research article diversity, uses, and threats in the...

Research ArticleDiversity Uses and Threats in the Ghodaghodi Lake Complexa Ramsar Site in Western Lowland Nepal

Pramod Lamsal1 Krishna Prasad Pant2 Lalit Kumar3 and Kishor Atreya2

1 Himalayan Geo-En Pvt Ltd 133 Mokshya Marga Kathmandu 4 Nepal2 Kathmandu University PO Box 6250 Dhulikhel Nepal3 University of New England Armidale NSW 2351 Australia

Correspondence should be addressed to Pramod Lamsal pramod lamsalyahoocom

Received 1 February 2014 Accepted 23 March 2014 Published 27 April 2014

Academic Editors A R Atangana I Bisht A Chistoserdov P De los Rıos Escalante and P M Vergara

Copyright copy 2014 Pramod Lamsal et alThis is an open access article distributed under the Creative CommonsAttribution Licensewhich permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properly cited

This study documents aquatic and terrestrialriparian biodiversity in an anthropogenically disturbed Ramsar site the GhodaghodiLake complex in the Western Nepal surveyed during the summer season (March-April) of 2007 The study site comprises threemajor interconnected lakes Ghodaghodi (138 ha) Nakharodi (70 ha) and Bainshwa (10 ha) Five transect lines for aquaticmacrophytes and three transect lines and 37 sampling plots were laid to sample terrestrialriparian plants birds and animals Fivesample plots were established for fish and aquatic bird A total of 45 species of aquatic macrophytes 54 species of terrestrialriparianvegetation 19 fish species 41 bird species 17 mammals (endangered and vulnerable) and 5 reptiles (critically endangeredvulnerable and near threatened) were recorded at the lake complex Local people have used most of the aquatic and terrestrialplants for different purposes while many of the potential medicinal plant species were still untapped Persistent anthropogenicthreats like excessive harvesting and poaching habitat destructionmdashpopulation pressure forest fragmentation siltation fertilizerand pesticide seepage water pollution overgrazing and unmanaged irrigation system found over the lake complex endangeredthe existing biodiversity The suggested remedial measures are further exploration of medicinal potential prioritization of in situbiodiversity conservation strategies and implementation of awareness program at local level against anthropogenic threats

1 Introduction

Wetlands are defined as lands transitional between terrestrialand aquatic eco-systems where the water table is usually at ornear the surface or the land is covered by shallowwater [1] andas in such state supports considerable amount of biologicaldiversity of the earth The values of wetlands are receivingglobal attention due to their high contribution to humankind But it is also a most delicate and threatened habitat ascompared to other types because of the close interaction withus Wetlands occupy approximately 5 (743756 ha) of thetotal area of Nepal including high altitude glacial lakes hotsprings ponds oxbow lakes river flood plains swamps andmarshes and are critical habitats for many plant and animalspecies MFSC [2]mentioned that the biogeographic locationof Nepal and its complex mountain systems have given riseto a proportionately high level of biodiversity relative toits total area (ie 147181 sq km) Dugan [3] reported that

wetlands occupy only about 4 to 6 of the Earthrsquos surfacebut provide habitat for about 20 of the worldrsquos speciesAlthough Nepal represents only 01 of the global terrestrialsurface it houses 03 of the worldrsquos species including 45of the mammalian species 42 of the butterfly species 27of the flowering plant species 22 of the freshwater fishspecies 16 of the reptile species and 1 of the amphibianspecies [2] A R Joshi and D P Joshi [4] reported that 25of Nepalrsquos estimated 7000 vascular plant species are whollyor partially wetland dependent Though wetlands form only5 of Nepalrsquos area a total of 193 bird species (22 of thetotal recorded in the country) fully depend on it [5] Of the35 globally threatened species recorded in Nepal 15 (43)are wetland birds In addition a total of 12 (50) out of 24near-threatened species inhabit wetlands [6] According toIUCN [7] there are 10 species of amphibians 1 reptile speciesand 8 species of flowering plants endemic to Nepalrsquos wet-lands

Hindawi Publishing CorporationISRN BiodiversityVolume 2014 Article ID 680102 12 pageshttpdxdoiorg1011552014680102

2 ISRN Biodiversity

Medicinal plants have contributed significantly to thelivelihood of Nepalese people [8] and their use is prevalent indifferent parts of the country [9 10] In Nepal traditional useof plant resources for medicinal purpose has a long historyand is gaining popularity due to a lack of side effects easyavailability at affordable prices and inmany circumstances itis the only source of health care to the poor communities [11]Around 6500 plant species are used for medicinal purposesin Asia [12] while at least 1600 to 1900 plant species are usedtraditionally for medicinal practices in Nepal [13 14] Thegovernment has also recognized the importance of properconservation of medicinal plant diversity and the issue ishighlighted in the national level Nepal Biodiversity Strategy[2] It is estimated that only 15ndash20 of the population ofNepal who live in and around urban areas have accessto modern medicinal facilities whereas the rest depend ontraditional medicines [8]

Biodiversity loss has become a major issue over the lastfew decades and its protection has emerged as a main agendawithin national nature conservation policies internationalconventions conservation targets and political programmes[15] Freshwater biodiversity has been threatened by a num-ber of major impacts such as overexploitation water pol-lution and flow modification including water abstractiondestruction or degradation of habitat as well as invasion byalien species [16] The diversity and distribution of wetlandflora and fauna are affected by the changes in the water chem-istry [17] Schuyt [18] reported various threats to the majorwetlands ofAfrica reclamation for agriculture and settlementexpansion at Nakivubo wetland Uganda reduction of waterlevel by overabstraction within catchment and degradation ofthe catchment itself due to overpopulation overexploitationof wetland resource soil erosion and siltation pollution fromthe use of agrochemicals and invasion by water hyacinthat Lake Chilwa wetland Malawi reduced water flow byoverabstraction aquatic weed infestation overuse of wetlandresource pollution and deforestation at Zambezi Basinwetland South Africa Five threats have been documented byDudgeon et al [19] including overexploitation of the naturalresources water pollution from the siltation and agriculturalwastes flow modification habitat degradation and exoticspecies invasion whose combined and interactive influencesare the causes of declining populations and shrinking globalfreshwater biodiversity and could be compared with theexisting condition of Ghodaghodi Lake complex Siwakotiand Karki [20] highlighted the heavy dependency of the poorpeople on wetlands as a major issue for wetland conservationin Nepal The authors were of the view that the involvementof wetland-dependent communities in the decision-makingprocess could assist sustainable resource conservation effortsand help them benefit in lieu of conservation The effectivesystems of resource management can ensure that biologicalresources not only survive but increase as well while theyare being used by the people thus providing the foundationfor sustainable development [21] Protection of freshwaterbiodiversity is perhaps the ultimate conservation challenge inthe current global scenario [19] Since wetlands are consid-ered as a common property resource the conservation of this

ecosystem is an uphill task unless the principal stakeholdersare involved in the process

Ghodaghodi Lake complex is the largest interconnectednatural lake system in the plain land of Nepal and wasdesignated a Ramsar site in 2003 due to its high biodiversityvalue Though it is a very important lake ecosystem onlya few studies [7 22] are found on the biodiversity andthreats while medicinal uses of plant species are hardlytapped by the scientific research IUCN [7] carried out a fullinventory of the LakeComplex spread over sixmonths (NovndashMay 199798) while Kafle [22] studied certain lake diversityfocussing only on Ghodaghodi Lake in summer (Jan-Feb)and winter (Sept-Oct) of 2005 This study investigates theterrestrialriparian and aquatic biodiversity of the lake com-plex existing and potential utility including the medicinalvalues of the plant species while at the same time identifiesthe anthropogenic threats to the lake biodiversityThe resultsof this research are intended to informmanagers and decisionmakers about the importance of this lake ecosystem and howplanning decisions could impact the lakersquos biodiversity

2 Materials and Methods

21 Study Area The Ghodaghodi Lake complex (28∘4110158401710158401015840N 80∘ 5610158404710158401015840 E) lies in the Kailali district of far WesternTerai in Nepal (Figure 1) and is 205m above mean sea levelThis wetland covers approximately 2500 ha 14 large andsmall oxbow lakes with associatedmarshes swamps streamssprings seasonal marshy grasslands and artificial wetlands(canals irrigated fields ponds etc) surrounded by tropicaldeciduous mixed Shorea robusta forest in the lower slopes ofSiwalik hills Major lakes of the complex include Ghodaghodi(138 ha) Nakharodi (70 ha) and Baishawa (10 ha) [20]

The lake system is connected with extensive forests alongthe Siwalik (Churia) Hills to the north and falls between twoof Terairsquos protected areasmdashthe Royal Bardia National Parkand the Royal Suklaphanta Wildlife Reservemdashand functionsas an important corridor for the movement of wildlife Thelake complex is characterised by three types of wetlandhabitats (i) riverine including perennial rivers and river floodplain (ii) lacustrine including oxbow lakes and ponds and(iii) palustrine including marshes and swamps Marshy areason the fringes of the lakes are subject to periodic inundationOnly Ghodaghodi and Nakharodi Lakes are perennial whileBainshwa is seasonal and turnsmarshy during the dry seasonSimilarly the wetland forest complex has three types of foresthabitats Shorea robusta forest Terminalia alata forest andmixed deciduous riverine forest

The area has a tropical monsoon climate The aver-age annual rainfall ranges between 1630mm (recorded atTikapur 35 km to the southeast of the lake) and 1705mm(recorded at Dhangadhi) where about 80ndash85 of total rain-fall occurs during the monsoon period (mid-June to lateSeptember) The average monthly maximum temperatureranges from 21∘C to 38∘C and minimum 6∘C to 25∘C (atTikapur) At Dhangadhi the maximum temperature rangesfrom 22∘C to 37∘C and minimum from 5∘C to 25∘C The soilat the bed and surrounding area of the lake complex was

ISRN Biodiversity 3

(

(Sandepani

Darakh

0 50 100 150 20025(km)

China

N

IndiaIndia

India

Ramshikhar jhala

Ghodaghodi Lake complexwith three surrounding VDCs

Kathmandu

Kailali

Figure 1 Map showing Ghodaghodi Lake complex and adjoining villages

almost of the same type with very little horizontal spatialvariation The predominant soil type was high in plasticityof low permeability clay of yellowish to light brown colourLow permeability of the soil was on the basis that loss ofwater through seepage and deep percolation seemed to beconsiderably low No rock outcrop could be seen in thevicinity of the lake areaThe lake is fed by direct precipitationduring the monsoon season and by surface flows from thewatershed area ground water springs and small streamsWater depth varies from 1-2m during the dry period to 3-4mduring the monsoon season [23]

The wetland complex is bordered by three local politico-administrative units called Village Development Committees(VDC) Sandepani in the East Darakh in the South andRamshikharjhala in the North and West Around 60 ofthe total area is used as agricultural land 37 land is underforest covers lakes commonpastures and scrubs 2percentunder settlements and roads while rivers and streams cover1 percent of the total land Farming with traditional useof natural resources is the major occupation of the peopleliving in the lake area The present uses of lake resourcesinclude fishing livestock grazing and collection of fodderfirewood and nontimber forest products includingmedicinalplants Tharus an indigenous ethnic group of the lake areacomprising more than 50 of the total population are

the most dependent community on wetland resources [20]The uses of lake resources by local people mainly fodderaquaticmacrophytes livestock grazing and fishing were alsomentioned by [24] The total households and population oftheseVDCs have been increased sharply (73 and 38 resp)in the last decade as shown in the Table 1

22 Data Collection Data were collected duringMarch-April2007Therefore the species documented in this study can onlybe validated in the summer months of Nepal Data on bothterrestrialriparian and aquatic plants were recorded in thefloral category For aquatic plants submerged free-floatingfloating leaves and emergent plants were collected Samplingwas undertaken in such a way that it would cover all therepresentative habitats of aquatic flora Shorelines as well asopen water areas floating as well as submerged vegetationswere sampled across the lake in transect lines in a boatFive transect lines three at Ghodaghodi (719m 1673m and1572m) one at Bainshwa (460m) and one at Nakharodi(960m) were established and quadrat method of randomsampling as mentioned by Ludwig and Reynolds [27] wasfollowed to collect macrophytes Local people and secondaryliterature [28ndash31] were consulted for field identification ofaquatic macrophytes

4 ISRN Biodiversity

Table 1 Household and population increment in the lake adjoiningvillages

VDC Total household Total population2001 2011 2001 2011

Darakh 1694 3153 12171 17623Ramsikharjhala 1824 3156 13560 18016Sandepani 2592 4278 17956 24892Total 6110 10587 43687 60531Source CBS [25 26]

For terrestrial plants trees shrubs and herbs were sur-veyed Three transect lines each from eastern western andnorthern parts passing through the surrounding forest ofGhodaghodi Lake complex were demarcated A total of 37quadrat plots also used by Dongol [32] of 10m times 10m werelaid on the ground at intervals of 250m along those transectlines in an alternate side Similarly nested plots of 3m times 3mand 1m times 1m on the lower right-hand side corner were laidwithin the 10m times 10m plot for shrub and herb inventoryrespectively

Field identification of the plant species was carried outusing standard literature [30 33ndash35] andwith the help of localpeople Herbaria were prepared for unidentified plant sam-ples and brought to the Kathmandu University Laboratoryfor expert identification Unidentified species were also takento the Government accredited National Herbarium Centre atGodavari Lalitpur

In the faunal category the survey was undertaken forfishes birds mammals and reptiles For fish five samplingareas were purposively identified three in Ghodaghodi Lakeand two in Bainshwa and Nakharodi Fishing nets were keptovernight and the fish catch was collected next morning andrepeated for three consecutive days We followed Shrestha[36] for fish specimen identification Local fish marketslocated at Sukhad Bazar were surveyed twice in three-dayintervals to identify additional species harvested from thelake

For terrestrial birds the same plots of terrestrial vegeta-tion assessment were considered Bird surveys were carriedout before vegetation surveys in the morning from 0500 hrto 0700 hr through direct observation via binoculars (8 times 30)and a call count method Birds were surveyed for a total offive consecutive days For aquatic birds the same samplingpoints used for fish were considered The survey procedureand period were similar to those of terrestrial birds and inboth cases we followed the literature of BCN and DNPWC[37] for field identification The same stations were used forthe survey of aquatic animals

For terrestrial wildlife the transect lines setup for terres-trial plant assessments was used Each transect was walkedthree times and wildlife species were observed This surveywas carried out before vegetation surveys so that habitatscould remain undisturbed and animals could be spottedIndirect methods such as faecal hair and horns were alsoused to determine the presence of wildlife species

Anthropogenic threats as well as additional informationon exiting biodiversity and local medicinal uses of plant

species were observed and recorded through field observa-tions focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informantinterviews (KII) A total of three focus group discussions oneat each VDC and six key informant interviews two at eachVDC were conducted Field observations were made usinga recording sheet and camera while a checklist containing allaspects of biodiversity medicinal uses and existing threatswas developed pretested and used for the FGD A total of8ndash10 people including ethnic traditional healers were madeavailable for FGD in order to gather information crosscheckand validate Older members of the community and localschoolteachers were selected for key informant interviews

3 Results and Discussion

31 Plant Diversity

311 Aquatic Plant Diversity A total of 45 species of aquaticplants including 9 submerged 6 free-floating 21 floatingleaved and 9 emergent species (Table 2) were found inthe Ghodaghodi Bainshwa and Nakharodi Lakes Lotus(Nelumbo nucifera) water chestnut (Trapa bispinosa) waterlilies (Nymphaea nouchali) and pondweed (Potamogetonnatans) were the major anchored leaf-floating speciesHydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata) hornwort (Ceratophyllumdemersum) and pondweeds (Potamogeton spp) were themajor submerged species Similarly feathered mosquito fern(Azolla imbricate) duck weed (Lemna minor) and Asianwatermeal (Wolffia globosa) were found to be the dominantfree-floating species An inventory of the Ghodaghodi Lakeby IUCN [7] resulted in 107 species of aquatic macrophyteswhereas a seasonal study by Kafle [22] reported only 22aquatic plant species A total of seven categories of existinguses were found from the lake aquatic macrophytes Out ofthe 45 plant species identified in the wetland complex 22species have been used for different purposes such as humanmedicines (11 species) fodder (7 species) food (6 species)green manure (8 species) food for fish (5 species) foodfor duck (5 species) and industrial (2 species) There werestill 23 macrophytes species untapped for any uses includingmedicines though used in other parts of the country as wellas South Asia

312 TerrestrialRiparian Plant Diversity A total of 54 terres-trialriparian plant species (Table 3) were found out of which25 were trees 7 shrubs and 22 herbs Shorea robusta andTerminalia alatawere themajor terrestrial tree species Otherspecies include Syzygium cumini Aegle marmelosAcacia cat-echu and Dalbergia latifolia The forest also contained lianasand undergrowth and the secondary layer was formed by avariety of trees including Mallotus philippensis A rare spinyshrub Gardenia campanulata with highly restricted distri-bution within Nepal was also found Syzygium cumini andSyzygium jumboswere the dominant species of swamp forestparticularly around Nakharodi Lake However a total of 137and 35 terrestrialriparian plant species were identified byIUCN [7] and Kafle [22] respectively at Ghodaghodi LakeLocal people in Ghodaghodi Lake complex traditionally use

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Table 2 Aquatic macrophytes recorded in the Ghodaghodi Lake complex

Species Potential uses Existing uses by local people in theGhodaghodi Lake area

Submerged

Ceratophyllum demersum Human medicine [38 39] fish food [40 41]green manure [41] Fish food duck food green manure

Hydrilla verticillata Fish food [42] Fish food duck food fodder greenmanure

Limnophila sessiliflora NA NONEPotamogeton natans NA NONEPotamogeton crispus NA NONEPotamogeton pectinatus NA NONEUtricularia flexuosa NA Human medicine green manureUtricularia stellaris NA NONEVallisneria spiralis Fish food [42] NONE

Free-floating

Azolla imbricata Green manure [39 43] fodder [39] duckfood [39] Fish food duck food green manure

Hygroryza aristata Fodder [41] Food fodderLemna minor NA Fish food duck food green manure

Pistia stratiotes Human medicine [38] duck food [41 43]green manure [38 43] Human medicine green manure

Ricciocarpus natans NA NONEWolffia globosa NA NONE

Submerged rooted with floating leavesCaldesia parnassifolia NA NONEJussiaea repens NA NONENymphaea nouchali Food [41] NONENelumbo nucifera Human medicine [38] food [41ndash43] Human medicine food fodderNymphoides cristatum NA NONEOttelia alismoides Food [39] NONEPotamogeton nodosus Duck food [42] NONETrapa bispinosa Human medicine [44] Human medicine food

EmergentAlisma plantago-aquatica NA NONECassia sophera Human medicine [45] NONE

Centella asiatica Human medicine [40 46ndash49] veterinarymedicine [32] Human medicine food

Cyperus diffuses Fodder [42] NONECyperus rotundus Human medicine [14 49] Human medicine fodderEclipta prostrata Human medicine [14 42 49] food [38] Human medicine fodderEquisetum debile Human medicine [39] Human medicine green manureFimbristylis dichotoma Fodder [43] NONEHygrophila auriculata Human medicine [43 50] food [41] Human medicineIpomea fistulosa NA NONE

Ipomea aquatica Human medicine [43 51] food [38 41 42] Human medicine fish food duck foodfood

Limnophila indica Human medicine [39] NONELudwigia octovalvis Human medicine [38 39] NONEMonochoria vaginalis Human medicine [39 43] Food

Phragmites karka Human medicine [38] fodder [39]industrial [41] Fodder industrial use

6 ISRN Biodiversity

Table 2 Continued


Polygonum barbatum Food [41] NONERanunculus sceleratus Human medicine [43 52] Human medicine

Rumex dentatus Human medicine [53] food [43] greenmanure [43] Food green manure

Saccharum spontaneum Human medicine [54] fodder [41 43]industrial [39 41] Fodder industrial

Sonchus asper Human medicine [55] NONETypha angustifolia Food [42] fodder [42] industrial [39 42] NONE

Note Human and veterinary medicine includes the uses of a plant in different ailments by local people in the study area as well as in other parts of South AsiaFood includes vegetables pickle and spices consumed by human Industrial includes use of a plant for handicraft oils and tannin and others that can providedirect cash benefit NA information could not be found in the scientific literature by authors NONE no use of a plant in the study area so far

several terrestrialriparian plant species to sustain their liveli-hood A total of eight categories of existing uses were foundfrom the lake terrestrial plant resources Out of the 54 plantspecies identified in the wetland complex 35 species havebeen used for different purposes such as human medicines(29 species) veterinary medicine (5 species) fodder (13species) fruit (8 species) timber (7 species) firewood (6species) industrial (4 species) and food (3 species) A totalof 19 species were still untapped in the study area though theyhave been found to be used for different purposes includingmedicine in other parts of the country as well as South Asia

32 Animal Diversity

321 Fish Diversity A total of 19 fish species were found inthe Ghodaghodi Lake complex (Table 4) IUCN [7] identified27 species of fish from the same area

322 Avifaunal Diversity Wetland birds comprise a signifi-cant portion of the avian fauna recorded in Nepal [71] Thisstudy found a total of 41 species of birds representing 20families in the Ghodaghodi Lake complex (Table 5) IUCN[7] documented 140 species of avifauna whereas Kafle [22]reported 60 species The lower number of bird species in ourstudy compared to others may be because of seasonal effectsthat is IUCN inventory was for six months and Kafle hasdocumented avifauna seen in two seasons

323MammalianDiversity A total of 17 species ofmammalsbelonging to 12 families were recorded in the GhodaghodiLake complex (Table 6) These included endangered specieslike fishing cat (Felis viverrina) and Asian elephant (Elephasmaximus) while the common otter (Lutra lutra) leopardcat (Felis bengalensis) leopard (Panthera pardus) blue bull(Boselaphus tragocamelus) and spotted deer (Axix axix)fall under the vulnerable category IUCN [7] reported 34mammalian species from the same complex Some of themammals such as jungle hare spotted deer and wild boar areused by the local people for bush meat

324 Reptile Diversity This study found a total of 6 species ofreptiles representing 5 families in the Ghodaghodi Lake com-plex (Table 7) It also showed the existence of the vulnerablemarsh mugger (Crocodylus palustris) in different parts of theGhodaghodi Lake It was informed by the local people thatmarsh mugger often travels near Bainshwa Lake by crossinga small ridge that separates these two lakes Similarly the crit-ical endangered red crowned roofed turtle (Kachuga kachuga)and near-threatened Indian python (Python molurus) werealso found to exist in the lake Ghodaghodi Lake supportsthe habitat for additional species of turtles including flap-shellturtle (Lissemys punctata) and Indian roofed turtle (Kachugatecta)

33 Potential Anthropogenic Threats to Ghodaghodi LakeComplex Biodiversity Freshwater ecosystems are affected byoverharvesting of the resources and habitat destruction Themajor drivers of the destruction are human demographyexcessive resource use increased water consumption tech-nological development and social organization [74] Thesechanges are responsible for some major alteration like physi-cal restructuring of aquatic ecosystems introduction of exoticspecies discharge of toxic substances and overharvestingof resources [75] Bhandari [76] observed conversion ofwetland because of overexploitation of resources pollutionof water invasion of alien species encroachment to thelake area and sedimentation as the major categories ofthreats in Nepal The Ghodaghodi Lake complex supportsseveral aquatic and terrestrial flora and fauna contributingto wetland biodiversity conservation in the area However asother wetlands Ghodaghodi Lake complex is no exceptionreceiving threat from unsustainable harvesting and illegalpoaching expanding population changes in land use andoverexploitation of lake resources Most of these threats weobserved are anthropogenic in nature and can be broadlycategorized into (i) unsustainable harvesting and poachingand (ii) habitat destruction

331 Unsustainable Harvesting and Poaching Local peopleheavily harvested aquatic and terrestrial plants and fishesIllegal tree felling and smuggling of Shorea robusta timber

ISRN Biodiversity 7

Table 3 Terrestrialriparian plants recorded within the forest adjacent to the Ghodaghodi Lake complex


HerbAerva lanata Human medicine [50] food [32] NONEAchyranthes aspera Human medicine [40 49 56 57] Human medicine veterinary medicineAgeratum conyzoides Human medicine [57ndash59] Human medicineAlternanthera sessilis Human medicine [60] NONEAsteracantha longifolia NA Human medicine fodderBacopa monnieri Food [41 43] NONEBarleria cristata NA NONEBlumea mollis Human medicine [61] Human medicine fodderColocasia antiquorum var esculenta NA NONEChenopodium ambrosioides Human medicine [55] NONECirsium wallichii NA NONE

Dopatrium junceum NA Human medicine veterinary medicinefood fodder

Dichanthium annulatum NA NONEEchinochloa colonum NA Human medicine

Oxalis corniculata Human medicine [32 48] veterinary medicine[32] food [32] fodder [32]

Human medicine veterinary medicinefood fodder

Polypogon monspeliensis NA NONEPhyla nodiflora Human medicine [32] Human medicineScirpus grossus Industrial [41] NONEScirpus articulates NA Human medicineScoparia dulcis Human medicine [32 62] Human medicineSolanum nigrum Human medicine [51 63] NONEVernonia cinerea Human medicine [61] Human medicine

ShrubCalotropis gigantea Human medicine [48 49 54 64] Human medicineColebrookea oppositifolia NA Human medicine veterinary medicineGardenia campanulata NA NONEMurraya koenigii Human medicine [14 49] Fruit food fodder firewoodPhoenix acaulis NA NONE

Woodfordia fruticosa Human medicine [48 54] veterinary medicine[32] industrial [32 65]

Human medicine veterinary medicineindustrial use

Zizyphus mauritiana Human medicine [48 49] Human medicine fruit industrial useTree

Acacia catechu Human medicine [48 54] timber [32] firewood[32] industrial [32] Human medicine industrial

Aegle marmelos Human medicine [49] food [54] fruit [54] Human medicine fruitArtocarpus lakoocha Human medicine [54 62] Human medicine

Bauhinia purpurea Human medicine [53] food [64] fodder [64]industrial [32]

Human medicine fodder food firewoodindustrial use

Careya arborea Human medicine [66] NONECassia fistula Human medicine [48 53] Human medicine firewood

Dalbergia sissoo Human medicine [48] fodder [64] timber [32]firewood [32] Human medicine timber fodder

Dalbergia latifolia NA TimberDillenia pentagyna Food [32] NONEFicus racemosa Fodder [54] fruit [54] Fodder

8 ISRN Biodiversity

Table 3 Continued


Lannea coromandelica Human medicine [67] NONEMangifera indica Human medicine [50 54] Timber fruitMallotus philippensis Human medicine [48 49 64] firewood [64] Human medicine fodder firewoodOugeinia dalbergioides NA NONEPsidium guajava Human medicine [48 68] Fruit

Schleichera oleosa Human medicine [32 68] food [32] fruit [32]industrial [32] Timber firewood fruit

Shorea robusta Fodder [32] industrial [32] firewood [32 64] Human medicine timberSpondias pinnata Human medicine [54 68] fruit [54] Human medicine fruit

Syzygium cumini Food [50 54 64] firewood [32] fruits [32 54]fodder [32] Human medicine timber fruit fodder

Syzygium jambos NA NONE

Terminalia bellerica Human medicine [48 54] timber [32] firewood[32] industrial [20 39] Human medicine

Terminalia alata Fodder [32 54] timber [32 61] industrial [65] Human medicineToona ciliata Human medicine [67] Human medicine timber

Trewia nudiflora Human medicine [69] food [64] firewood[32 64] fodder [32 64] fruit [32] Firewood fodder

Zizyphus rugosa Human medicine [70] NONEClimber and vine

Bauhinia vahlii Fodder [54] fruit [54] industrial [54] Human medicine fruit fodder industrialSpatholobus parviflorus NA Fodder


Table 4 Fishes recorded in the Ghodaghodi Lake complex

Scientific name FamilyColisa fasciatus BelonidaeClarias batrachus ClaridaeChanna striatus ChannidaeChanna punctatus ChannidaeLepidocephalus guntea CobitidaeChanna gachua ChannidaePuntius gelius CyprinidaePuntius conchonius CyprinidaePuntius chola CyprinidaePuntius sophore CyprinidaeRasbora daniconius CyprinidaeHeteropneustes sp SaccobranchidaeLabeo boga CyprinidaeMastacembelus pancalus MastacembelidaeXenentodon cancila BelonidaeMastacembelus armatus MastacembelidaeMystus vittatus BagridaeNotopterus notopterus Notopteridae

and Acacia catechu were common practices found duringthe study period Human encroachments were severe in

the southeastern parts of Nakharodi Lake and easternsoutheastern and northwestern parts of Ghodaghodi LakeSiwakoti and Karki [20] mentioned illegal cutting andencroachment at the lake area Mammals and birds sufferfrom poaching by local people as well as illegal hunters fromother areas of the country It has been reported that localpoachers have always been active for killing wild animalsin the lake area Illegal hunting of wild boars deer andother wildlife as well as bird trapping and egg collection wereprevalent in the area either by the villagers or professionalpoachers Neupane et al [77] reported similar threats ofpoaching and illegal hunting of small mammals fish andbirds at wetlands located in the far Western Nepal

332 Habitat Destruction Habitat destruction affects bothharvested species such as aquatic plants and fishes and evennonharvested species of weeds reptiles andmicroorganismsLarge mammals like tiger sloth bear and most of the deerspecies were not sighted in the area for a couple of years Thecurrent population pressure in the area and fragmentationof the forest and increased agricultural land have beenidentified as factors contributing to this degradation Thelocal people attributed this to the shrinkage and thinningof forest areas for the establishment of settlements aroundthe lake that have heavily degraded the habitat of thesemammals The other drivers of habitat destruction in the

ISRN Biodiversity 9

Table 5 Avifauna recorded in the Ghodaghodi Lake complex

Scientific name FamilyEgretta alba modesta ArdeidaeMetopidius indicus JacanidaeNettapus coromandelianus AnatidaeGallinula chloropus RallidaeFulica atra RallidaeArdea intermedia intermedia ArdeidaeAnhinga melanogaster AnhingidaePhalacrocorax niger PhalacrocoracidaeSpilornis cheela cheela AccipitridaeArdeola grayii ArdeidaeAccipiter nisus AccipitridaeDendrocygna javanica AnatidaeBuceros bicornis BucerotidaeAnastomus oscitans CiconiidaePorphyrio porphyrio RallidaeArdea cinerea ArdeidaeAmaurornis phoenicurus RallidaeOriolus xanthornus OriolidaeThreskiornis melanocephalus ThreskiornithidaeArdea purpurea ArdeidaeDinopium shorii PicidaeMegalaima asiatica CapitonidaeMegalaima haemacephala CapitonidaeCoracias benghalensis MuscicapidaeMerops philippinus MeropidaeMerops orientalis MeropidaeHalcyon smyrnensis AlcedinidaeCuculus varius CuculidaeCentropus sinensis CuculidaePsittacula eupatria PsittacidaePernis ptilorhyncus AccipitridaeLong-tailed shrikelowast CampephagidaeRufous hooded orialelowast OriolidaePericrocotus flammeus CampephagidaeDicrurus paradiseus CorvidaeCopsychus malabaricus MuscicapidaeCinnyris asiaticus NectariniidaePsittacula krameri PsittacidaeAnastomus oscitans CiconiidaePandion haliaetus haliaetus AccipitridaeDendrocitta vagabunda CorvidaelowastCommon name

lake complex include rites and rituals unmanaged irrigationsystems for agricultural fields runoff from agricultural fieldsand siltation and overgrazing

Thewastes generated from the rites and rituals performedby the religious pilgrims especially indigenous Tharu com-munity on the shore of the lake have contributed signifi-cantly to water pollution in the Ghodaghodi Lake complexThey celebrate by sacrificing domestic pigs goats chickens

Table 6 Mammals recorded in the Ghodaghodi Lake complex

Scientific name Family Common nameMacaca mulatta (LC II) Cercopithecidaelowast Rhesus monkeyPresbytis entellus (I) Cercopithecidaelowast Hanuman langurFelis chaus (LC) Felidaelowastlowast Jungle catFelis viverrina (EN II) Felidaelowastlowast Fishing catFelis bengalensis (VU II) Felidaelowastlowast Leopard catPanthera pardus (VU I)) Felidaelowastlowast LeopardCanis aureus (LC) Canidaelowast JackalLutra lutra (NT I) Mustelidaelowast OtterPteropus sp (LC) Pteropodidaelowast BatFunambulus sp Sciuridaelowast SquirrelPetaurista petaurista (LC) Sciuridaelowast Flying squirrelLepus nigricollis (LC) Leporidaelowast Jungle hareBoselaphus tragocamelus (VU) Bovidaelowast Blue bullAxix axix (VU) Cervidaelowast Spotted deerSus scrofa (LC) Suidaelowast Wild boarElephas maximus (EN I) Elephantidaelowastlowast Asian elephantBandicota indica (LC) Muridaelowast Jungle ratlowastSeen lowastlowastReported from focus group discussions (FGD) and key informantsinterviews (KII)EN endangered VU vulnerable NT near threatened LC least concern(IUCNRed List Category) I II CITES categories (source Jnawali et al [72])

Table 7 Reptiles directly observed in the Ghodaghodi Lake com-plex

Scientific name Family Common nameCrocodyluspalustris (VU I ) Crocodylidae Marsh mugger

Python molurus(NT I) Pythonidae Python

Kachuga tecta(LC) Geoemydidae Indian roofed turtle

Kachugakachuga (CR) Geoemydidae Red crowned roofed turtle

Lissemyspunctata (LC) Trionychidae Flap shell turtle

Varanusflavescens (LC I) Varanidae Golden monitor lizard

V vulnerable CR critically endangered NT near threatened LC leastconcern (IUCN Red List Category) (source IUCN [73]) I CITES category

and pigeons on the shore which ultimately becomes asource of pollution A few past studies [20 22 77] alsodocumented cultural and religious activities as amajor sourceof pollution Recreational activities in the form of picnickingare a common practice inside the complexThemovement ofpeople and the loud music system played for such recreationnegatively impact the faunal species including birds

During the last two decades land use of the complex haschanged due to the encroachment of migrants from the hillydistricts of far western region Forest area has decreased atthe expense of agricultural land while forest cover has beenconverted into open grazing land displacing the habitat ofimportant birds and wildlife

10 ISRN Biodiversity

Water extraction for irrigation and water use for buf-falo wallowing has severely affected the habitat This studyobserved both Ghodaghodi and Nakharodi Lakes having acanal used for irrigation purposes a practice that becomeseven more intense during dry periods Landowners andfarmers downstream from the lake have a vested interest tosecure water for irrigation The lake complex does not havea permanent perennial source of water and this extractionsystem especially in the dry season greatly affects the aquaticlife and migratory birds

The southeastern part of Ghodaghodi Lake and easternparts of Nakharodi Lake have been heavily affected by live-stock grazing As the occupation of most of the villagers usedto be farming as well as rearing livestock grazing the forestsand open grasslands of the lake area is common Howeverthe trampling of soil and browsing of young palatable speciesfrom this traditional practice has damaged the regenerationcapacity of native vegetation in the area

Dichlorvos 76 EC and Endosulfan 35 EC were themajor pesticides used while urea and diammonium phos-phate (DAP) were the major fertilizers used in crops near thelake vicinity The seepage of such pesticides and fertilizersthrough agricultural runoff has caused eutrophication inthe lake As a result excessive growth of aquatic macro-phytes such as Ceratophyllum demersum Nelumbo nuciferaNaja minor Pistia stratiotes and Hydrilla verticillata fromthe water surface was evident Siwakoti and Karki [20]reported the occurrence of both the natural and humancaused eutrophication at Ghodaghodi Lake complex with theinvasion of Ipomea fistulosa and Salix spp Eutrophicationfrom agricultural runoff and invasion of water hyacinth werealso reported by Shrestha [42] at Koshi Tappu wetland

Siltation emerging from the degradation of upper water-shed areas is another reason for habitat destruction Rapiddeforestation and encroachment in the watershed area withinBetini forest a major source of water is causing reducedwater supply to the lake Overgrazing of the grassland at thewatershed has also increased soil erosion and siltation Thisfinding is similar to that of [77] In Nepal nearly 69 ofwetlands are threatened by sedimentation and siltation while61 by agricultural runoff [7]

4 Conclusion and Recommendation

This study a month long summer season survey documentsthe existing biodiversity the use pattern of floral diversityby the local people and anthropogenic threats to the overallbiodiversity of Ghodaghodi Lake complex The GhodaghodiLake complex was found to be a very rich wetland diversityhotspot in the western low-land region of Nepal thoughvariations in the number of species than those of previousstudy by IUCN [7] and Kafle [22] were recorded Withinsuch a small territory the existence of such a vast numberof both the floral and faunal diversity is really an encour-aging sign for conservation The lake resources especiallyaquatic and terrestrial plants were traditionally been used fordifferent purposes including medicinal food fodder fruitfuel wood timber and industrial Among them medicinal

uses were a main priority for the local people becausethey have been traditionally practiced in the locality andare a good alternative to the health care system Howeverthe data revealed that most of the plant species were stilluntouched because of a lack of local knowledge on theirpotential value and utilization This shows a scope in theexploration of ethnobotanical knowledge of the plant speciesin the Ghodaghodi Lake complex If proper conservationand sustainable utilization is ensured then the lake resourcescan have a good economic contribution to the lives of localpeople

The paradox is however the threats in the area mostlyanthropogenic in nature which could lead to an imbalanceof the natural wetland ecosystem If immediate conservationaction is not put in place then there is a likelihood thatmost of the threatened category animals will be in dangerdue to the anthropogenic threats identified by this studyThe results show that Ghodaghodi Lake complex has anenormous economic and conservational potential and careshould be taken to maintain its biodiversity value Theeconomic potential and multipurpose use of plant speciesincluding medicinal values could supplement the householdincome of the local people and be a good incentive for themfor conservation We recommend (1) more exploration of theindigenous lake resource uses including medicinal potentialof available plant species (2) prioritizing in situ biodiversityconservation and (3) implementing awareness programs atlocal levels on the consequence of threats to lake biodiversity

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

References

[1] W I Mitsch and I G Gosselink Wetlands Van NostrandReinhold New York NY USA 1986

[2] MFSC Nepal Biodiversity Strategy Ministry of Forest and SoilConservation Kathmandu Nepal 2002

[3] P Dugan Wetlands in Danger A World Conservation AtlasOxford University Press New York NY USA 1993

[4] A R Joshi and D P Joshi ldquoEndemic plants of Nepal Himalayaconservation status and future directionrdquo Mountain Environ-ment and Development vol 1 no 2 pp 1ndash35 1991

[5] IUCN A Review of the Status andThreats to Wetlands in NepalIUCN Nepal Kathmandu Nepal 2004

[6] BirdLife International Lists of Globally Threatened and Near-Threatened Species in Nepal 2010

[7] IUCN The Ghodaghodi Tal Conservation Area A CommunityCentred Management Plan IUCN Nepal Kathmandu Nepal1998

[8] U R Sharma K J Malla and R K Uprety ldquoConservation andmanagement efforts of medicinal and aromatic plants in NepalrdquoBanko Janakari vol 14 pp 3ndash11 2004

[9] S Bhattarai R P Chaudhary and R S L Taylor ldquoEthnomedici-nal plants used by the people ofManang district central NepalrdquoJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2 article 412006

ISRN Biodiversity 11

[10] R M Kunwar and RW Bussmann ldquoEthnobotany in the NepalHimalayardquo Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 4article 24 2008

[11] R Acharya and K P Acharya ldquoEthnobotanical study ofmedicinal plants used by Tharu Community of Parroha VDCRupendehi District Nepalrdquo ScientificWorld vol 7 no 7 pp 80ndash84 2009

[12] M Karki and J T Williams Priority Species of Medicinal Plantsin South Asia Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Program in Asia(MAPPA) IDRCSARO New Delhi India 1999

[13] S K Ghimire ldquoSustainable harvesting and management ofmedicinal plants in the Nepal Himalaya current issues knowl-edge gaps and research prioritiesrdquo in Medicinal Plants inNepal an Anthology of Contemporary Research P K Jha SB Karmarachraya M K Chhetri C B Thapa and B BShrestha Eds pp 25ndash44 Ecological Society of Nepal (ECOS)Kathmandu Nepal 2008

[14] S R Baral and P P Kurmi A Compendium of Medicinal PlantsinNepal vol 281Mrs Rachana SharmaMaujubahal ChabahilKathmandu Nepal 2006

[15] D RomportMAndreas and B Vlasakova ldquoMonitoring of bio-diversity changes in the landscape scalerdquo Journal of LandscapeEcology vol 1 no 1 pp 49ndash68 2008

[16] Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Ecosystems and HumanWell-Being Wetlands and Water Synthesis World ResourcesInstitute Washington DC USA 2005

[17] D Sonal R Jagruti and P Geeta ldquoAvifaunal diversity andwater quality analysis of an inland wetlandrdquo Journal of WetlandEcology vol 4 pp 1ndash32 2010

[18] K D Schuyt ldquoEconomic consequences of wetland degradationfor local populations in Africardquo Ecological Economics vol 53no 2 pp 177ndash190 2005

[19] D Dudgeon A H Arthington M O Gessner et al ldquoFreshwater biodiversity importance threats status and conservationchallengesrdquo Biological Reviews of the Cambridge PhilosophicalSociety vol 81 no 2 pp 163ndash182 2006

[20] M Siwakoti and J B Karki ldquoConservation status of RamsarSites of Nepal Tarai an overviewrdquo Botanica Orientalis vol 6pp 76ndash84 2009

[21] J A McNeely Economics and Biological Diversity Developingand Using Economic Incentives to Conserve Biological ResourcesIUCN Gland Switzerland 1988

[22] G Kafle ldquoAvifaunal survey and vegetation analysis focusing onthreatened and near-threatened species on Ghodaghodi Lakeof Nepalrdquo A Report Submitted to Oriental Bird Club (OBC)Bedford UK 2005

[23] Y B Bam ldquoConservation and Sustainable Use of GhodaghodiLake Systemrdquo Technical Report submitted to IUCN Nepal2002

[24] J P Sah and J T Heinen ldquoWetland resource use and con-servation attitudes among indigenous and migrant peoples inGhodaghodi Lake area Nepalrdquo Environmental Conservationvol 28 no 4 pp 345ndash356 2001

[25] CBS National Census Report of 2001 Central Bureau of Statis-tics Government of Nepal 2001


[27] J A Ludwig and J F Reynolds Statistical Ecology A Primerof Methods and Computing Wiley Press New York NY USA1988

[28] H Hara A O Chater and L H J Williams An Enumeration ofFlowering Plants of Nepal vol III BritishMeuseum (Nat Hist)London UK 1982

[29] C D K Cook Aquatic and Wetland Plants of India OxfordUniversity Press 1996

[30] J R Press K K Shrestha and D A SuttonAnnotated Checklistof the Flowering Plants of Nepal The Natural History MuseumLondon UK 2000

[31] E M Bursche A Hand Book of Water Plants Oriental Enter-prise Dehradun India 1991

[32] D R Dongol ldquoEconomic uses of forest plant resources inWestern Chitwan Nepalrdquo Banko Janakari vol 12 no 2 pp 56ndash64 2002

[33] R P Choudhary Biodiversity in Nepal Status and Conservation1998

[34] N P Manandhar Medicinal Plants of Nepal Himalaya RatnaPustak Bhandar Kathmandu Nepal 1980

[35] T K Rajbhandary M S Bista and V L Gurung Enumerationof the Vascular Plants of West Nepal Ministry of Forests andSoil Conservation Department of Plant Resources ThapathaliKathmandu Nepal 1994

[36] J Shrestha Enumeration of Fishes of Nepal Biodiversity ProfileProject Publication no 10 Department of National Parks andWildlife Conservation Ministry of Forest and Soil Conserva-tion Government of Nepal Kathmandu Nepal 1995

[37] BCN and DNPWC Birds of NepalmdashAn Official Checklist forNepal Bird Conservation Nepal and Department of NationalPark and Wildlife Conservation 2006

[38] B P Sarmah D Baruah and B Bakalial ldquoWetland medicinalplants in floodplains of Subansiri and Ranga River of Lakhim-pur District Assam Indiardquo Asian Journal of Plant Science andResearch vol 3 no 3 pp 54ndash60 2013

[39] B Niroula andK L B Singh ldquoAquatic plant resources of BetanaWetland Morang Nepalrdquo Our Nature vol 9 pp 146ndash155 2011

[40] A R Joshi and K Joshi ldquoEthnomedicinal plants used againstskin diseases in some villages of Kali Gandaki Bagmati andTadi Likhu watersheds of Nepalrdquo Ethnobotanical Leaflets vol11 pp 235ndash246 2007

[41] M K Misra A Panda and S Deenabandhu ldquoSurvey ofuseful wetland plants of South Odisha Indiardquo Indian Journalof Traditional Knowledge vol 11 no 4 pp 658ndash666 2012

[42] P Shrestha ldquoDiversity of aquatic macrophytes in the KoshiTappuWildlife Reserves and surrounding areas EasternNepalrdquoin Environmental and Biodiversity in the Context of South Asia2003ndash2011 P K Jha G P S Ghimire S B Karmacharya S RBaral and P Lacoul Eds 1996

[43] B Niroula and K L B Singh ldquoContribution to aquaticmacrophytes of Biratnagar and adjoining areas Eastern NepalrdquoEcoprint vol 17 pp 23ndash34 2010

[44] A R Mohammad O F Mohammad and A H MohammadldquoEnvironment friendly antibacterial activity of water chesnutfruitsrdquo Journal of Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences vol1 pp 26ndash34 2011

[45] M S Hossan A Hanif B Agarwala et al ldquoTraditional use ofmedicinal plants in Bangladesh to treat urinary tract infectionsand sexually transmitted diseasesrdquo Ethnobotany Research andApplications vol 8 pp 61ndash74 2010

[46] R B Mahato ldquoNotes on some plants of ethnomedicinal impor-tance from Palpa districtrdquo Tribhuvan University Journal vol 21no 1 pp 71ndash76 1998


[47] N P Balami ldquoEthnomedicinal uses of plants among the Newarcommunity of Pharping Village of Kathmandu district NepalrdquoJournal of Tribhuvan University vol 24 no 1 p 10 2004

[48] A G Singh M P Panthi and D D Tewari ldquoEthno medicinalplants used by theTharu andMagar communities of RupendehiDistrictWesternNepalrdquoCurrent Botany vol 2 no 2 pp 30ndash332011

[49] R M Kunwar Y Uprety C Burlakoti C L Chowdhary andR W Bussmann ldquoIndigenous use and ethnopharmacology ofmedicinal plants in far-west Nepalrdquo Ethnobotany Research andApplications vol 7 pp 5ndash28 2009

[50] M Ayyanar and S Ignacimuthu ldquoEthnobotanical survey ofmedicinal plants commonly used by Kani tribals in Tirunelvelihills of Western Ghats Indiardquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 134 no 3 pp 851ndash864 2011

[51] N Dhami ldquoEthnomedicinal uses of plants is Western Teraiof Nepal a case study of Dekhatbhuli VDC of Kanchanpurdistrictrdquo inMedicinal Plants in Nepal An Anthology of Contem-porary Research P K Jha S B Karmacharya M K ChhetryC B Thapa and B B Shrestha Eds pp 165ndash177 EcologicalSociety of Nepal (ECOS) Kathmandu Nepal 2008

[52] M Z Chopda and R T Mahajan ldquoWound healing plants ofJalgaon District of Maharashtra State Indiardquo EthnobotanicalLeaflets vol 13 pp 1ndash32 2009

[53] S S Ahmad ldquoMedicinal wild plants from Lahore-Islamabadmotorway (M-2)rdquo Pakistan Journal of Botany vol 39 no 2 pp355ndash375 2007

[54] Y Uprety R C Poudel H Asselin and E Boon ldquoPlant biodi-versity and ethnobotany inside the projected impact area of theUpper Seti Hydropower Project Western Nepalrdquo EnvironmentDevelopment and Sustainability vol 13 no 3 pp 463ndash492 2011

[55] KHussain A Shahazad and S ZHunssnain ldquoAn ethnobotani-cal survey of important wild medicinal plants of Hattar DistrictHaripur Pakistanrdquo Ethnobotanical Leaflets vol 12 pp 29ndash352008

[56] N P Manandhar ldquoNative phytotherapy among the Raute tribesof Dadeldhura district Nepalrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 60 no 3 pp 199ndash206 1998

[57] Y Uprety E K Boon R C Poudel et al ldquoNon-timber forestproducts in Bardiya district of Nepal indigenous use trade andconservationrdquo Journal of Human Ecology vol 30 no 3 pp 143ndash158 2010

[58] R B Mahato and R P Chaudhary ldquoEthnomedicinal studyand antibacterial activities of selected plants of Palpa districtNepalrdquo Scientific World vol 2 pp 38ndash45 2003

[59] A G Singh A Kumar and D D Tewari ldquoAn ethnobotanicalsurvey of medicinal plants used in Terai forest of westernNepalrdquo Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 8 p 192012

[60] P P Sapkota ldquoEthnoecological observation ofMagar of BakuniBaglung Western Nepal Dhaulagirirdquo Journal of Sociology andAnthropology vol 2 pp 227ndash252 2008

[61] D M A Jayaweera Medicinal Plants (Indigenous and Exotic)Used in Ceylon Part 3 The National Science FoundationColombo Sri Lanka 2006

[62] M M Hasan E A Annay M Sintaha et al ldquoA surveyof medicinal plant usage by folk medicinal practitioners inseven villages of Ishwardi Upazilla PabnaDistrict BangladeshrdquoAmerican-Eurasian Journal of Sustainable Agriculture vol 4 no3 pp 326ndash333 2010

[63] K Joshi R Joshi and A R Joshi ldquoIndigenous knowledge anduses of medicinal plants in Macchegaun Nepalrdquo Indian Journalof Traditional Knowledge vol 10 no 2 pp 281ndash286 2011

[64] S Bhattarai B Pant and C P Upadhyaya ldquoDependency ofTharu communities on wild plants a case study of ShankarpurKanchanpur districtrdquo Banko Janakari vol 21 no 1 pp 35ndash402011

[65] T KrishnamurtyMinor Forest Product of India Oxford amp IBHPublishing New Delhi India 1993

[66] M Rahmatullah M N K Azam M M Rahman et alldquoA survey of medicinal plants used by garo and non-garoTraditional Medicinal Practitioners in Two Villages of TangailDistrict BangladeshrdquoAmerican-Eurasian Journal of SustainableAgriculture vol 5 no 3 pp 350ndash357 2011

[67] P K Rai and H Lalramnghinglova ldquoEthnomedicinal plantresources of Mizoram India implication of traditional knowl-edge in health care systemrdquo Ethnobotanical Leaflets vol 14 pp274ndash305 2010

[68] B P Gaire and L Subedi ldquoMedicinal plant diversity and theirpharmacological aspects of Nepal Himalayasrdquo PharmacognosyJournal vol 3 no 25 pp 6ndash17 2011

[69] S A Mukul M B Uddin and M R Tito ldquoMedicinal plantdiversity and local healthcare among the people living inand around a conservation area of Northern BangladeshrdquoInternational Journal of Forest UsufructsManagement vol 8 no2 pp 50ndash63 2007

[70] A G Singh and J P Hamal ldquoTraditional phytotherapy ofsome medicinal plants used by Tharu and Magar communitiesof Western Nepal against dermatological disordersrdquo ScientificWorld vol 11 no 11 pp 81ndash89 2013

[71] H S Baral ldquoUpdated status of Nepalrsquos wetland birdsrdquo BankoJanakari (Wetland Special Issue) pp 30ndash35 2009

[72] S R Jnawali H S Baral S Lee et al The Status of NepalMammals The National Red List Series The National Red ListSeries Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conserva-tion Kathmandu Nepal 2011

[73] IUCN IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Version 201322013 httpwwwiucnredlistorg

[74] R J Naiman J J Magnuson D M McKnight and J AStanfordThe Freshwater Imperative A Research Agenda IslandPress Washington DC USA 1995

[75] D J Rapport and W G Whitford ldquoHow ecosystems respondto stress common properties of arid and aquatic systemsrdquoBioScience vol 49 no 3 pp 193ndash203 1999

[76] B B Bhandari ldquoWise use of wetlands inNepalrdquoBanko Janakari(Wetland Special Issue) pp 10ndash17 2009

[77] P K Neupane M Khadka R Adhikari and D R Bhuju ldquoLakewater quality and surrounding vegetation in Dry Churiya HillsFar-Western Nepalrdquo Nepal Journal of Science and Technologyvol 11 pp 181ndash188 2010

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Forestry ResearchInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

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EcologyInternational Journal of


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Applied ampEnvironmentalSoil Science

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Atmospheric SciencesInternational Journal of



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Geological ResearchJournal of

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ClimatologyJournal of

2 ISRN Biodiversity

Medicinal plants have contributed significantly to thelivelihood of Nepalese people [8] and their use is prevalent indifferent parts of the country [9 10] In Nepal traditional useof plant resources for medicinal purpose has a long historyand is gaining popularity due to a lack of side effects easyavailability at affordable prices and inmany circumstances itis the only source of health care to the poor communities [11]Around 6500 plant species are used for medicinal purposesin Asia [12] while at least 1600 to 1900 plant species are usedtraditionally for medicinal practices in Nepal [13 14] Thegovernment has also recognized the importance of properconservation of medicinal plant diversity and the issue ishighlighted in the national level Nepal Biodiversity Strategy[2] It is estimated that only 15ndash20 of the population ofNepal who live in and around urban areas have accessto modern medicinal facilities whereas the rest depend ontraditional medicines [8]

Biodiversity loss has become a major issue over the lastfew decades and its protection has emerged as a main agendawithin national nature conservation policies internationalconventions conservation targets and political programmes[15] Freshwater biodiversity has been threatened by a num-ber of major impacts such as overexploitation water pol-lution and flow modification including water abstractiondestruction or degradation of habitat as well as invasion byalien species [16] The diversity and distribution of wetlandflora and fauna are affected by the changes in the water chem-istry [17] Schuyt [18] reported various threats to the majorwetlands ofAfrica reclamation for agriculture and settlementexpansion at Nakivubo wetland Uganda reduction of waterlevel by overabstraction within catchment and degradation ofthe catchment itself due to overpopulation overexploitationof wetland resource soil erosion and siltation pollution fromthe use of agrochemicals and invasion by water hyacinthat Lake Chilwa wetland Malawi reduced water flow byoverabstraction aquatic weed infestation overuse of wetlandresource pollution and deforestation at Zambezi Basinwetland South Africa Five threats have been documented byDudgeon et al [19] including overexploitation of the naturalresources water pollution from the siltation and agriculturalwastes flow modification habitat degradation and exoticspecies invasion whose combined and interactive influencesare the causes of declining populations and shrinking globalfreshwater biodiversity and could be compared with theexisting condition of Ghodaghodi Lake complex Siwakotiand Karki [20] highlighted the heavy dependency of the poorpeople on wetlands as a major issue for wetland conservationin Nepal The authors were of the view that the involvementof wetland-dependent communities in the decision-makingprocess could assist sustainable resource conservation effortsand help them benefit in lieu of conservation The effectivesystems of resource management can ensure that biologicalresources not only survive but increase as well while theyare being used by the people thus providing the foundationfor sustainable development [21] Protection of freshwaterbiodiversity is perhaps the ultimate conservation challenge inthe current global scenario [19] Since wetlands are consid-ered as a common property resource the conservation of this

ecosystem is an uphill task unless the principal stakeholdersare involved in the process

Ghodaghodi Lake complex is the largest interconnectednatural lake system in the plain land of Nepal and wasdesignated a Ramsar site in 2003 due to its high biodiversityvalue Though it is a very important lake ecosystem onlya few studies [7 22] are found on the biodiversity andthreats while medicinal uses of plant species are hardlytapped by the scientific research IUCN [7] carried out a fullinventory of the LakeComplex spread over sixmonths (NovndashMay 199798) while Kafle [22] studied certain lake diversityfocussing only on Ghodaghodi Lake in summer (Jan-Feb)and winter (Sept-Oct) of 2005 This study investigates theterrestrialriparian and aquatic biodiversity of the lake com-plex existing and potential utility including the medicinalvalues of the plant species while at the same time identifiesthe anthropogenic threats to the lake biodiversityThe resultsof this research are intended to informmanagers and decisionmakers about the importance of this lake ecosystem and howplanning decisions could impact the lakersquos biodiversity

2 Materials and Methods

21 Study Area The Ghodaghodi Lake complex (28∘4110158401710158401015840N 80∘ 5610158404710158401015840 E) lies in the Kailali district of far WesternTerai in Nepal (Figure 1) and is 205m above mean sea levelThis wetland covers approximately 2500 ha 14 large andsmall oxbow lakes with associatedmarshes swamps streamssprings seasonal marshy grasslands and artificial wetlands(canals irrigated fields ponds etc) surrounded by tropicaldeciduous mixed Shorea robusta forest in the lower slopes ofSiwalik hills Major lakes of the complex include Ghodaghodi(138 ha) Nakharodi (70 ha) and Baishawa (10 ha) [20]

The lake system is connected with extensive forests alongthe Siwalik (Churia) Hills to the north and falls between twoof Terairsquos protected areasmdashthe Royal Bardia National Parkand the Royal Suklaphanta Wildlife Reservemdashand functionsas an important corridor for the movement of wildlife Thelake complex is characterised by three types of wetlandhabitats (i) riverine including perennial rivers and river floodplain (ii) lacustrine including oxbow lakes and ponds and(iii) palustrine including marshes and swamps Marshy areason the fringes of the lakes are subject to periodic inundationOnly Ghodaghodi and Nakharodi Lakes are perennial whileBainshwa is seasonal and turnsmarshy during the dry seasonSimilarly the wetland forest complex has three types of foresthabitats Shorea robusta forest Terminalia alata forest andmixed deciduous riverine forest

The area has a tropical monsoon climate The aver-age annual rainfall ranges between 1630mm (recorded atTikapur 35 km to the southeast of the lake) and 1705mm(recorded at Dhangadhi) where about 80ndash85 of total rain-fall occurs during the monsoon period (mid-June to lateSeptember) The average monthly maximum temperatureranges from 21∘C to 38∘C and minimum 6∘C to 25∘C (atTikapur) At Dhangadhi the maximum temperature rangesfrom 22∘C to 37∘C and minimum from 5∘C to 25∘C The soilat the bed and surrounding area of the lake complex was

ISRN Biodiversity 3

(

(Sandepani

Darakh

0 50 100 150 20025(km)

China

N

IndiaIndia

India

Ramshikhar jhala


Kathmandu

Kailali






4 ISRN Biodiversity












31 Plant Diversity



ISRN Biodiversity 5



Submerged




Free-floating












6 ISRN Biodiversity

Table 2 Continued








32 Animal Diversity







ISRN Biodiversity 7




















8 ISRN Biodiversity

Table 3 Continued


















ISRN Biodiversity 9




























References




















































































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics














ISRN Biodiversity 3

(

(Sandepani

Darakh

0 50 100 150 20025(km)

China

N

IndiaIndia

India

Ramshikhar jhala


Kathmandu

Kailali






4 ISRN Biodiversity












31 Plant Diversity



ISRN Biodiversity 5



Submerged




Free-floating












6 ISRN Biodiversity

Table 2 Continued








32 Animal Diversity







ISRN Biodiversity 7




















8 ISRN Biodiversity

Table 3 Continued


















ISRN Biodiversity 9




























References




















































































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics














4 ISRN Biodiversity












31 Plant Diversity



ISRN Biodiversity 5



Submerged




Free-floating












6 ISRN Biodiversity

Table 2 Continued








32 Animal Diversity







ISRN Biodiversity 7




















8 ISRN Biodiversity

Table 3 Continued


















ISRN Biodiversity 9




























References




















































































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics














ISRN Biodiversity 5



Submerged




Free-floating












6 ISRN Biodiversity

Table 2 Continued








32 Animal Diversity







ISRN Biodiversity 7




















8 ISRN Biodiversity

Table 3 Continued


















ISRN Biodiversity 9




























References




















































































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics














6 ISRN Biodiversity

Table 2 Continued








32 Animal Diversity







ISRN Biodiversity 7




















8 ISRN Biodiversity

Table 3 Continued


















ISRN Biodiversity 9




























References




















































































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics














ISRN Biodiversity 7




















8 ISRN Biodiversity

Table 3 Continued


















ISRN Biodiversity 9




























References




















































































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics














8 ISRN Biodiversity

Table 3 Continued


















ISRN Biodiversity 9




























References




















































































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics














ISRN Biodiversity 9




























References




















































































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics

























References




















































































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics
























































































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics














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