ResearcResearch h

InquiryInquiry

OverviewOverview

Scientific investigation and the functions of Scientific investigation and the functions of researchresearch

Basic tools of communication scienceBasic tools of communication science

Time and research designsTime and research designs

Stages in the research processStages in the research process

Scientific InvestigationScientific Investigation

Basic steps in scientific investigations:Basic steps in scientific investigations: Specifying explanations (theories)Specifying explanations (theories) Making observationsMaking observations Interpreting the resultsInterpreting the results Refining explanationsRefining explanations

Functions of ResearchFunctions of Research

1. Exploration1. Exploration

2. Description2. Description

3. Explanation3. Explanation

Most research involves all threeMost research involves all three Studies move toward exploration as knowledge Studies move toward exploration as knowledge

accumulatesaccumulates

1. Exploration1. Exploration

• ““Learn about” or “familiarize”Learn about” or “familiarize”

• Asking basic questionsAsking basic questions

• E.g.:E.g.:• How does the public feel about term limits?How does the public feel about term limits?• Do the people support the death penalty?Do the people support the death penalty?

• Focus groups useful for explorationFocus groups useful for exploration

• Purposes:Purposes:• 1. General understanding1. General understanding• 2. Test feasibility of further research2. Test feasibility of further research• 3. Pretest methods of further research3. Pretest methods of further research

2. Description2. Description

Describing situations and eventsDescribing situations and events More deliberate than exploratory researchMore deliberate than exploratory research

Precise, measured descriptionPrecise, measured description

Idiographic orientationIdiographic orientation

E.g.:E.g.: U.S. CensusU.S. Census Opinion pollsOpinion polls How strong is public support for the war?How strong is public support for the war?

3. Explanation3. Explanation

Getting at the question of “why”Getting at the question of “why” More than describing eventsMore than describing events

Explain why they occur in a certain wayExplain why they occur in a certain way

Nomothetic orientationNomothetic orientation Laws that govern nature of relationshipsLaws that govern nature of relationships

E.g., Going beyond opinion polls:E.g., Going beyond opinion polls: Why are people voting for a certain candidate?Why are people voting for a certain candidate?

Basic Tools of Basic Tools of Communication ScienceCommunication Science

ExperimentsExperiments

Field (or “natural”) experimentsField (or “natural”) experiments

SurveysSurveys

Social network analysisSocial network analysis

Content analysisContent analysis

Focused interviewsFocused interviews

Qualitative Field Research Qualitative Field Research

Experimental MethodsExperimental Methods

Tradition started by psychologists interested in Tradition started by psychologists interested in media:media: Adapted experimental methodology to communicationAdapted experimental methodology to communication Many early researchers were psychologistsMany early researchers were psychologists

For example, Carl HovlandFor example, Carl Hovland ““Why We Fight”Why We Fight”

US Army commissions research during WWIIUS Army commissions research during WWII Effects of Frank Capra’s motivational film seriesEffects of Frank Capra’s motivational film series Experimental vs. control groupExperimental vs. control group

Exp group had more knowledge, but not more motivationExp group had more knowledge, but not more motivation

ExperimentsExperiments

• Experiments provide control Experiments provide control to:to:• Test hypothesesTest hypotheses• Isolate cause and effectIsolate cause and effect• Independent and dependent Independent and dependent

variablesvariables• Eliminate influence of third variablesEliminate influence of third variables

• Explanation over descriptionExplanation over description

• Simple models:Simple models:• Pretest – Pretest –

Stimulus – Stimulus – PosttestPosttest

• Experimental Experimental vs. control vs. control groupsgroups

Value of ExperimentsValue of Experiments

Isolating cause and effectIsolating cause and effect Exp vs. Control groupExp vs. Control group All other factors are controlledAll other factors are controlled Facilitates causal inferencesFacilitates causal inferences

Limitations of Limitations of ExperimentsExperiments

• Narrow focusNarrow focus

• Limited number of variables at onceLimited number of variables at once

• Artificial situationArtificial situation

• Subjects are aware they are being observedSubjects are aware they are being observed

• Limited external generalizabilityLimited external generalizability

• Best at isolating short-term effectsBest at isolating short-term effects• Many media effects are long-termMany media effects are long-term• How long do experimental effects last?How long do experimental effects last?

Field (Natural) Field (Natural) ExperimentsExperiments

Experiments that take place in the real worldExperiments that take place in the real world By design:By design:

Public health campaign: intervention vs. control Public health campaign: intervention vs. control communitycommunity

By coincidence:By coincidence: Naturally occurring phenomenonNaturally occurring phenomenon E.g., Comparing Northern Jersey to Southern Jersey in E.g., Comparing Northern Jersey to Southern Jersey in

terms of voter turnout due to differing media terms of voter turnout due to differing media conditions conditions

Advantages of Field Advantages of Field ExperimentsExperiments

Approximating control of experimentApproximating control of experiment

Less artificial settingLess artificial setting

Some control is sacrificed for greater Some control is sacrificed for greater generalizabilitygeneralizability

Types of SurveysTypes of Surveys

Polls (descriptive surveys)Polls (descriptive surveys)

Census (full population)Census (full population)

Sample surveys (specific group_Sample surveys (specific group_

Probability sample surveyProbability sample survey Each member of population has an equal chance of Each member of population has an equal chance of

being selected in sample – representativeness being selected in sample – representativeness Permits generalizations about larger populationPermits generalizations about larger population

Survey TypesSurvey Types

Cross-sectionalCross-sectional One time snapshot of the populationOne time snapshot of the population

Panel surveysPanel surveys People re-interviewed over timePeople re-interviewed over time Measures:Measures:

Change over timeChange over time Change in response to some eventChange in response to some event

Contact Methods in Survey Contact Methods in Survey ResearchResearch

Face-to-faceFace-to-face

Paper and pencilPaper and pencil

TelephoneTelephone

Direct mailDirect mail

Mall interceptMall intercept

Web-basedWeb-based

Advantages of Survey Advantages of Survey ResearchResearch

Describing characteristics of a large populationDescribing characteristics of a large population

Flexibility:Flexibility: Permits measurement of many variablesPermits measurement of many variables

Open and closed-ended questionsOpen and closed-ended questions

Capturing a large amount of information on:Capturing a large amount of information on: Cognitions (thoughts), attitudes and behaviorsCognitions (thoughts), attitudes and behaviors Possibility for anonymous responsePossibility for anonymous response

Limitations of Survey Limitations of Survey ResearchResearch

• Structuring responses:Structuring responses:• ““round pegs into square holes”round pegs into square holes”• ““pseudo-opinions”pseudo-opinions”

• Often asks about opinions without contextOften asks about opinions without context• General attitudes rather than more concretely General attitudes rather than more concretely

applied to real situationsapplied to real situations

• Artificiality of responding to surveyArtificiality of responding to survey• Demand characteristics, social desirability, Demand characteristics, social desirability,

conscious of observationconscious of observation

Social Network AnalysisSocial Network Analysis

Study of social networksStudy of social networks Understand social structure as made of nodes that Understand social structure as made of nodes that

are tied to one another in terms of strength, are tied to one another in terms of strength, duration, frequency, quality, or some other feature. duration, frequency, quality, or some other feature.

Nodes are usually individuals or organizationsNodes are usually individuals or organizations Ties can be any property of the relationships Ties can be any property of the relationships

between nodes between nodes Social networks operate on many levelsSocial networks operate on many levels

From families up to the level of nationsFrom families up to the level of nations

Social Network MetricsSocial Network Metrics

Centrality: This measure gives a rough indication of Centrality: This measure gives a rough indication of the social power of a node based on how well they the social power of a node based on how well they "connect" the network. Are they a hub or a spoke?"connect" the network. Are they a hub or a spoke?

Closeness: This measures gives a sense of whether a Closeness: This measures gives a sense of whether a node is near all other nodes in a network (directly or node is near all other nodes in a network (directly or indirectly). How far along the "grapevine”?indirectly). How far along the "grapevine”?

Cohesion: This measures the degree to which nodes Cohesion: This measures the degree to which nodes are connected directly - ‘cliques’ if every nodes is are connected directly - ‘cliques’ if every nodes is directly tied to every other one, ‘social circles’ if nodes directly tied to every other one, ‘social circles’ if nodes are directly and indirectly tied to each other.are directly and indirectly tied to each other.

In-Degree and Out-Degree: The count of the number of In-Degree and Out-Degree: The count of the number of ties to other nodes in the network – ties coming in vs. ties to other nodes in the network – ties coming in vs. ties going outties going out

Content AnalysisContent Analysis

Systematic analysis of media texts, programs, Systematic analysis of media texts, programs, etc.etc.

Design coding instrument with content variables Design coding instrument with content variables to be measuredto be measured More than one coder analyzes contentMore than one coder analyzes content Codings compared to ensure reliabilityCodings compared to ensure reliability

Advantages of Content Advantages of Content AnalysisAnalysis

Systematic analysis of contentSystematic analysis of content

Non-obtrusiveNon-obtrusive

Reliability easy to assessReliability easy to assess Do two observers reach the same conclusion?Do two observers reach the same conclusion?

Limitations of Content Limitations of Content AnalysisAnalysis

Hard to get at deep meaning of contentHard to get at deep meaning of content Mundane questions emphasized for reliable Mundane questions emphasized for reliable

measurementmeasurement More interesting concepts are hard to measure More interesting concepts are hard to measure

reliablyreliably E.g., “media bias”E.g., “media bias”

Focused InterviewsFocused Interviews

• Trying to get a more in-depth look at opinion Trying to get a more in-depth look at opinion holdingholding• More open-ended questionsMore open-ended questions

• Focus groups:Focus groups:• Planned discussions in an open-environmentPlanned discussions in an open-environment• Loosely-structured script with moderatorLoosely-structured script with moderator• 6 to 12 participants6 to 12 participants• Samples usually not randomly selectedSamples usually not randomly selected• 1 to 2 hours1 to 2 hours• Qualitative and quantitative analysis of transcriptQualitative and quantitative analysis of transcript• Often combined with surveys of participantsOften combined with surveys of participants

Functions of Focus GroupsFunctions of Focus Groups

• Prior to survey research:Prior to survey research:• Identifying closed-ended survey itemsIdentifying closed-ended survey items• Suggesting hypothesesSuggesting hypotheses• E.g., Media uses and gratifications-soughtE.g., Media uses and gratifications-sought

• Supplementing survey researchSupplementing survey research• Going in-depth, “behind” the survey responsesGoing in-depth, “behind” the survey responses• E.g., Attitudes toward affirmative actionE.g., Attitudes toward affirmative action

• Getting at complex opinion/belief structuresGetting at complex opinion/belief structures• More detailed responsesMore detailed responses

• Subjects use their own language, terms, Subjects use their own language, terms, conceptsconcepts

Limitations of Focus Limitations of Focus GroupsGroups

Influence of the facilitatorInfluence of the facilitator

Influence of vocal participantsInfluence of vocal participants

Small, non-representative groupsSmall, non-representative groups

Biases in transcript interpretationBiases in transcript interpretation

Artificial nature of focus group situationsArtificial nature of focus group situations Ditto for surveys and experimentsDitto for surveys and experiments

Qualitative Field ResearchQualitative Field Research

Naturalism – detailed and accurate descriptionNaturalism – detailed and accurate description

Grounded Theory – patterns and themes from Grounded Theory – patterns and themes from observational workobservational work

Case Study and Extended Case Method – focus on case Case Study and Extended Case Method – focus on case and casesand cases

Ethnography – participant and observer of the situationEthnography – participant and observer of the situation

Participatory Action Research – Serve as resource for Participatory Action Research – Serve as resource for studied groupstudied group

Stages in the Research Stages in the Research ProcessProcess

• Interest/initial explorationInterest/initial exploration

• ConceptualizationConceptualization

• Choice of methodChoice of method

• OperationalizationOperationalization

• Population definitionPopulation definition

• ObservationObservation

• Data processing and analysisData processing and analysis

• ApplicationApplication

Interest/Initial Interest/Initial ExplorationExploration

Interest => preliminary explorationInterest => preliminary exploration What do we currently know?What do we currently know?

Applicable research and theoryApplicable research and theory

Define purpose/goals:Define purpose/goals: Exploration, description or explanation?Exploration, description or explanation?

ConceptualizationConceptualization

What are the research questions?What are the research questions? Who or what do they apply to?Who or what do they apply to?

Identifying relevant conceptsIdentifying relevant concepts What concepts/variables come into play?What concepts/variables come into play?

Define all important conceptsDefine all important concepts E.g., Racial prejudice, political participationE.g., Racial prejudice, political participation

How do we define them?How do we define them?

Choice of MethodChoice of Method

Best method to answer research questions?Best method to answer research questions? Content analysis?Content analysis? Lab experiment?Lab experiment? Field experiment Field experiment Natural experiment?Natural experiment? Focus groups?Focus groups? Survey?Survey?

Cross-sectional, trend, cohort, or panel?Cross-sectional, trend, cohort, or panel?

OperationalizationOperationalization

How do we measure concepts?How do we measure concepts? E.g., Measuring attention to mediaE.g., Measuring attention to media

How has past research measured concepts?How has past research measured concepts? What is best for our purposes?What is best for our purposes?

Population DefinitionPopulation Definition

To whom do we want to generalize results?To whom do we want to generalize results? Define the population of unitsDefine the population of units Define sampling frame (population list)Define sampling frame (population list)

Who are we going to study?Who are we going to study? Define sampling strategy for selection Define sampling strategy for selection Should represent larger populationShould represent larger population

ObservationObservation

Making observations/collecting dataMaking observations/collecting data

For example:For example: Survey interviewingSurvey interviewing Content analysis codingContent analysis coding Taping focus group interactionsTaping focus group interactions Experimental observationsExperimental observations

Data Processing and Data Processing and AnalysisAnalysis

Data processingData processing Translating the observations into dataTranslating the observations into data

E.g., survey answers translated into numbers and E.g., survey answers translated into numbers and entered into the computerentered into the computer

E.g., content coded into numbersE.g., content coded into numbers

Data analysisData analysis Synthesizing larges amounts of informationSynthesizing larges amounts of information

Data analysis examining relationships b/w conceptsData analysis examining relationships b/w concepts Application of statistics and summary tablesApplication of statistics and summary tables

ApplicationApplication

Packaging the results in usable formPackaging the results in usable form

Writing a research report:Writing a research report: Who is the audience?Who is the audience?

Researchers, policymakers or publicResearchers, policymakers or public