Research Methodology

AP Psychology

Why do we need research?

Why? Because just asking people how/why they felt and acted the way they did can be misleading.

Common sense isn’t all it is cracked up to be.

A Demonstration

Group B close your eyes.

Group A: Psychologists have found that separation weakens romantic attraction. As the saying goes “out of sight, out of mind.

Write down why this might be the case.

A Demonstration

Group A close your eyes.

Group B: Psychologists have found that separation strengthens romantic attraction. As the saying goes “absence makes the heart grow fonder.”

Write down why this might be the case.

A Demonstration

Find a member of the opposite group. Discuss the question below, being sure to provide evidence.

What impact does separation have on romantic relationships?

When both a supposed finding and its opposite seem like common sense, we have a problem.

Hindsight Bias

The problem we have is hindsight bias, or the feeling that because something has already happened, it is inevitable. I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon

What’s the point?

Hindsight bias and overconfidence often lead us to overestimate our intuition (common sense). Scientific inquiry can help us move from illusion back to fact.

Experimental Research

Research Hypothesis (Directional): A prediction stating expected results

Research Hypothesis (Non-Directional): A prediction which does not specifically state the expected difference

Null Hypothesis: A statement that there will be no statistically significant difference as a result of the experimental condition.

Variables

Independent Variable: What is manipulated by the researcher

Dependent Variable: What is being measured Confounding Variable: An unintended factor

which influences the outcome of an experiment

Groupings

Experimental Group: the participants who are exposed to treatment, one version of the independent variable

Control Group: contrasts with the experimental group, serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of treatment

Placebo Group: experimental results caused by expectation alone

Other Experimental Considerations

Researcher (Experimenter) Bias or Expectancy

Demand Characteristics: A cue that makes participants aware of what a researcher expects to find

Single-Blind Experiments Double Blind Experiments

Experimental Designs

Independent Measures – between subjects design

Matched Pairs Repeated Measures – within subjects design Single participant/subject

Sampling Techniques

The sample selected should be representative of the target population

Avoid selection bias

Assign participants to each condition randomly

Sampling Techniques

Random Selection: each participant has an equal chance

Representative Sampling: each participant exhibits characteristics of the target population

Stratified Sampling: use a subset with each of the common characteristics, then randomly assign to each condition

Sampling Techniques

Systematic Sampling: every nth person is selected

Purposive Sampling: participants are chosen on the basis of particular characteristics

Convenience/Opportunity Sampling: participants are a pre-existing group

Snowball Sampling: referrals from initial participants generate additional participants

Interview Methods

E-mail and Telephone Focus Groups (small group interviews) One-to-One Interviews

E-Mail & Telephone Interviews

ADVANTAGES High response rate,

sample bias More people enjoy e-

mail Allows for diverse

sample Low risk for researcher

DISADVANTAGES Difficult to achieve

rapport Literacy of participants Lack of visual clues

may cause problems in interpretation

Focus/Small Group Interviews

ADVANTAGES Efficient generation of

large amounts of data Participants tend to

enjoy the experience Relatively inexpensive

and flexible

DISADVANTAGES Not easy to conduct

well Limited number of

questions covered Confidentiality can be a

problem Participants may not

give personal information in a group

One-to-One Interviews

ADVANTAGES Participants more

willing to divulge personal information

More data rich Allows for a relationship

between interviewer and participant

Allows for follow-up

DISADVANTAGES Time consuming and

expensive Difficult to conduct well Researcher must keep

subjectivity in check Report and reflect

interview accurately

Methods of Interviewing

Conversational Interviews Structured Interview Semi-Structured Interview

Conversational Interviews

ADVANTAGES Participants relax and

speak freely No specific set of

questions Participant can be

interviewed without knowing they are being studied (ethics)

DISADVANTAGES Not standardized Participant may control

the interview

Structured Interview

ADVANTAGES Very straight forward Easy to evaluate and

compare candidates Less time consuming to

analyze

DISADVANTAGES Does not yield rich

information, requires a structured response

Does not engage participant on a personal level

Limits information obtained

Semi-Structured Interview

ADVANTAGES Answers criticism of

structured interview Pre-set topics but no

specific questions Allows for more

interaction

DISADVANTAGES Places limits on what is

asked Not fully

conversational, may not allow for obtaining personal information

Traditional Transcription

Recorded on tape and transcription focuses on words only

Quick and easy, good for market research Doesn’t account for tone of voice, speech

rate

Post-Modern Transcription

Non-verbal cues are recorded and taken into account when transcribing

Allows for full interview experience Produces rich data and detailed analysis Difficult to maintain reliability Time consuming Distracting to participant Some people use more body language than others Must be transcribed quickly

Questionnaires/Surveys

ADVANTAGES Simple way to gather

data Standardized Generalizable

information Low cost, efficient,

takes less time Allows anonymity,

frankness

DISADVANTAGES Inaccurate responses Characteristics of

participants affect responses

Low response rate Ambiguous questions Interviewer bias

Participant Observation

ADVANTAGES Researcher blends in

with participants Researcher

subjectively experiences what participants are experiencing

DISADVANTAGES Observer might

influence behavior of the group

Interpretations of behavior may vary

Non-Participant Observation

ADVANTAGES Researcher blends in

and does not influence the behavior of group

DISADVANTAGES Researcher doesn’t

have same experience as group

Researcher may still influence group

Researcher may alter behavior of group

Observation Data Collection

Event Sampling: record key events each time they occur

Time Sampling: observe for a specific amount of time or timed units

Point Sampling: observe one individual in the group at a time

Content Analysis

Researcher determines media to be sampled then devises code units to be measured

Printed material: themes, characters, gender Television: race, gender, stereotypes Advertising: subtle influences on consumers Internet/E-mail: bias Objectivity of code units selected

Content Analysis

Raw Data ThemesHigher Order ThemesInterpretation

Case Study

ADVANTAGES Detail and depth High ecological validity May be only method for

studying rare behavior

DISADVANTAGES No determination of cause

and effect May be an unrepresentative

sample Reliability may be

questioned Difficult to replicate Time consuming and

expensive

Verbal Protocols

A record of what people say when they are asked to think out loud as they perform a task

Useful for information that might not be revealed in an interview

May not include all vital information; participants need to be trained for protocol to be useful; protocol may hinder performance of task; requires articulate participants

Q Sort

A subjective measure of personality characteristics used only in the humanistic perspective

One hundred cards are ranked from most descriptive to least descriptive in groups of 5,8,12,16,18,16,12,8,5

Ranking can be done by the participant or by another observer

Psychological Testing

Several types of tests to measure ability, interests, achievement, personality

Convenient way to gain insight into aspects of ability and behavior

Can be expensive, may not provide a complete representation of an individual’s true abilities or personality

Psychological Test Validity

Validity: the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Content validity: the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

Criterion validity: the behavior the test is designed to predict

Predictive validity: the success with which the test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict

Psychological Test Reliability

Reliability: the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, alternate forms of the test or on retesting

Triangulation

Combining data from different methods to collect richer data or to strength or test conclusions

Triangulation

Data Triangulation: using different times, locations and/or participants

Investigator/Researcher Triangulation: using multiple observers

Theory Triangulation: using theories from more than one perspective in interpreting data

Method Triangulation: using more than one method

Reflexivity

Personal Reflexivity: ways in which the researchers values, beliefs, experiences influenced the research also, how the research influenced the investigator

Reflexivity

Epistemological Reflexivity: thinking about the way in which knowledge has been generated in the study. Suggestions for further research

Descriptive Statistics

Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median, Mode

Measures of Dispersion: Range, Variance, Standard Deviation,

Inferential Statistics

Is the difference in the data significant or is it due to chance?

Used with quantitative data Tests of Statistical Significance:

chi square

Mann - Whitney U Test

Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test