje
cts
are
fund
amen
tally
dem
ocra
tic, a
trai
t inc
reas
ingl
y se
en a
san
ess
entia
l ing
redi
ent o
f an
y m
oder
nso
ciet
y. T
he p
roje
cts
thes
e st
udie
sex
amin
e ar
e us
ually
foc
used
on
com
mun
ity m
embe
rs d
isco
veri
ng w
ays
to h
elp
othe
rs in
thei
r co
mm
unity
. Thi
sap
proa
ch is
one
of
empo
wer
men
t and
entit
lem
ent.
All
peop
le r
espo
nd b
ette
rw
hen
they
can
see
that
the
prod
uct o
fth
eir
effo
rt is
acc
epte
d an
d re
spec
ted.
Thi
s di
men
sion
of
the
trac
er s
tudi
eses
tabl
ishe
s th
eir
lead
ersh
ip f
or th
ebr
oade
r fi
eld
of r
esea
rch
and
educ
atio
nal e
valu
atio
n.
Thi
rd, t
he s
tudi
es lo
ok a
t pro
ject
part
icip
ant o
utco
mes
ove
r tim
e. T
ooof
ten,
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f in
form
atio
nst
ops
at th
e en
d of
the
serv
ice
com
pone
nt o
f th
e pr
ojec
t for
part
icip
ants
. Loo
king
at o
utco
mes
ove
rtim
e is
a v
ery
impo
rtan
t ste
p in
the
proc
ess
of s
epar
atin
g th
ose
appr
oach
esth
at a
ctua
lly c
hang
e ci
rcum
stan
ces
from
USA
:H
igh/
Sco
pe, F
athe
r an
d ch
ild.
thos
e th
at s
impl
y en
able
som
e ev
ent t
ooc
cur
earl
ier
in ti
me.
The
trac
er s
tudi
esas
k di
ffic
ult q
uest
ions
reg
ardi
ngef
fect
iven
ess
of s
ervi
ces
that
the
broa
der
fiel
d of
res
earc
h an
d ev
alua
tion
ofte
nov
erlo
oks.
A c
halle
nge
Tra
cer
stud
ies
are
chal
leng
ed b
y th
em
ains
trea
m f
ield
of
rese
arch
and
At,
eval
uatio
n. T
he f
ield
's a
ccep
ted
rese
arch
stan
dard
s te
ar a
t the
fab
ric
of th
e w
ork
to d
ate.
Fir
st, m
ost o
f th
e tr
acer
stu
dies
have
not
dev
elop
ed a
n ad
equa
te s
ampl
esi
ze, n
or h
ave
they
und
erta
ken
rand
omse
lect
ion
and
assi
gnm
ent.
With
out
mee
ting
thes
e ba
sic
crite
ria,
the
info
rmat
ion
gene
rate
d is
inte
rest
ing
for
deve
lopi
ng id
eas
and
sugg
estin
g lin
es o
fth
ough
t, bu
t off
ers
little
gui
danc
e to
shap
e pu
blic
soc
ial o
r ed
ucat
iona
l pol
icy.
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 17
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
Seco
nd, m
any
of th
e tr
acer
stu
dies
focu
s on
pro
gram
me
idea
s un
derg
oing
deve
lopm
ent,
mak
ing
it un
clea
r ju
stw
hat t
he s
peci
fic
serv
ice
or a
ppro
ach
actu
ally
was
. Pol
icy
can
only
be
built
arou
nd in
form
atio
n fr
om s
tabl
epr
ogra
mm
es. N
ew p
rogr
amm
es th
at a
rein
con
stan
t cha
nge,
as
they
rig
htly
resp
ond
to th
e ex
peri
ence
of
deliv
erin
gse
rvic
es, a
re n
ot g
ood
cand
idat
es f
orpo
licy
info
rmat
ion
beca
use
it is
unc
lear
wha
t asp
ect o
f th
e pr
ojec
t is
actu
ally
bein
g ev
alua
ted.
Thi
rd, w
hen
proj
ect i
deas
are
new
, it
usua
lly m
eans
that
inst
rum
enta
tion
toas
sess
the
proj
ect o
utco
mes
has
yet
tobe
dev
elop
ed. W
hile
inte
rvie
ws
with
part
icip
ants
and
judg
men
ts b
y pr
ojec
tst
aff
are
espe
cial
ly v
ital f
or th
ede
velo
pmen
t of
a ne
w s
ervi
ce, s
uch
data
are
high
ly s
uspe
ct a
s ou
tcom
ein
form
atio
n. M
uch
of th
e in
form
atio
npr
esen
ted
in th
e tr
acer
stu
dies
, fro
m th
ein
itial
pha
se o
f th
e pr
ojec
t as
wel
l as
the
follo
w-u
p ph
ase,
com
es f
rom
suc
hin
terv
iew
s an
d ju
dgem
ents
. Of
cour
se,
that
doe
s no
t mea
n th
at it
is a
lway
ssa
fer
to u
se tr
aditi
onal
out
com
eas
sess
men
t app
roac
hes:
are
they
stan
dard
ized
for
this
spe
cifi
cpo
pula
tion?
Is
tran
slat
ion
ofin
stru
men
ts o
r tr
aini
ng p
roce
dure
sin
volv
ed, a
nd w
ho c
heck
ed th
e ne
wfo
rms
for
accu
racy
? H
ow w
ere
the
tria
lfi
eld
test
s of
the
inst
rum
ents
cond
ucte
d? I
n sh
ort,
the
trac
er s
tudi
esha
ve ta
ckle
d a
very
dif
ficu
lt pr
oble
min
deed
, but
for
the
find
ings
to b
em
eani
ngfu
l, th
ere
mus
t be
answ
ers
toth
ese
ques
tions
.
The
con
trib
utio
n of
trac
er s
tudi
es to
educ
atio
nal r
esea
rch
and
eval
uatio
n
All
that
sai
d, h
owev
er, t
here
are
man
yle
sson
s ge
nera
ted
by th
e tr
acer
stu
dies
,
and
the
broa
der
fiel
d of
edu
catio
nal
rese
arch
and
eva
luat
ion
can
lear
nex
tens
ivel
y fr
om th
em. F
rom
my
poin
tof
vie
w o
ne o
f th
e m
ost i
mpo
rtan
tle
sson
s is
fro
m th
e ne
w c
omm
unity
or
educ
atio
nal s
ervi
ce p
atte
rns.
Wor
king
on li
mite
d bu
dget
s an
d of
ten
shor
tst
affe
d, th
ese
proj
ects
hav
e ex
plor
edne
w p
atte
rns
of e
nabl
ing
indi
vidu
als
tom
eet a
nd o
verc
ome
prob
lem
s. B
ig N
ewId
eas
in s
ervi
ce a
re h
ard
to c
ome
by.
Add
ing
pare
ntin
g is
sues
to h
ealth
serv
ices
was
one
suc
h id
ea. A
noth
er w
astr
aini
ng p
aren
ts to
ass
ist o
ther
par
ents
inst
ead
of u
sing
pro
fess
iona
l sta
ff. B
utth
ese
and
sim
ilar
idea
s ar
e fr
om th
epa
st; b
reak
thro
ughs
in th
e 19
60s
and
1970
s. W
hat c
an b
e gl
eane
d fr
om th
ese
trac
er s
tudi
es th
at w
ould
for
m th
e ba
sis
of a
bre
akth
roug
h in
ser
vice
idea
s fo
rth
is d
ecad
e? T
hey
may
be
hidd
en in
this
body
of
wor
k; th
e re
quir
emen
t is
todi
scov
er th
em.
Ano
ther
less
on o
f va
lue
from
the
stud
ies
stem
s fr
om th
eir
dive
rsity
:di
vers
ity in
met
hods
of
serv
ice;
div
ersi
tyin
cul
ture
and
lang
uage
of
part
icip
atin
ggr
oups
; div
ersi
ty in
eco
nom
icde
velo
pmen
t of
the
com
mun
ity; a
nddi
vers
ity in
eth
nic
com
posi
tion.
The
sest
udie
s ar
e no
t 'po
or c
ousi
ns' t
o th
ela
rge
scal
e, w
ell-
fina
nced
stu
dies
inaf
flue
nt c
ount
ries
, the
y ar
e st
oreh
ouse
sof
impr
ovis
atio
n an
d re
silie
nce
in th
ede
man
ding
dai
ly li
ves
of c
omm
uniti
es.
Thu
s w
hile
edu
catio
nal r
esea
rch
and
eval
uatio
n us
ually
dem
and
clar
ity o
fpr
ojec
t ope
ratio
n an
d pr
ojec
t out
com
es,
thes
e st
udie
s of
fer
com
plex
ity a
nd a
wea
lth o
f in
form
atio
n ab
out a
ctua
l day
to d
ay w
ork
with
peo
ple.
With
this
initi
al in
form
atio
n, f
utur
e pr
ojec
ts c
anbe
mor
e fu
lly im
plem
ente
d an
dev
alua
ted
with
mor
e tr
aditi
onal
stan
dard
s.
The
Nex
t Big
New
Idea
The
key
to v
alua
ble
info
rmat
ion
from
the
trac
er s
tudi
es is
to p
rese
nt th
epr
ojec
t inf
orm
atio
n ob
tain
ed, q
ualif
ied
by th
e st
anda
rd r
esea
rch
rese
rvat
ions
,su
ch th
at th
e re
stle
ss a
nd in
nova
tive
appr
oach
es a
re c
lear
. The
y ne
ed to
be
stud
ied
clos
ely
for
idea
s th
at m
ight
sugg
est m
ajor
cha
nges
in s
ervi
cem
etho
ds. I
f th
e N
ext B
ig N
ew I
dea
wer
eob
viou
s, w
e w
ould
be
doin
g it.
How
ever
, it i
s bu
ried
in o
ther
fie
lds,
othe
r ap
proa
ches
, oth
er w
ays
of lo
okin
gat
pro
blem
s.
For
exam
ple,
use
of
com
pute
rs a
ndot
her
elec
tron
ic te
chno
logi
es a
re o
ut o
fth
e qu
estio
n in
man
y pa
rts
of th
e w
orld
beca
use
of c
ost,
avai
labi
lity
of tr
aine
dpe
rson
nel,
and
lack
of
know
ledg
e as
toho
w to
eff
ectiv
ely
use
such
tech
nolo
gyev
en if
it w
ere
avai
labl
e. B
ut s
omeh
ow,
with
in te
chno
logy
is o
ne B
ig N
ew I
dea.
Not
just
to u
se c
ompu
ters
and
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 18
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
tech
nolo
gy, b
ut h
ow th
ey a
re u
sed.
Can
pare
nts
be li
nked
with
oth
er p
aren
tsan
d pr
ojec
t sta
ff in
way
s th
at g
ive
imm
edia
te s
uppo
rt f
or im
med
iate
prob
lem
s? C
an tr
aini
ng o
f ce
ntre
-bas
edst
aff
be im
prov
ed w
ith v
ideo
str
eam
ing
of d
emon
stra
tion
clas
sroo
ms
with
voi
ceov
er b
y a
know
ledg
eabl
e co
mm
enta
tor?
With
the
adve
nt o
f di
gita
lco
mm
unic
atio
n de
vice
s (i
nclu
ding
cel
lph
ones
) lin
ked
to s
atel
lites
, is
a ne
wtr
aini
ng v
ehic
le o
pene
d?
The
poi
nt is
that
to in
nova
te, d
eliv
er,
and
docu
men
t eff
ectiv
e pr
ogra
mm
es is
a di
ffic
ult t
ask.
The
trac
er s
tudi
esen
com
pass
a w
ide
rang
e of
div
erse
effo
rts
whi
ch c
an p
rovi
de in
telle
ctua
lbu
ildin
g bl
ocks
for
new
er u
nder
taki
ngs,
if w
e ca
n on
ly le
arn
to b
uild
on
the
old
whi
le a
ttem
ptin
g th
e ne
w. T
heav
aila
bilit
y of
suc
h st
udie
s to
the
broa
der
fiel
d of
res
earc
h an
ded
ucat
iona
l eva
luat
ion
mov
es f
orw
ard
the
pote
ntia
l of
know
ledg
e ab
out h
igh
qual
ity s
ervi
ce.
0
The
ory
prac
tice
Insi
deor
outs
ide
rese
arch
ers?
Wha
t are
the
adva
ntag
es a
nd d
isad
vant
ages
of
havi
ng r
esea
rch
done
fro
m w
ithin
the
prog
ram
me
or o
rgan
isat
ion?
And
wha
t are
the
pros
and
con
s of
usi
ng o
utsi
de r
esea
rche
rs?
The
fol
low
ing
issu
es w
ere
men
tione
d at
the
Follo
win
g Fo
otst
eps
wor
ksho
p in
Jam
aica
.
Usi
ng in
side
rs -
pos
itive
Usi
ng in
side
rs -
cha
lleng
es
Bri
ng in
side
kno
wle
dge
and
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
the
proj
ect
Ena
ble
orga
nisa
tiona
l lea
rnin
gE
nabl
e pr
oces
ses
of a
naly
sing
and
unde
rsta
ndin
g w
ithin
the
proj
ect
Fam
iliar
ity w
ith a
nd s
ensi
tivity
tocu
lture
, nor
ms,
lang
uage
Fam
iliar
ity w
ith a
nd a
ccep
tabl
e to
resp
onde
nts
Hav
e in
tuiti
ve a
nd in
trin
sic
know
ledg
eR
esea
rch
will
be
trul
y 'o
wne
d'an
d ap
plie
dC
an in
flue
nce
the
prog
ram
me
A c
lear
imm
edia
te s
ound
ing
boar
dIn
terp
erso
nal r
elat
ions
hip
allo
ws
the
insi
der
to g
o de
eper
Fina
ncia
l ben
efit
to o
rgan
isat
ion
Aw
aren
ess
of p
oliti
cal e
nvir
onm
ent
Inve
stm
ent i
n th
e ou
tcom
es (
doub
le-
edge
d!)
1,D
% D
ange
r of
bia
s, f
or e
xam
ple,
in f
avou
rof
cer
tain
out
com
es'5
Fam
iliar
ity/k
now
ledg
e m
ight
hin
der
obje
ctiv
ity6'
Pos
sibl
e ov
er-i
dent
ific
atio
n w
ithpr
ojec
t5
Too
clo
se to
the
prob
lem
t- C
ould
be
too
pass
iona
te, u
nabl
e to
sepa
rate
issu
est1
' Res
pond
ents
mig
ht g
ive
the
answ
ers
they
thin
k th
e pr
ojec
t wan
ts to
hea
r5
Com
petin
g w
ork
load
s'6
Dif
ficu
lty in
shi
ftin
g ro
les
6 C
ould
hav
e bl
inke
red
appr
oach
to d
ata
5 In
vest
men
t in
the
outc
omes
(dou
ble-
edge
d!)
Usi
ng o
utsi
ders
- p
ositi
veU
sing
out
side
rs -
cha
lleng
es
Cha
lleng
e th
e th
inki
ng a
nd w
hat h
as'5
May
mis
s im
port
ant k
now
ledg
e or
und
er-
been
take
n fo
r gr
ante
dst
andi
ng th
roug
h la
ck o
f in
form
atio
n an
dB
ring
bro
ader
and
new
per
spec
tives
bein
g ne
w to
the
subj
ect
and
wid
er e
xper
ienc
e fr
om o
ther
`' M
ay n
ot b
e fa
mili
ar w
ith th
e cu
lture
, loc
alpr
ojec
tsla
ngua
ge, j
argo
nH
ave
expe
rtis
e in
res
earc
h5
Will
not
be
awar
e of
hid
den
agen
das
Are
obj
ectiv
e'5
The
ir q
uest
ions
may
not
be
rele
vant
Hav
e a
fres
h vi
ewne
w e
yes
'5 T
here
cou
ld b
e so
cial
dis
tanc
e be
caus
e of
Onl
y co
mm
itmen
t is
to r
esea
rch,
not
back
grou
nd a
nd e
xper
tise
to p
roje
ct im
plem
enta
tion
'5 S
peci
fic
rese
arch
ers
coul
d be
impo
sed
byC
an s
ee 'o
utsi
de th
e bo
x'ou
tsid
ers/
fund
ers
Bri
ng n
ew w
ays
of u
nder
stan
ding
5 M
oney
spe
nt o
n ou
tsid
ers
coul
d be
use
dL
ack
of b
ias
for
proj
ect d
evel
opm
ent
Opt
imal
foc
us5
Out
side
rs c
an b
e re
sent
ed b
ecau
se o
f bi
t-D
etac
hmen
tte
rnes
s ab
out h
ighe
r w
ages
, 'st
olen
' inf
or-
mat
ion
and
susp
icio
n fr
om r
espo
nden
ts5
Res
pond
ents
may
not
res
pond
to a
n ou
tsi-
der
5 A
dditi
onal
tim
e is
nee
ded
for
orie
ntat
ion
'5 M
ay n
ot b
e op
en a
bout
ow
n as
sum
ptio
ns5
Tim
e is
som
etim
es li
mite
d
Pos
sibl
e so
lutio
ns
One
sol
utio
n co
uld
be in
side
r re
sear
ch s
uppo
rted
by
outs
ide
reso
urce
per
sons
/mon
itors
.A
sin
gle
pers
pect
ive
can
be a
void
ed b
y in
volv
ing
as m
any
as p
ossi
ble
insi
ders
in th
e te
am a
nd h
avin
g a
prim
ary
outs
ide
rese
arch
er g
uidi
ng th
e re
sear
chpr
oces
s.
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 19
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
The
ory
prac
tice
To
com
pare
or
not t
oco
mpa
re?
Kat
hy S
yilv
a
The
aut
hor
is P
rofe
ssor
of
Edu
catio
nal P
sych
olog
y in
the
Dep
artm
ent o
f E
duca
tiona
l Stu
dies
, Uni
vers
ity o
f O
xfor
d,U
nite
d K
ingd
om. I
n th
is a
rtic
le s
he r
evie
ws
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f co
mpa
riso
n gr
oups
, con
side
ratio
ns th
at a
rise
in s
ampl
esi
ze, a
nd th
e pl
ace
of q
ualit
ativ
e an
d qu
antit
ativ
e da
ta in
long
itudi
nal s
tudi
es.
A s
tudy
that
is f
ollo
win
g up
par
ticip
ants
afte
r so
me
year
s is
a f
orm
of
long
itudi
nal s
tudy
. In
this
kin
d of
rese
arch
, the
re a
re tw
o qu
estio
ns th
atca
n be
ask
ed:
wha
t are
chi
ldre
n/fa
mili
es w
hopa
rtic
ipat
ed in
the
prog
ram
me
like
anu
mbe
r of
yea
rs la
ter?
Wha
t wou
ld c
hild
ren/
fam
ilies
be
like
if th
ey h
ad N
OT
par
ticip
ated
in th
epr
ogra
mm
e?
The
fir
st o
f th
ese
ques
tions
is e
ssen
tially
look
ing
for
desc
ript
ion,
it is
one
way
of
look
ing
at o
utco
mes
, but
you
can
nev
erbe
sur
e w
hat c
ause
d th
em. I
f th
is is
you
rre
sear
ch q
uest
ion,
you
do
not r
equi
re a
com
pari
son
grou
p.
The
sec
ond
ques
tion
cann
ot b
ean
swer
ed w
ithou
t a c
ompa
riso
n gr
oup.
Thi
s w
ill h
elp
to s
how
the
effe
cts
of a
prog
ram
me
by c
ompa
ring
sim
ilar
popu
latio
ns w
ho d
id a
nd w
ho d
id n
otpa
rtic
ipat
e in
the
prog
ram
me.
Alth
ough
the
use
of a
com
pari
son
grou
p do
es n
otm
ean
that
you
can
'pro
ve' t
hat i
t was
the
prog
ram
me
that
mad
e th
e di
ffer
ence
, it
stre
ngth
ens
the
case
that
it w
as.
Typ
es o
f co
mpa
riso
ns
The
re a
re b
asic
ally
thre
e di
ffer
ent t
ypes
of g
roup
s th
at c
an b
e us
ed f
orco
mpa
riso
n:
1. th
e co
ntro
l gro
up w
here
the
sam
eki
nds
of in
divi
dual
s/fa
mili
es f
rom
the
sam
e ki
nds
of n
eigh
bour
hood
sha
ve b
een
rand
omly
ass
igne
d to
be
in th
e pr
ogra
mm
e or
not
(th
epr
ogra
mm
e gr
oup
is s
omet
imes
calle
d an
'int
erve
ntio
n' o
r 'tr
eatm
ent'
grou
p);
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 20
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
2. th
e m
atch
ed g
roup
in w
hich
you
fir
stde
fine
impo
rtan
t cha
ract
eris
tics
ofth
e in
terv
entio
n gr
oup
and
then
mat
ch th
em w
ith in
divi
dual
s in
anot
her
grou
p th
at is
as
muc
h lik
eth
e fi
rst g
roup
as
poss
ible
; and
3. th
e co
mpa
riso
n gr
oup
whi
ch is
com
pose
d of
peo
ple
who
are
like
thos
e in
the
prog
ram
me
in m
any
way
s bu
t did
not
par
ticip
ate
for
wha
teve
r re
ason
. For
exa
mpl
e, th
eyco
uld
be f
rom
a d
iffe
rent
vill
age.
Of
thes
e, th
e co
ntro
l gro
up g
ives
you
the
best
pos
sibi
litie
s fo
r m
akin
g yo
urco
mpa
riso
ns s
ome
year
s la
ter
beca
use
the
assi
gnm
ent i
nto
prog
ram
me/
cont
rol
grou
p w
as r
ando
m r
ight
at t
hebe
ginn
ing.
The
re a
re, h
owev
er, s
ome
draw
back
s, p
artic
ular
ly th
e et
hica
l iss
ueof
den
ying
a p
rogr
amm
e to
thos
e w
how
ant i
t whe
n th
e re
sour
ces
are
avai
labl
e.If
ther
e ar
e no
t suf
fici
ent r
esou
rces
avai
labl
e fr
om th
e st
art,
it m
ight
be
poss
ible
to o
ffer
ser
vice
s at
a la
ter
stag
e,in
whi
ch c
ase
fam
ilies
mig
ht b
e w
illin
gto
be
rand
omly
ass
igne
d in
the
firs
tin
stan
ce, k
now
ing
that
eve
ryon
e w
illpa
rtic
ipat
e in
the
prog
ram
me
atso
me
time.
With
the
seco
nd tw
o gr
oups
on
the
list,
you
cann
ot k
now
for
sur
e th
at it
was
the
prog
ram
me
that
mad
e th
edi
ffer
ence
, sin
ce y
ou d
o no
t kno
ww
heth
er th
e pe
ople
in th
e pr
ogra
mm
ear
e di
ffer
ent f
rom
thos
e w
ho a
re n
ot.
The
mer
e fa
ct o
f be
ing
will
ing
topa
rtic
ipat
e al
read
y m
akes
them
diff
eren
t in
som
e w
ay.
An
impo
rtan
t dif
fere
nce
betw
een
am
atch
ed a
nd a
con
trol
gro
up is
that
the
cont
rol g
roup
was
ran
dom
ly a
lloca
ted.
The
mat
ched
gro
up is
a li
ttle
stro
nger
than
the
com
pari
son
grou
p be
caus
e yo
ukn
ow h
ow th
e tw
o gr
oups
are
alik
e an
dha
ve s
elec
ted
them
for
thei
r si
mila
rity
.
r\D
IN)
The
mor
e w
e ha
ve c
ontr
ol a
nd m
atch
edgr
oups
in o
ur s
tudi
es, t
he b
ette
r ab
le w
ear
e to
lim
it th
e in
flue
nce
of o
ther
fact
ors.
If
we
are
tryi
ng to
est
ablis
hef
fect
s w
e ne
ed to
'tri
angu
late
, whi
chm
eans
get
ting
our
data
fro
m tw
o or
mor
e so
urce
s an
d m
atch
ing
orco
mpa
ring
them
.
How
big
sho
uld
the
sam
ples
be?
The
mai
n co
nstr
aint
whe
n yo
u ar
etr
ying
to f
ind
out t
he e
ffec
ts o
f a
prog
ram
me
are
the
infl
uenc
es o
nch
ildre
n/fa
mili
es th
at a
re b
eyon
d th
esp
here
of
the
prog
ram
me.
Her
e is
whe
renu
mbe
rs b
ecom
e im
port
ant b
ecau
se if
the
num
bers
are
larg
e en
ough
then
unus
ual c
ircu
mst
ance
s fo
r on
e ch
ild d
ono
t inf
luen
ce th
e ov
eral
l out
com
es. I
fth
e nu
mbe
rs a
re s
mal
l, th
en a
n un
usua
lev
ent f
or o
ne in
divi
dual
impa
cts
the
sam
ple
in a
dis
prop
ortio
nate
way
. An
exam
ple
is a
res
earc
h st
udy
invo
lvin
gth
e us
e of
a s
peci
fic
met
hodo
logy
tote
ach
a sm
all n
umbe
r of
chi
ldre
n to
read
. In
the
cont
rol g
roup
ther
e is
ach
ild w
hose
aun
t is
a te
ache
r an
dsu
dden
ly m
oves
in to
her
hom
e an
dte
ache
s he
r to
rea
d. I
n th
is c
ase,
the
read
ing
scor
es o
f a
smal
l gro
up m
ight
be 'a
rtif
icia
lly in
crea
sed'
by
the
aunt
who
join
ed th
e fa
mily
.
If b
oth
grou
ps c
onta
in la
rger
num
bers
,fo
r ex
ampl
e 60
+ c
hild
ren,
the
impa
ct o
f
one
child
is n
ot g
reat
. If,
how
ever
, the
stud
y in
clud
es a
sm
all n
umbe
r, f
orex
ampl
e le
ss th
an 1
6 ch
ildre
n, d
ram
atic
and
unus
ual c
ircu
mst
ance
s fo
r on
ech
ild m
ay g
reat
ly in
flue
nce
grou
pou
tcom
es.
Det
erm
inin
g th
e nu
mbe
r of
chi
ldre
n to
incl
ude
in th
e sa
mpl
e de
pend
s on
man
yfa
ctor
s, in
clud
ing
the
reso
urce
s av
aila
ble
(tim
e, m
oney
, exp
ertis
e an
d so
on)
.C
alcu
latin
g th
e op
timum
num
ber
need
sto
be
done
in r
elat
ion
to th
e nu
mbe
r in
the
tota
l pop
ulat
ion.
Thi
s is
aco
mpl
icat
ed p
roce
ss a
nd h
ard
to d
o.A
noth
er a
ppro
ach,
not
qui
te s
o go
od, i
sto
look
at p
revi
ous
stud
ies
of th
e sa
me
kind
and
aim
for
mor
e or
less
the
sam
esa
mpl
e si
zes.
If
the
grou
ps h
ave
been
rand
omly
ass
igne
d, th
en th
e sa
mpl
esi
zes
can
be s
mal
ler;
if th
e sa
mpl
e is
tobe
non
-ran
dom
, the
n a
larg
er s
ampl
e is
need
ed to
take
acc
ount
of
grea
ter
vari
atio
n be
twee
n th
e gr
oups
.
In a
ny c
ase,
the
sam
ple
need
s to
be
repr
esen
tativ
e of
the
kind
s of
chi
ldre
nyo
u ar
e se
rvin
g. F
or e
xam
ple,
if y
ouse
lect
for
trac
ing
only
chi
ldre
n w
hoar
e in
sch
ool s
ever
al y
ears
late
r, th
isdo
es n
ot r
epre
sent
the
who
le g
roup
as
ther
e m
ay w
ell h
ave
been
som
e th
atdr
oppe
d ou
t.
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 21
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
Qua
litat
ive
or q
uant
itativ
e?W
heth
er to
do
a qu
alita
tive
rese
arch
stud
y or
a q
uant
itativ
e re
sear
ch s
tudy
depe
nds
on th
e re
sear
ch q
uest
ions
, the
obje
ctiv
es o
f th
e st
udy,
the
audi
ence
bein
g ai
med
at a
s w
ell a
s th
e re
sour
ces
and
skill
s av
aila
ble.
And
ther
e is
als
o th
em
atte
r of
sam
ple
size
.
If th
e st
udy
is q
ualit
ativ
e th
en it
isim
poss
ible
to d
o w
ith 2
,000
chi
ldre
n.If
the
stud
y is
qua
ntita
tive
then
sam
ples
of 6
0 an
d 60
can
be
suff
icie
nt. I
n th
eex
ampl
e th
e vi
sitin
g au
nt w
ho w
as a
teac
her,
her
impa
ct w
ill b
e le
ss w
ith a
sam
ple
of 6
0 in
eac
h gr
oup
than
one
whi
ch h
as a
sm
alle
r sa
mpl
e. Y
ou m
aykn
ow a
bout
her
and
it is
pos
sibl
e to
talk
abou
t her
in th
e st
udy,
but
she
doe
s no
t`s
wam
p' th
e ou
tcom
e.
Bot
h qu
antit
ativ
e an
d qu
alita
tive
met
hodo
logi
es s
trug
gle
to in
terp
ret t
heev
iden
ce a
nd a
ccou
nt f
or d
iffe
renc
esbe
twee
n re
spon
dent
s. A
nd in
man
yw
ays,
it is
a f
alse
dic
hoto
my.
It i
spo
ssib
le, f
or e
xam
ple,
to h
ave
a fa
irly
larg
e sc
ale
quan
titat
ive
stud
y an
d al
soto
dra
w a
sm
alle
r sa
mpl
e fr
om th
atst
udy
for
an in
-dep
th q
ualit
ativ
e st
udy.
Com
bini
ng th
e di
ffer
ent m
etho
dolo
gies
shou
ld le
ad to
mor
e m
eani
ngfu
lfi
ndin
gs a
nd in
terp
reta
tions
.0
The
sto
ry b
ehin
d th
e st
ory:
trac
ing
San
child
ren
in B
otsw
ana
WiD
Dem
ien
De
Rou
x an
d G
aoD
atD
he E
iren
e T
hupe
Bot
swan
a: C
hild
ren
of th
e E
arth
pro
ject
San
pre
scho
ol c
hild
ren
of B
ere,
Gha
nzi d
istr
ict.
Pho
to: M
atth
ias
Hof
er
In th
is a
rtic
le, W
illem
ien
le R
oux,
fou
nder
of
the
Bok
amos
o Pr
esch
ool P
rogr
amm
e, a
nd G
aola
tlhe
Eir
ene
Thu
pe, i
ts c
urre
ntC
oord
inat
or, r
efle
ct o
n th
eir
expe
rien
ces
in c
arry
ing
out a
trac
er s
tudy
on
part
icip
ants
in th
e pr
ogra
mm
e. T
his
curr
ently
ope
rate
s in
13 S
an s
ettle
men
ts in
the
Gha
nzi D
istr
ict o
f w
este
rn B
otsw
ana
and
inco
rpor
ates
thre
e m
ain
hypo
thes
es: t
hat S
an c
hild
ren
who
hav
ego
ne th
roug
h pr
esch
ool w
ill b
e le
ss li
kely
to d
rop
out o
f fo
rmal
sch
ools
; tha
t par
ents
will
par
ticip
ate
mor
e po
sitiv
ely
in th
e fo
rmal
educ
atio
n pr
oces
s if
thei
r ch
ildre
n ar
e so
meh
ow 'l
ured
' int
o le
arni
ng th
roug
h pl
ay; a
nd th
at th
e in
trod
uctio
n of
lang
uage
s in
an
info
rmal
way
will
bre
ak th
roug
h ch
ildre
n's
resi
stan
ce to
oth
er la
ngua
ges
and
give
them
a h
ead
star
t in
prim
ary
scho
ol.
The
ref
lect
ions
of
the
auth
ors
are
com
plem
ente
d by
an
exam
ple
from
the
prog
ram
me
of th
e de
pth
and
rich
ness
of
info
rmat
ion
that
trac
er s
tudi
es c
an r
evea
l (se
e bo
x on
pag
e 24
).
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 22
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
We
wer
e su
rpri
sed
whe
n th
e B
erna
rdva
n L
eer
Foun
datio
n sa
id it
wan
ted
tore
prin
t our
stu
dy' o
f th
e B
okam
oso
Pres
choo
l Pro
gram
me
in B
otsw
ana.
We
did
not g
o in
to th
e ex
peri
ence
with
the
inte
ntio
n to
cha
nge
anyo
ne's
idea
s w
ithit,
we
are
prac
titio
ners
and
we
wen
t int
oth
e st
udy
for
ours
elve
sit
was
not
mea
nt to
impa
ct p
olic
y.
The
pro
cess
of
doin
g th
e st
udy
was
ver
yim
port
ant f
or u
s, w
e ho
ped
for
seve
ral
outc
omes
and
we
also
wan
ted
tore
info
rce
and
test
our
ow
n as
sum
ptio
ns.
We
saw
our
ow
n pr
ogra
mm
e as
acu
ltura
l bri
dge
for
the
San
child
ren;
we
wan
ted
to p
repa
re th
em to
take
the
stra
in o
f th
e tr
ansi
tion
to p
rim
ary
scho
ol. W
e fe
lt w
e w
ere
getti
ng s
tuck
.W
ere
we
reac
hing
our
goa
ls?
We
wan
ted
to s
ee w
hat w
e co
uld
chan
ge to
bro
aden
the
scop
e. W
e w
ere
cons
tant
ly r
unni
ngin
to c
ontr
adic
tions
, so
we
need
ed to
ols
to c
onvi
nce
othe
r pe
ople
that
the
proj
ect w
as w
orki
ng, t
hat w
hat w
e w
ere
doin
g w
as w
orth
whi
le.
The
re w
as o
ppos
ition
to o
ur w
ork,
som
e pe
ople
wer
e sc
eptic
al a
nd s
aid
itdi
d no
t mak
e se
nse,
that
we
wer
e go
ing
back
war
ds b
y te
achi
ng th
e ch
ildre
n in
the
pres
choo
ls in
thei
r m
othe
r to
ngue
.A
nd th
ere
wer
e pr
imar
y sc
hool
teac
hers
who
bla
med
the
pres
choo
ls f
or m
akin
gth
e ch
ildre
n fe
el m
ore
free
.
We
are
not r
esea
rche
rs a
nd a
t the
begi
nnin
g w
e ha
d an
adv
isor
who
was
linke
d to
the
fund
er. S
he is
a s
ocio
logi
stan
d pr
ovid
ed r
esea
rch
guid
ance
. She
plan
ned
the
stud
y w
ith u
s an
d w
ede
sign
ed th
e qu
estio
nnai
re to
geth
er.
But
she
took
ano
ther
job
in a
noth
erco
untr
y an
d w
e w
ere
left
on
our
own.
We
wer
e st
uck,
we
had
star
ted
the
proc
ess,
we
had
the
basi
cs, b
ut n
oten
ough
res
earc
h kn
owle
dge.
We
had
our
doub
ts f
rom
the
begi
nnin
gab
out u
sing
que
stio
nnai
res
as w
e kn
ewth
at, e
spec
ially
am
ong
the
mos
tlyill
itera
te S
an p
eopl
e w
e w
ork
with
, the
wri
tten
wor
d ar
ouse
s su
spic
ions
. Our
com
mun
ities
hav
e ha
d m
any
peop
leas
king
them
que
stio
ns a
nd th
ey f
eel
noth
ing
is e
ver
fed
back
to th
em. T
heSa
n su
spec
t tha
t peo
ple
such
as
rese
arch
ers,
jour
nalis
ts a
nd f
ilm m
aker
sha
ve b
een
mak
ing
mon
ey o
ut o
f w
hat
they
hav
e to
ld th
em. W
e fe
lt th
at th
epr
oces
s of
ask
ing
the
ques
tions
wou
ldal
iena
te p
eopl
e an
d w
ould
cre
ate
expe
ctat
ions
. So
we
deci
ded
not t
o us
eth
e qu
estio
nnai
re a
nd to
do
it in
our
own
way
, in
our
own
time,
usi
ng a
sty
leof
que
stio
ning
acc
ordi
ng to
wha
t we
knew
wou
ld w
ork
and
acco
rdin
g to
wha
t we
knew
was
ther
e. W
e ha
d to
do
it in
form
ally
, oth
erw
ise
they
ask
them
selv
es 'w
here
is th
is in
form
atio
ngo
ing?
' and
you
don
't ge
t the
rea
lan
swer
s.
The
met
hod
we
used
was
to g
o to
soc
ial
gath
erin
gs w
ith th
e co
mm
unity
mot
ivat
ors.
We
wou
ld s
it w
ith th
epe
ople
, gat
heri
ng in
form
atio
n th
roug
hch
attin
g an
d ta
lkin
g w
ith th
em. W
epi
cked
up
peop
le o
n th
e ro
ad, g
ave
them
lift
s, a
nd g
ot f
urth
er in
form
atio
nor
con
firm
atio
n du
ring
the
ride
.
For
exam
ple,
one
que
stio
n w
e ne
eded
to k
now
was
if th
ey h
ad a
ny in
com
e,an
d of
ten
it m
eant
tryi
ng to
fin
d ou
tho
w m
any
cow
s th
ey h
ave.
If
you
ask
this
dir
ectly
they
wou
ld a
nsw
er th
atth
ey h
ave
none
hopi
ng to
get
som
ethi
ng f
rom
the
inte
rvie
wer
sin
cem
any
aid
prog
ram
mes
in o
ur a
rea
are
aim
ed o
nly
at th
e so
-cal
led
dest
itute
s.So
we
wou
ld g
o an
d si
t with
peo
ple
inth
eir
hom
es a
nd w
ithin
the
gene
ral
conv
ersa
tion
wou
ld a
sk th
em a
bout
thei
r ro
utin
es: '
If, i
n th
e ev
enin
g, y
ou g
oto
the
kraa
l' to
see
if y
our
cow
s ca
me
hom
e, w
hat d
o yo
u do
if o
ne h
as n
otco
me?
' Thr
ough
talk
ing
with
them
abou
t car
ing
for
the
cattl
e w
e gr
adua
llyco
uld
lear
n ho
w m
any
they
had
. The
yne
ver
wou
ld h
ave
give
n us
the
answ
erha
d w
e as
ked
the
ques
tion
dire
ctly
.
The
n w
e w
ent a
way
and
trie
d to
put
the
info
rmat
ion
on p
aper
. We
sent
the
data
to th
e re
sear
cher
who
ana
lyse
d it
and
sent
it b
ack
but t
here
was
a lo
ng la
pse
betw
een
data
col
lect
ion
and
anal
ysis
.W
e w
ere
very
dis
appo
inte
d w
ith h
er
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 23
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
repo
rt b
ecau
se th
e nu
mbe
rs d
id n
otre
pres
ent w
hat w
e kn
ew s
o w
e ha
d a
seco
nd r
ound
of
data
gat
heri
ng.
We
wen
t to
the
scho
ols
agai
n an
dch
ecke
d re
cord
s of
chi
ldre
n w
ho h
adbe
en in
the
pres
choo
ls a
nd m
ight
hav
edr
oppe
d ou
t of
prim
ary
scho
ol, b
utth
ere
wer
e m
any
diff
icul
ties:
lack
of
reco
rds;
fal
se r
ecor
ds; t
rans
fers
of
child
ren
and
teac
hers
; inc
onsi
sten
tsp
ellin
g of
nam
es in
the
San'
s cl
ick
lang
uage
s; a
nd o
ther
inco
nsis
tenc
ies.
Scho
ols
are
give
n eq
uipm
ent a
ndsu
ppor
t on
the
basi
s of
num
bers
of
child
ren,
so
we
susp
ecte
d th
atso
met
imes
mor
e ch
ildre
n w
ere
regi
ster
ed th
an a
ctua
lly a
ttend
ed. T
here
was
no
way
to c
heck
the
valid
ity o
f th
eda
ta, a
nd p
eopl
e in
the
educ
atio
nde
part
men
t sha
red
thei
r ow
nfr
ustr
atio
ns w
ith u
s. N
ames
cha
nged
beca
use
scho
ols
coul
d no
t rec
ord
child
ren'
s na
mes
in th
eir
own
lang
uage
,so
nam
es w
ere
reco
rded
as
they
wer
e`h
eard
. We
deve
lope
d st
rate
gies
to tr
yan
d ve
rify
dat
a. W
e co
llect
ed a
ll th
ena
mes
of
the
drop
outs
and
then
wen
tto
trai
ning
ses
sion
s fo
r pr
imar
y sc
hool
teac
hers
, and
che
cked
with
gro
ups
ofte
ache
rs to
see
if th
ey c
ould
iden
tify
the
child
ren.
But
stil
l the
res
ults
wer
e 'in
sign
ific
ant'
stat
istic
ally
and
we
had
to f
ind
othe
rw
ays
to s
how
wha
t was
ther
e.
Dis
cipl
inin
g Sa
n ch
ildre
n in
Bot
swan
a
In S
an s
ocie
ty, c
hild
ren
are
brou
ght u
pas
equ
al to
adu
lts, h
ence
par
ents
rar
ely
reso
rt to
cor
pora
l pun
ishm
ent,
yet
phys
ical
form
s of
pun
ishm
ent w
ere
wid
espr
ead
in th
e B
otsw
ana
scho
olsy
stem
. Thi
s fe
d ba
ck in
to th
e
beha
viou
r of
par
ents
as
this
ext
ract
from
a g
roup
dis
cuss
ion
with
San
pare
nts
show
s.'
Que
stio
n: D
o S
an e
ver
use
corp
oral
puni
shm
ent?
Dad
a: I
beat
my
child
ren
whe
n th
ey
wer
e sm
all b
ecau
se I
knew
oth
ers
wer
ela
ter
goin
g to
bea
t the
m, a
nd it
hel
ped
them
to g
et u
sed
to th
at. B
ut I
hit t
hem
in th
e rig
ht w
ay, n
ever
with
the
fist.
Whe
n a
child
is s
mal
l, an
d he
/she
touc
hes
som
ethi
ng d
ange
rous
, we
wou
ld p
inch
the
child
on
the
back
of h
isha
nd o
r sl
ap h
im li
ghtly
on
the
hand
s,to
teac
h hi
m.
X'a
ega:
We
talk
to o
ur c
hild
ren.
We
talk
to th
em a
lot,
and
ever
ybod
y ta
lks.
If a
smal
l one
doe
s so
met
hing
wro
ng, w
ehi
t him
on
the
hand
sof
tly. W
hen
I was
smal
l, an
d I u
sed
to b
e na
ught
y, I
was
disc
iplin
ed b
y m
y ol
der
uncl
e. M
y
fath
er w
ould
not
dis
cipl
ine
me,
but
the
elde
rs w
ould
get
toge
ther
to d
iscu
ssab
out m
e, a
nd th
en m
y un
cle
wou
ld d
oth
e ta
lkin
g.
[Com
men
t: T
his
wou
ld o
nly
be fo
rth
ings
like
ste
alin
g, b
reak
ing
othe
rpe
ople
s' p
osse
ssio
ns, o
r an
tisoc
ial
beha
viou
r. T
his
was
che
cked
with
the
peop
le fr
om o
ther
set
tlem
ents
, and
they
agr
eed
to th
e sa
me
syst
em.]
X'a
ega:
I ha
ve s
ent m
y tw
o ch
ildre
n to
pres
choo
l, an
d I h
ave
had
to b
eat t
hem
on th
eir
behi
nd to
forc
e th
em to
go.
Iw
alk
with
them
all
the
way
to s
choo
l,be
atin
g th
em if
they
wan
t to
turn
bac
k.B
ut th
en, o
nce
they
hav
e ac
cept
ed th
atth
ey s
houl
d go
, I ta
lk to
them
eve
ry d
ayab
out w
hat t
hey
have
don
e at
sch
ool.
Tha
t way
they
kno
w th
at I
am
inte
rest
ed. B
ut th
ey a
lso
like
the
pres
choo
l. T
hey
are
not s
care
d.
Hab
e: If
you
bea
t a c
hild
too
muc
h, th
ey
beco
me
stub
born
, and
you
can
not w
inth
at c
hild
ove
r ag
ain.
Que
stio
n: Is
ther
e a
way
in w
hich
you
can
chan
ge th
e be
havi
our
of a
ver
y 24
naug
hty
child
to b
ecom
e di
scip
lined
?W
hat i
f the
chi
ld d
oes
not l
iste
n an
ym
ore?
Dad
a: It
is b
ette
r to
giv
e th
e ch
ild a
rew
ard
if sh
e/he
has
don
e so
met
hing
right
, tha
n to
bea
t him
/her
whe
n do
ing
som
ethi
ng w
rong
. You
can
alw
ays
brib
e a
child
to d
o so
met
hing
, if h
ekn
ows
he w
ill g
et s
omet
hing
afte
rwar
ds.
X'a
ega:
My
olde
st c
hild
left
scho
ol, a
ndre
fuse
d to
go
to th
e ho
stel
. She
has
no
mor
e cl
othe
s le
ft to
wea
r an
d I w
ill n
otfo
rce
her
to g
o. I
do n
ot h
ave
the
mon
ey to
pay
for
the
food
they
eat
at
scho
ol a
nyw
ay. I
f a c
hild
ref
uses
som
ethi
ng, l
et h
im g
o. N
ever
forc
ea
child
.
Dad
a: If
the
child
has
don
e so
met
hing
wro
ng to
you
, and
you
com
plai
n to
me,
I will
go
with
the
child
to y
our
hous
e,an
d ex
plai
n th
e w
rong
doin
g. I
will
then
give
the
child
a b
eatin
g th
ere,
or
I can
ask
you
to b
eat h
er fo
r m
e. M
y si
ster
s,or
my
mot
her,
are
als
o re
spon
sibl
e to
take
car
e of
thes
e th
ings
.
,i
Que
stio
n: /
have
see
n sm
all c
hild
ren
hitti
ng th
eir
pare
nts
in th
e fa
ce, e
ven
with
a s
tick,
and
peo
ple
just
laug
h. W
hy
Qho
mat
caa:
Peo
ple
know
that
chi
ldre
nst
ill d
o no
t kno
w e
very
thin
g, a
nd if
you
are
too
forc
eful
with
chi
ldre
n, y
ou c
anm
ake
that
chi
ld v
ery
wea
k. It
isim
port
ant t
o le
t the
chi
ld fe
el s
tron
g.
Xgu
ka: S
omet
imes
I ha
ve tr
ied
to b
eat
my
child
, the
n sh
e te
lls m
e no
t to
do it
.S
he a
lso
says
to m
e w
hen
I tel
l her
todo
som
ethi
ng: '
I will
onl
y co
oper
ate
ifyo
u do
not
bea
t me.
'
Dad
a: W
e te
ach
child
ren
to h
ave
resp
ect,
but i
t tak
es ti
me.
Res
pect
is
som
ethi
ng v
ery
impo
rtan
t. If
you
have
resp
ect,
you
do n
ot la
ugh
at p
eopl
ew
ith d
isab
ilitie
s, o
r at
wea
k pe
ople
.P
eopl
e sh
ould
not
laug
h at
oth
ers.
* le
Rou
x W
(20
02),
The
cha
lleng
es o
f
chan
ge: a
trac
er s
tudy
of S
an p
resc
hool
child
ren
in B
otsw
ana,
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Dev
elop
men
t: P
ract
ice
and
Ref
lect
ions
No.
15 (
see
page
58)
Bot
swan
a: C
hild
ren
of th
e E
arth
pro
ject
, San
chi
ldre
n st
andi
ng b
ehin
d a
wal
l. P
hoto
: C V
isse
r
In o
ur th
ird
roun
d of
dat
a ga
ther
ing
we
wen
t qua
litat
ive.
We
deve
lope
d se
vera
lst
rate
gies
:pa
rent
s w
ere
inte
rvie
wed
by
pare
nts
our
driv
er w
as a
lso
a pa
rent
and
got v
ery
invo
lved
.Pa
rent
s w
ere
inte
rvie
wed
by
trai
ners
.T
each
ers
wer
e in
terv
iew
ed in
gro
ups.
Tra
iner
s w
ere
inte
rvie
wed
.
CT
)
Tea
cher
s an
d pa
rent
s pr
ovid
edin
form
atio
n th
roug
h an
ecdo
tes
and
we
bega
n to
use
dir
ect q
uote
s an
dan
ecdo
tes
to te
ll th
e st
ory.
We
used
the
man
y bo
oks
on th
e Sa
nas
ref
eren
ce p
oint
s as
wel
lit
put
the
info
rmat
ion
that
we
wer
eco
llect
ing
in c
onte
xt.
The
n w
e pu
t all
this
toge
ther
in o
uror
igin
al s
tudy
rep
ort.
All
that
we
coul
ddo
was
to p
rovi
de a
sna
psho
t of
the
situ
atio
n, tr
ustin
g th
at th
e re
ader
wou
ldbe
abl
e to
see
bey
ond
the
limita
tions
of
wha
t a n
orm
al 's
cien
tific
' stu
dy w
ould
have
bee
nw
e kn
ow th
ere
is a
sto
rybe
hind
the
stor
y. W
e fo
und
conf
irm
atio
n of
thin
gs w
e ha
d to
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 25
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
The
ory
prac
tice
impr
ove
and
we
foun
d w
hat w
e al
sokn
ew in
tuiti
vely
thro
ugh
expe
rien
ce.
Thi
s w
as a
ver
y va
luab
le e
xper
ienc
e fo
rus
bec
ause
it r
einf
orce
d w
hat w
e kn
ew.
From
that
exp
erie
nce
we
have
lear
ned
to w
ork
mor
e w
ith th
e pa
rent
s, m
akin
git
mor
e of
a tw
o-w
ay f
low
; we
are
wor
king
with
the
prim
ary
scho
olte
ache
rs to
exp
lain
bet
ter
wha
t we
are
doin
g; it
is h
elpi
ng u
s to
cha
nge
attit
udes
suc
h as
by
lear
ning
mor
eab
out t
he b
ackg
roun
d an
d cu
lture
of
the
child
ren.
Ove
rall
we
have
use
d th
est
udy
to w
iden
and
dee
pen
the
prog
ram
me.
0
1 T
he c
halle
nges
of
chan
ge: a
sur
vey
on th
e
effe
cts
of p
resc
hool
on
Bas
arw
a pr
imar
y
scho
ol c
hild
ren
in th
e G
hanz
i Dis
tric
t of
Bot
swan
a w
as p
ublis
hed
in 1
995
by K
uru
Dev
elop
men
t Tru
st a
nd is
now
out
of
prin
t.
A r
evis
ed a
nd u
pdat
ed v
ersi
on w
as p
ublis
-
hed
in 2
002
by th
e B
erna
rd v
an L
eer
Foun
datio
n as
The
cha
lleng
es o
f ch
ange
:
a tr
acer
stu
dy o
f Sa
n pr
esch
ool c
hild
ren
in B
otsw
ana
(see
pag
e 58
).
2 A
n en
clos
ure
for
cattl
e
R f
leet
ion
plan
ning
Tra
cer
stud
ies
and
the
Car
ibbe
an S
uppo
rt I
nitia
tive
Susa
nra
nker
The
aut
hor
is P
roje
ct D
irec
tor
of th
e Fo
unda
tion'
s C
arib
bean
Sup
port
Ini
tiativ
e (c
si).
Thi
s is
a f
ive
year
reg
iona
l pro
gram
me
with
a th
emat
ic f
ocus
on
pare
ntin
g in
itiat
ives
in e
arly
chi
ldho
od d
evel
opm
ent.
Its
mis
sion
is to
'be
an in
term
edia
ry r
esou
rce
proj
ect t
hat w
ill b
ring
peo
ple
and
reso
urce
s to
geth
erto
enh
ance
ear
ly c
hild
hood
dev
elop
men
t cap
acity
and
kno
wle
dge
in th
e su
b-re
gion
. The
csi
beg
an in
Dec
embe
r 20
01. I
n th
is a
rtic
le, S
usan
Bra
nker
refl
ects
on
how
trac
er s
tudi
es f
it in
to th
e cs
i as
part
of
its b
uilt-
in s
yste
m o
f m
onito
ring
and
eva
luat
ion.
The
fra
mew
ork
for
the
csi w
as s
ketc
hed
.4,2
1ag
ains
t the
bac
kgro
und
of in
suff
icie
ntkn
owle
dge
and
exch
ange
of
info
rmat
ion
on a
ppro
ache
s to
chi
ldre
arin
g an
dpa
rent
ing
prac
tices
in th
e C
arib
bean
regi
on. T
here
was
als
o a
dear
th o
fkn
owle
dge
abou
t the
impa
ct o
f va
riou
sin
terv
entio
ns d
ue to
insu
ffic
ient
mea
sure
men
t and
inad
equa
tem
echa
nism
s to
do
so.
Whi
le th
ere
is a
ple
thor
a of
prog
ram
mes
bot
h at
the
natio
nal a
ndco
mm
unity
leve
ls, v
ery
little
has
bee
ndo
ne to
mea
sure
the
impa
ct o
r tr
ace
the
outc
omes
of
thes
e pr
ogra
mm
es. I
n fa
ct,
very
oft
en, a
ssum
ptio
ns a
re m
ade
by
polic
y-m
aker
s an
d pr
ojec
t pla
nner
s th
atpr
ogra
mm
es a
re h
avin
g th
e re
quis
iteim
pact
on
thei
r ta
rget
aud
ienc
e w
ithou
tte
stin
g th
eir
vari
ous
hypo
thes
es. A
s a
cons
eque
nce,
bot
h qu
antit
ativ
e an
dqu
alita
tive
data
are
lack
ing,
res
ultin
g in
very
littl
e do
cum
enta
tion
ofex
peri
ence
s. N
ot o
nly
does
this
lim
it th
eop
port
uniti
es f
or c
ross
-fer
tilis
atio
n, b
utit
also
res
tric
ts th
e sh
arin
g of
less
ons
lear
nt.
Giv
en th
at o
ne o
f th
e m
ajor
obj
ectiv
esof
the
csi i
s 'to
intr
oduc
e an
d su
ppor
tth
e im
plem
enta
tion
of g
ood
pare
ntin
gpr
actic
e in
EC
D a
t the
com
mun
ity le
vel,
taki
ng a
dvan
tage
of
valid
ated
chi
ld
deve
lopm
ent p
rogr
amm
es, w
ere
cogn
ise
that
we
need
ade
quat
eev
alua
ting
tool
s an
d re
sear
chm
echa
nism
s to
ass
ess
the
effi
cacy
of
vari
ous
prog
ram
me
prin
cipl
es a
ndap
proa
ches
.
In it
s ro
le a
s a
faci
litat
or f
or th
ede
velo
pmen
t of
new
pro
ject
s an
dpr
ogra
mm
es a
nd th
e re
plic
atio
n of
exis
ting
ones
, the
csi
has
pla
ced
a gr
eat
deal
of
impo
rtan
ce o
n th
e ab
ility
tom
easu
re/e
valu
ate
outp
uts
and
impa
ct,
and
we
have
iden
tifie
d tr
acer
stu
dies
as
a us
eful
tool
and
an
impo
rtan
t pla
nkw
ithin
som
e of
its
vari
ous
stra
tegi
es.
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 26
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
The
re a
re a
num
ber
of p
ossi
ble
bene
fits
to th
e cs
i in
usin
g tr
acer
stu
dies
:
they
can
allo
w f
or b
ette
r pl
anni
ng o
fpr
ojec
ts;
they
cou
ld h
elp
to in
form
and
infl
uenc
e cs
i adv
ocac
y at
the
polic
yle
vel;
they
wou
ld p
rom
ote
impo
rtan
tre
sear
ch a
nd d
ocum
enta
tion;
they
wou
ld p
rovi
de im
port
ant
qual
itativ
e da
ta n
eede
d to
mea
sure
the
impa
ct o
f va
riou
s in
terv
entio
ns;
data
obt
aine
d fr
om th
e st
udie
s co
uld
serv
e as
a g
uide
in th
e re
plic
atio
nan
d di
ssem
inat
ion
of e
xper
ienc
es; a
nd
they
cou
ld h
elp
to u
pgra
de c
urre
ntun
ders
tand
ing
of v
ario
us c
once
ptua
lis
sues
for
bot
h th
e cs
i and
its
stak
ehol
ders
.
The
csi
is n
ow in
the
firs
t yea
r of
its
wor
kpla
n an
d, a
s su
ch, i
s in
the
earl
yst
ages
of
the
proj
ect c
ycle
with
its
part
ners
. Thi
s m
eans
that
the
use
of
CO
trac
er s
tudi
es w
ould
pro
vide
the
csi
with
a u
niqu
e op
port
unity
to b
uild
inev
alua
tion
and
rese
arch
com
pone
nts
from
the
very
fir
st c
once
ptua
lisat
ion
and
iden
tific
atio
n ph
ases
. The
stu
dies
can
be in
corp
orat
ed in
to a
num
ber
ofcs
i cor
e st
rate
gies
: mon
itori
ng a
ndev
alua
tion;
rep
licat
ion
and
diss
emin
atio
n; r
esea
rch
and
Ste
p 5
Impl
emen
tatio
n
Ste
p 4
Pro
ject
dev
elop
men
t
Ste
p 1
Pro
ject
iden
tific
atio
n
Ong
oing
Mon
itorin
g an
d ev
alua
tion
syst
ems
Tra
cer
stud
y
8
Ste
p 3
Fac
ilita
tion,
Incu
batio
nC
oord
inat
ion,
Neg
otia
tion
Cat
alyz
ing
docu
men
tatio
n; a
nd le
arni
ng a
ndad
voca
cy.
Mon
itorin
g an
d ev
alua
tion
It is
gen
eral
ly a
gree
d th
at r
etro
spec
tive
stud
ies
are
mor
e di
ffic
ult a
nd le
ssre
liabl
e an
d, w
here
ver
poss
ible
, tra
cer
stud
ies
shou
ld b
e in
clud
ed in
bot
h pi
lot
Ste
p 2
Fea
sibi
lity
stud
ies
Exp
lora
tion
Pla
nnin
g
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 27
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
Ref
lect
ion
proj
ects
and
long
-ter
m p
rogr
amm
esfr
om th
eir
ince
ptio
n.
Usi
ng o
ur m
onito
ring
and
eva
luat
ion
mod
el, v
ario
us c
ompo
nent
s of
a tr
acer
stud
y co
uld
be b
uilt
in a
t var
ious
poi
nts
as o
utlin
ed in
the
diag
ram
on
the
left
.
Step
1: O
nce
the
proj
ect h
as b
een
iden
tifie
d, th
e st
rate
gy f
or th
e tr
acer
stud
y co
uld
be d
evel
oped
(in
clud
ing
budg
etin
g).
Step
2: D
urin
g th
is p
lann
ing
phas
e, a
base
line
stud
y co
uld
be c
ondu
cted
todo
cum
ent w
hat e
xist
s.
Step
3: W
ith f
acili
tatin
g su
ppor
t fro
mth
e cs
i, pa
rtne
rs c
ould
iden
tify
the
type
of tr
acer
stu
dy n
eede
d an
d th
e ta
rget
audi
ence
(s).
Step
4: A
s th
e pr
ojec
t is
deve
lope
d, th
etr
acer
stu
dy s
houl
d be
em
bedd
ed in
the
proj
ect d
esig
n an
d m
onito
ring
/res
earc
hsy
stem
and
cle
ar im
pact
indi
cato
rsw
ould
be
iden
tifie
d.
Step
5: D
urin
g th
e im
plem
enta
tion
phas
e, th
e in
dica
tors
can
be
stud
ied,
asse
ssed
, ada
pted
as
nece
ssar
y.
R f
lect
ion
plan
ning
Usi
ng th
is a
ppro
ach
we
wou
ld h
ope
toga
ther
the
requ
isite
kno
wle
dge
that
our
part
ners
nee
d in
thei
r at
tem
pts
tore
plic
ate
vari
ous
wor
king
pri
ncip
les
and
adap
t goo
d pr
actic
es. T
he a
ppro
ach
shou
ld a
lso
dem
onst
rate
the
valu
e of
inve
stin
g in
var
ious
type
s of
prog
ram
mes
.
Rep
licat
ion
and
diss
emin
atio
n
The
csi
is in
tere
sted
in a
ssis
ting
with
the
tran
sfer
of
know
ledg
e an
dex
peri
ence
s ac
ross
the
regi
on. B
ased
on
feas
ibili
ty s
tudy
fin
ding
s an
dre
com
men
datio
ns, t
he c
si w
ill f
acili
tate
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f a
num
ber
of p
ilot
proj
ects
to te
st th
e w
orki
ng p
rinc
iple
sof
sup
port
mod
els
from
iden
tifie
dco
untr
ies
with
'wel
l est
ablis
hed'
par
ent
supp
ort a
nd E
CD
pro
gram
mes
.
As
part
of
the
asse
ssm
ent o
f m
odel
sbe
ing
cons
ider
ed f
or p
ossi
ble
repl
icat
ion,
a tr
acer
stu
dy c
ould
be
desi
gned
to e
valu
ate
the
impa
ct o
f th
eas
sess
men
t and
als
o pr
ovid
e so
me
insi
ghts
into
how
'tra
nsfe
rabl
e' th
eex
peri
ence
s an
d le
sson
s ar
e. S
imila
rly,
in th
e de
sign
of
pilo
t pro
ject
s ba
sed
onth
e re
plic
atio
n an
d di
ssem
inat
ion
ofw
orki
ng p
rinc
iple
s, a
trac
er s
tudy
cou
ld
be b
uilt
in a
s a
mea
ns o
f ev
alua
ting
shor
t-te
rm im
pact
s. T
his
coul
d he
lpin
form
the
futu
re d
evel
opm
ent o
f th
epr
ojec
t and
infl
uenc
e th
e ty
pes
ofin
puts
nee
ded
by v
ario
us s
take
hold
ers.
Res
earc
h an
d do
cum
enta
tion
Res
earc
h an
d do
cum
enta
tion
are
key
inst
rum
ents
in th
e tr
ansf
er o
fkn
owle
dge
and
the
cros
s-fe
rtili
satio
nne
eded
to b
uild
cap
acity
at a
ll le
vels
inth
e re
gion
. Yet
res
earc
h, w
heth
er o
r no
tin
the
form
of
trac
er s
tudi
es, i
s of
ten
not c
ondu
cted
bec
ause
it is
vie
wed
as
too
cost
ly a
nd b
urde
nsom
e fo
r th
eag
enci
es c
once
rned
.
How
ever
, fro
m a
reg
iona
l pro
gram
min
gpe
rspe
ctiv
e, tr
acer
stu
dies
are
wor
th th
ein
vest
men
t bec
ause
they
cou
ld h
elp
usin
crea
se k
now
ledg
e an
d un
ders
tand
ing
abou
t var
ious
app
roac
hes
to E
CD
and
the
type
s of
impa
ct v
ario
usin
terv
entio
ns m
ay h
ave.
The
se in
clud
eap
proa
ches
to c
hild
rear
ing
and
soci
alis
atio
n in
the
regi
on a
nd w
heth
erth
e pr
ojec
ts a
nd p
rogr
amm
eses
tabl
ishe
d ar
e 'in
syn
c' w
ith th
ese
appr
oach
es. Q
uest
ions
incl
ude:
are
they
hav
ing
the
requ
isite
impa
ct?
Is th
ere
cons
iste
ncy
betw
een
loca
l/com
mun
ity r
ealit
ies
and
polic
yin
itiat
ives
?A
re p
rogr
amm
ing
initi
ativ
es o
nly
desi
gned
in r
espo
nse
to 'p
erce
ived
'ne
eds
rath
er th
an a
ctua
l fin
ding
s?
Lear
ning
and
adv
ocac
y
In it
s ro
le a
s an
inte
rmed
iary
, the
csi
will
see
k to
leve
rage
sup
port
fro
mre
gion
al a
nd in
tern
atio
nal d
evel
opm
ent
and
fina
ncin
g ag
enci
es to
allo
w f
orla
rge-
scal
e bu
y-in
and
ado
ptio
n of
are
gion
al f
ram
ewor
k fo
r th
e re
plic
atio
nan
d di
ssem
inat
ion
of k
now
ledg
e on
good
EC
D a
nd p
aren
ting
prac
tices
.
Dat
a ob
tain
ed f
rom
trac
er s
tudi
es c
anth
eref
ore
play
an
impo
rtan
t par
t in
the
csi's
lear
ning
env
iron
men
t. T
hesu
cces
ses
and
failu
res
of v
ario
usap
proa
ches
, met
hodo
logi
es a
nd m
odel
spr
ovid
e ke
y le
sson
s ne
eded
for
any
atte
mpt
to d
isse
min
ate
info
rmat
ion
orto
adv
ocat
e at
dif
fere
nt le
vels
for
gre
ater
buy-
in o
r in
vest
men
ts in
the
sect
or.
Wha
t the
abo
ve d
emon
stra
tes
is th
atth
ere
is e
norm
ous
scop
e fo
r th
e us
e of
trac
er s
tudi
es in
reg
iona
l pro
gram
min
gan
d pl
anni
ng. T
he c
si's
foc
us is
on
capa
city
bui
ldin
g, th
e sh
arin
g an
d
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 28
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
exch
ange
of
know
ledg
e, a
nd u
ltim
atel
yas
sist
ing
with
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f an
envi
ronm
ent w
hich
is m
ore
supp
ortiv
eof
EC
D a
nd p
aren
ting
initi
ativ
es. W
e se
etr
acer
stu
dies
as
an im
port
ant t
ool i
nm
eetin
g so
me
of th
ese
obje
ctiv
es.
0
The
cha
lleng
e of
ass
essm
ent
CeD
iarm
esto
Rod
aigu
ez
The
aut
hor
is a
mem
ber
of th
e Pr
eesc
olar
na
Cas
a pr
ojec
t tea
m, c
oord
inat
ing
and
orga
nisi
ng th
e tr
aini
ngan
d ev
alua
tion
of p
rofe
ssio
nals
. The
pro
ject
ope
rate
s a
pare
nt e
duca
tion
prog
ram
me,
foc
used
on
child
deve
lopm
ent a
nd e
duca
tion
with
in th
e fa
mily
con
text
, for
fam
ilies
in r
ural
are
as o
f G
alic
ia, N
orth
Wes
tern
Spai
n. I
n th
is a
rtic
le, t
he a
utho
r sh
ows
how
ana
lysi
s an
d re
flec
tion
have
bee
n or
gani
c el
emen
ts o
f th
epr
ogra
mm
e th
roug
hout
its
long
life
, and
why
trac
er s
tudi
eson
ce r
ejec
ted
as ir
rele
vant
are
now
bei
ngre
-eva
luat
ed a
s va
luab
le to
ols
that
can
hel
p to
fur
ther
enh
ance
pro
gram
me
effe
ctiv
enes
s.
The
eve
nts
lead
ing
up to
the
repo
rt th
atfo
llow
s da
te b
ack
to 1
977
whe
nPr
eesc
olar
na
Cas
a (P
nc, P
resc
hool
Edu
catio
n in
the
Hom
e) w
as b
egun
, apa
rent
edu
catio
n pr
ogra
mm
e in
chi
lded
ucat
ion
that
has
now
bee
n in
oper
atio
n fo
r 25
yea
rs.
Tw
enty
-fiv
e ye
ars
is a
con
side
rabl
ele
ngth
of
time
in w
hich
to d
emon
stra
teth
at u
topi
a ca
n so
met
imes
be
achi
eved
.A
nd w
e sa
y ut
opia
bec
ause
in 1
977
itw
as n
ot e
asy
to im
agin
e th
at w
e w
ould
be w
here
we
are
toda
y in
the
fiel
d of
educ
atio
n. W
e ar
e he
re, h
owev
er, a
nd
this
may
pos
sibl
y be
due
to th
ede
term
inat
ion
of th
e pe
ople
who
prom
oted
the
prog
ram
me
peop
lew
ho a
long
the
way
trie
d to
inst
il in
prof
essi
onal
s th
e in
esca
pabl
e ne
ed f
ora
cont
inuo
us a
naly
sis
of th
e re
ality
inw
hich
they
wer
e in
terv
enin
g as
the
mos
t eff
icie
nt w
ay o
f ca
rryi
ng o
ut a
proj
ect s
ucce
ssfu
lly.
So m
uch
so th
at a
sses
smen
t, w
ithin
aco
ntex
t of
refl
ectio
n-ba
sed
actio
n, is
inhe
rent
in th
e dy
nam
ics
of th
epr
ogra
mm
e, in
pla
nnin
g, p
roce
ss a
ndou
tcom
e al
ike.
It i
s a
basi
cally
qua
litat
ive
appr
oach
, whi
ch ta
kes
note
, am
ong
othe
r el
emen
ts, o
f th
e ex
pres
sion
s of
satis
fact
ion
of th
e im
med
iate
part
icip
ants
(ch
ildre
n an
d pa
rent
s), t
hepr
ofes
sion
als
who
run
the
prog
ram
me
and
the
rest
of
the
com
mun
ity.
Subs
eque
ntly
, thi
s qu
alita
tive
asse
ssm
ent w
as e
nhan
ced
by a
mor
efo
rmal
pla
n, a
n as
sess
men
t pla
n th
atat
tem
pted
to a
naly
se th
e pr
ogra
mm
e as
a w
hole
. Bet
wee
n 19
94 a
nd 1
997,
a s
etof
tool
s w
as c
once
ived
that
wou
lden
able
qua
ntif
ied
data
to b
e ob
tain
ed.
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 29
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
Ref
lect
ion
At t
he ti
me
whe
n w
e w
ere
defi
ning
the
asse
ssm
ent p
lan,
we
wer
e al
read
yth
inki
ng a
bout
ana
lysi
ng w
hat
happ
ened
to th
e ch
ildre
n w
ho h
adta
ken
part
in th
e pr
ogra
mm
e an
d w
hoha
d m
oved
on
to p
rim
ary
scho
ol.
Alth
ough
we
thou
ght t
he in
form
atio
nw
ould
be
inte
rest
ing,
we
reje
cted
this
line
of r
esea
rch
beca
use
we
felt
it w
ould
be d
iffi
cult
to is
olat
e th
e ef
fect
s th
epr
ogra
mm
e m
ight
hav
e ha
d on
the
child
ren
and
thei
r fa
mili
es f
rom
oth
erin
flue
nces
that
we
are
all s
ubje
ct to
. In
real
ity, w
e al
so d
id n
ot s
uppo
rt th
isfo
rm o
f re
sear
ch b
ecau
se w
e di
d no
t
plan
ning
'2"
.401
-;S
ole.
,V45
..a
4,7
.,
ItZ't1
40 5
44'S
''e
tr"/
--S
pain
: Pre
esco
lar
na C
asa
proj
ect
Lear
ning
thro
ugh
doin
g.
belie
ve in
this
kin
d of
ana
lysi
s, a
nd w
eha
d do
ubts
abo
ut th
e in
form
atio
n w
em
ight
obt
ain.
We
reje
cted
the
idea
and
carr
ied
on a
s pl
anne
d, a
naly
sing
wha
tw
e ha
d at
the
time.
How
ever
, thi
s se
emed
an
inco
mpl
ete
resp
onse
. The
idea
of
goin
g be
yond
the
curr
ent r
ealit
y pe
rsis
ted
and
we
hear
dab
out s
ome
stud
ies
alon
g th
ese
lines
supp
orte
d by
the
Ber
nard
van
Lee
rFo
unda
tion
trac
er s
tudi
esan
d th
edi
lem
ma
emer
ged
agai
n. D
o w
e re
ally
know
wha
t im
pact
the
prog
ram
me
has?
Do
we
know
the
scop
e of
our
inte
rven
tion
in th
e di
ffer
ent a
reas
? A
ndw
hat i
s m
ore
impo
rtan
t: ar
e w
ein
tere
sted
? D
o w
e w
ant t
o kn
ow?
Tra
cer
stud
ies
We
beca
me
inte
rest
ed a
nd th
eFo
unda
tion
prov
ided
us
with
rel
evan
tin
form
atio
n (p
revi
ousl
y pu
blis
hed
stud
ies)
and
invi
ted
us to
take
par
t in
aw
orks
hop
that
wou
ld d
eal w
ith tr
acer
stud
ies
in d
epth
.
Aft
er a
naly
sing
the
info
rmat
ion,
we
wer
e fa
ced
with
sev
eral
que
stio
ns, t
hem
ost i
mpo
rtan
t bei
ng: w
hat i
s to
be
Ber
nard
an
Leer
Fou
ndat
ion
30 E
arly
Chi
ldho
od M
atte
rs
gain
ed f
rom
car
ryin
g ou
t stu
dies
of
this
kin
d?
Oth
er m
ore
spec
ific
que
stio
ns f
rom
eac
hst
age
of th
e st
udy
are
deta
iled
belo
w.
1. I
t is
obvi
ous
that
the
fam
ily a
nd e
arly
child
hood
sup
port
pro
gram
mes
are
bene
fici
al to
the
part
icip
ants
. Wha
tar
e st
udie
s of
this
kin
d in
tend
ed to
show
? D
o th
e fi
ndin
gs e
nabl
e us
toob
tain
suf
fici
ently
str
ikin
g an
dco
nclu
sive
dat
a to
dem
onst
rate
toso
ciet
y ho
w n
eces
sary
eac
hpr
ogra
mm
e is
, or
do th
ey s
impl
yve
rify
wha
t is
alre
ady
take
n fo
rgr
ante
d? I
s it
wor
thw
hile
mak
ing
the
effo
rt to
dem
onst
rate
som
ethi
ng th
atis
obv
ious
fro
m th
e st
art?
2. W
hat g
loba
l ass
essm
ent/c
oncl
usio
nsca
n be
rea
ched
fro
m th
e tr
acer
stud
ies
as a
who
le?
3. W
hat i
s de
rive
d fr
om th
e co
nclu
sion
san
d ve
rifi
ed d
ata?
Wha
t ste
ps a
reta
ken
as a
res
ult o
f th
e an
alys
is?
4. W
hat h
appe
ns w
hen
the
outc
ome
isno
t wha
t was
exp
ecte
d, n
ot w
hat w
ew
ere
look
ing
for?
Wha
t oth
er k
ind
of in
form
atio
n is
obta
ined
that
was
not
sou
ght
initi
ally
?
Are
thes
e da
ta u
sed?
Do
they
hel
p to
redi
rect
the
prog
ram
me
inte
rven
tion?
Do
they
mod
ify
the
orig
inal
res
earc
h pl
an?
5. W
ho is
res
pons
ible
for
the
rese
arch
met
hod?
Who
dec
ides
wha
t is
goin
gto
be
inve
stig
ated
? W
hat d
eter
min
esw
hich
asp
ects
are
to b
e ta
ken
into
acco
unt?
It s
eem
s lo
gica
l to
thin
k th
at th
eob
ject
ives
of
each
indi
vidu
alpr
ogra
mm
e w
ould
be
wha
t ind
icat
ean
d de
fine
the
step
s to
be
take
n, b
utis
any
asp
ect o
f tr
acer
stu
dies
intr
oduc
edpe
rhap
s a
stan
dard
feat
ure?
6. T
he ty
pe o
f as
sess
men
t var
ies
from
one
prog
ram
me
to a
noth
er.
Who
dec
ides
whi
ch ty
pe is
to b
eim
plem
ente
d?W
hat a
dvan
tage
s or
dis
adva
ntag
esar
e de
rive
d fr
om it
s be
ing
exte
rnal
/inte
rnal
to th
e pr
ogra
mm
eor
a c
ombi
natio
n of
bot
h?W
ould
res
ults
var
y ac
cord
ing
to th
ety
pe o
f as
sess
men
t?
Wou
ld th
e in
form
atio
n th
at c
ould
be
soug
ht d
epen
d on
the
mod
elch
osen
?
7. W
ho d
ecid
es w
hich
tool
s to
use
for
the
anal
ysis
?Is
the
cont
inuo
us a
sses
smen
t tha
t is
carr
ied
out i
n ea
ch p
rogr
amm
ede
sign
ed s
o th
at d
ata
can
bega
ther
ed th
at w
ill a
llow
ana
lysi
s of
the
prog
ram
me'
s im
pact
?Is
pro
gres
s ch
ecke
d fr
om o
ne y
ear
toan
othe
r?A
re th
e w
ays
in w
hich
the
prog
ram
mes
infl
uenc
e th
e ta
rget
popu
latio
n an
d th
e co
mm
unity
inth
e sh
orte
r te
rm a
naly
sed?
8. W
hen
anal
ysin
g th
e re
sults
, are
diff
eren
ces
obse
rved
in th
e le
ngth
of
time
of th
e in
terv
entio
n/du
ratio
n of
the
prog
ram
mes
? In
oth
er w
ords
, is
ther
e a
rela
tion
betw
een
dura
tion
and
achi
evin
g th
e de
sire
d im
pact
?
As
a re
sult
of ta
king
par
t in
the
Follo
win
g Fo
otst
eps
trac
er s
tudi
esw
orks
hop
in J
amai
ca, m
any
of th
ese
ques
tions
wer
e an
swer
ed. T
he m
ost
diff
icul
t tas
k no
w r
emai
ns: t
ryin
g to
resp
ond
to th
ese
idea
s as
a te
am,
beca
use
our
resp
onse
will
def
ine
the
rese
arch
met
hod.
Pree
scol
ar n
a C
asa
is c
lear
that
it w
ants
to a
sses
s an
d be
ass
esse
d in
ord
er to
know
the
impa
ct o
f its
pro
gram
me
beyo
nd th
e ac
tual
tim
e of
inte
rven
tion.
It is
cle
ar th
at th
e fi
rst s
tep
is to
be
will
ing
to a
ccep
t the
info
rmat
ion
obta
ined
, eve
n if
it is
not
wha
t was
expe
cted
. It i
s al
so c
lear
that
the
anal
ysis
mus
t em
brac
e th
e w
hole
pro
gram
me,
not j
ust i
ts o
utco
mes
. Thi
s is
nec
essa
ryso
as
not t
o lo
se s
ight
of
the
esse
nce
ofth
e im
pact
for
pro
gram
min
g pu
rpos
es:
whi
ch e
lem
ents
in th
e pr
ogra
mm
ede
term
ine
wha
t im
pact
the
prog
ram
me
has.
Equ
ally
, the
res
earc
h sh
ould
be
qual
itativ
e an
d no
t jus
t qua
ntita
tive:
man
y as
pect
s th
at m
ust b
e an
alys
ed a
reno
t qua
ntif
iabl
e, y
et th
ey o
ccas
iona
llypr
ovid
e m
uch
mor
e in
form
atio
n. I
nad
ditio
n, th
e st
udy
mus
t add
ress
ever
yone
invo
lved
in th
e ed
ucat
ion
proc
ess:
fam
ilies
, pro
fess
iona
ls,
com
mun
ity, p
oliti
cian
s, p
ossi
ble
fina
ncia
l bac
kers
... i
n sh
ort,
soci
ety
inge
nera
l.
Tw
enty
-fiv
e ye
ars
on, P
nc d
efen
dsas
sess
men
t as
esse
ntia
l to
prog
ram
me
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 31
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
Ref
leci
bion
deve
lopm
ent.
Tw
enty
-fiv
e ye
ars
on,
asse
ssm
ent c
ontin
ues
to b
e a
chal
leng
eth
at c
an b
e en
hanc
ed b
y in
itiat
ives
suc
has
that
of
the
trac
er s
tudi
es.
0
Shar
ing
expe
rien
ces
Myr
na D
sabe
0 M
aya
The
aut
hor
is th
e G
ener
al C
oord
inat
or o
f Pro
ject
s at
AIN
CA
DE
H, a
n in
depe
nden
t res
earc
h co
nsul
tanc
y. In
this
ext
ract
, she
intr
oduc
es a
trac
er s
tudy
* of
mot
hers
and
child
ren
who
had
par
ticip
ated
in th
e E
arly
Stim
ulat
ion
Pro
gram
me
in H
ondu
ras
for
child
ren
aged
0 to
6 y
ears
, tha
t has
bee
n ru
n by
the
Chr
istia
nC
hild
ren'
s F
und
(ccF
)si
nce
1995
. The
pro
gram
me
is im
plem
ente
d by
Mad
res
Gui
cis
(Mot
her
Gui
des)
for
child
ren
0 to
4 y
ears
in th
eir
hom
es, a
nd b
y K
inde
rgar
ten
Aid
es fo
rch
ildre
n up
to 6
yea
rsin
non
form
al p
resc
hool
cen
tres
. Hav
ing
oper
ated
for
appr
oxim
atel
y si
x ye
ars,
the
need
aro
se fo
r a
qual
itativ
e st
udy
to a
sses
s th
e im
pact
of t
he p
rogr
amm
eon
the
qual
ity o
flif
e of
the
child
ren
invo
lved
and
thei
r fa
mili
es.
The
stu
dy w
as b
ased
on
the
com
pari
son
of tw
o gr
oups
of
child
ren:
one
that
had
been
in th
e pr
ogra
mm
e an
d an
othe
rth
at h
ad n
ot r
ecei
ved
any
kind
of
inte
rven
tion
from
inst
itutio
ns in
volv
edin
pro
ject
s of
this
kin
d.
Met
hodo
logi
cally
, the
stu
dy c
onsi
sted
of
thre
e m
ajor
sta
ges
or p
hase
s: d
esig
ning
the
rese
arch
; col
lect
ing
info
rmat
ion;
and
anal
ysin
g th
e in
form
atio
n. D
urin
gea
ch o
f th
ese
stag
es, a
num
ber
of is
sues
bega
n to
em
erge
that
had
not
bee
nfo
rese
en, b
ut w
hich
res
ulte
d fr
om th
edy
nam
ics
of th
e st
udy.
Des
igni
ng th
e re
sear
ch
Whe
n it
cam
e to
dra
win
g up
the
desi
gn,
dete
rmin
ing
the
sam
ple
and
defi
ning
the
mos
t app
ropr
iate
inst
rum
ents
and
tech
niqu
es, s
ever
al q
uest
ions
aro
se.
Wou
ld c
ompa
riso
ns b
etw
een
the
grou
ps p
rodu
ce th
e re
sults
exp
ecte
dof
the
stud
y?W
ould
the
resu
lts b
e ob
viou
s?C
ould
the
resu
lts o
f th
e re
sear
chaf
fect
the
norm
al d
evel
opm
ent o
f th
epr
ogra
mm
e?W
as C
CF
prep
ared
for
the
resu
lts?
How
wou
ld C
CF
pers
onne
l rea
ct to
them
?Sh
ould
oth
er e
lem
ents
in th
epr
ogra
mm
e be
incl
uded
bes
ides
mot
hers
and
chi
ldre
n?W
ere
the
plan
ned
met
hods
(inc
ludi
ng o
bser
vatio
ns, d
raw
ing,
and
mee
tings
with
the
two
grou
ps)
suita
ble
for
obta
inin
g in
form
atio
n?W
ould
it b
e po
ssib
le to
com
pare
the
two
sets
of
info
rmat
ion
that
wou
ldbe
obt
aine
d?H
ow c
ould
we
use
othe
r to
ols
and
expe
rien
tial t
echn
ique
s to
ena
ble
mot
hers
and
chi
ldre
n in
the
sam
ple
to h
ave
a cl
oser
com
mun
alre
latio
nshi
p w
ith th
e re
sear
ch te
am?
Oth
er is
sues
als
o ar
ose.
Tha
t the
par
amet
ers
of th
e re
sear
char
e re
late
d to
the
follo
win
g fa
ctor
s:-
anal
ysis
of
the
diff
eren
ten
viro
nmen
ts o
f th
e ch
ildre
n;da
ta o
r se
cond
ary
info
rmat
ion
that
cou
ld b
e co
mpa
red
with
the
empi
rica
l dat
a;tr
iang
ulat
ion
of th
e in
form
atio
n,th
at is
, cor
robo
ratin
g in
form
atio
nob
tain
ed f
rom
eac
h so
urce
fro
mdi
ffer
ent p
ersp
ectiv
es, a
nd b
eing
able
to c
ross
chec
k in
form
atio
nw
ith th
e va
riab
les
and
the
units
of a
naly
sis.
Tha
t ind
icat
ors
mus
t be
esta
blis
hed
so th
e pr
ogre
ss o
f ch
ildre
n in
eac
hgr
oup
can
be c
ompa
red.
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 32
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
Fie
ldw
ork
and
colle
ctin
g in
form
atio
n
Dur
ing
the
fiel
dwor
k, s
ituat
ions
aro
seth
at h
ad n
ot b
een
envi
sage
d du
ring
plan
ning
and
whi
ch p
rom
pted
cha
nges
to th
e or
igin
al id
ea. T
he f
ollo
win
g ar
eex
ampl
es o
f th
is.
At t
he s
tart
of
the
fiel
d re
sear
ch, t
hepa
rtic
ipan
ts in
the
prog
ram
me
coul
dno
t und
erst
and
why
onl
y a
smal
lnu
mbe
r of
fam
ilies
(th
e sa
mpl
e)co
uld
part
icip
ate
in p
rovi
ding
info
rmat
ion
on th
e pr
ogra
mm
e.T
hey
belie
ved
the
info
rmat
ion
shou
ld b
e pr
ovid
ed b
y ev
eryo
nein
volv
ed. T
hey
also
thou
ght t
hat t
hest
udy
was
mot
ivat
ed b
y C
CF'
Sin
tent
ion
to le
ave
the
com
mun
ity,
and
the
fear
of
the
rese
arch
ers
was
that
mem
bers
of
the
sam
ple
grou
pm
ight
con
ceal
the
bene
fits
of
the
prog
ram
me;
and
The
CC
Ffi
eld
pers
onne
l at t
here
sear
ch s
ite w
ere
also
une
asy
abou
tth
e ta
sk in
han
d be
caus
e th
ey f
elt
that
the
rese
arch
als
o im
plie
d th
atth
eir
wor
k w
as b
eing
ass
esse
d.
At t
he o
utse
t the
se d
iffi
culti
es m
ade
rela
tions
bet
wee
n th
e fi
eld
rese
arch
ers
and
thos
e be
ing
rese
arch
ed d
iffi
cult.
It
was
nec
essa
ry to
org
anis
e se
min
ars
for
the
bene
fici
ary
grou
p an
d fo
r th
eC
CF
wor
kers
to e
xpla
in th
e ta
sk in
han
d an
dre
mov
e th
e do
ubts
.
Initi
al p
lans
for
the
rese
arch
foc
used
mor
e on
mot
hers
and
chi
ldre
n.H
owev
er, d
urin
g fi
eldw
ork
it w
asco
nsid
ered
nec
essa
ry to
take
the
opin
ions
of
fath
ers
into
acc
ount
. Thi
sw
as to
gai
n a
mor
e co
mpl
ete
visi
on o
fth
e ch
ildre
n's
rela
tions
hip
with
all
the
mem
bers
of
thei
r fa
mili
es, a
nd to
defi
ne a
mor
e ac
cura
te p
rofi
le o
f th
efa
ther
fig
ure.
Ana
lysi
ng th
e in
form
atio
n
The
pro
cess
of
data
ord
erin
g an
dan
alys
is w
as in
itial
ly c
arri
ed o
utac
cord
ing
to th
e fo
cal t
opic
s of
the
rese
arch
that
had
bee
n en
visa
ged
inth
e pl
an:
1. a
ttitu
des
of m
othe
rs in
rel
atio
n to
the
wel
l-be
ing
of th
eir
child
ren;
2. a
war
enes
s of
the
earl
y st
imul
atio
npr
ogra
mm
e;3.
em
otio
nal a
nd s
ocia
l dev
elop
men
tof
the
child
ren;
4. b
ehav
iour
of
the
child
ren
in th
een
viro
nmen
t of
othe
r fa
mili
es;
5. p
erfo
rman
ce o
f th
e ch
ildre
n at
scho
ol;
6. c
hang
es in
fam
ily h
ealth
and
bas
icsa
nita
tion;
and
7. c
hang
es in
soc
ial a
nd e
mot
iona
lde
velo
pmen
t.
As
we
gath
ered
res
pons
es f
rom
the
diff
eren
t res
pond
ents
and
saw
that
they
wer
e si
mila
r, w
e ha
d to
dec
ide
how
toan
alys
e th
e in
form
atio
n w
ithou
t los
ing
sigh
t of
the
purp
ose
of th
e re
sear
ch.
Shou
ld w
e, f
or e
xam
ple,
str
uctu
re th
ein
form
atio
n in
line
with
the
orig
inal
foca
l top
ics,
or
shou
ld th
e to
pics
that
aros
e fr
om th
e in
form
atio
n be
allo
wed
to e
ffec
tivel
y re
stru
ctur
e th
e re
sear
ch?
Thi
s di
lem
ma
prov
oked
ser
ious
disc
ussi
ons
amon
g th
e re
sear
ch te
am.
Tak
ing
the
firs
t lin
e w
ould
ris
k us
mis
inte
rpre
ting
the
info
rmat
ion,
whi
leta
king
the
seco
nd li
ne w
ould
ris
k us
losi
ng th
e to
tal a
nd in
tegr
al m
eani
ng o
f
Ref
lect
ion
plan
ning
Hon
dura
s: E
arly
Stim
ulat
ion
Pro
gram
me
(Chr
istia
n C
hild
ren'
s F
und)
Mad
res
Gui
as te
achi
ng o
ther
mot
hers
abo
ut il
lnes
ses.
the
stud
y, o
f st
rayi
ng f
rom
the
prim
eob
ject
ive.
Fina
lly a
com
prom
ise
was
rea
ched
: it
was
dec
ided
to r
elat
e th
e in
form
atio
n to
the
orig
inal
foc
al p
oint
s of
the
rese
arch
;an
d al
so p
rodu
ce a
sum
mar
y of
the
mos
t sig
nifi
cant
fin
ding
s as
a w
hole
. In
this
sum
mar
y, th
e fi
ndin
gs f
rom
the
anal
yses
wer
e re
late
d to
the
orig
inal
foc
iof
the
rese
arch
.
To
conc
lude
this
intr
oduc
tion
to th
eE
arly
Stim
ulat
ion
Prog
ram
me
trac
erst
udy
in H
ondu
ras,
I w
ant t
o st
ress
that
,
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 33
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
in s
tudi
es o
f th
is k
ind,
it is
adv
isab
le f
orth
e re
sear
ch te
am to
be
mad
e up
of
pers
onne
l fro
m b
oth
outs
ide
and
insi
deth
e in
stitu
tion.
And
it is
nec
essa
ry to
clea
rly
defi
ne th
e ro
le o
f th
e in
side
pers
onne
l in
the
rese
arch
pro
cess
so
that
obj
ectiv
e re
sults
can
be
obta
ined
,w
ithou
t int
erfe
renc
e fr
om th
ein
stitu
tion.
0
*The
trac
er s
tudy
on
the
part
icip
ants
in th
e E
arly
Stim
ulat
ion
Prog
ram
me
in H
ondu
ras
will
be
publ
ishe
d in
Eng
lish
and
in S
pani
sh b
y th
e Fo
unda
tion
in 2
003.
Rel
leob
ion
plan
ning
CA
)
CJV
Why
we
did
a tr
acer
stud
y*B
otsw
ana
Irel
and
US
AK
enya
Why
we
did
a tr
acer
stu
dyw
e w
ante
d to
kno
w if
the
wor
kw
as u
sefu
l, w
ere
we
affe
ctin
g
the
drop
-out
rat
es?
coul
d w
e
coun
ter
the
scep
ticis
m w
e m
et?
we
wan
ted
to d
emon
stra
te th
e
effe
ctiv
enes
s of
our
app
roac
h, to
see
if th
e w
ork
cont
inue
s to
hav
e an
effe
ct a
fter
som
e ye
ars
to fi
nd o
ut if
ther
e co
uld
be a
ny tr
aces
left
of p
rogr
amm
es n
early
20
year
saf
ter
the
even
t
it is
a tr
aini
ng p
rogr
amm
e an
d pe
ople
alw
ays
talk
abo
ut th
e te
ache
rs; a
fter
30
year
s' w
ork
we
wan
ted
to s
ee w
hat w
as
happ
enin
g to
chi
ldre
n
Who
se a
gend
a
was
it?
ours
ours
, we
wer
e tr
ying
to c
onvi
nce
the
Hea
lth B
oard
to ta
ke a
new
appr
oach
ours
and
BV
LF'
Sou
rs
Wha
t aud
ienc
es
wer
e be
ing
aim
ed a
t?
ours
elve
s, th
e co
mm
uniti
es,
the
teac
hers
; we
didn
't th
ink
abou
t dis
sem
inat
ion
whe
n w
est
arte
d
pare
nts
and
the
Hea
lth B
oard
. It i
s
good
to s
hare
it w
ith a
wid
erau
dien
ce n
ow
prim
arily
Hig
h/S
cope
and
BV
LF,
poss
ibly
pol
icy-
mak
ers,
teac
her
trai
ners
gove
rnm
ent,
polic
y-m
aker
s, fu
nder
s,co
mm
uniti
es
How
did
the
stud
yfit
oth
er r
esea
rch/
eval
uatio
n ac
tiviti
es?
none
of u
s w
ere
rese
arch
ers,
we
had
an o
pen
agen
da,
allo
wed
our
selv
es to
be
info
rmed
by
the
proc
ess
the
prog
ram
me
has
been
eva
luat
ed
from
the
star
t but
this
was
inde
pend
ent o
f oth
er s
tudi
es
very
wel
l: w
e ha
ve b
een
able
to
com
bine
the
findi
ngs
with
ear
lier
wor
kin
a n
ew p
ublic
atio
n
ther
e ha
s be
en m
uch
rese
arch
and
eval
uatio
n bu
t mos
tly o
n pr
oces
ses
Wha
t are
the
uses
of
this
app
roac
h?w
e us
ed th
e re
sults
to im
prov
e
the
prog
ram
me,
to w
ork
with
prim
ary
scho
ols
the
resu
lts h
ave
cont
ribut
ed to
polic
y ch
ange
s
we
wer
e qu
ite s
urpr
ised
to fi
nd a
s
man
y tr
aces
as
we
did,
sug
gest
ing
dura
bilit
y of
inte
nse
trai
ning
man
y of
our
find
ings
wer
e un
expe
cted
Wha
t are
the
limits
of th
is a
ppro
ach?
the
offic
ial r
ecor
ds w
ere
unre
liabl
e, th
is s
tudy
cou
ldn'
tgi
ve o
verw
helm
ing
proo
f
ther
e ha
ve b
een
man
y ch
ange
s in
the
cont
ext o
ver
the
year
s, e
spec
ially
mot
hers
into
the
labo
ur fo
rce
the
long
inte
rval
bet
wee
n th
e ch
ildre
nle
avin
g th
e pr
ogra
mm
e an
d th
e st
udy
so m
any
othe
r va
riabl
es h
ave
inte
rven
ed
* F
rom
the
Fol
low
ing
Foo
tste
ps w
orks
hop,
Jam
aica
200
2
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 34
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
Ref
lect
ion
plan
ning
Jam
aica
Trin
idad
Col
ombi
aIs
rael
Why
we
did
a tr
acer
stu
dyw
e w
ante
d to
kno
w w
hat h
adha
ppen
ed to
the
mot
hers
and
the
child
ren
we
wan
ted
to k
now
how
the
prog
ram
me
had
impa
cted
life
choi
ces
it fo
llow
s on
fro
m 3
0 ye
ars
of c
olle
ctin
gda
ta, w
e w
ante
d to
dem
onst
rate
cha
nge
and
impa
ct
to f
ind
out h
ow th
e ch
ildre
n fr
om th
isve
ry d
istin
ctiv
e gr
oup
have
far
ed
Who
se a
gend
a
was
it?
the
impe
tus
cam
e fr
om B
VL
F,th
e st
udy
was
des
igne
d lo
cally
the
impe
tus
cam
e fr
om B
VL
F, th
est
udy
was
des
igne
d lo
cally
ours
the
impe
tus
cam
e fr
om B
VL
F, th
e st
udy
was
des
igne
d lo
cally
Wha
t aud
ienc
esw
ere
bein
g
aim
ed a
t?
dono
rs, t
he p
aris
h, th
e m
edia
ours
elve
s, d
onor
s, g
over
nmen
t,co
mm
unity
othe
r pr
ojec
ts in
oth
er p
arts
of
the
wor
ld, f
unde
rsth
e im
plem
entin
g or
gani
satio
n
How
did
the
stud
yfit
oth
er r
esea
rch/
eval
uatio
n ac
tiviti
es?
it w
as a
goo
d fo
llow
-up
to o
urea
rlie
r re
sear
chou
r ot
her
eval
uatio
ns h
ave
been
desc
ript
ive
it fi
ts o
ur w
hole
pac
kage
of
eval
uatio
nsan
d ou
r w
ork
in th
e E
ffec
tiven
ess
Initi
ativ
e
the
prog
ram
me
has
been
eva
luat
ed f
rom
the
star
t but
this
pop
ulat
ion
has
been
over
-res
earc
hed
Wha
t are
the
uses
of
this
app
roac
h?w
e w
ere
able
to f
ind
new
kin
dsof
info
rmat
ion
beca
use
of th
equ
alita
tive
appr
oach
we
coul
d se
e th
e ef
fect
iven
ess
of th
epr
ogra
mm
eth
e re
sear
ch b
egan
as
quan
titat
ive,
it to
ok a
long
tim
e to
see
cha
nge
inin
dica
tors
; thi
s la
st p
art h
as b
een
qual
itativ
e
we
foun
d th
at th
e pr
ogra
mm
e ha
d m
ade
a ta
ngib
le d
iffe
renc
e to
chi
ldre
n's
lives
Wha
t are
the
limits
of th
is a
ppro
ach?
subj
ectiv
ity, l
ack
of a
'pur
e'co
mpa
riso
n gr
oup
attr
ibut
ing
chan
ge w
hen
so m
any
othe
r th
ings
hap
pen
so m
uch
data
are
gat
here
dho
w c
anth
is b
e ha
ndle
d?
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 35
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
stud
ies
'OR
Mco
nduc
ted The
indi
vidu
ality
-com
mun
ity a
xis
Levi
n-R
ozaD
isN
aarn
a S
hem
in
Thi
s ex
trac
t is
from
a tr
acer
stu
dy' o
f A
lmay
a's
Pare
nts
Coo
pera
tive
Kin
derg
arte
n, th
at w
as e
stab
lishe
d fo
r E
thio
pian
Jew
s in
Isr
ael.
Som
e70
,000
Jew
s ha
ve r
each
ed I
srae
l fro
m E
thio
pia
sinc
e 19
77. T
heir
way
of
life
ther
e w
as s
o di
ffer
ent t
hat t
he a
djus
tmen
t pro
cess
has
bee
nfr
augh
t with
dif
ficu
lties
on
all s
ides
. The
ass
ocia
tion
now
kno
wn
as A
lmay
a w
as s
et u
p in
the
earl
y 19
80s
and
has
impl
emen
ted
prog
ram
mes
to r
each
all
sect
ors
of th
e co
mm
unity
, inc
ludi
ng y
oung
chi
ldre
n an
d th
eir
mot
hers
. One
of
thes
e w
as a
Par
ents
Coo
pera
tive
Kin
derg
arte
n fo
r ch
ildre
n ag
ed 1
8 m
onth
s to
4 y
ears
that
ope
rate
d in
two
neig
hbou
rhoo
ds o
f B
eer-
Shev
a. T
he k
inde
rgar
tens
ope
rate
d fo
rfi
ve h
ours
eac
h da
y an
d w
ere
staf
fed
by tw
o pa
rapr
ofes
sion
als
from
the
Eth
iopi
an c
omm
unity
with
vol
unte
er p
aren
ts o
n a
rost
er b
asis
.T
he tr
acer
stu
dy lo
oked
at h
ow w
ell f
orm
er p
artic
ipan
ts in
the
Pare
nts
Coo
pera
tive
Kin
derg
arte
n pr
ogra
mm
e ac
quir
ed m
any
of th
e to
ols
that
are
nec
essa
ry to
bet
ter
inte
grat
e in
to I
srae
li so
ciet
y.
The
Eth
iopi
an a
nd I
srae
li cu
lture
s ha
veve
ry d
iffe
rent
per
cept
ions
of
hum
anbe
ings
and
thei
r fu
nctio
n in
soc
iety
. In
Eth
iopi
an s
ocie
ty, t
he h
uman
bei
ng is
am
embe
r of
a g
roup
and
a c
omm
unity
,w
hich
are
bou
nd b
y a
com
mun
al-
trad
ition
al c
ultu
re th
at r
einf
orce
s`t
oget
hern
ess'
and
doe
s no
t enc
oura
gein
divi
dual
ity.
Des
pite
the
chan
ges
that
hav
e ta
ken
plac
e in
the
Eth
iopi
ans'
soc
iety
sin
ce th
eco
mm
unity
mig
rate
d to
Isr
ael (
prim
arily
the
brea
k-up
of
the
com
mun
ityst
ruct
ure
and
the
exte
nded
fam
ily)
the
unde
rlyi
ng f
orce
s th
at {
trad
ition
ally
}pr
eser
ve th
e co
hesi
vene
ss a
nd s
truc
ture
of th
e co
mm
unity
are
stil
l ver
y st
rong
.
Alth
ough
Isr
aeli
soci
ety
is e
xtre
mel
yva
ried
and
is m
ade
up o
f di
ffer
ent
com
mun
ities
, the
dom
inan
t the
me
ison
e of
indi
vidu
alis
m, a
per
cept
ion
that
supp
orts
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f th
ein
divi
dual
in th
e di
rect
ion
of m
axim
umse
lf-a
ctua
lisat
ion.
Unl
ike
othe
r ch
ildre
n of
Eth
iopi
anor
igin
of
thei
r ag
e, th
e Pa
rent
sK
inde
rgar
ten
child
ren
we
stud
ied
disp
laye
d a
dist
inct
sen
se o
f se
lf a
nd a
clea
r te
nden
cy to
war
d in
divi
dual
ism
.T
he c
hild
ren
perc
eive
d th
emse
lves
as
inde
pend
ent e
ntiti
es, a
nd th
ispe
rcep
tion
was
evi
dent
in a
hig
her
awar
enes
s of
them
selv
es, t
heir
abi
lity
toex
pres
s em
otio
ns o
r a
need
for
hel
p,
and
thei
r ab
ility
to d
evel
op h
obbi
es a
ndta
lent
s th
at w
ere
thei
rs a
lone
. The
peop
le a
roun
d th
em r
eact
edac
cord
ingl
y. T
he te
ache
rs o
f th
e Pa
rent
sK
inde
rgar
ten
child
ren
view
ed th
ese
child
ren
mor
e cl
earl
y an
d le
sssu
perf
icia
lly th
an th
ey d
id th
eir
peer
s.T
he P
aren
ts K
inde
rgar
ten
child
ren
wer
epe
rcei
ved
as m
ore
dom
inan
tch
ildre
nw
hose
nee
ds w
ere
clea
ran
d th
ere
was
a gr
eate
r te
nden
cy to
rec
omm
end
and
inte
grat
e th
em in
toth
e su
ppor
tpr
ogra
mm
es th
ey n
eede
d.
Nor
mal
ly, E
thio
pian
par
ents
tend
tore
fer
to th
eir
child
ren
as o
ne e
ntity
them
with
out r
elat
ing
to e
ach
child
indi
vidu
ally
. A n
otab
le f
indi
ng w
as th
at,
Ber
nard
von
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 36
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
in a
dditi
on to
the
Pare
nts
Kin
derg
arte
nch
ildre
n sh
owin
g a
dist
inct
sen
se o
fin
divi
dual
ity, t
heir
par
ents
, too
, saw
them
as
indi
vidu
als,
iden
tifyi
ng u
niqu
eel
emen
ts in
them
, suc
h as
hob
bies
or
ambi
tions
for
the
futu
re. T
hese
par
ents
also
see
med
to p
erce
ive
thei
r ch
ildre
n as
bein
g m
ore
resp
onsi
ble
and
dele
gate
dre
spon
sibi
lity
to th
em f
or p
erfo
rmin
gta
sks
at h
ome.
The
se d
iffe
renc
es s
houl
d no
t be
seen
as
a di
chot
omou
s di
visi
on b
etw
een
the
indi
vidu
al a
nd th
e co
mm
unity
, but
rath
er a
s a
shif
t in
this
axi
s. T
he P
aren
tsK
inde
rgar
ten
child
ren
wer
e st
ill le
ssin
divi
dual
istic
than
Isr
aeli
child
ren
ofth
e sa
me
age
who
are
not
of
Eth
iopi
an
orig
in (
and
not c
augh
t bet
wee
n tw
ocu
lture
s), o
r im
mig
rant
chi
ldre
n fr
omth
e fo
rmer
Sov
iet U
nion
who
cam
efr
om a
soc
iety
that
is m
ore
sim
ilar
toth
e ho
st I
srae
li so
ciet
y fr
om th
est
andp
oint
of
self
-per
cept
ion
and
indi
vidu
alis
m.
At t
he s
ame
time,
the
Pare
nts
Kin
derg
arte
n ch
ildre
n se
emed
to f
eel
that
they
bel
onge
d to
the
Eth
iopi
anco
mm
unity
. The
y ne
ither
den
ied
nor
`for
got t
o m
entio
n' th
eir
conn
ectio
nw
ith th
e co
mm
unity
, app
aren
tly s
eein
gth
emse
lves
as
part
of
a la
rge,
sup
port
ive
body
, whi
ch f
or th
em c
onst
itute
d a
kind
of f
amily
. Thi
s co
uld
also
mea
n th
at th
eco
nten
t of
thei
r E
thio
pian
trad
ition
and
heri
tage
was
far
mor
e ac
cess
ible
to th
em.
Wha
t was
it in
the
Pare
nts
Kin
derg
arte
nth
at c
ause
d th
ese
diff
eren
ces
in th
ech
ildre
n's
self
-per
cept
ion?
A lo
ok a
t the
aim
s of
Par
ents
Kin
derg
arte
n ac
tiviti
essh
ows
that
in o
rder
to d
evel
op th
ech
ild's
dis
cret
e se
nse
of s
elf,
the
prog
ram
me'
s cr
eato
rs s
eek
to g
ive
the
child
ren
the
abili
ty to
exp
ress
em
otio
nsan
d ne
eds,
and
to d
evel
op a
sen
se o
fin
depe
nden
ce a
nd f
reed
om o
f ch
oice
.In
terv
iew
s w
ith th
e fo
unde
rs o
f th
e
00
Pare
nts
Kin
derg
arte
n an
d th
ose
who
are
invo
lved
in it
s w
ork
reve
al a
con
cret
epi
ctur
e of
the
appl
icat
ion
of th
ese
aim
sin
the
kind
erga
rten
.
Em
otio
nal e
xpre
ssio
nIn
inte
rvie
ws
with
the
prog
ram
me'
sco
ordi
nato
rs a
nd te
ache
rs, t
hey
said
that
as p
art o
f th
eir
wor
k in
the
kind
erga
rten
, the
y ad
dres
s em
otio
ns a
ndpr
ovid
e w
arm
th, b
ut a
bove
all,
they
wor
k w
ith th
e ch
ildre
n on
iden
tifyi
ngan
d co
ping
with
thei
r em
otio
ns. T
his
isdo
ne, f
or e
xam
ple,
by
tran
spar
ently
sayi
ng to
the
child
, 'Y
ou're
ang
ry b
ecau
seD
anny
took
the
toy.
or
'You
're s
adbe
caus
e yo
ur m
omm
y ha
sn't
com
e ye
t.
Free
dom
of
choi
ce
One
of
the
inte
rvie
wee
s re
port
ed th
at,
in e
very
act
ivity
in th
e ki
nder
gart
en, t
hech
ild h
as a
cho
ice.
The
act
iviti
es a
rest
ruct
ured
and
org
anis
ed, b
ut a
t the
sam
e tim
e, th
e ch
ildre
n ar
e gi
ven
free
dom
of
choi
ce. A
t the
mea
l, th
ech
ildre
n ha
ve a
cho
ice
of w
hat t
hey
wan
t to
eat (
rice
or
pota
toes
). T
hete
ache
rs h
ave
to b
uild
org
anis
edac
tiviti
es w
ith a
beg
inni
ng, a
mid
dle
and
an e
nd, b
ut th
e ch
ildre
n ar
e ne
ver
oblig
ed to
take
par
t in
the
activ
ity. T
hey
can
choo
se w
heth
er th
ey w
ant t
o ta
ke
part
in a
cre
ativ
e ac
tivity
or
play
, for
exam
ple,
in th
e do
lls' c
orne
r. I
t is
impo
rtan
t to
note
that
the
prog
ram
me
supe
rvis
ors
desc
ribe
inte
nsiv
e w
ork
with
the
coun
sello
rs (
wom
en o
fE
thio
pian
ori
gin
trai
ned
for
wor
k in
the
kind
erga
rten
) on
this
issu
e: n
ot to
for
ceth
e ch
ildre
n to
do
som
ethi
ng s
impl
ybe
caus
e th
e gr
oup
has
a pl
anne
dac
tivity
. Thi
s un
ders
core
s th
e w
ide
gap
in th
e pe
rcep
tion
of a
gro
up a
ctin
gto
geth
er, e
ven
in k
inde
rgar
ten,
whe
reth
e in
divi
dual
doe
s no
t hav
e th
e ab
ility
to c
hoos
e, in
con
tras
t to
the
Isra
eli
real
ity f
or w
hich
the
child
ren
are
bein
gpr
epar
ed.
In th
e pr
esch
ool i
tsel
f, th
e co
unse
llors
talk
to th
e m
othe
rs a
bout
thei
r ch
ild's
expe
rien
ce in
kin
derg
arte
n ac
tiviti
es,
emph
asis
ing
each
chi
ld's
uni
que
char
acte
r. T
he c
hild
ren
are
give
n m
ore
atte
ntio
n an
d th
e pa
rent
s se
e th
e re
sults
of th
is la
ter
at h
ome.
Int
ervi
ews
with
Pare
nts
Kin
derg
arte
n te
ache
rs a
ndco
ordi
nato
rs s
how
ed th
at th
e pa
rent
sre
cogn
ise
the
uniq
uene
ss o
f ch
ildre
nw
ho h
ave
part
icip
ated
in th
e Pa
rent
sK
inde
rgar
ten.
The
par
ents
say
that
the
kind
erga
rten
chi
ld is
mor
e de
velo
ped
than
thei
r ot
her
child
ren,
bri
ngs
hom
epa
intin
gs a
nd d
raw
ings
, and
sin
gs s
ongs
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 37
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
trac
erst
udie
s0e
9Gin
cond
ucte
d
Isra
el: A
lmay
a
lear
nt in
sch
ool.
Som
etim
es th
e m
othe
rco
mes
hom
e fr
om th
e ki
nder
gart
enw
ith h
er o
wn
impr
essi
ons
and
shar
edex
peri
ence
s w
ith h
er c
hild
, and
this
als
ose
ts th
e ch
ild a
part
in h
er v
iew
. The
child
ren'
s ab
ility
to d
evel
op a
dis
tinct
perc
eptio
n of
sel
f is
the
resu
lt of
aco
mbi
natio
n of
two
fact
ors:
the
child
'sow
n ex
peri
ence
in th
e ki
nder
gart
en(d
esig
ned
to d
evel
op s
elf-
perc
eptio
n)an
d th
e pa
rent
s le
arni
ng to
see
the
child
's u
niqu
enes
s, w
hich
enh
ance
s th
epr
oces
s.0
* L
evin
-Roz
alis
M &
Sha
fran
N: A
sen
se o
f
belo
ngin
g: a
trac
er s
tudy
of
Alm
aya'
s Pa
rent
s
Coo
pera
tive
Kin
derg
arte
n, I
srae
l (to
be
publ
is-
hed
2003
as
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Dev
elop
men
t:
Prac
tice
and
Ref
lect
ions
No.
19)
.
trac
erst
udie
sco
nduc
ted
Chi
ldre
n's
carn
ival
sas
a tr
acer
met
hod
S. A
nan
dalla
kshm
y
The
aut
hor
is a
con
sulta
nt in
Chi
ld D
evel
opm
ent a
nd E
duca
tion
and
has
been
wor
king
for
som
e ye
ars
with
the
Self
Em
ploy
ed W
omen
's A
ssoc
iatio
n (s
Ew
A) s
ituat
ed in
the
Stat
e of
Guj
arat
in I
ndia
. The
mem
bers
of
SEW
A m
ostly
live
in th
e ru
ral a
reas
; tho
se in
the
urba
n ar
eas
tend
to b
e m
igra
nts
with
rura
l con
nect
ions
.In
any
cas
e, th
e po
vert
y th
ey s
hare
ove
rrid
es a
ny s
igni
fica
nt r
ural
-urb
an d
iffe
renc
es. A
mon
g its
man
y ac
tiviti
es,
SEW
A tr
ains
loca
l wom
en to
wor
k in
its
child
care
cent
res/
crec
hes.
Thi
s ar
ticle
incl
udes
a d
iscu
ssio
n of
a n
ovel
way
of
trac
ing
very
larg
e nu
mbe
rs o
f fo
rmer
pro
gram
me
part
icip
ants
.
In b
oth
rura
l and
urb
an a
reas
a c
arni
val
is c
alle
d 'M
e la
' and
the
fam
ilies
go
to it
in la
rge
num
bers
, enj
oyin
g th
e ch
ance
tobe
dre
ssed
in th
eir
best
clo
thes
and
tobu
y tr
inke
ts o
r ot
her
thin
gs f
or th
eho
useh
old.
Kno
win
g th
e pl
ace
that
aM
e la
has
in th
e liv
es o
f th
e pe
ople
, SE
WA
deci
ded
to g
et th
e 'a
lum
ni' o
f th
e C
hild
Car
e pr
ogra
mm
e to
com
e to
a c
hild
ren'
sca
rniv
al, o
r `B
al M
e la
' as
it is
cal
led.
Thi
sw
as to
be
the
begi
nnin
g of
a d
iffe
rent
kind
of
trac
er s
tudy
.
The
pla
n or
igin
ated
in a
n in
form
alm
eetin
g of
the
SEW
A o
rgan
iser
s,su
perv
isor
s an
d cr
eche
wor
kers
. Onc
eth
e pl
an w
as m
ade,
put
ting
it in
toop
erat
ion
prov
ided
no
obst
acle
s. T
obe
gin
with
, the
chi
ldre
n w
ere
from
the
neig
hbou
rhoo
d, a
s w
ere
the
teac
hers
.
The
teac
hers
and
sup
ervi
sors
fir
st m
ade
a lis
t fro
m th
eir
past
rec
ords
and
wen
tar
ound
thei
r ar
eas
to lo
cate
the
child
ren.
Seve
ral o
f th
e ol
der
child
ren
wou
ld g
reet
thei
r fo
rmer
teac
hers
whe
n th
ey c
ross
edea
ch o
ther
on
the
stre
ets.
So
the
stud
ybe
gan
with
the
child
ren
that
the
teac
hers
met
fre
quen
tly. E
ach
of th
ese
child
ren
was
ask
ed to
rem
embe
r th
e na
mes
of
child
ren
who
wer
e in
the
child
care
cent
re o
r cr
eche
in th
eir
time.
Tw
o or
thre
e na
mes
wou
ld b
e re
calle
d; a
nd th
ese
child
ren,
in tu
rn, w
ould
giv
e m
ore
nam
es. A
lmos
t org
anic
ally
, the
net
wor
kgr
ew. T
he te
ache
rs th
en c
ondu
cted
an
info
rmal
cen
sus,
by
visi
ting
each
chi
ld's
hous
e pe
rson
ally
. The
y no
ted
duri
ngth
eir
visi
ts w
heth
er th
e ch
ildre
n w
ere
atte
ndin
g sc
hool
or
not.
The
y as
ked
the
child
ren
abou
t the
ir in
tere
sts
and
plan
sfo
r th
e fu
ture
and
mad
e br
ief
note
s.N
eedl
ess
to s
ay, w
ord
spre
ad a
nd e
ntir
eco
mm
uniti
es h
eard
abo
ut th
e B
al M
ela.
The
re w
as m
uch
exci
tem
ent.
Of
the
tota
l of
2,90
6 ch
ildre
n tr
aced
,2,
798
wer
e at
tend
ing
scho
ol a
nd 1
08w
ere
not.
Thi
s sh
ows
that
ove
r 95
perc
ent o
f al
l the
chi
ldre
n w
ho h
ad
atte
nded
the
SEW
A p
rogr
amm
e w
ere
insc
hool
. If
one
cons
ider
s th
e so
cio-
econ
omic
cat
egor
y in
whi
ch th
e fa
mili
esfa
ll, it
bec
omes
cle
ar th
at S
EW
A'S
rol
e ha
sbe
en s
igni
fica
nt.
At A
nand
, Khe
da D
istr
ict,
whi
ch w
as th
efi
rst l
ocat
ion
of S
EW
A c
rech
es f
or th
ech
ildre
n of
the
wom
en w
orke
rs in
toba
cco
fiel
ds a
nd f
acto
ries
, the
list
of
child
ren
wen
t to
1,12
5. S
o th
e or
gani
sers
deci
ded
to in
vite
the
num
ber
of c
hild
ren
that
cou
ld b
e ac
com
mod
ated
in o
nese
ssio
n at
one
pla
ce: 7
50 c
hild
ren
wer
ein
vite
d fo
r th
e fi
rst B
al M
ela
whi
leth
e re
st w
ould
be
invi
ted
for
a se
cond
carn
ival
.
I w
as p
rese
nt a
t the
mee
ting
at w
hich
the
idea
of
havi
ng a
Bal
Mel
a w
asm
oote
d. A
bout
two
mon
ths
late
r, I
was
in th
e SE
WA
off
ice
in th
e sa
me
dist
rict
.B
y th
is ti
me,
the
entir
e lis
t of
all t
hech
ildre
n w
ho h
ad p
asse
d th
roug
h th
eSE
WA
cre
ches
in K
heda
was
ava
ilabl
e.
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 38
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
I to
ld th
em to
take
a p
hoto
copy
of
the
docu
men
t and
to k
eep
the
orig
inal
`cen
sus'
in a
ban
k va
ult!
Thi
s w
as m
ainl
yto
impr
ess
upon
them
the
valu
e of
the
info
rmat
ion
that
they
had
col
lect
ed a
ndth
e co
ntin
uing
nee
d fo
r do
cum
entin
gth
eir
own
activ
ities
.
At A
hmed
abad
, a s
imila
r ex
erci
se w
asun
dert
aken
. The
chi
ldca
re w
orke
rs(t
each
ers)
beg
an to
iden
tify
the
child
ren
in th
eir
area
s, w
ho h
ad b
een
with
them
in th
e pr
esch
ool y
ears
. Sev
eral
urb
anha
bita
tions
wer
e co
mbe
d fo
r th
e SE
WA
.A
nd w
hat a
har
vest
! M
ore
than
950
child
ren
turn
ed u
p at
the
carn
ival
.
For
the
child
ren,
the
fest
iviti
es h
ad a
llth
e el
emen
ts o
f a
Bal
Mel
a: g
ames
topl
ay, s
kits
to s
ee, a
nd m
usic
and
oth
erac
tiviti
es to
join
in. I
n ad
ditio
n to
afo
rmal
lam
p lig
htin
g ce
rem
ony,
ther
ew
ere
talk
s by
vis
iting
dig
nita
ries
and
by
SEW
A o
rgan
iser
s. T
he c
hild
ren
wer
e
met
icul
ousl
y gr
oom
ed a
nd d
ress
ed;
som
e w
ore
thei
r br
ight
est a
nd s
hini
est
clot
hes,
oth
ers
cam
e dr
esse
d up
as
wel
l-kn
own
hist
oric
al o
r fi
ctio
nal c
hara
cter
s.N
iche
s w
ere
set u
p fo
r va
riou
s ch
ildre
n's
activ
ities
and
gam
es: c
rayo
n dr
awin
g,ve
geta
ble
prin
ting,
mak
ing
caps
, pup
pet
show
s, m
usic
and
dan
ce a
nd s
o on
.So
me
grou
ps o
f ch
ildre
n ha
d co
me
prep
ared
to s
tage
ski
ts o
r do
mim
icry
.So
me
had
been
lear
ning
, lab
orio
usly
, to
intr
oduc
e th
emse
lves
in E
nglis
h! M
ore
than
any
thin
g, th
ey w
ere
happ
y to
mee
tth
eir
frie
nds
and
run
arou
nd th
e pl
ace,
savo
urin
g th
e ex
cite
men
t of
a ca
rniv
al.
For
all o
f th
em, a
hot
lunc
h se
rved
by
thei
r te
ache
rs, w
as m
ost w
elco
me.
The
lunc
h br
ough
t bac
k to
thei
r m
inds
the
won
derf
ul s
nack
s th
ey h
ad e
aten
as
child
ren
in th
eS
EW
Apr
ogra
mm
e. T
hey
wer
e al
so g
iven
a s
ouve
nir
to ta
ke b
ack
hom
e (s
omet
hing
like
a s
mal
l bow
l,fi
lled
with
can
dy).
The
re w
ere
min
orva
riat
ions
in th
e th
ree
Bal
Mel
as: t
wo
inK
heda
Dis
tric
t and
one
in A
hmed
abad
city
. One
had
mor
e ou
tdoo
r eq
uipm
ent
like
swin
gs a
nd r
ound
abou
ts, a
noth
erha
d a
disp
lay
of th
e ch
ildre
n's
art w
ork,
the
thir
d ha
d m
ore
emph
asis
on
race
san
d sp
orts
for
chi
ldre
n an
d so
on.
SE
WA
,as
an
orga
nisa
tion,
is k
now
n fo
rits
abi
lity
to w
ork
with
the
Gov
ernm
ent
and
to a
cces
s th
e re
sour
ces
that
Gov
ernm
ent s
chem
es a
lloca
te f
orch
ildre
n's
prog
ram
mes
. In
each
of
the
Bal
Mel
as, r
elev
ant G
over
nmen
t off
icia
ls
had
been
invi
ted
and
give
n vi
sibl
e ro
les
in th
e fo
rmal
par
t of
the
inau
gura
lfu
nctio
n. T
heir
hel
p in
get
ting
mor
esp
ace
for
the
cent
res
and
crec
hes
was
soug
ht, a
s sp
ace
cont
inue
s to
be
ape
renn
ial p
robl
em.
Wha
t chi
ldre
n an
d m
othe
rs s
aid
Dur
ing
the
carn
ival
s a
smal
l tea
m o
fre
sear
cher
s w
ent a
roun
d ta
lkin
g to
child
ren
and
mot
hers
. Sel
ecte
d ex
trac
tsar
e gi
ven
belo
w.
I am
now
stu
dyin
g in
the
9th
Stan
dard
.M
y m
othe
r to
ld m
e th
at I
was
onl
yth
ree
mon
ths
old
whe
n I
was
sen
t to
the
crec
he. I
cri
ed a
lot i
n th
e be
ginn
ing,
she
says
. Wha
t I k
now
is th
at I
bec
ame
fond
of
the
teac
hers
and
enj
oyed
the
activ
ities
in th
e cr
eche
. My
mot
her
and
my
fath
er w
ork
in th
e to
bacc
o fi
elds
.
The
y ar
e w
orki
ng h
ard
so th
at th
ey c
aned
ucat
e us
. My
sist
er is
in th
e se
cond
year
of
her
Col
lege
. I w
ish
to s
tudy
and
beco
me
a la
wye
r, s
o th
at I
can
hel
pot
hers
to g
et ju
stic
e. (
Mer
iel a
ged
13,
from
Kun
jrav
Vill
age)
I st
udy
in th
e 6t
h St
anda
rd. M
y fa
ther
and
mot
her
are
toba
cco
wor
kers
. Ial
way
s lo
ved
goin
g to
the
cent
re. M
y
teac
hers
ther
e w
ere
very
goo
d. M
y
favo
urite
sub
ject
is E
nglis
h. W
hen
I w
ason
the
stag
e, I
was
not
afr
aid
ofin
trod
ucin
g m
ysel
f in
Eng
lish.
I h
ave
not d
ecid
ed w
hat I
wou
ld li
ke to
be
in
the
futu
re, b
ut m
y pa
rent
s sa
y th
at I
can
stud
y as
muc
h as
I w
ant t
o. A
t the
Mel
a, I
love
d th
e M
agic
Sho
w a
nd I
was
hap
py to
pla
y cr
icke
t with
my
frie
nds.
(M
artin
age
d 15
, fro
mC
hiko
dra
Vill
age)
She
was
thre
e ye
ars
whe
n I
put h
er in
toth
e ce
ntre
. She
was
one
of
the
firs
t bat
ch
in th
e ce
ntre
. Tod
ay, s
he is
in th
e 7t
hSt
anda
rd. S
he lo
ves
to s
tudy
and
goe
s to
scho
ol w
ithou
t hes
itatio
n. M
y ol
der
daug
hter
had
not
bee
n to
suc
h a
cent
re,
so w
hen
I pu
t her
in s
choo
l, sh
e w
as n
otea
ger
to s
tudy
and
dro
pped
out
. But
Mon
a is
ver
y sm
art.
She
stan
ds u
pbo
ldly
in h
er c
lass
and
ans
wer
squ
estio
ns. H
er te
ache
rs a
t the
pri
mar
ysc
hool
are
als
o pr
aisi
ng h
er. (
Man
gube
n,m
othe
r of
Mon
a, a
ged
12)
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 39
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
I se
ll A
garb
atti
(inc
ense
stic
ks)
and
othe
r sm
all i
tem
s. A
t fir
st, I
did
not
belie
ve th
at a
nyon
e w
ould
take
car
e of
my
child
whe
n I
was
aw
ay. W
hen
I se
nthi
m to
the
crec
he, h
e w
as n
ot s
peak
ing.
He
wou
ld ju
st ta
ke o
ff h
is c
loth
es a
nd
wan
der
abou
t. T
he te
ache
rs w
ere
very
patie
nt a
nd tr
aine
d hi
m to
hav
e pr
oper
habi
ts a
nd n
ot to
take
off
his
clo
thes
.
Aft
er jo
inin
g th
e cr
eche
, he
brus
hes
his
teet
h an
d sa
ys h
is p
raye
rs. H
e re
ads
book
s an
d re
spec
ts o
ther
s. T
hese
are
beha
viou
rs th
at a
re a
ppre
ciat
ed in
our
soci
ety.
The
refo
re, I
am
sat
isfi
ed.
(Gee
tabe
n, m
othe
r of
Mon
tu, a
ged
8)
The
inte
rvie
ws
all t
ell t
he s
ame
stor
y. I
tis
cer
tain
that
the
inte
rven
tion
in e
arly
child
hood
has
a p
ositi
ve im
pact
on
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f co
gniti
ve a
nd s
ocia
lsk
ills
in la
ter
year
s.0
Indi
a: #
1 te
ache
r in
San
jayn
agar
cen
tre
(Bap
unag
ar)
acts
out
song
s w
ith th
e ch
ildre
n
so th
ey b
ecom
e
enth
usia
stic
abo
ut
lear
ning
.
Pho
to: S
ara
Gom
ez,
HA
RT
Fel
low
from
the
Cen
ter
for
Doc
umen
tary
Stu
dies
, US
A
Fam
ily s
uppo
rtpr
ogra
mm
esin
S E
pste
in, J
eann
e M
ontle
and
Dav
id P
We
kart
Thi
s ex
trac
t is
from
a tr
acer
stu
dy' t
hat f
ollo
wed
up
four
of
the
site
s of
a P
aren
t-to
-Par
ent p
rogr
amm
e in
the
USA
to
find
org
anis
atio
nal t
race
s of
the
prog
ram
me'
s pr
inci
ples
and
str
ateg
ies.
The
Par
ent-
to-P
aren
t pro
gram
me
evol
ved
from
an
Infa
nt E
duca
tion
Proj
ect (
1968
-197
1) in
whi
ch p
rofe
ssio
nal s
taff
vis
ited
low
-inc
ome
fam
ilies
with
infa
nts,
thro
ugh
a H
ome
Vis
it Pr
ojec
t in
whi
ch th
e ho
me
visi
tors
wer
e pe
ers
(mot
hers
fro
m th
e sa
me
com
mun
ities
), to
the
Pare
nt-t
o-Pa
rent
pro
gram
me
(197
8-19
84).
Thi
s pr
ogra
mm
e w
orke
d to
a m
odel
that
was
fle
xibl
e en
ough
to a
dapt
to lo
cal f
amily
nee
ds a
nd c
onte
xt. I
ts p
rinc
iple
s w
ere:
the
prim
ary
focu
s of
the
prog
ram
me
is e
nhan
cing
chi
ldde
velo
pmen
t and
par
entin
g sk
ills;
the
prog
ram
me
emph
asis
es b
uild
ing
on f
amily
str
engt
hs; a
nd th
e pr
ogra
mm
ede
sign
is u
nder
loca
l con
trol
. Str
ateg
ies
wer
e: p
eers
or
para
prof
essi
onal
s us
ed a
s fa
mily
ser
vice
wor
kers
; lea
rnin
g at
all a
ge le
vels
bas
ed o
n de
velo
pmen
tally
app
ropr
iate
pra
ctic
es; a
nd a
n ed
ucat
iona
l app
roac
h th
at in
corp
orat
esac
tive
lear
ning
for
par
ents
, chi
ldre
n an
d st
aff
Whe
n it
was
fir
st d
isse
min
ated
in th
eea
rly
1980
s, th
e Pa
rent
-to-
Pare
nt (
PTP)
mod
el w
as a
uni
que
appr
oach
tose
rvin
g fa
mili
es. A
lthou
gh n
one
of th
eor
igin
al p
rogr
amm
es is
stil
l in
oper
atio
n at
the
site
s w
e in
vest
igat
ed,
we
look
ed f
or e
lem
ents
of
the
PTP
mod
el in
cur
rent
pro
gram
mes
off
ered
to f
amili
es w
ith y
oung
chi
ldre
n in
thos
eco
mm
uniti
es. S
peci
fica
lly, w
e lo
oked
for
sim
ilari
ties
to th
e ph
iloso
phic
alpr
inci
ples
and
impl
emen
tatio
ngu
idel
ines
of
the
PTP
mod
el.
Cer
tain
ly, t
he p
rese
nce
of o
ne o
r m
ore
of th
ese
feat
ures
in a
cur
rent
prog
ram
me
is n
ot n
eces
sari
ly a
nin
dica
tion
of d
irec
t inf
luen
ce f
rom
the
PTP
mod
el.
As
fam
ily s
uppo
rt p
rogr
amm
es h
ave
prol
ifer
ated
ove
r th
e pa
st 2
0 ye
ars,
itw
ould
be
impo
ssib
le to
sep
arat
e ou
t the
effe
cts
of o
ne p
artic
ular
mod
el.
How
ever
, an
exam
inat
ion
of th
epr
esen
ce o
r ab
senc
e of
thes
e fe
atur
espr
ovid
es a
n in
dica
tion
of th
e lo
ng-t
erm
effe
ctiv
enes
s or
sta
ying
pow
er o
f ke
yel
emen
ts o
f th
e PT
P ph
iloso
phy
and
high
light
s ap
proa
ches
that
hav
e pr
oven
succ
essf
ul o
ver
time.
Prim
ary
focu
s on
enh
anci
ng c
hild
deve
lopm
ent a
nd p
aren
ting
skill
sO
f th
e cu
rren
t pro
gram
mes
rev
iew
edfo
r th
e pr
esen
t stu
dy, f
ew h
ad a
s th
eir
prim
ary
goal
enh
anci
ng c
hild
deve
lopm
ent a
nd p
aren
ting
skill
s.It
wou
ld s
eem
that
as
fam
ily s
uppo
rtpr
ogra
mm
es e
ndea
vour
to a
ddre
ss th
em
ultip
le n
eeds
of
fam
ilies
with
you
ngch
ildre
n, th
e ch
ildre
n th
emse
lves
actu
ally
rec
eive
less
and
less
atte
ntio
n.
Focu
s on
fam
ily s
tren
gths
Ove
r an
d ov
er a
gain
, the
phr
ase
used
to d
escr
ibe
curr
ent p
rogr
amm
es w
as
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 40
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
fam
ily b
ased
. Alm
ost a
ll cu
rren
tpr
ogra
mm
e st
aff
desc
ribe
d th
eir
prog
ram
mes
as
bein
g ba
sed
on f
amily
stre
ngth
s. T
his
emph
asis
is c
erta
inly
cong
ruen
t with
the
PTP
philo
soph
yan
d de
mon
stra
tes
that
fam
ily s
uppo
rtpr
ogra
mm
e ph
iloso
phy
has
inde
edsh
ifte
d fr
om a
def
icit
mod
el to
ast
reng
th-b
ased
mod
el.
Loc
al c
ontr
ol o
f pr
ogra
mm
e de
sign
Mos
t of
the
curr
ent p
rogr
amm
es w
ein
vest
igat
ed w
ere
loca
lly d
esig
ned
and
adm
inis
tere
d; o
nly
one
was
des
igne
d an
ddi
ssem
inat
ed b
y a
natio
nal o
rgan
isat
ion.
Peer
-to-
peer
ser
vice
del
iver
y
Man
y fa
mily
sup
port
pro
gram
mes
toda
y co
ntin
ue to
use
par
apro
fess
iona
lsto
pro
vide
dir
ect s
ervi
ces
to f
amili
es.
How
ever
, few
pro
gram
mes
con
tinue
tore
ly o
n vo
lunt
eers
, as
was
the
case
in th
eP
TP
proj
ect.
Cur
rent
adm
inis
trat
ors
and
prog
ram
me
supe
rvis
ors
cite
dif
ficu
lties
in r
ecru
iting
vol
unte
ers
toda
y, a
ndse
vera
l of
thos
e in
terv
iew
ed s
tate
d th
atth
ey d
o no
t fee
l com
fort
able
with
not
reim
burs
ing
fam
ily s
ervi
ce w
orke
rs f
orth
eir
time
and
expe
rtis
e.
Staf
f tr
aini
ngPr
eser
vice
and
inse
rvic
e tr
aini
ngpr
ogra
mm
es f
or p
arap
rofe
ssio
nals
var
yw
idel
y fr
om p
rogr
amm
e to
pro
gram
me.
Man
y of
thos
e in
terv
iew
ed,
prof
essi
onal
s an
d pa
rapr
ofes
sion
als
alik
e, e
xpre
ssed
a d
esir
e fo
r m
ore
trai
ning
, but
mos
t pro
gram
mes
lack
the
fund
s or
tim
e to
pro
vide
it.
Dev
elop
men
tally
app
ropr
iate
, act
ive
lear
ning
app
roac
h to
edu
catio
nA
dev
elop
men
tal a
ppro
ach
to le
arni
ngw
as a
hal
lmar
k of
the
PT
Pm
odel
. The
appr
oach
, whi
ch w
as c
arri
ed o
utth
roug
h st
aff
trai
ning
and
the
child
deve
lopm
ent c
urri
culu
m, a
ffec
ted
part
icip
ants
and
sta
ff a
t all
leve
ls.
Dev
elop
men
tally
app
ropr
iate
mat
eria
lsfo
r ch
ildre
n ar
e w
idel
y av
aila
ble
toda
y,an
d it
may
be
that
inte
rvie
wee
s di
d no
tth
ink
it im
port
ant t
o m
entio
n th
at th
eyus
ed th
em. I
t is
also
pos
sibl
e th
at, a
s th
e
focu
s of
fam
ily s
uppo
rt in
terv
entio
n ha
ssh
ifte
d m
ore
tow
ards
par
ents
' nee
ds a
ndaw
ay f
rom
thei
r ch
ildre
n, th
ede
velo
pmen
tal a
ppro
ach
to le
arni
ng h
asbe
en lo
st. A
ctiv
e le
arni
ng, a
key
fea
ture
of th
eP
TP
mod
el, w
as n
oted
as
a fe
atur
eas
soci
ated
with
the
curr
ent p
rogr
amm
esth
at o
ffer
par
ent-
child
act
iviti
es.
Pro
gram
me
para
met
ers
esse
ntia
l to
addr
ess
curr
ent f
amily
nee
ds
The
soc
ial i
ssue
s af
fect
ing
fam
ilies
with
youn
g ch
ildre
n at
the
four
site
s to
day
are
a re
flec
tion
of is
sues
see
n ac
ross
the
coun
try:
an
incr
ease
in s
ingl
e pa
rent
fam
ilies
; pre
gnan
t and
par
entin
gad
oles
cent
s; d
omes
tic v
iole
nce;
and
subs
tanc
e ab
use.
Man
y of
thos
ein
terv
iew
ed m
entio
ned
the
heig
hten
edse
nse
of d
espa
ir a
nd h
opel
essn
ess
they
see
in f
amili
es to
day,
com
pare
d to
15
or 2
0 ye
ars
ago.
Thi
s w
as o
ften
bla
med
on th
e ef
fect
s of
sub
stan
ce a
buse
and
pove
rty.
The
new
wel
fare
ref
orm
legi
slat
ion
inth
e U
nite
d St
ates
of
Am
eric
a ha
saf
fect
ed a
ll th
ose
who
wor
k w
ith p
oor
fam
ilies
of
youn
g ch
ildre
n. A
s m
othe
rsha
ve b
egun
to le
ave
wel
fare
and
ret
urn
to w
ork,
the
need
for
aff
orda
ble
child
care
at e
ach
of th
e si
tes
has
beco
me
criti
cal.
Add
ition
al n
eeds
cre
ated
by
the
effe
cts
of w
elfa
re r
efor
m le
gisl
atio
n ar
e en
try-
Find
ings
US
A, H
igh/
Sco
pe
leve
l job
s th
at p
ay a
live
able
wag
e an
djo
b tr
aini
ng p
rogr
amm
es. M
any
ofth
ose
inte
rvie
wed
talk
ed a
bout
the
gene
ral d
eclin
e in
edu
catio
nal s
tand
ards
and
the
fact
that
man
y m
othe
rsre
turn
ing
to w
ork
lack
mar
keta
ble
skill
san
d a
basi
c ac
adem
ic b
ackg
roun
d. I
tw
as a
lso
note
d by
som
e th
at, i
n th
eef
fort
to m
ove
mot
hers
of
youn
gch
ildre
n of
f w
elfa
re, t
he n
eeds
of
thei
rch
ildre
n of
ten
get o
verl
ooke
d. B
usy
pare
nts
have
littl
e tim
e an
d en
ergy
tode
vote
to p
aren
t-ch
ild a
ctiv
ities
at
hom
e an
d on
ly a
sm
all p
erce
ntag
e of
pare
nts
volu
ntee
r at
thei
r ch
ildre
n's
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 41
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
child
care
cen
tres
. In
the
stru
ggle
tom
eet d
ay to
day
dem
ands
, the
re is
sca
ntat
tent
ion
focu
sed
on im
prov
ing
pare
ntin
g sk
ills.
* E
pste
in A
S, M
ontie
J &
Wei
kart
DP
(200
2), S
uppo
rtin
g fa
mili
es w
ith y
oung
child
ren,
the
Hig
h/Sc
ope
Pare
nt-t
o-Pa
rent
diss
emin
atio
n pr
ojec
t, M
onog
raph
s of
the
Hig
h/Sc
ope
Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rch
Foun
datio
n N
o. 1
3; Y
psila
nti,
Mic
higa
n,
usw
: Hig
h/Sc
ope
Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rch
Foun
datio
n (s
ee p
age
59).
0
Find
ings
The
AD
P gr
ew o
ut o
f th
e ea
rly
expe
rien
ces
of S
ervo
l (Se
rvic
eV
olun
teer
ed f
or A
ll) in
the
1970
s w
hen
it ra
n co
urse
s to
impa
rt s
kills
toad
oles
cent
s an
d pr
epar
e th
em f
or th
ew
orld
of
wor
k. A
lthou
gh s
kills
wer
eac
quir
ed, t
he y
oung
peo
ple
had
diff
icul
ty in
hol
ding
dow
n jo
bs b
ecau
seof
thei
r ow
n at
titud
es to
life
and
wor
kw
hich
wer
e a
cons
eque
nce
of th
eir
earl
ylif
e ex
peri
ence
s.
Sinc
e th
e ea
rly
1980
s, y
oung
peo
ple
appl
ying
to S
ervo
l are
req
uire
d to
part
icip
ate
in th
e A
DP
befo
reun
dert
akin
g a
skill
s tr
aini
ng c
ours
e.D
urin
g th
e th
ree-
mon
th c
ours
e th
e 16
to 1
9 ye
ar o
lds
are
help
ed to
bet
ter
unde
rsta
nd th
emse
lves
; to
bette
r ha
ndle
thei
r em
otio
ns a
nd e
very
day
prob
lem
s;to
bec
ome
mor
e en
light
ened
, bet
ter
equi
pped
and
mor
e re
spon
sibl
e pa
rent
s;an
d to
bec
ome
mot
ivat
ed to
equ
ip
Nur
turi
ng c
hild
ren
Jean
D G
riff
ith
Thi
s ex
trac
t is
from
a tr
acer
stu
dy o
f th
e A
dole
scen
t Dev
elop
men
t Pro
gram
me
(AD
P) in
Tri
nida
d. T
he s
tudy
look
ed a
t the
live
s of
79
Tri
nida
dian
s in
thei
r 20
sar
ound
10
year
s af
ter
half
of
them
had
par
ticpa
ted
in th
e A
DP,
and
look
edpa
rtic
ular
ly a
t the
eff
ects
of
the
prog
ram
me
on p
aren
ting,
nur
turi
ng a
ndch
ildre
arin
g in
gen
eral
.
them
selv
es a
cade
mic
ally
and
/or
with
mar
keta
ble
skill
s. T
he A
DP
is a
vaila
ble
in s
ome
20 c
entr
es th
roug
hout
the
coun
try
and
mod
ifie
d ve
rsio
ns h
ave
been
intr
oduc
ed to
som
e se
cond
ary
scho
ols
and
othe
r in
stitu
tions
.
Am
ong
the
stud
y re
spon
dent
s, a
prin
cipa
l are
a of
con
cern
was
the
nurt
urin
g of
thei
r ch
ildre
n. I
n ge
nera
l,re
spon
dent
s w
ere
in c
onta
ct w
ith th
eir
child
ren
and
mad
e ef
fort
s to
pro
vide
the
kind
of
supp
ort t
hat w
ould
enh
ance
thei
r ch
ildre
n's
wel
l-be
ing.
Thi
s w
as e
vide
nt a
mon
g al
lre
spon
dent
s, w
heth
er th
ey w
ere
form
erSe
rvol
trai
nees
or
in th
e co
mpa
riso
ngr
oup.
Thi
s w
as a
lso
obse
rved
irre
spec
tive
of g
ende
r an
d th
eco
mm
unity
set
ting.
In
mos
t cas
es,
resp
onde
nts
said
that
they
live
d w
ithth
eir
child
ren.
In
the
few
exc
eptio
nal
case
s w
here
they
did
not
sha
re th
e sa
me
resi
denc
e, th
ere
still
app
eare
d to
be
genu
ine
conc
ern
for
the
wel
fare
of
the
child
ren
and
atte
mpt
s w
ere
mad
e to
mai
ntai
n co
ntac
t and
pro
vide
sup
port
.
Whe
ther
fro
m th
e gr
oup
of f
orm
ertr
aine
es o
r th
e co
mpa
riso
n gr
oup,
resp
onde
nts
reve
aled
that
they
had
devo
ted
a co
nsid
erab
le a
mou
nt o
f tim
eto
thei
r ch
ildre
n, p
artic
ular
ly d
urin
gin
fanc
y. T
his
was
esp
ecia
lly th
e ca
se f
orth
e fe
mal
e re
spon
dent
s. M
oreo
ver,
bot
hgr
oups
of
resp
onde
nts
reco
gnis
ed th
atth
ey h
ad to
mak
e sa
crif
ices
, par
ticul
arly
with
res
pect
to th
eir
leis
ure
time
activ
ities
out
side
of
the
hom
e. B
oth
grou
ps r
epor
ted
that
they
had
had
prob
lem
s w
ith th
e he
alth
of
thei
rin
fant
s. R
espo
nden
ts a
lso
talk
ed o
fth
e fi
nanc
ial c
halle
nges
that
wer
em
ore
likel
y to
occ
ur a
s th
eir
child
ren
grew
old
er.
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 42
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
In o
rder
to o
verc
ome
chal
leng
es,
fina
ncia
l one
s in
par
ticul
ar, r
efer
ence
was
mad
e to
a n
umbe
r of
str
ateg
ies
that
incl
uded
look
ing
for
wor
k, r
elyi
ng u
pon
divi
ne h
elp,
and
bec
omin
g se
lf-
suff
icie
nt a
nd r
esou
rcef
ul. T
he la
tter
was
the
stra
tegy
ado
pted
by
som
e m
ale
resp
onde
nts
who
wer
e fo
rmer
Ser
vol
trai
nees
and
who
sou
ght t
o be
com
een
trep
rene
urs
in o
rder
to o
verc
ome
fina
ncia
l dif
ficu
lties
that
thre
aten
edth
eir
livel
ihoo
d an
d th
at o
f th
eir
offs
prin
g.
Ove
rall,
ther
e w
as a
cle
ar r
ecog
nitio
nth
at p
aren
ting
was
an
ardu
ous
task
that
requ
ired
par
ents
to d
emon
stra
te a
gre
atde
al o
f re
spon
sibi
lity
in n
urtu
ring
thei
rch
ildre
n. N
onet
hele
ss, t
here
was
gen
eral
agre
emen
t tha
t par
entin
g w
as a
ple
asan
tex
peri
ence
that
had
to b
e em
brac
ed a
ndpu
rsue
d di
ligen
tly. M
entio
n w
as m
ade
of c
lose
inte
ract
ions
bet
wee
n
App
rent
ices
and
chi
ldre
n in
the
carp
entr
y w
orks
hop,
Pho
to: S
ervo
!
resp
onde
nts
and
thei
r ch
ildre
n, a
ndre
cipr
ocal
pro
cess
es o
f in
tera
ctio
nsth
roug
h su
ch a
ctiv
ities
as
sing
ing,
play
ing,
touc
hing
and
cud
dlin
g.
Am
ong
the
resp
onde
nts,
ther
e w
asge
nera
l con
sens
us th
at th
e A
DP
had
at
leas
t rei
nfor
ced
the
virt
ues
asso
ciat
edw
ith th
e ta
sk o
f pa
rent
ing.
In
seve
ral
case
s, th
ey f
elt t
hat t
he A
DP
enha
nced
thei
r pa
rent
ing
skill
s. F
or in
stan
ce, t
hey
did
thin
gs s
uch
as g
ettin
g th
eir
child
ren
mor
e in
volv
ed in
rec
reat
iona
l act
iviti
es.
The
y al
so f
ound
that
the
expo
sure
to
the
AD
P en
able
d th
em to
be
mor
epa
tient
and
atte
ntiv
e to
the
child
ren
and,
as
a co
nseq
uenc
e, e
nhan
ced
thei
rpa
rent
-chi
ld r
elat
ions
hips
. One
resp
onde
nt n
oted
that
the
AD
P
...m
ade
me
mor
e aw
are
of p
artic
ular
area
s of
my
life.
It r
einf
orce
d fo
r m
e
that
a p
erso
n ha
s th
e po
wer
to in
stil
know
ledg
e in
ano
ther
indi
vidu
al's
life
.I
cons
ider
par
entin
g to
be
a pr
ivile
gean
d an
hon
our.
The
pro
gram
me
diss
emin
ated
info
rmat
ion
that
was
rel
evan
t and
was
of a
ssis
tanc
e in
taki
ng c
are
of c
hild
ren.
In g
ener
al, t
he A
DP
mad
e a
diff
eren
ce in
pare
ntin
g sk
ills
and
prov
ided
a b
asis
for
ensu
ring
that
trai
nees
wer
e w
ell
prep
ared
for
thei
r re
spon
sibi
litie
s as
pare
nts.
One
mal
e re
spon
dent
ack
now
ledg
edth
at th
e pa
rent
ing
cour
se h
ad a
sign
ific
ant i
mpa
ct o
n hi
m:
If th
e A
D?
was
not
ther
e, I
do
not
know
how
I w
ould
be
look
ing
at li
feto
day.
AD
P ta
ught
me
self
-aw
aren
ess.
Wha
t you
are
for
, wha
t you
are
not
.I
teac
h w
hat I
lear
n fr
om A
DP.
Eve
ryyo
uth
in J
unio
r Se
cond
ary
Scho
olsh
ould
be
expo
sed
to th
is p
rogr
amm
e.M
ost p
eopl
e w
ho p
ass
thro
ugh
AD
P ar
e
diff
eren
t up
to to
day.
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n4.
3 E
arly
Chi
ldho
od M
atte
rs
Fin
ding
s
Ano
ther
sai
d,
The
par
entin
g co
urse
mad
e m
e ha
vere
spec
t for
my
pare
nts
and
real
ise
that
it is
not
eas
y to
bri
ng u
p ch
ildre
n. E
ven
whe
n I
have
arg
umen
ts w
ith m
y
pare
nts,
I r
emem
ber
that
they
mad
e m
ean
d th
at I
mus
t hav
e re
spec
t for
them
.
One
fem
ale
resp
onde
nt s
aid
that
beca
use
she
had
her
son
whe
n sh
eat
tend
ed th
e A
DP,
'the
par
entin
g co
urse
was
rel
evan
t and
hel
ped
me
to b
ette
run
ders
tand
him
: It s
houl
d be
not
edth
at s
ome
form
er tr
aine
es in
dica
ted
that
they
did
not
app
reci
ate
the
full
impa
ct o
f th
e pa
rent
ing
cour
se w
hen
itw
as b
eing
taug
ht. T
his
was
bec
ause
som
e of
them
wer
e no
t sex
ually
act
ive
or w
ere
not t
hink
ing
abou
t for
min
gre
latio
nshi
ps. A
mal
e re
spon
dent
expr
esse
d th
e w
ish
to b
e ab
le to
part
icip
ate
in th
e co
urse
at t
his
stag
e in
his
life
sinc
e he
wou
ld a
ppre
ciat
e it
mor
e fu
lly n
ow.
* G
riff
ith J
D (
2002
), T
o ha
ndle
life
's c
halle
n-
ges:
a tr
acer
stu
dy o
f Se
rvol
's A
dole
scen
t
Dev
elop
men
t Pro
gram
me
in T
rini
dad,
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Dev
elop
men
t: Pr
actic
e an
d
Ref
lect
ions
No.
16
(see
pag
e 59
).
'hid
ings
Wha
t hap
pene
d to
the
child
ren?
Ro
Di D
egaz
on-J
ohns
on
Jam
aica
: Tee
nage
Mot
hers
pro
gram
me
Sto
rytim
e fo
r to
ddle
rs; t
he b
read
frui
t tre
e pr
ovid
ing
shad
e.
Thi
s ar
ticle
has
bee
n ad
apte
d fr
om a
trac
er s
tudy
* of
the
Tee
nage
Mot
hers
Pro
ject
that
was
bas
ed in
May
Pen
in th
e ru
ral J
amai
can
pari
shof
Cla
rend
on w
here
ther
e w
as a
high
rat
e of
teen
age
preg
nanc
y. T
he p
roje
ct o
pera
ted
from
198
6 to
199
6 an
d ha
d th
ree
over
all o
bjec
tives
: to
decr
ease
the
num
ber
and
freq
uenc
y of
teen
age
preg
nanc
ies
in
and
arou
nd C
lare
ndon
; to
addr
ess
the
deve
lopm
ent a
nd tr
aini
ng o
f th
e te
enag
e m
othe
rs; a
nd to
less
en th
e lik
elih
ood
of r
epea
t pre
gnan
cies
, the
reby
impr
ovin
g th
e lif
ech
ance
s of
the
youn
g ch
ild. T
he s
tudy
was
a f
ollo
w-u
p to
an
earl
ier
piec
e of
res
earc
h th
at tr
aced
the
impa
ct o
f th
e pr
ojec
t on
asa
mpl
e of
10
mot
hers
and
chi
ldre
n w
ho w
ere
part
icip
ants
bet
wee
n 19
86 a
nd 1
989,
and
com
pare
d th
ese
with
ten
othe
r m
othe
r an
d ch
ild p
airs
who
had
not
bee
n in
the
proj
ect.
The
Tee
nage
Mot
hers
Pro
ject
(T
MP)
trac
er s
tudy
fol
low
ed u
p on
an
earl
ier
stud
y th
at c
oncl
uded
that
the
child
ren
unde
rT
MP
care
not
onl
y di
d m
uch
bette
r th
an th
e co
ntro
l chi
ldre
n, b
utw
ere
perf
orm
ing
wel
l by
any
stan
dard
.
An
impo
rtan
t obj
ectiv
e of
the
trac
erst
udy
has
been
to d
eter
min
e th
e ex
tent
to w
hich
the
earl
y de
velo
pmen
tal
diff
eren
ce n
oted
in th
at f
irst
stu
dy m
ayha
ve b
een
sust
aine
d, g
iven
the
natu
ral
impa
ct o
f en
viro
nmen
t, sc
hool
ing
and
the
fact
that
the
TM
Pch
ildre
n w
ould
have
left
the
TM
Pen
viro
nmen
t whe
nth
ey w
ere
aged
thre
e or
fou
r ye
ars,
desp
ite o
ccas
iona
l hom
e vi
sits
that
cont
inue
d af
terw
ards
.
The
pri
ncip
al in
stru
men
t use
d to
ass
ess
whe
ther
the
diff
eren
ce h
as b
een
sust
aine
d w
as th
e Sc
hool
Per
form
ance
Rep
ort,
whi
ch c
ompr
ised
the
fina
l pag
eof
the
child
ren'
s qu
estio
nnai
re a
ndw
hich
was
com
plet
ed in
the
inte
rvie
ww
ith e
ach
child
's te
ache
r. E
ight
een
ofth
ese
repo
rts
wer
e co
mpl
eted
. The
two
that
wer
e no
t com
plet
ed w
ere
for
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 44
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
Papr
ika,
the
infa
nt, a
nd V
anill
a, w
hose
scho
ol in
Flo
rida
had
not
ret
urne
d he
rfo
rm. T
o so
me
exte
nt, t
he r
epor
tsca
nnot
be
said
to h
ave
the
stan
dard
ised
base
of
a re
sear
ch in
stru
men
t bec
ause
diff
eren
t tea
cher
s co
uld
have
giv
endi
ffer
ent v
alue
s to
the
ques
tions
and
asse
ssm
ents
. How
ever
, tea
cher
res
pons
esar
e co
nsid
ered
a v
alua
ble
com
pone
nt o
f
the
earl
ier
rese
arch
and
as
a re
sult,
thei
rus
e in
this
stu
dy h
as v
alid
ity.
The
teac
hers
wer
e al
l ask
ed to
sco
reth
eir
stud
ent's
aca
dem
ic a
chie
vem
ent
on th
e ba
sis
of a
sca
le f
rom
fiv
e to
one
,w
here
fiv
e is
'exc
elle
nt' a
nd o
ne is
'wea
k'an
d th
e re
sults
con
firm
the
find
ings
of
the
earl
ier
test
ing.
In
fact
, the
y sa
ym
ore:
not
onl
y di
d th
e ea
rly
stim
ulat
ion
prog
ram
me
com
pone
nt o
f th
eT
MP
dayc
are
put t
he b
abie
s ah
ead
of th
eir
peer
s de
velo
pmen
tally
, but
this
sup
erio
rpe
rfor
man
ce h
as b
een
sust
aine
d to
the
uppe
r le
vels
of
Prim
ary
and
All
Age
sch
oolin
g.
Spec
ial n
ote
mus
t be
take
n of
the
fact
that
at t
his
stag
e in
sch
oolin
g in
Jam
aica
, you
ng a
dole
scen
t mal
es a
rekn
own
to 'f
all o
ff' i
n th
eir
perf
orm
ance
whe
n co
mpa
red
to g
irls
. How
ever
, the
reis
no
diff
eren
ce in
the
perf
orm
ance
of
the
four
TM
Pbo
ys in
the
sam
ple
whe
nco
mpa
red
to th
e gi
rls,
whi
ch is
rem
arka
ble!
Tea
cher
inte
rvie
ws
for
seve
ral o
f th
ech
ildre
n re
veal
ed e
mer
ging
lead
ersh
ipsk
ills
as w
ell a
s ou
tsta
ndin
g la
ngua
geab
ilitie
s (e
ven
if th
is s
omet
imes
pres
ents
a p
robl
em f
or a
teac
her
in a
C)
clas
s of
50+
who
say
s th
e st
uden
t cha
tsto
o m
uch)
:
She
is v
ery
artic
ulat
e, s
peak
s w
ell.
She
disp
lays
lead
ersh
ip s
kills
, but
tend
sto
cha
t.
She
has
lead
ersh
ip s
kills
. She
can
be
depe
nded
on
to o
rgan
ise
the
clas
s.
The
re w
ere
also
chi
ldre
n in
the
com
pari
son
grou
p w
ith s
atis
fact
ory
perf
orm
ance
s. H
owev
er, i
n tw
o ca
ses,
teac
hers
cou
ld id
entif
y no
thin
gou
tsta
ndin
g ab
out t
he s
tude
nt. I
nad
ditio
n, th
e te
ache
rs o
f ot
her
stud
ents
said
: She
is in
clin
ed to
pro
voke
oth
er
child
ren.
She
doe
s no
t set
tle to
her
wor
k.
He
keep
s on
hitt
ing
and
figh
ting
the
othe
r ch
ildre
n.
He
hard
ly m
ade
one
know
he
was
in c
lass
.
The
rep
ort o
f th
e or
igin
al r
esea
rch
refe
rs to
the
rigi
d co
ntex
t of
the
trad
ition
al c
lass
room
as
havi
ng a
nega
tive
impa
ct o
nT
MP
child
ren
(and
,
no d
oubt
, all
child
ren)
. Thi
s ne
gativ
eim
pact
can
onl
y ha
ve b
een
dim
inis
hed
by th
e st
rong
dev
elop
men
tal b
ase
the
child
ren
rece
ived
in th
e ea
rly
stim
ulat
ion
prog
ram
me
and
by th
eco
ntin
uing
infl
uenc
e of
one
oth
erva
riab
leth
e m
othe
r. T
he s
ingl
eva
riab
le th
at w
ould
hav
e co
ntin
ued
toin
flue
nce
the
TM
Pch
ild a
nd e
nabl
ego
od to
exc
elle
nt a
cade
mic
ach
ieve
men
tin
all
case
s bu
t one
, wou
ld h
ave
been
the
TM
Pm
othe
r, d
oubt
less
enc
oura
ging
,in
sist
ing
and
mot
ivat
ing
her
child
tope
rfor
m w
ell i
n sc
hool
, to
read
, to
atte
nd s
choo
l reg
ular
ly. A
part
fro
m th
eea
rly
stim
ulat
ion
prog
ram
me
inte
rven
tion,
no
vari
able
can
hav
ecr
eate
d su
ch a
mar
ked
impa
ct a
ndco
ntra
st to
the
com
pari
son
grou
p's
acad
emic
per
form
ance
as
that
of
the
TM
Pm
othe
r he
rsel
f.0
* D
egaz
on-J
ohns
on R
(20
01),
A n
ew d
oor
open
ed: a
trac
er s
tudy
of
the
Tee
nage
Mot
hers
Proj
ect,
Jam
aica
, Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Dev
elop
men
t: Pr
actic
e an
d R
efle
ctio
ns
No.
13
(see
pag
e 58
).
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 45
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
Find
ings
Jam
aica
: Rov
ing
Car
egiv
ers
prog
ram
me
Car
egiv
er o
n ho
mev
isit.
Pho
to: ©
Kar
in A
lsbi
rk/u
Nic
EF
Find
ings
Gen
der
diff
eren
ces
in p
erso
nalit
y de
velo
pmen
tA
nne
Men
geM
arga
vet !
Cab
ins
Thi
s ar
ticle
has
bee
n ex
trac
ted
from
a tr
acer
stu
dy' t
hat l
ooks
at t
he e
ffec
ts o
f tr
aini
ng f
or p
resc
hool
teac
hers
on th
e ch
ildre
n th
ey h
ave
care
d fo
r in
the
Em
bu d
istr
ict o
f K
enya
. Pre
scho
ol te
ache
r tr
aini
ng in
Em
bu D
istr
ict
is c
arri
ed o
ut b
y th
e D
istr
ict C
entr
e fo
r E
arly
Chi
ldho
od E
duca
tion(DicEcE)
Em
bu, p
art o
f a
natio
nal
netw
ork
(the
Nat
iona
l Cen
tre
for
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Edu
catio
nNACECE).
Em
bu D
istr
ict w
as s
elec
ted
for
this
stud
y be
caus
e it
has
a fa
irly
hom
ogen
ous
rura
l com
mun
ity w
ith a
var
ied
clim
ate
and
envi
ronm
ent.
The
two
year
DICECE
prog
ram
me
prov
ides
in-s
ervi
ce a
nd o
n th
e jo
b tr
aini
ng c
over
ing
child
dev
elop
men
t, he
alth
and
nutr
ition
,ECD
curr
icul
um, a
nd s
o on
.
Mos
t res
pond
ents
wer
e of
the
opin
ion
that
gir
ls h
ave
bette
r de
velo
ped
pers
onal
ities
than
boy
s. T
hey
said
that
the
girl
s ar
e m
ore
disc
iplin
ed,
resp
ecta
ble,
rel
iabl
e, h
ones
t, de
pend
able
and
trus
twor
thy.
One
of
the
focu
sgr
oups
of
teac
hers
had
this
to s
ay:
Gir
ls a
re m
ore
trus
ted
and
relia
ble
than
the
boys
. In
this
sch
ool,
we
norm
ally
dep
end
mor
e on
gir
l pre
fect
sbe
caus
e th
ey a
re m
ore
relia
ble.
Muc
h of
the
cred
it fo
r be
tter
pers
onal
ity d
evel
opm
ent a
mon
g th
egi
rls
was
giv
en to
the
mot
hers
. The
resp
onde
nts
argu
ed th
at g
irls
are
at
hom
e w
ith th
eir
mot
hers
mos
t of
the
time
and
the
mot
hers
spe
nd a
lot o
ftim
e co
unse
lling
them
. In
addi
tion,
mos
t of
the
mot
hers
are
goo
d ro
lem
odel
s fo
r th
eir
girl
s. T
he g
irls
wer
esa
id to
atte
nd c
hurc
h m
ore
regu
larl
yth
an th
e bo
ys, a
nd in
chu
rch
they
are
taug
ht h
ow to
lead
goo
d m
oral
live
s.
The
boy
s, o
n th
e ot
her
hand
, lac
k go
odro
le m
odel
s. T
he m
ajor
ity o
f th
e fa
ther
sar
e no
t oft
en a
vaila
ble
to m
ould
the
char
acte
r of
thei
r so
ns. A
goo
d nu
mbe
rdr
ink
heav
ily a
nd s
mok
e in
the
pres
ence
of th
eir
sons
. The
ir s
ons
tend
to c
opy
thei
r fa
ther
s, h
ence
eng
agin
g in
trua
ncy
from
a v
ery
earl
y ag
e.
The
hea
d te
ache
rs a
lso
com
plai
ned
that
man
y pa
rent
s al
low
thei
r so
ns to
roa
mab
out a
nd d
o no
t ins
ist o
n th
emen
gagi
ng in
pro
duct
ive
wor
k w
hile
at
hom
e. T
his
free
dom
mak
es th
e bo
ysm
ore
vuln
erab
le to
bad
pee
r in
flue
nce,
henc
e th
eir
poor
per
sona
lity
deve
lopm
ent.
Gir
ls, o
n th
e ot
her
hand
,ar
e ex
pect
ed to
be
at h
ome
mos
t of
the
time
and
to e
ngag
e in
pro
duct
ive
wor
k.T
his
leav
es th
em w
ith v
ery
little
tim
e to
enga
ge in
und
esir
able
beh
avio
urs.
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 46
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
The
rol
e of
the
scho
ol
The
maj
ority
of
the
grou
ps a
ttrib
uted
the
good
per
sona
lity
deve
lopm
ent o
fpu
pils
to w
ell-
beha
ved
teac
hers
and
head
teac
hers
who
m th
e pu
pils
em
ulat
e.T
he p
artic
ipan
ts a
lso
emph
asis
ed th
atth
e te
ache
rs p
rovi
de g
uida
nce
and
coun
selli
ng f
or th
e pu
pils
. Thi
s he
lps
the
pupi
ls to
acq
uire
goo
d m
oral
s an
dch
arac
ter.
The
se r
espo
nses
are
sign
ific
ant i
n th
at th
e te
ache
rs a
revi
ewed
by
all a
s th
e ci
tade
l of
mor
altr
aini
ng a
nd c
hara
cter
dev
elop
men
t,pr
ovid
ing
impo
rtan
t rol
e m
odel
s fo
rpu
pils
. Eve
n th
e pa
rent
s ap
pear
to
Ken
ya: M
wan
a M
wen
de p
roje
ct
Act
ive
lear
ning
in a
pre
scho
ol.
i-1=
6
00 dele
gate
this
mos
t im
port
ant
resp
onsi
bilit
y to
the
teac
hers
. If
it is
true
that
the
teac
her
rem
ains
the
mos
tim
port
ant f
acto
r fo
r in
flue
ncin
g th
eov
eral
l gro
wth
and
dev
elop
men
t of
pupi
ls, i
t is
no w
onde
r th
e pa
rent
s w
ere
extr
emel
y cr
itica
l of
teac
hers
who
are
not c
omm
itted
to th
eir
wor
k an
d w
hodr
ink
and
smok
e in
the
pres
ence
of
thei
r pu
pils
.
Poo
r di
scip
line
at h
ome
Poor
dis
cipl
ine
at h
ome
was
yet
ano
ther
impo
rtan
t fac
tor
cite
d fo
r po
orpe
rson
ality
dev
elop
men
t. T
he m
ajor
ityof
the
part
icip
ants
sai
d th
at in
som
eho
mes
, the
par
ents
pro
vide
littl
e m
oral
guid
ance
to th
eir
child
ren
and
do n
otbo
ther
to in
stil
firm
dis
cipl
ine
in th
em.
The
y le
ave
the
child
ren
to d
o w
hat t
hey
wan
t, in
clud
ing
roam
ing
abou
t in
the
mar
kets
and
sho
ps. T
his
mak
es th
e ch
ildre
nvu
lner
able
to b
ad p
eer
infl
uenc
e an
d ba
d ha
bits
.
The
par
ticip
ants
unde
rsco
red
the
role
of
fath
ers
in th
e m
oral
deve
lopm
ent o
f th
eir
child
ren.
The
ir f
ailu
re to
prov
ide
good
rol
e m
odel
s,gu
idan
ce a
nd c
ouns
ellin
gw
as s
aid
to h
ave
an a
dver
seef
fect
on
the
pers
onal
ityde
velo
pmen
t of
thei
rch
ildre
n, p
artic
ular
ly th
ebo
ys. T
he p
artic
ipan
ts w
ere
very
con
cern
ed a
bout
the
decl
inin
g ro
le o
f fa
ther
s in
prov
idin
g m
oral
gui
danc
efo
r th
eir
child
ren.
The
issu
e of
dis
cipl
inin
g ch
ildre
n ha
sbe
com
e a
seri
ous
prob
lem
for
mos
tpa
rent
s to
day
beca
use
of th
e so
cial
chan
ges
that
hav
e ta
ken
plac
e in
Ken
ya.
Mos
t of
the
pare
nts
have
bee
n ca
ught
up in
the
web
of
cultu
ral t
rans
ition
whe
re th
ere
are
no lo
nger
cle
arly
defi
ned
valu
es a
nd m
oral
cod
es o
fbe
havi
our
that
sho
uld
be in
still
ed in
child
ren
and
youn
g pe
ople
. Lif
esty
les
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 47
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
Fin
divg
s
have
cha
nged
trem
endo
usly
and
som
eof
the
valu
e sy
stem
s th
at g
over
ned
fam
ilies
in th
e tr
aditi
onal
soc
iety
are
no lo
nger
app
licab
le. P
aren
ts a
re to
day
incr
easi
ngly
bei
ng le
ft to
def
ine
thei
row
n va
lue
syst
ems
and
the
mor
al c
odes
of b
ehav
iour
that
they
thin
k ar
e go
odfo
r th
eir
child
ren.
Thi
s is
a d
iffi
cult
task
. In
addi
tion,
dif
fere
nt f
amili
es e
ndup
em
phas
isin
g di
ffer
ent v
alue
s an
dm
oral
cod
es o
f be
havi
our,
a p
ract
ice
that
tend
s to
cau
se c
onfu
sion
for
thei
rch
ildre
n w
hen
they
soc
ialis
e w
ith th
eir
peer
s.0
* N
jeng
a A
& K
abir
u M
(20
01),
In
the
web
of
cultu
ral t
rans
ition
: a tr
acer
stu
dy o
f ch
ildre
n
in E
mbu
Dis
tric
t, K
enya
, Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Dev
elop
men
t: Pr
actic
e an
d R
efle
ctio
ns
No.
14
(see
pag
e 58
).
Ove
r ha
lf th
e C
omm
unity
Mot
hers
gav
eal
trui
stic
rea
sons
as
thei
r m
otiv
e fo
rjo
inin
g th
e Pr
ogra
mm
e, w
ith o
nly
asm
all m
inor
ity g
ivin
g pe
rson
al g
ain
asth
eir
mai
n re
ason
for
join
ing.
Thi
s ne
edto
hel
p ot
hers
app
ears
to b
e ro
oted
incu
lture
, tra
ditio
n an
d in
wor
king
cla
ssex
peri
ence
and
invo
lves
car
ing
base
d on
empa
thy
rath
er th
an o
n do
ing
good
.
The
maj
ority
of
the
Com
mun
ityM
othe
rs w
ere
supp
orte
d in
thei
rvo
lunt
eeri
ng b
y hu
sban
ds, c
hild
ren,
rela
tives
and
fri
ends
who
cou
ld s
ee th
eva
lue
of h
elpi
ng o
ther
s an
d w
ho a
lso
Com
mun
ity M
othe
rsre
tro&
MoH
oy
Thi
s ex
trac
t is
from
a r
epor
t of
a se
ven
year
fol
low
-up
stud
y of
mot
hers
and
child
ren
who
par
ticip
ated
in th
e C
omm
unity
Mot
hers
Pro
gram
me
(cM
P) in
Irel
and.
* T
he C
MP
is a
hom
e vi
sitin
g su
ppor
t pro
gram
me
for
firs
t tim
e (a
nd s
ome
seco
nd ti
me)
par
ents
of
child
ren
aged
0 to
24
mon
ths
who
live
in m
ainl
ydi
sadv
anta
ged
area
s. T
he p
rogr
amm
e ai
ms
to s
uppo
rt a
nd a
id th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
pare
ntin
g sk
ills,
ther
eby
enha
ncin
g pa
rent
s' c
onfi
denc
e an
d se
lf-e
stee
m. I
t is
deliv
ered
by
non-
prof
essi
onal
vol
unte
er m
othe
rs k
now
n as
Com
mun
ity M
othe
rs,
who
are
trai
ned
and
supp
orte
d by
Fam
ily D
evel
opth
ent N
urse
s.
felt
that
the
Com
mun
ity M
othe
r m
ight
have
a n
eed
for
deve
lopi
ng a
n id
entit
you
tsid
e of
the
hom
e. T
he P
rogr
amm
eap
pear
ed to
be
mob
ilisi
ng n
ot o
nly
the
`nat
ural
hel
pers
' but
als
o ne
w h
elpe
rsw
ho, t
hrou
gh th
eir
invo
lvem
ent i
n th
ePr
ogra
mm
e, f
elt c
onfi
dent
abo
utge
tting
invo
lved
in o
ther
com
mun
ityen
deav
ours
.
A n
umbe
r of
Com
mun
ity M
othe
rsm
entio
ned
how
they
fel
t whe
n th
eyw
ere
firs
t tim
e pa
rent
s; th
eyre
mem
bere
d th
e di
ffic
ultie
s th
eyex
peri
ence
d in
bri
ngin
g up
thei
r ow
n
child
ren
and
the
lone
lines
s an
dis
olat
ion
they
had
fel
t at t
his
time.
For
thos
e C
omm
unity
Mot
hers
who
talk
edab
out t
he n
eed
to m
eet p
eopl
e, o
r w
hosa
id th
ey h
ad ti
me
to s
pare
, or
who
iden
tifie
d w
ith th
e ai
ms
of th
ePr
ogra
mm
e, th
ere
was
als
o an
exp
ress
edde
sire
for
inde
pend
ence
that
com
esth
roug
h pa
rtic
ipat
ion
in th
ePr
ogra
mm
e. T
hey
wer
e of
ten
look
ing
for
a se
nse
of p
erso
nal i
dent
ity o
utsi
deof
thei
r ho
me
and
fam
ily, s
o th
atpa
rtic
ipat
ion
coul
d fu
nctio
n as
adi
vers
ion
or a
ther
apy.
As
a pe
rson
with
such
a n
eed
said
,
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 48
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
I w
as b
usy
at h
ome
but I
was
n't
mee
ting
anyb
ody.
My
life
was
n't g
oing
anyw
here
and
I h
ad lo
st m
y se
lf-
conf
iden
ce. I
wan
ted
to m
eet p
eopl
e.
A n
umbe
r of
par
ents
who
had
them
selv
es b
een
visi
ted
late
r be
cam
eC
omm
unity
Mot
hers
bec
ause
they
wer
em
otiv
ated
by
a de
sire
to h
elp
othe
rs in
the
sam
e w
ay th
at th
ey f
elt h
elpe
d. A
son
e su
ch w
oman
com
men
ted:
I ha
d th
e Pr
ogra
mm
e m
ysel
f an
d I
liked
get
ting
prai
se f
or th
e th
ings
I d
idev
en w
hen
nobo
dy e
lse
prai
sed
me.
I de
cide
d th
at o
ther
peo
ple
shou
ld g
etth
e sa
me,
so
the
reas
on I
am
invo
lved
is to
giv
e ba
ck w
hat I
got
out
of
it.
The
Com
mun
ity M
othe
rs s
awth
emse
lves
rel
atin
g to
par
ents
as
`ord
inar
y' w
omen
and
not
as
'min
ipr
ofes
sion
als'
. Bei
ng a
ble
to s
hare
thei
row
n di
ffic
ultie
s in
rea
ring
thei
r ow
nch
ildre
n w
ith th
e Pr
ogra
mm
e pa
rent
sm
ay b
e an
othe
r fa
ctor
in th
ede
velo
pmen
t of
a po
sitiv
e re
latio
nshi
pbe
caus
e C
omm
unity
Mot
hers
, unl
ike
prof
essi
onal
s, d
o no
t hav
e to
rem
ain
obje
ctiv
e w
ith f
amili
es. A
s on
eC
omm
unity
Mot
her
com
men
ted:
You
can
und
erst
and
whe
n th
e m
othe
r
says
, 'I
feel
like
str
angl
ing
her.
' You
can
say,
'Yes
I k
now
. I h
ave
felt
like
that
©m
ysel
f'
Invo
lvem
ent i
n th
e pr
ogra
mm
e af
fect
edth
e C
omm
unity
Mot
hers
in s
ever
alw
ays.
The
y ha
d de
velo
ped
frie
ndsh
ips
with
thei
r co
lleag
ues,
the
soci
al m
ilieu
of th
e pr
ojec
t bei
ng a
sou
rce
of b
enef
it.Fo
r a
min
ority
, the
ir r
elat
ions
hip
with
thei
r hu
sban
d ha
d im
prov
ed, w
ith th
ere
latio
nshi
p no
w b
eing
fel
t to
be m
ore
resp
ectf
ul w
ith m
ore
open
com
mun
icat
ion.
Thr
ee-q
uart
ers
of th
e
Com
mun
ity M
othe
rs s
tate
d th
at th
eir
rela
tions
hip
with
thei
r ch
ildre
n ha
dim
prov
ed b
ecau
se th
ey w
ere
now
mor
eaw
are
of th
eir
child
ren'
s ne
eds,
list
ened
to th
em m
ore,
und
erst
ood
them
bet
ter
and
had
mor
e pa
tienc
e w
ith th
em.
The
maj
ority
of
Com
mun
ity M
othe
rsal
so n
otic
ed d
iffe
renc
es in
them
selv
es,
part
icul
arly
incr
ease
d se
lf-c
onfi
denc
ean
d gr
eate
r se
lf-w
orth
. Thi
s ap
pear
edto
be
rela
ted
to th
e ac
quis
ition
of
new
know
ledg
e an
d th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
soci
ally
use
ful s
kills
. It a
lso
appe
ared
tobe
rel
ated
to th
e ro
le o
f w
omen
inso
ciet
y w
ith h
ouse
wiv
es s
eein
gth
emse
lves
as
havi
ng lo
w s
tatu
s. O
ver
half
sta
ted
that
they
now
fel
t mor
e in
cont
rol o
f th
eir
lives
, tha
t the
y co
uld
now
dea
l with
thos
e in
aut
hori
ty b
ette
rbe
caus
e of
incr
ease
d se
lf-c
onfi
denc
ean
d kn
owle
dge,
and
that
they
fel
t the
yno
w h
ad m
ore
pow
er in
rel
atio
n to
thei
r co
mm
unity
and
they
cou
ldin
flue
nce
the
com
mun
ity in
thei
r ro
leas
a C
omm
unity
Mot
her.
Onl
y a
min
ority
fel
t the
nee
d to
get
invo
lved
inpr
essu
re g
roup
s an
d/or
pol
itica
lor
gani
satio
ns.
The
vol
unte
ers
in th
e Pr
ogra
mm
e ar
eal
l mot
hers
. One
sch
ool o
f th
ough
t see
s
this
as
nega
tive.
The
y w
ould
see
wom
enas
bei
ng a
sked
to s
houl
der
the
mai
nbu
rden
of
care
with
in th
e co
mm
unity
both
as
kin
and
as v
olun
teer
s. O
ther
sw
ould
arg
ue th
at c
omm
unity
act
ion
isan
are
a pa
rtic
ular
ly c
entr
al in
the
stru
ggle
for
wom
en's
em
anci
patio
n an
dw
ould
str
ess
not o
nly
the
poss
ibili
ty o
fac
hiev
ing
spec
ific
targ
ets
but a
lso
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f pr
oces
s. I
n be
com
ing
invo
lved
with
com
mun
ity a
ctio
n,w
omen
beg
in to
cha
lleng
e no
t onl
y th
eso
cial
def
initi
ons
of th
eir
role
but
als
oin
tern
alis
ed p
erce
ptio
ns th
at m
ay s
erve
to li
mit
thei
r se
lf-e
xpec
tatio
ns. S
o it
coul
d be
arg
ued
that
wom
en's
vol
unta
ryac
tion
is m
otiv
ated
by
a fe
min
ist
awar
enes
s an
d is
the
crea
tor
of a
wid
eraw
aren
ess.
0
* M
ollo
y B
(20
02),
Stil
l goi
ng s
tron
g: a
trac
er
stud
y of
the
Com
mun
ity M
othe
rs P
rogr
amm
e,
Dub
lin, I
rela
nd, E
arly
Chi
ldho
od
Dev
elop
men
t: Pr
actic
e an
d R
efle
ctio
ns
No.
17
(see
pag
e 59
).
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 49
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
Find
ings
A y
oung
mot
her
lear
ning
in h
er o
wn
hom
e.
Polic
y C.1
1
prog
ram
min
g
Can
Fol
low
ing
Foot
step
saf
fect
pol
icy?
Rut
h N
I C
ohen
Is it
pos
sibl
e th
at a
stu
dy th
at f
ollo
ws
up f
orm
er p
artic
ipan
ts o
f an
ear
lych
ildho
od p
rogr
amm
e ca
n ha
ve a
nim
pact
on
polic
yw
ithin
its
own
envi
ronm
ent o
r ev
en f
urth
er a
fiel
d?H
ere
we
look
at f
our
exam
ples
that
can
help
us
to u
nder
stan
d th
e re
latio
nshi
psbe
twee
n th
e or
igin
al p
rogr
amm
e, th
ech
oice
s th
at w
ere
mad
e ab
out h
ow to
cond
uct a
stu
dy, d
ecis
ions
abo
ut w
hat
elem
ents
to in
clud
e in
it, a
nd th
eim
pact
that
cou
ld b
e m
ade
on p
olic
y.
Thi
s ar
ticle
was
com
pile
d fr
om in
terv
iew
s an
d co
nver
satio
ns c
ondu
cted
duri
ng th
e Fo
llow
ing
Foot
step
s tr
acer
stu
dies
wor
ksho
p, J
amai
ca, A
pril
2002
.
The
exa
mpl
es a
re f
rom
ver
y di
ffer
ent
setti
ngs,
fro
m v
ery
diff
eren
tpr
ogra
mm
es, a
nd c
once
rn f
our
stud
ies
that
are
ver
y di
ffer
ent f
rom
one
anot
her.
The
re is
the
'gra
nd-d
addy
' of
all E
CD
fol
low
-up
stud
ies,
the
Hig
h/Sc
ope
Perr
y Pr
esch
ool S
tudy
inth
e U
SA th
at is
a lo
ngst
andi
ngra
ndom
ised
con
trol
led
rese
arch
prog
ram
me.
In
Irel
and,
the
follo
w-u
pin
the
Com
mun
ity M
othe
rsPr
ogra
mm
e is
als
o ba
sed
on a
rand
omis
ed c
ontr
ol g
roup
. The
trac
er
stud
y in
Ken
ya w
as la
rge-
scal
e,in
clud
ed a
lmos
t one
thou
sand
chi
ldre
n,an
d us
ed a
com
pari
son
grou
p; w
hile
inB
otsw
ana
the
trac
er s
tudy
sim
ply
follo
wed
up
all t
he c
hild
ren
it co
uld
find
and
, mos
tly b
ecau
se o
f in
adeq
uate
reco
rd k
eepi
ng, w
as m
ore
qual
itativ
eth
an q
uant
itativ
e an
d in
clud
ed n
oco
mpa
riso
n gr
oup.
One
cav
eat o
r w
ord
of w
arni
ng: i
t is
alm
ost i
mpo
ssib
le to
attr
ibut
e ch
ange
sin
loca
l or
natio
nal p
olic
y to
any
one
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 50
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
sing
le c
ause
ther
e ar
e al
way
s ot
her
inte
rven
ing
fact
ors
and
vari
able
s. B
utth
ere
can
be li
ttle
doub
t tha
t in
thre
e of
the
case
s di
scus
sed
here
, the
res
ults
of
the
stud
ies
have
con
trib
uted
to c
hang
esin
thin
king
and
, ver
y po
ssib
ly, t
o sh
ifts
in th
e al
loca
tion
of r
esou
rces
.
USA
:H
igh/
Sco
pe P
erry
Pre
scho
ol S
tudy
Thi
s lo
ngitu
dina
l res
earc
h st
udy
was
,ac
cord
ing
to D
avid
P W
eika
rt:
1. B
reas
t-m
ilk c
omes
free
of c
harg
e.R
emem
ber,
how
ever
, tha
t a b
reas
t-fe
edin
gm
othe
r ne
eds
to k
eep
to a
hea
lthy
diet
.
The
onl
y ex
pens
e I
have
is k
eepi
ng u
pm
y he
alth
y di
et.
Irel
and:
Com
mun
ity M
othe
rs P
rogr
amm
e
Tea
chin
g m
ater
ials
for
prom
otin
g br
east
-fee
ding
.
CPT kite
acc
iden
tal.
We
wer
e se
tting
up
apr
esch
ool p
rogr
amm
e in
196
2 to
fin
dou
t if
it w
ould
mak
e a
diff
eren
ce in
the
lives
of
the
child
ren,
but
ther
e w
ere
loca
l exp
erts
who
fel
t it w
ould
har
mth
e ch
ildre
n an
d th
at w
as th
ech
alle
nge.
Tha
t cha
nged
it f
rom
bei
ngon
ly a
ser
vice
to a
res
earc
hpr
ogra
mm
e. T
here
was
a p
opul
atio
n of
500
fam
ilies
and
we
sele
cted
fro
mth
em d
isad
vant
aged
fam
ilies
who
wer
esu
itabl
e fo
r th
e pr
ogra
mm
e, b
ut th
ere
wer
e to
o m
any
and
we
mad
e a
2. B
reas
t-fe
d ba
bies
tend
to b
e fit
ter
and
heal
thie
r.B
reas
t-m
ilk g
ives
bab
ies
mor
e im
mun
ityfr
om d
isea
se.
rand
om s
elec
tion.
So
we
had
a gr
oup
of p
artic
ipan
ts a
nd a
con
trol
gro
up.
Five
coh
orts
of
child
ren
wer
e fo
llow
edup
fro
m a
ge s
even
and
at i
nter
vals
sin
ceth
e cu
rren
t fol
low
-up
is a
ge 4
0. T
hefi
rst s
tudy
was
on
prog
ram
me
effe
cts
atth
ird
grad
e. W
hen
the
rese
arch
ers
saw
how
man
y di
ffer
ence
s th
ere
wer
ebe
twee
n th
e gr
oups
of
child
ren
(pro
gram
me
and
cont
rol)
, the
obj
ectiv
eof
the
late
r st
udie
s ha
s be
en to
infl
uenc
epo
licy.
3. M
any
mot
hers
find
that
bre
ast-
feed
ing
help
s to
dev
elop
em
otio
nal c
lose
ness
with
thei
r ba
bies
from
an
early
age
.
The
initi
al ta
rget
was
loca
l dec
isio
nm
aker
s an
d H
igh/
Scop
e w
ent d
irec
tly to
loca
l bus
ines
s pe
ople
and
loca
l lea
ders
on th
e pr
emis
e th
at if
they
wer
e in
supp
ort o
f it
that
wou
ld in
flue
nce
polic
y. T
he w
ork
has
had
infl
uenc
e on
loca
l sch
ools
, at s
tate
leve
l, at
nat
iona
lle
vel a
nd b
eyon
d. I
t has
bee
n us
edex
tens
ivel
y to
sup
port
pre
scho
olpr
ogra
mm
es a
t sta
te le
vel,
to ju
stif
yun
iver
sal k
inde
rgar
ten.
In
fact
, it h
asbe
en u
sed
for
man
y pu
rpos
es th
at w
ere
not p
art o
f th
e st
udy,
but
whi
ch a
re
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 51
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
Polic
y
4. B
reas
t-fe
edin
g he
lps
a m
othe
r to
get
back
her
figu
re fo
llow
ing
her
preg
nanc
y.
inte
nded
to im
prov
e op
port
uniti
es f
orch
ildre
n.
Irel
and:
Com
mun
ity M
othe
rsP
rogr
amm
e (c
mP
The
CM
Pis
par
t of
a st
atut
ory
loca
lhe
alth
sys
tem
. At t
he e
nd o
f th
e in
itial
phas
e (1
988
to 1
990)
the
prog
ram
me
com
mis
sion
ed a
n in
depe
nden
t gro
up to
carr
y ou
t a r
ando
mis
ed c
ontr
olle
dst
udy
whe
n th
e ch
ildre
n w
ere
one
year
old.
Res
ults
wer
e en
cour
agin
g:
Polic
ypr
ogra
mm
ing
prog
ram
me
fam
ilies
had
a b
ette
r up
take
of im
mun
isat
ion;
chi
ldre
n an
d fa
mily
had
bette
r di
ets;
mot
hers
' sel
f-es
teem
was
hig
her.
The
obj
ectiv
e ha
d be
en to
find
res
ults
, to
sust
ain
the
prog
ram
me,
not s
o m
uch
to im
pact
pol
icy.
Bre
nda
Mol
loy,
Dir
ecto
r of
the
CM
P,ex
plai
ns:
We
felt
that
the
stud
y w
as im
port
ant
in it
s ow
n ri
ght,
and
we
mad
e an
info
rmed
cho
ice
to p
ublis
h
inte
rnat
iona
lly in
rec
ogni
sed
peer
revi
ewed
jour
nals
. We
did
a fo
llow
-up
whe
n th
e ch
ildre
n w
ere
seve
n ye
ars
old
beca
use
we
wer
e co
nvin
ced
that
rigo
rous
eva
luat
ion
was
impo
rtan
t,an
d w
e w
ante
d to
str
engt
hen
the
orig
inal
fin
ding
s.
By
the
time
the
stud
y' w
as p
ublis
hed
in19
93, p
aren
t sup
port
was
bec
omin
gim
port
ant a
nd f
rom
abo
ut 1
994
the
CM
P st
arte
d to
be
men
tione
d in
pol
icy
docu
men
ts in
Ire
land
. As
Bre
nda
says
:
It w
as a
s if
peo
ple
wer
e be
ginn
ing
toun
ders
tand
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f pe
er-l
edin
terv
entio
n pr
ogra
mm
es. G
radu
ally
we
bega
n to
iden
tify
key
peop
le in
our
syst
em w
ho s
houl
d be
targ
eted
, tho
se
with
res
ourc
es a
nd/o
r in
flue
nce.
I be
gan
to m
eet t
hem
, to
conv
erse
with
them
reg
ular
ly. I
als
o be
cam
e m
ore
stra
tegi
c in
pre
sent
ing
thin
gs to
peo
ple,
not j
ust s
endi
ng th
em r
epor
ts o
npa
per.
The
pro
gram
me
was
als
o be
ing
men
tione
d in
tern
atio
nally
thro
ugh
wri
te-u
ps in
the
med
ia, a
nd w
asin
flue
ncin
g po
licy
furt
her
afie
ld. B
rend
are
calls
a v
isit
from
a lo
cal o
ffic
ial w
hoha
d go
ne to
Aus
tral
ia to
fin
d ou
t abo
utea
rly
child
hood
pro
gram
mes
and
car
ean
d su
ppor
t and
had
bee
n to
ld, '
I th
ink
you
need
to g
o ho
me:
As
she
says
'It w
ason
ly b
y go
ing
outs
ide
that
he
real
ised
he
had
som
ethi
ng o
n hi
s ow
n do
orst
ep.
Ken
ya: E
mbu
Dis
tric
t Cen
tre
for
Ear
lyC
hild
hood
Edu
catio
n
The
stu
dy in
Em
bu D
istr
ict p
ropo
sed
tofi
nd o
ut w
heth
er th
ere
wer
e di
ffer
ence
sbe
twee
n ch
ildre
n w
ho h
ad b
een
care
dfo
r in
pre
scho
ols
with
trai
ned
teac
hers
and
child
ren
who
had
bee
n w
ithun
trai
ned
teac
hers
. Thr
ee c
ohor
ts w
ere
trac
ed s
even
, eig
ht a
nd n
ine
year
s af
ter
leav
ing
pres
choo
l, in
18
scho
ols.
Som
edi
ffer
ence
s w
ere
foun
d bu
t, as
Ann
eN
jeng
a, th
e le
ad r
esea
rche
r sa
ys:
We
have
lear
ned
we
mus
t im
prov
e ou
rpr
imar
y sc
hool
s, w
e m
ust i
mpr
ove
tran
sitio
n fr
om p
resc
hool
to p
rim
ary
scho
ol, a
nd it
is ti
me
that
we
addr
ess
this
issu
e of
wha
t mak
es a
qua
lity
prim
ary
scho
ol. T
he p
robl
em is
that
mos
t of
the
pare
nts
reco
gnis
e th
epr
oble
ms
but c
an't
do a
nyth
ing
abou
t it.
The
teac
hers
kno
w v
ery
little
abo
utth
e ch
ildre
n, m
aybe
the
head
teac
her
thin
ks h
e kn
ows
a lo
t, bu
t whe
n w
eca
me
up w
ith f
igur
es o
f re
petit
ion
and
drop
-out
rat
es, m
ost o
f th
em w
ere
shoc
ked,
they
nev
er k
new
, the
y sa
wch
ildre
n as
fig
ures
, as
num
bers
, no-
one
ever
ask
ed h
ow m
any
of th
ech
ildre
n in
cla
ss 1
in 1
990
are
incl
ass
8 ei
ght y
ears
late
rno
-one
knew
that
.
Onl
y w
hen
we
cam
e up
with
our
repo
rt th
ey s
aid,
'I th
ink
we
have
tost
art t
alki
ng w
ith o
ne a
noth
er, t
o tr
yto
eva
luat
e.' S
o st
udie
s lik
e th
is c
an b
eve
ry u
sefu
l.
Ann
e kn
ows
why
the
teac
hers
,ed
ucat
ion
offi
cers
and
com
mun
ities
are
taki
ng n
otic
e of
the
resu
lts. I
t is
beca
use
the
rese
arch
ers
ensu
red
that
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 52
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
com
mun
ities
wer
e aw
are
of th
e st
udy
and
why
it w
as b
eing
don
e, a
s w
ere
the
dist
rict
adm
inis
trat
ors
so th
at w
hen
the
rese
arch
ers
wen
t bac
k:
The
y kn
ow a
bout
it. W
e ha
ve b
een
able
to d
isse
min
ate
the
resu
lts a
nd it
has
been
acc
epte
d be
caus
e th
ey k
new
abou
t it f
rom
the
begi
nnin
g. T
hat i
sa
very
impo
rtan
t asp
ect o
f po
licy
chan
ge.
Bot
swan
a: B
okam
oso
Pre
scho
olP
rogr
amm
e
The
ori
gina
l tra
cer
stud
y2 w
as c
arri
edou
t 199
3-19
95 a
nd f
ollo
wed
up
all t
heSa
n ch
ildre
n w
ho h
ad b
een
to th
eB
okam
oso
pres
choo
ls w
ho c
ould
be
foun
d. T
he o
bjec
tive
had
been
to a
sses
san
d im
prov
e th
e pr
ogra
mm
e, n
ot to
impa
ct p
olic
y, b
ut th
e re
sults
sho
wed
that
ther
e w
ere
seve
ral a
spec
ts o
f th
epr
imar
y sc
hool
sys
tem
that
nee
ded
atte
ntio
n. H
owev
er, a
ccor
ding
toW
illem
ien
le R
oux
and
Gao
latlh
eE
iren
e T
hupe
, the
rep
ort h
as n
ever
mad
e an
impa
ct in
term
s of
pol
icy,
even
thou
gh it
was
sen
t to
all t
hepe
ople
they
kne
w w
ho w
ere
invo
lved
in e
duca
tion.
The
re s
eem
to b
e a
num
ber
of r
easo
nsfo
r th
is. F
or o
ne th
ing,
aft
er s
endi
ng th
ere
port
to o
ffic
ials
, the
y ne
ver
follo
wed
that
up
with
per
sona
l com
mun
icat
ions
or v
isits
. For
ano
ther
, the
stu
dy h
adne
ver
been
off
icia
lly s
anct
ione
d. I
t was
Will
emie
n w
ho f
ound
out
the
mai
nre
ason
:
It w
as a
t a d
ance
and
I w
as d
anci
ngw
ith a
hig
h-ra
nkin
g go
vern
men
tof
fici
al w
ho to
ld m
e th
e go
vern
men
tw
ould
nev
er ta
ke th
e st
udy
seri
ousl
y'b
ecau
se y
ou d
id n
ot f
ollo
w th
eco
mm
unic
atio
ns c
hann
els
for
com
mun
ities
set
up
by th
ego
vern
men
t. So
the
repo
rt w
as r
ejec
ted
beca
use
of th
e w
ay w
e un
dert
ook
the
rese
arch
. Yet
we
knew
that
if th
e
peop
le h
ad b
een
aske
d in
the
offi
cial
way
, we
wou
ld n
ever
hav
e be
en a
ble
toC
rliv
get t
he d
ata
we
requ
ired
. The
less
on
we
have
lear
ned
from
this
is th
at, i
f w
ew
ante
d to
do
anot
her
stud
y, w
e w
ould
need
to d
o it
in p
aral
lel w
ith o
ffic
ial
proc
edur
es.
The
'mag
ic' i
ngre
dien
t
Perh
aps
the
mos
t im
port
ant l
esso
n to
be le
arne
d he
re is
that
, if
we
wis
h to
infl
uenc
e po
licy,
the
orig
inal
prog
ram
me
mus
t be
stro
ng a
nd o
f go
odqu
ality
, and
the
rese
arch
pro
cess
nee
dsto
be
tran
spar
ent a
s w
ell a
s ri
goro
usw
hich
is n
ot n
eces
sari
ly th
e sa
me
asac
adem
ical
ly r
espe
ctab
le.
The
impo
rtan
ce o
f kn
owin
g th
e ri
ght
peop
le to
app
roac
h, a
nd th
e ri
ght w
ays
of a
ppro
achi
ng th
em c
anno
t be
unde
rest
imat
ed.
And
then
ther
e is
the
mat
ter
of f
igur
es.
Ann
e N
jeng
a be
lieve
s th
at:
As
you
do r
esea
rch
you
have
to b
e ve
ryfl
exib
le, t
here
are
issu
es th
at y
ou h
ave
to c
aptu
re if
you
are
goi
ng to
con
vinc
epe
ople
. You
hav
e to
hav
e fi
gure
s. W
e
trac
ed th
e ch
ildre
n fo
r ni
ne y
ears
so
they
cou
ld s
ee h
ow a
ttend
ance
and
resu
lts w
ent d
own
and
dow
n. I
f yo
udi
d it
for
just
one
yea
r I
don'
t thi
nkyo
u co
uld
conv
ince
them
.
For
Dav
id W
eika
rt a
nd B
rend
a M
ollo
y,th
e fi
gure
s ar
e D
olla
rs a
nd E
uros
. In
fact
, Dav
id s
ays
that
:
If th
ere
can
be s
aid
to b
e on
e 'm
agic
'in
gred
ient
that
has
infl
uenc
ed p
olic
y,it
has
been
the
cost
-ben
efit
stud
y of
the
Hig
h/Sc
ope
Perr
y Pr
esch
ool S
tudy
.
(3,
Irel
and:
Com
mun
ity M
othe
rs P
rogr
amm
e
-fa
,-E
ttf:
Eve
ryon
e ha
s w
arm
fee
lings
abo
utch
ildre
n, b
ut b
ecau
se w
e tr
acke
d th
emov
er th
e ye
ars,
we
coul
d ca
lcul
ate
the
cost
s of
wha
t had
hap
pene
d to
them
scho
ol, w
elfa
re, p
riso
n sy
stem
, ext
ra
serv
ices
and
show
the
diff
eren
ces
betw
een
the
two
grou
ps in
the
stud
y.
As
in th
eU
SA
,in
Ire
land
peo
ple
wan
t to
see
valu
e fo
r m
oney
. Bre
nda
has
give
npr
esen
tatio
ns o
n th
e co
sts
of th
epr
ogra
mm
e w
hich
hav
e he
lped
peo
ple
to u
nder
stan
d th
at 'I
t doe
s no
t tak
e a
huge
am
ount
of
mon
ey to
pro
vide
this
supp
ort:
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 53
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
I
Bot
h of
them
agr
ee th
at y
ou c
anno
tca
lcul
ate
all t
he h
idde
n co
sts,
suc
h as
the
cost
s of
vol
unte
ers.
But
Dav
id's
advi
ce is
that
if y
ou w
ant t
o do
a c
osts
anal
ysis
then
use
an
econ
omis
t: so
me
ofth
is w
ork
is 'M
ore
com
plex
than
ahu
man
min
d ca
n ca
lcul
ate.
0no
tes
1. J
ohns
on Z
, How
ell F
& M
ollo
y B
(19
93),
'Com
mun
ity M
othe
rs P
rogr
amm
e: r
ando
-
mis
ed c
ontr
olle
d tr
ial o
f no
n-pr
ofes
sion
al
inte
rven
tion
in p
aren
ting'
in B
ritis
h M
edic
al
Jour
nal,
Vol
. 306
, pp
1449
-52.
2. S
ee p
age
22, '
The
sto
ry b
ehin
d th
e st
ory:
trac
ing
San
child
ren
in B
otsw
ana'
.
Polic
ypr
ogra
mm
ing
CA
The
impl
icat
ions
of t
race
r st
udie
s fo
rpr
ogra
mm
ede
velo
pmen
tlie
nTie
tte H
eim
gaer
tner
The
aut
hor
is a
Pro
gram
me
Spec
ialis
t at t
he B
erna
rd v
an L
eer
Foun
datio
n, w
ith r
espo
nsib
ility
for
dev
elop
ing
prog
ram
mes
of
supp
ort f
or e
arly
child
hood
pro
ject
s in
a n
umbe
r of
cou
ntri
es in
bot
h C
entr
al a
nd W
este
rn E
urop
e. I
n th
is a
rtic
le, s
he g
ives
two
exam
ples
of
how
trac
er s
tudi
es a
llow
us to
und
erst
and
mor
e ab
out h
ow p
roje
cts
impa
ct o
ver
time
on c
hild
ren
and
othe
r pa
rtic
ipan
ts, a
nd th
ereb
y he
lp u
s to
impr
ove
proj
ect d
esig
n by
linki
ng it
to lo
nger
term
out
com
es.
Dev
elop
ing
a pr
ogra
mm
e of
ear
lych
ildho
od p
roje
cts
that
aim
to e
nhan
ceyo
ung
child
ren'
s ch
ance
s to
suc
ceed
inlif
e is
a c
ompl
ex, n
on-l
inea
r an
ddy
nam
ic p
roce
ss th
at in
volv
es a
var
iety
of f
acto
rs. T
hese
incl
ude:
the
expl
orat
ion
of li
fe c
ircu
mst
ance
sof
chi
ldre
n an
d fa
mili
es;
need
s an
alys
es;
the
avai
labi
lity
and
qual
ity o
f E
CD
and
fam
ily s
uppo
rt s
ervi
ces;
the
soci
al c
limat
e fo
r ch
ildre
n an
dfa
mili
es;
the
avai
labi
lity
of r
esea
rch
find
ings
on in
nova
tive
and
effe
ctiv
e co
ncep
tsan
d pr
actic
es;
the
orga
nisa
tiona
l and
out
reac
hca
paci
ties
of lo
cal p
artn
eror
gani
satio
ns; a
ndth
e op
port
uniti
es to
infl
uenc
e po
licy.
Dur
ing
the
proc
ess
of p
rogr
amm
ede
velo
pmen
t, w
e ob
viou
sly
have
tom
ake
man
y de
cisi
ons
and
stra
tegi
cch
oice
s an
d to
do
so w
e ne
edin
form
atio
n. H
ere,
the
find
ings
of
trac
er s
tudi
es h
ave
a sp
ecia
l im
port
ance
beca
use
they
add
new
fac
tors
to d
o w
ithim
pact
ove
r tim
e, a
nd b
ecau
se th
ey h
elp
to s
how
how
pro
gram
min
g ca
n ta
keth
ese
new
fac
tors
into
acc
ount
. Thi
sar
ticle
ana
lyse
s th
e fi
ndin
gs o
f fi
ve o
fth
e tr
acer
stu
dies
usi
ng th
e le
ns o
fpr
ogra
mm
e de
velo
pmen
t. It
isor
gani
sed
arou
nd tw
o 'p
rogr
amm
atic
land
mar
ks' t
hat t
he tr
acer
stu
dies
high
light
. Pro
gram
mat
ic la
ndm
arks
are
esse
ntia
lly ti
min
gs o
r op
port
uniti
es th
atth
e tr
acer
stu
dies
sho
w to
be
espe
cial
lysi
gnif
ican
t if
proj
ects
are
to b
e ef
fect
ive.
The
two
exam
ples
dis
cuss
ed h
ere
are:
the
mos
t opp
ortu
ne ti
me
to o
ffer
supp
ort f
or p
aren
ts; a
nd th
e tim
e of
tran
sitio
n fr
om p
resc
hool
to p
rim
ary
scho
ol.
Pro
gram
mat
ic la
ndm
ark
1:th
e ke
y tim
e fo
r pa
rent
sup
port
Pare
nt s
uppo
rt a
nd p
aren
ting
prog
ram
mes
are
com
mon
fea
ture
s in
proj
ects
that
the
Foun
datio
n su
ppor
ts.
Rev
iew
ing
the
proj
ects
that
we
supp
ort
show
s th
at s
ome
focu
s on
par
entin
g at
the
time
that
par
ents
are
pre
pari
ng f
orth
e bi
rth
of th
eir
firs
t chi
ld; s
ome
onte
enag
ers
who
will
be
pare
nts
in th
efu
ture
, and
may
be
prep
arin
g fo
rm
arri
age;
and
som
e on
par
ents
at t
hetim
e w
hen
thei
r ch
ildre
n en
ter
dayc
are
or p
resc
hool
.
Ber
nard
Yon
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 54
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
Thr
ee tr
acer
stu
dies
look
ed a
t the
impa
ct o
f pr
ojec
ts th
at f
ocus
ed o
npa
rent
ing,
one
eac
h fr
om J
amai
ca,
Irel
and
and
Tri
nida
d. T
he p
roje
cts
cent
red
resp
ectiv
ely
on te
enag
em
othe
rs, f
irst
tim
e m
othe
rs a
ndte
enag
ers
who
wer
e ye
t to
beco
me
pare
nts.
All
thre
e pr
ogra
mm
esem
bark
ed o
n a
com
preh
ensi
ve tr
aini
ngpr
ogra
mm
e fo
r m
othe
rs a
nd f
utur
epa
rent
s; a
nd th
is e
ncom
pass
ed n
ot o
nly
info
rmat
ion
on c
hild
rear
ing
and
child
deve
lopm
ent i
ssue
s, b
ut a
lso
life
and
pers
onal
ski
lls. I
n ad
ditio
n, th
e pr
ojec
tsin
Jam
aica
and
Tri
nida
d in
clud
edvo
catio
nal t
rain
ing;
whi
le in
the
case
of
Irel
and,
man
y m
othe
rs w
ent o
n to
furt
her
prof
essi
onal
trai
ning
as
a re
sult
of th
eir
invo
lvem
ent i
n th
e pr
ogra
mm
e.A
ll th
ree
prog
ram
mes
use
d no
n-
dire
ctiv
e, e
mpo
wer
ing
way
s of
prog
ram
me
deliv
ery;
and
all
thre
epr
ovid
ed a
ran
ge o
f op
tions
for
prog
ram
me
part
icip
ants
rat
her
than
inst
ruct
ing
them
on
wha
t to
do a
ndho
w to
beh
ave.
In
addi
tion,
the
prog
ram
mes
rei
nfor
ced
the
exis
ting
stre
ngth
s of
par
ticip
ants
and
this
led
to s
usta
ined
life
man
agem
ent s
kills
and
posi
tive
pare
ntin
g be
havi
our.
Goo
d se
lf-e
stee
m, p
ositi
ve a
ttitu
des
and
purp
ose
in li
fe, g
ood
com
mun
icat
ion
skill
s an
d en
gage
men
tw
ith a
nd f
or th
e co
mm
unity
: the
sese
em to
be
esse
ntia
l qua
litie
s fo
rsu
cces
sful
ly r
aisi
ng c
hild
ren.
The
Jam
aica
n st
udy
is th
e m
ost o
utsp
oken
on th
ese
notio
ns, d
raw
ing
as it
doe
s on
the
mot
her-
child
rel
atio
nshi
p, h
owch
ildre
n en
gage
d w
ith th
eir
peer
s, a
ndth
eir
attit
udes
to s
choo
ling
and
scho
olac
hiev
emen
t. In
tere
stin
gly,
pro
gram
me
outc
omes
wer
e no
t lim
ited
to th
ech
ildre
n di
rect
ly in
volv
ed in
the
prog
ram
me
but e
xten
ded
to a
llsu
bseq
uent
chi
ldre
n of
mot
hers
enro
lled
in th
e pr
ogra
mm
e. I
nad
ditio
n, th
e pr
ogra
mm
e le
d to
few
ersi
blin
gs in
the
case
of
Jam
aica
and
poss
ibly
als
o in
the
case
of
Tri
nida
d,al
thou
gh th
e di
ffer
ence
s be
twee
n th
e
01 ,7)
prog
ram
me
and
the
com
pari
son
grou
pw
ere
not a
s m
arke
d he
re a
s in
Jam
aica
.
Ove
rall,
the
find
ings
indi
cate
that
inve
stm
ent i
n yo
ung
or f
utur
e pa
rent
spa
ys o
ff a
nd, e
ven
mor
e im
port
ant,
that
bene
fits
are
sus
tain
ed w
ell i
nto
the
seco
ndar
y sc
hool
yea
rs o
f th
e ch
ildre
n.In
per
sona
l ter
ms,
enr
olm
ent i
n ea
ch o
fth
e pr
ogra
mm
es w
as a
cru
cial
turn
ing
poin
t in
the
lives
of
man
y of
the
youn
gpa
rent
s:
It w
as th
e be
st th
ing
that
hap
pene
d to
me
... li
fe w
as n
ot a
t an
end
(a te
enag
e m
othe
r fr
om J
amai
ca)
If th
e pr
ogra
mm
e w
as n
ot th
ere,
I d
ono
t kno
w h
ow I
wou
ld b
e lo
okin
g at
life
toda
y
(a p
artic
ipan
t fro
m T
rini
dad)
I lik
ed g
ettin
g pr
aise
for
the
thin
gs I
did
even
whe
n no
body
els
e pr
aise
d m
e(a
pro
gram
me
mot
her
turn
edC
omm
unity
Mot
her
from
Ire
land
)
Giv
en s
uch
clea
r, p
ositi
ve a
nd la
stin
gou
tcom
es, i
t is
impo
rtan
t for
us
in th
eFo
unda
tion
to ta
ke a
clo
ser
look
at
com
pone
nts
such
as
the
stru
ctur
e,co
nten
t, im
plem
enta
tion
and
timel
ines
of th
e pr
ojec
ts. I
n Ir
elan
d, o
utco
mes
wer
e ac
hiev
ed o
n th
e b4
sis
of a
max
imum
of
12 o
ne h
our
visi
ts in
the
year
aft
er th
e ba
by's
bir
th. M
oreo
ver,
the
prog
ram
me
used
vol
unte
er w
omen
from
the
com
mun
ity f
or p
rogr
amm
ede
liver
y w
ho w
ere
supp
orte
d by
a s
mal
lte
am o
f co
mm
unity
nur
ses.
In
Jam
aica
,te
enag
e m
othe
rs w
ere
enro
lled
in th
epr
ogra
mm
e fo
r ap
prox
imat
ely
18m
onth
s, w
hich
incl
uded
thei
rpr
egna
ncy
and
a tw
o-m
onth
bre
ak a
fter
the
birt
h. W
hile
the
mot
hers
wer
efo
llow
ing
thei
r co
urse
wor
k, th
e ba
bies
wer
e in
a d
ayca
re p
rovi
sion
sta
ffed
with
care
give
rs tr
aine
d by
the
prog
ram
me.
In
Tri
nida
d, th
e ad
oles
cent
trai
ning
prog
ram
me
last
ed f
or 1
4 w
eeks
, usu
ally
follo
wed
by
a vo
catio
nal s
kills
trai
ning
prog
ram
me.
Wha
t see
ms
to h
ave
been
sign
ific
ant w
as n
ot s
o m
uch
the
dura
tion
of th
e in
terv
entio
n, b
utch
oosi
ng th
e ri
ght t
ime.
Thi
s ap
pear
s to
be w
hen
new
par
ents
are
hav
ing,
or
are
abou
t to
have
thei
r fi
rst c
hild
.
Pro
gram
mat
ic la
ndm
ark
2:
the
cont
inuu
m b
etw
een
pres
choo
l and
prim
ary
scho
ol
The
cre
atio
n of
, and
sup
port
to, q
ualit
ypr
esch
ool s
ervi
ces
has
been
one
of
the
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 55
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
mai
nsta
ys o
f th
e Fo
unda
tion'
spr
ogra
mm
ing
over
the
year
s, f
requ
ently
conc
entr
atin
g on
hel
ping
cou
ntri
es,
regi
ons
and
com
mun
ities
to b
uild
up
pres
choo
l ser
vice
s fr
om s
crat
ch. O
ne k
eyco
ncep
t her
e is
chi
ld-c
entr
ed le
arni
ngth
at e
ncom
pass
es s
ocia
l and
em
otio
nal
deve
lopm
ent a
long
with
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f co
gniti
ve tr
aini
ng. I
nad
ditio
n, p
rinc
iple
s of
edu
catio
n fo
rdi
vers
ity in
form
pro
ject
s th
at s
erve
popu
latio
ns w
hich
incl
ude
mig
rant
child
ren;
whi
le p
roje
cts
also
pro
vide
cultu
rally
sen
sitiv
e fa
cilit
ies
for
child
ren
who
are
mem
bers
of
min
ority
gro
ups.
In m
any
way
s, tw
o pr
ojec
tson
e fr
omB
otsw
ana
and
one
from
Ken
yaar
e
repr
esen
tativ
e of
the
kind
s of
pre
scho
olpr
ogra
mm
ing
that
fit
the
Foun
datio
n's
appr
oach
es a
nd a
spir
atio
ns. T
race
rst
udie
s in
thes
e pr
ojec
ts lo
oked
into
the
impa
ct o
f pr
esch
ool e
duca
tion
by tr
acin
gch
ildre
n du
ring
thei
r pr
imar
y sc
hool
year
s, r
evie
win
g no
t jus
t pri
mar
y sc
hool
perf
orm
ance
, but
als
o th
e w
ays
in w
hich
child
ren
wer
e de
velo
ping
as
peop
le. I
n
both
cas
es w
e ca
n se
e th
at c
hild
ren
foun
d th
e tr
ansi
tion
from
pre
scho
ol to
prim
ary
scho
ol d
iffi
cult,
and
that
this
resu
lted
in a
bsen
teei
sm a
nd s
omet
imes
high
dro
pout
and
rep
etiti
on r
ates
.
prog
ram
min
g
cJ
Trin
idad
& T
obag
o: C
hild
Wel
fare
Lea
gue
The
Pre
side
nt o
f the
Chi
ld W
elfa
re L
eagu
e ho
ldin
g a
baby
at t
he P
ort o
f Spa
in c
entr
e.
Why
was
this
so?
Wha
t was
hap
peni
ng?
It's
ver
y cl
ear
that
lear
ning
met
hods
inpr
esch
ools
took
the
deve
lopm
ent o
fch
ildre
n in
to a
ccou
nt; t
hat t
he p
hysi
cal
envi
ronm
ents
allo
wed
for
mov
emen
t,pl
ay a
nd q
uiet
act
iviti
es; a
nd th
atpr
esch
ool t
each
ers
wer
e tr
aine
d to
prov
ide
a ca
ring
, saf
e an
d st
imul
atin
gen
viro
nmen
t for
chi
ldre
n. A
lso,
ther
ew
as s
pace
for
par
ents
to b
e in
volv
ed a
ndpa
rent
s su
ppor
ted
the
pres
choo
ls in
man
y pr
actic
al w
ays,
not
just
by
payi
ngfe
es. C
hild
ren
com
ing
from
this
sor
t of
back
grou
nd f
ound
it h
ard
to c
ope
with
form
al, s
tiff
lear
ning
env
iron
men
ts a
ndth
e ha
rsh
disc
iplin
e th
at w
as a
t tim
esex
erci
sed
by p
rim
ary
scho
ol te
ache
rs.
Thi
s w
as e
xace
rbat
ed b
y a
lack
of
lear
ning
mat
eria
ls, e
spec
ially
thos
e in
the
mot
her
tong
ue o
f th
e ch
ildre
n.Pr
esch
ools
oft
en h
ad o
ther
adv
anta
ges
over
pri
mar
y sc
hool
s as
wel
lfo
rex
ampl
e, th
at p
resc
hool
teac
hers
wer
ere
crui
ted
from
the
child
ren'
s ow
nco
mm
uniti
es a
nd th
at th
e ho
me
lang
uage
of
the
child
ren
was
usu
ally
spok
en. I
ncon
tras
t, pr
imar
y sc
hool
sus
ed th
e la
ngua
ge o
f th
e m
ajor
itypo
pula
tion.
The
con
sequ
ence
was
that
child
ren
tran
sfer
ring
to p
rim
ary
scho
olex
peri
ence
d fa
ilure
in th
e fi
rst o
rse
cond
gra
de in
Bot
swan
a, a
nd in
the
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 56
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
four
th g
rade
in K
enya
the
time
whe
nE
nglis
h be
com
es th
e la
ngua
ge o
fin
stru
ctio
n.
Inte
rest
ingl
y, a
par
ticip
ant a
t the
Follo
win
g Fo
otst
eps
trac
er s
tudi
esw
orks
hop
in J
amai
ca p
ortr
ayed
asi
mila
r si
tuat
ion
in I
ndia
:
In th
e cr
eche
s an
d pr
esch
ools
, the
child
ren
real
ly f
eel t
hat t
hey
are
love
d,th
at th
eir
teac
hers
car
e, th
ey a
re f
rom
the
sam
e co
mm
unity
. In
the
prim
ary
scho
ol th
e te
ache
rs a
re n
ot f
rom
thei
rco
mm
unity
, som
e ch
ildre
n su
rviv
e th
epr
imar
y sy
stem
, the
one
s w
ho g
et s
ome
rein
forc
emen
t.
Mor
eove
r, p
artic
ular
ly in
the
case
of
min
ority
chi
ldre
n, th
e di
ffer
ent c
ultu
ral
back
grou
nd o
f th
e pr
imar
y sc
hool
teac
hers
was
the
sour
ce o
f m
any
mis
unde
rsta
ndin
gs a
nd f
rust
ratio
ns f
orch
ildre
n an
d pa
rent
s al
ike.
Thi
s is
mos
tev
iden
t in
the
case
of
the
San
child
ren.
The
Min
istr
y of
Edu
catio
n of
Bot
swan
ade
ploy
ed p
rim
ary
scho
ol te
ache
rs to
wor
k in
San
set
tlem
ents
. The
y re
ceiv
edno
pri
or tr
aini
ng in
min
ority
lang
uage
s, c
ultu
ral k
now
ledg
e, th
elif
esty
le o
f ch
ildre
n or
chi
ldre
arin
gpr
actic
es a
nd th
is h
ad s
erio
us
repe
rcus
sion
s on
the
rete
ntio
n ra
tes
ofSa
n ch
ildre
n in
sch
ool.
One
exa
mpl
ece
ntre
s on
the
stat
us o
f th
e ch
ild in
the
San
cultu
re: S
an c
hild
ren
are
brou
ght
up a
s eq
ual t
o ad
ults
, hen
ce p
aren
tsra
rely
res
ort t
o co
rpor
al p
unis
hmen
t,ye
t phy
sica
l for
ms
of p
unis
hmen
t wer
ew
ides
prea
d in
the
Bot
swan
a sc
hool
syst
em. A
sec
ond
exam
ple
cent
res
onth
e fa
ct th
at p
rim
ary
scho
ol te
ache
rsdi
d no
t spe
ak th
e m
othe
r to
ngue
of
the
child
ren.
Thi
s m
ade
child
ren
(and
thei
rpa
rent
s) f
eel t
hat t
he S
an c
ultu
re w
asno
t val
ued
by th
e te
ache
rs a
nd a
lso
resu
lted
in te
ache
rs u
sing
phy
sica
lpu
nish
men
t as
a w
ay to
dis
cipl
ine
child
ren.
The
atti
tude
s of
som
ete
ache
rs m
ay a
lso
have
exa
cerb
ated
the
prob
lem
: wor
king
in m
inor
ity s
ettin
gsw
ith c
hild
ren
they
reg
arde
d as
infe
rior
was
oft
en s
een
as d
emot
ion
by te
ache
rs.
Thi
s le
d to
dis
crim
inat
ion
and
a lo
ss o
fm
otiv
atio
n, e
xpre
ssed
as
a w
ish
to b
epo
sted
els
ewhe
re a
s so
on a
s th
eop
port
unity
aro
se.
The
pro
blem
of
easy
and
eff
ectiv
etr
ansi
tion
mig
ht s
eem
to b
e ea
sed
inth
ose
coun
trie
s w
here
pre
scho
ols
and
prim
ary
scho
ols
are
hous
ed in
the
sam
eco
mpo
und,
but
this
app
aren
tly d
oes
not
nece
ssar
ily f
oste
r co
oper
atio
n be
twee
n
C.1
11
00
pres
choo
l and
pri
mar
y sc
hool
teac
hers
.T
here
oft
en s
eem
s to
be
an in
abili
ty o
nth
e pa
rt o
f te
ache
rs a
nd s
choo
lad
min
istr
ator
s to
bui
ld b
ridg
es b
etw
een
pre
and
prim
ary
scho
ols,
to ta
ke th
ebe
st o
f bo
th a
nd d
evis
e tr
ansi
tions
that
ensu
re th
at th
e ga
ins
youn
g ch
ildre
nm
ake
in p
resc
hool
are
bui
lt on
inpr
imar
y sc
hool
. On
the
posi
tive
side
,ex
ampl
es f
rom
pro
gram
mes
els
ewhe
resu
gges
t tha
t par
ents
who
hav
e be
enin
volv
ed in
the
pres
choo
l yea
rs o
f th
eir
child
ren
have
suc
cess
fully
insi
sted
that
the
best
pra
ctic
es in
pre
scho
ols
are
inco
rpor
ated
into
the
prim
ary
scho
ol s
yste
m.
But
, as
thes
e tw
o tr
acer
stu
dies
sho
w,
man
y of
the
inve
stm
ents
in th
e qu
ality
of p
resc
hool
edu
catio
n an
d in
the
trai
ning
of
pres
choo
l tea
cher
s ca
n co
unt
for
little
as
child
ren
mov
e in
to p
rim
ary
scho
ol. B
oth
stud
ies
foun
d a
posi
tive
corr
elat
ion
betw
een
the
trai
ning
of
pres
choo
l tea
cher
s an
d th
e qu
ality
of
pres
choo
l edu
catio
n, b
ut in
vest
men
t in
pres
choo
l tra
inin
g do
es n
ot g
uara
ntee
sust
aine
d sc
hool
ach
ieve
men
t for
child
ren.
A k
ey f
acto
r he
re is
the
over
all
qual
ity o
f th
e pr
imar
y sc
hool
envi
ronm
ent:
the
com
mitm
ent a
nd s
kill
of th
e di
rect
or o
f th
e pr
imar
y sc
hool
appe
ared
to p
lay
an im
port
ant r
ole
inde
fini
ng th
e ac
adem
ic s
tand
ing
of th
esc
hool
and
in th
e pr
ovis
ion
of a
nen
ablin
g le
arni
ng e
nvir
onm
ent f
orch
ildre
n. A
sec
ond
key
fact
or is
appr
opri
ate
trai
ning
for
pri
mar
y sc
hool
teac
hers
so
that
they
rec
ogni
se th
eco
ntin
uing
impo
rtan
ce o
f ch
ild-c
entr
edap
proa
ches
and
met
hods
. Wha
t is
clea
ris
that
, to
sust
ain
the
effe
cts
ofpr
esch
ool e
duca
tion
thro
ugho
ut th
epr
imar
y sc
hool
yea
rs a
nd o
n in
tofu
rthe
r sc
hool
ing,
nee
ds b
oth
a w
ell-
run
scho
ol a
nd w
ell-
trai
ned
teac
hers
.
The
less
ons
we
can
draw
for
prog
ram
me
deve
lopm
ent a
re th
at1.
the
pres
choo
l and
pri
mar
y sc
hool
year
s ha
ve to
be
expe
rien
ced
as a
cont
inuu
m b
y ch
ildre
n;2.
trai
ning
for
ear
ly y
ears
teac
hing
mus
tal
so in
clud
e pr
imar
y sc
hool
teac
hers
,w
hile
spe
cial
man
ager
ial a
ndpe
dago
gic
trai
ning
nee
ds to
be
prov
ided
for
hea
d te
ache
rs/s
choo
ldi
rect
ors;
3. a
n in
trod
uctio
n to
the
lang
uage
of
the
prim
ary
scho
ol m
ust s
tart
dur
ing
the
pres
choo
l yea
rs s
o th
at c
hild
ren
have
a g
ood
gras
p of
the
maj
ority
lang
uage
whe
n th
ey e
nter
the
new
scho
ol s
yste
m;
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 57
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
Polic
ypr
ogra
mm
ing
4. li
kew
ise,
the
prim
ary
scho
ol m
ust
ensu
re li
tera
cy in
bot
h th
e ch
ildre
n's
mot
her
tong
ue a
nd th
e la
ngua
ge o
fth
e m
ajor
ity p
opul
atio
n; a
nd5.
the
cultu
ral v
alue
s an
d pr
actic
es o
fm
inor
ity g
roup
s m
ust b
e in
trod
uced
into
the
curr
icul
um o
f th
e pr
imar
ysc
hool
sys
tem
.
Con
clus
ions
Ove
rall,
thes
e tr
acer
stu
dies
allo
w u
s to
revi
ew p
rogr
amm
e im
pact
ove
r tim
e.T
hey
also
giv
e us
insi
ghts
into
the
impa
ct o
f m
onito
ring
and
eva
luat
ion
on p
rogr
amm
e ev
olut
ion
and
deve
lopm
ent.
For
the
San
child
ren
this
has
resu
lted
in th
e tr
aini
ng o
f pr
imar
ysc
hool
teac
hers
abo
ut w
hat i
s im
port
ant
in e
arly
chi
ldho
od d
evel
opm
ent,
and
intr
aini
ng f
or te
ache
rs o
n cu
ltura
ldi
vers
ity. M
ore
rece
ntly
, pro
gram
me
plan
ning
in K
enya
now
incl
udes
appr
opri
ate
trai
ning
of
prim
ary
scho
ol te
ache
rs a
nd s
hift
ing
thei
r fo
cus
to in
clud
e bo
th p
resc
hool
s an
dpr
imar
y sc
hool
s.
Follo
win
g Fo
otst
eps
publ
icat
ions
Pub
lishe
d by
the
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n in
its
serie
s E
arly
Chi
ldho
od D
evel
opm
ent:
Pra
ctic
e an
d R
efle
ctio
ns.
Deg
azon
-Joh
nson
R (
2001
), A
new
doo
r op
ened
: a tr
acer
stu
dy o
f th
e T
eena
ge M
othe
rs P
roje
ct, J
amai
ca, E
arly
Chi
ldho
odD
evel
opm
ent:
Prac
tice
and
Ref
lect
ions
No.
13
The
stu
dy tr
aced
the
impa
ct o
f th
e T
eena
ge M
othe
rs P
roje
ct o
n a
sam
ple
of 1
0 m
othe
rs a
nd c
hild
ren
who
wer
e pa
rtic
ipan
tsbe
twee
n 19
86 a
nd 1
989,
and
com
pare
d th
ese
with
ten
othe
r m
othe
r an
d ch
ild p
airs
who
had
not
bee
n in
the
proj
ect.
Sign
ific
ant d
iffe
renc
es w
ere
foun
d be
twee
n th
e tw
o gr
oups
of
mot
hers
and
the
two
grou
ps o
f ch
ildre
n.
Nje
nga
A &
Kab
iru
M (
2001
), I
n th
e w
eb o
f cu
ltura
ltr
ansi
tion:
a tr
acer
stu
dy o
f ch
ildre
n in
Em
bu D
istr
ict,
Ken
ya, E
arly
Chi
ldho
od D
evel
opm
ent:
Prac
tice
and
Ref
lect
ions
No.
14
Thi
s st
udy
look
s at
the
effe
cts
of tr
aini
ng f
or p
resc
hool
teac
hers
on
the
child
ren
they
hav
e ca
red
for.
Thr
ee c
ohor
tsof
chi
ldre
n w
ho e
nter
ed p
rim
ary
scho
ol in
199
1, 1
992
and
1993
wer
e tr
acke
d th
roug
h pr
imar
y sc
hool
to th
e cl
asse
sth
ey w
ere
in in
199
9ab
out h
alf
of th
ese
child
ren
had
been
car
ed f
or b
y tr
aine
d pr
esch
ool t
each
ers,
the
othe
rsha
d be
en w
ith u
ntra
ined
pre
scho
ol te
ache
rs. S
ever
albe
nefi
ts o
f tr
aine
d pr
esch
ool t
each
ers
wer
e fo
und,
and
chi
ldre
n w
ho h
adbe
en c
ared
for
by
them
mad
e th
e tr
ansi
tion
to p
rim
ary
scho
ol m
ore
succ
essf
ully
. Chi
ldre
n's
over
all p
erfo
rman
ces
wer
e fo
und
to b
eco
nsid
erab
ly a
ffec
ted
by s
ever
al f
acto
rs: t
he a
cade
mic
rat
ing
of th
epr
imar
y sc
hool
s; h
igh
was
tage
in th
e fo
rm o
f ab
sent
eeis
m, r
epet
ition
and
drop
out r
ates
; and
non
-sch
ool r
elat
ed f
acto
rs s
uch
as a
lcoh
ol, d
rugs
, chi
ldem
ploy
men
t, an
d ch
angi
ng li
fest
yles
.
le R
oux
W (
2002
), T
he c
halle
nges
of
chan
ge: a
trac
er s
tudy
of
San
pres
choo
l chi
ldre
n in
Bot
swan
a, E
arly
Chi
ldho
od D
evel
opm
ent:
Prac
tice
and
Ref
lect
ions
No.
15
The
mai
n bo
dy o
f th
is r
epor
t is
base
d on
ast
udy
carr
ied
out d
urin
g 19
93-1
995
that
trac
ed S
an c
hild
ren
of p
rim
ary
scho
ol a
gew
ho h
ad p
artic
ipat
ed in
the
Bok
amos
oPr
esch
ool P
rogr
amm
e. I
t als
o in
clud
es a
nup
date
to 2
001
cont
aini
ng a
dditi
onal
back
grou
nd in
form
atio
n an
d ne
w f
indi
ngs.
The
se h
unte
r-ga
ther
er p
eopl
e no
long
er h
ave
acce
ss to
thei
r ol
d te
rrito
ries
or th
e sk
ills
to e
arn
a liv
elih
ood.
The
y fa
ce th
is s
ituat
ion
with
a s
ense
of
hope
less
ness
and
des
pair
, une
mpl
oym
ent i
s hi
gh a
nd a
lcoh
olis
m is
a s
erio
uspr
oble
m. I
n th
e fo
rmal
edu
catio
n sy
stem
, the
San
chi
ldre
n m
eet a
dif
fere
ntcu
lture
and
hav
e to
cop
e w
ith c
onfl
ictin
g ex
pect
atio
ns a
nd n
orm
s, a
s w
ell a
sun
fam
iliar
lang
uage
s. D
espi
te a
ll th
is, t
he s
tudy
fou
nd th
at th
e ch
ildre
n w
hoha
d at
tend
ed p
resc
hool
s w
ere
mos
tly s
till i
n sc
hool
, man
y pa
rent
s w
ere
supp
ortiv
e of
for
mal
edu
catio
n, s
ome
head
teac
hers
wer
e tr
ying
to a
dapt
the
scho
ol to
the
real
ities
of
the
com
mun
ity, a
nd m
any
of th
e ch
ildre
n be
lieve
d to
have
dro
pped
out
wer
e, in
fac
t, st
ill in
sch
ool.
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 58
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
Gri
ffith
JD
(20
02),
To
hand
le li
fe's
cha
lleng
es: a
trac
er
stud
y of
Ser
vol's
Ado
lesc
ent D
evel
opm
ent P
rogr
amm
ein
Tri
nida
d, E
arly
Chi
ldho
od D
evel
opm
ent:
Prac
tice
and
Ref
lect
ions
No.
16
Thi
s st
udy
look
s at
the
effe
cts
of th
e A
dole
scen
tD
evel
opm
ent P
rogr
amm
e (A
ims)
on
a sa
mpl
e of
40 y
oung
men
and
wom
en s
ome
10 y
ears
aft
er th
eir
part
icip
atio
n, a
nd c
ompa
res
thes
e w
ith a
noth
er g
roup
of 3
9 in
divi
dual
s w
ith s
imila
r ch
arac
teri
stic
s. T
hean
alys
is w
as b
ased
on
the
crite
ria
that
are
cen
tral
toth
e A
DP.
The
res
ults
sho
wed
that
for
mer
trai
nees
had
bene
fite
d fr
om th
e pr
ogra
mm
e at
a n
umbe
r of
diff
eren
t lev
els.
The
re w
ere
som
e si
mila
ritie
s in
fin
ding
s be
twee
nth
e A
DP
grou
p an
d th
e co
mpa
riso
n gr
oup
and
diff
eren
ces
with
res
pect
to le
vels
of
self
-est
eem
and
chi
ldbe
arin
g.
Mol
loy
B (
2002
), S
till g
oing
str
ong:
a tr
acer
stu
dy o
fth
e C
omm
unity
Mot
hers
Pro
gram
me,
Dub
lin,
Irel
and,
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Dev
elop
men
t: Pr
actic
ean
d R
efle
ctio
ns N
o. 1
7T
his
is a
rep
ort o
f a
seve
n ye
ar f
ollo
w-u
p st
udy
ofm
othe
rs a
nd c
hild
ren
who
par
ticip
ated
in a
hom
evi
sitin
g pr
ogra
mm
e du
ring
the
firs
t 12
mon
ths
ofth
e ch
ildre
n's
lives
. It f
ollo
ws
an e
arlie
r st
udy,
whe
n th
e ch
ildre
n w
ere
one
year
old
, tha
t fou
ndsi
gnif
ican
t ben
efic
ial e
ffec
ts f
or b
oth
mot
hers
and
child
ren
whe
n co
mpa
red
to a
con
trol
grou
p. T
he r
epor
t des
crib
es th
e or
igin
s,de
velo
pmen
t and
impl
emen
tatio
n of
the
prog
ram
me,
mot
ivat
ion
of a
nd e
ffec
ts o
n th
ew
omen
who
impl
emen
t it,
and
thre
e ea
rlie
r pi
eces
of
rese
arch
.Fi
ndin
gs in
the
follo
w-u
p st
udy
wer
e ve
ry p
ositi
ve f
or th
em
othe
rs, t
he c
hild
ren
and
for
subs
eque
nt c
hild
ren.
Pub
lishe
d by
the
Hig
h/S
cope
Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rch
Fou
ndat
ion,
600
Nor
th R
iver
Str
eet,
Yps
ilant
i, M
I 481
98-2
898,
Lis
a
Eps
tein
AS,
Mon
tie J
& W
eika
rt D
P (2
002)
, Sup
port
ing
fam
ilies
with
you
ng c
hild
ren,
the
Hig
h/Sc
ope
Pare
nt-t
o-Pa
rent
dis
sem
inat
ion
proj
ect,
Mon
ogra
phs
of th
eH
igh/
Scop
e E
duca
tiona
l Res
earc
h Fo
unda
tion
No.
13,
Yps
ilant
i, M
ichi
gan:
Hig
h/Sc
ope
Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rch
Foun
datio
nT
his
publ
icat
ion
desc
ribe
s th
e ge
nesi
s an
d de
velo
pmen
t fro
m th
e 19
60s
of th
e w
ork
that
bec
ame
the
Pare
nt-t
o-Pa
rent
dis
sem
inat
ion
proj
ect
a m
ulti-
site
, com
mun
ity-
base
d pa
rent
sup
port
initi
ativ
e fr
om 1
978
to 1
984.
In
1998
a s
tudy
fol
low
ed u
p fo
ur o
fth
e or
igin
al s
ites
to f
ind
orga
nisa
tiona
l tra
ces
of th
e pr
inci
ples
and
str
ateg
ies.
Alth
ough
none
of
the
orig
inal
pro
gram
mes
are
stil
l in
exis
tenc
e, m
any
form
er p
artic
ipan
tsre
mai
n ac
tive
in th
e sa
me
or s
imila
r fi
elds
. The
rep
ort i
nclu
des
conc
lusi
ons
conc
erni
ngth
e ef
fect
iven
ess
and
pote
ntia
ls o
f fa
mily
sup
port
ser
vice
s.
For
thco
min
g fr
om th
e B
erna
rd v
an L
eer
Fou
ndat
ion:
Lev
in-R
ozal
is M
& S
hafr
an N
, A s
ense
of
belo
ngin
g: a
trac
er s
tudy
of
Alm
aya'
sPa
rent
s' C
oope
rativ
e K
inde
rgar
ten,
Isr
ael (
to b
e pu
blis
hed
earl
y 20
03 a
s E
arly
Chi
ldho
od D
evel
opm
ent:
Prac
tice
and
Ref
lect
ions
No.
19)
The
stu
dy h
as lo
oked
at f
orm
er p
artic
ipan
ts in
a P
aren
ts' C
oope
rativ
e K
inde
rgar
ten
prog
ram
me
that
was
ope
rate
d by
Alm
aya,
an
asso
ciat
ion
that
wor
ks w
ith f
amili
es w
hoca
me
to I
srae
l fro
m E
thio
pia.
The
pro
gram
me
oper
ated
in tw
o ne
ighb
ourh
oods
of
Bee
r-Sh
eva
and
the
stud
y ha
s co
mpa
red
resp
onse
s fr
om f
orm
er c
hild
par
ticip
ants
(no
win
thei
r ea
rly
teen
s) w
ith c
hild
ren
of E
thio
pian
ori
gin
from
the
sam
e ne
ighb
ourh
oods
who
wer
e no
t in
the
prog
ram
me,
as
wel
l as
with
chi
ldre
n of
non
-Eth
iopi
an o
rigi
n in
adi
ffer
ent t
own.
It c
oncl
udes
that
the
child
ren
from
the
inte
rven
tion
grou
p ha
veac
quir
ed m
any
of th
e to
ols
that
are
nec
essa
ry to
bet
ter
inte
grat
e in
to I
srae
li so
ciet
y.
A r
epor
t of
a tr
acer
stu
dy o
f ch
ildre
n an
d fa
mili
es f
rom
the
Chr
istia
n C
hild
ren'
s Fu
ndpr
ogra
mm
e in
Hon
dura
s.
A r
epor
t of
a 20
-yea
r fo
llow
-up
of c
hild
ren
and
fam
ilies
fro
m th
e Pr
omes
apr
ogra
mm
e, C
olom
bia.
Coh
en R
N, I
ntro
duci
ng tr
acer
stu
dies
: a g
uide
to im
plem
entin
g tr
acer
stu
dies
in e
arly
child
hood
dev
elop
men
t pro
gram
mes
.
Ber
nard
van
Lee
r F
ound
atio
n 59
Ear
ly C
hild
hood
Mat
ters
U.S. Department of EducationOffice of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI)
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