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RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY,

Beginner’s booklet

Guided by

Dr GH R!bb!ni"ritten # Co$%iled by

Dr Ri&'!n

Te()ni(!l # logisti( su%%ort Dr A H!*ue



RESEARCH:

a way of examining your practice…

Research is undertaken within most professions. More than a set of skills, it is a way of

thinking: eamining critically the !arious aspects of your professional work. "t is a ha#it of

$uestioning what you do, and a systematic eamination of the o#ser!ed information to

find answers with a !iew to instituting appropriate changes for a more effecti!e

professional ser!ice.

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

%hen you say that you are undertaking a research study to find answers to a $uestion,

you are implying that the process&

'. is #eing undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies

( approaches)&

*. uses procedures, methods and techni$ues that ha!e #een tested for their

validity and reliability&

+. is designed to #e unbiased and objective .

Philosophies, means approaches e.g. $ualitati!e, $uantitati!e and the academic

discipline in which you ha!e #een trained.

Validity means that correct procedures ha!e #een applied to find answers to a $uestion.

Reliability refers to the $uality of a measurement procedure that pro!ides repeata#ility

and accuracy.

Unbiased and objective means that you ha!e taken each step in an un#iased manner

and drawn each conclusion to the #est of your a#ility and without introducing your own

!ested interest. (Bias is a deliberate attempt to either conceal or highlight something).

Adherence to the three criteria mentioned a#o!e ena#les the process to #e called

research-.

Howe!er, the degree to which these criteria are epected to #e fulfilled !aries from

discipline to discipline and so the meaning of research- differs from one academic

discipline to another.

he difference #etween research and non/research acti!ity is, in the way we find

answers: the process must meet certain requirements to be called research.



%e can identify these re$uirements #y eamining some definitions of research.

he word research is composed of two sylla#les, re and search.

re is a prefi meaning again, anew or o!er again

search is a !er# meaning to eamine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to pro#e.

ogether they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and

investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.

Research is a structured enquiry that utilies acceptable scientific methodology to solve

problems and create new knowledge that is generally applicable.

Scientific methods consist of systematic o#ser!ation, classification and interpretation of

data.

Although we engage in such process in our daily life, the difference #etween our casual

day/ to/day generalisation and the conclusions usually recogni0ed as scientific method

lies in the degree of formality, rigorousness, !erifia#ility and general !alidity of latter.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

Research is a process of collecting, analy0ing and interpreting information to answer

$uestions.

1ut to $ualify as research, the process must ha!e certain characteristics:

it must, as far as possi#le, #e

controlled,

ri!orous,

syste"atic,

valid and

veri#iable,

e"pirical and

critical.

$Ri!orous/you must #e scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find

answers to $uestions are relevant, appropriate and !ustified. Again, the degree of rigor



!aries markedly #etween the physical and social sciences and within the social

sciences.

$Syste"atic/this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an in!estigation follow

a certain logical se$uence. he different steps cannot #e taken in a hapha0ard way.

Some procedures must follow others.

$%alid and veri#iable/this concept implies that whate!er you conclude on the #asis of

your findings is correct and can #e !erified #y you and others.

$E"pirical/this means that any conclusion drawn, are #ased upon hard e!idence

gathered from information collected from real life eperiences or o#ser!ations.

$Critical/critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to

a research en$uiry. he process of in!estigation must #e foolproof and free from

draw#acks. he process adopted and the procedures used must #e a#le to withstand

critical scrutiny.

"or a process to be called research, it is imperative that it has the above characteristics.

Types o# research

he main different types of research can #e classified #y its purpose, its process and its

outcome. hese can in turn #e #roken down further:

• he purpose of the research can #e classified as:

o eploratory

o descripti!e

o analytical

o predicti!e.

• he process of the research can #e classified as:

o $uantitati!e

o $ualitati!e.

• he outco"e of the research can #e classified as:



o applied

o #asic or pure

o action.

2et us look at these in more detail.

3urpose of research

• E&ploratory research

his is conducted when there are few or no earlier studies to which references

can #e made for information. he aim is to look for patterns, ideas or hypotheses

rather than testing or confirming a hypothesis. "n eploratory research the focus

is on gaining insights and familiarity with the su#4ect area for more rigorous

in!estigation later. "n an undergraduate dissertation it is likely that you will #e

drawing on pre!ious studies and so pure eploratory research is not generally

appropriate for studies at this le!el 5 it is more appropriate for postgraduate

research. Howe!er, it is possi#le that you may carry out an initial sur!ey to

esta#lish areas of concern (eploratory research) and then research these issues

in more depth, perhaps through inter!iews, to pro!ide a deeper understanding

(eplanatory research).

• Descriptive research

his descri#es phenomena as they eist. "t is used to identify and o#tain

information on the characteristics of a particular issue. "t may answer such

$uestions as:

%hat is the a#sentee rate amongst a particular group of workers6

%hat are the feelings of workers faced with redundancy6

he data collected are often $uantitati!e, and statistical techni$ues are usually

used to summarise the information. 7escripti!e research goes further than

eploratory research in eamining a pro#lem since it is undertaken to ascertain

and descri#e the characteristics of the issue. An undergraduate dissertation may

include descripti!e research, #ut it is likely that it will also include one of the

following two types (eplanatory or predicti!e) as you are re$uired in your

dissertation to go #eyond description and to eplain or predict.



• Analytical or e&planatory research

his is a continuation of descripti!e research. he researcher goes #eyond

merely descri#ing the characteristics, to analyse and eplain why or how

something is happening. hus, analytical research aims to understand

phenomena #y disco!ering and measuring causal relations among them. "t may

answer $uestions such as:

How can the num#er of complaints made #y customers #e reduced6

How can the a#sentee rate among employees #e reduced6

%hy is the introduction of empowerment seen as a threat #y

departmental managers6

• 'redictive research

3redicti!e research goes further #y forecasting the likelihood of a similar situation

occurring elsewhere. "t aims to generalise from the analysis #y predicting certain

phenomena on the #asis of hypothesised, general relationships. "t may attempt

to answer $uestions such as:

%ill the introduction of an employee #onus scheme lead to higher le!els of

producti!ity6

%hat type of packaging will impro!e our products6

3redicti!e research pro!ides how-, why-, and where- answers to current e!ents as well

as to similar e!ents in the future. "t is also helpful in situations where %hat if6- $uestions

are #eing asked.

3rocess of research

here is no consensus a#out how to conceptualise the actual undertaking of research.

here are, howe!er, two main traditions of approaching a research topic 5 (uantitative

and (ualitative. Each approach demands different research methods.

• )uantitative research

he $uantitati!e approach usually starts with a theory or a general statement

proposing a general relationship #etween !aria#les. %ith this approach it is likely

that the researchers will take an o#4ecti!e position and their approach will #e to

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treat phenomena as hard and real. hey will fa!our methods such as sur!eys

and eperiments, and will attempt to test hypotheses or statements with a !iew to

generalising from the particular. his approach typically concentrates on

measuring or counting and in!ol!es collecting and analysing numerical data and

applying statistical tests.

• )ualitative research

he alternati!e tradition is the $ualitati!e approach. Here the in!estigator !iews

the phenomena to #e in!estigated as more personal and softer. He or she will

use methods such as personal accounts, unstructured inter!iews and participant

o#ser!ation to gain an understanding of the underlying reasons and moti!ations

for peoples- attitudes, preferences or #eha!iours. %ith this approach, the

emphasis is more on generating hypotheses from the data collection rather than

testing a hypothesis.

"n reading around the su#4ect you will find many alternati!e names for $ualitati!e

and $uantitati!e research. "t is good to ha!e an understanding of these and to

recognise them when you see them in research methods tet#ooks.

he features and differences #etween the two research processes are detailed #elow.

8ou should note the following points:

• 9ualitati!e and $uantitati!e research methods are not clear/cut nor mutually

eclusi!e 5 most research draws on #oth methods.

• 1oth approaches can generate $uantitati!e and $ualitati!e data.

• he difference #etween the two methods is in the o!erall form and in the

emphasis and o#4ecti!es of the study.

utcome of research

• Applied research

Applied research is pro#lem/oriented as the research is carried out to sol!e a

specific pro#lem that re$uires a decision, for eample, the impro!ement of safety in

the workplace, or market research. ;or your dissertation it is not usually accepta#le

to carry out applied research as it is !ery much limited to one esta#lishment or

company and you are re$uired to look at issues of wider significance, perhaps to

your industry as a whole or to a sector of it. 8ou may ha!e already carried out a

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pro#lem/#ased piece of research related to your placement. "t is important to

understand that the dissertation re$uires you to carry out some form of #asic

research 5 see #elow.

• *asic research

1asic research is also called #unda"ental or pure research, and is conducted

primarily to impro!e our understanding of general issues, without any emphasis on

its immediate application. "t is regarded as the most academic form of research since

the principal aim is to make a contri#ution to knowledge, usually for the general

good, rather than to sol!e a specific pro#lem for one organisation. his may take the

form of the following:

Discovery 5 where a totally new idea or eplanation emerges from empirical

research which may re!olutionise thinking on that particular topic. An eample of

this would #e the Hawthorne eperiments. (<illespie, '==')

Invention 5 where a new techni$ue or method is created. An eample of this

would #e the in!ention of 9M (total $uality management).

Re#lection 5 where an eisting theory, techni$ue or group of ideas is re/

eamined possi#ly in a different organisational or social contet. ;or eample, to

what etent can Her0#erg-s theory of moti!ation #e applied to front/line workers

in the contract catering sector6

(orrington > Hall, '==?)

;or an undergraduate dissertation it is most likely that you will #e concentrating on

reflection, as the scope of the pro4ect is unlikely to #e large enough to consider disco!ery

or in!ention.

• Action research

his is a form of research where action is #oth an outcome and a part of the

research. he researcher interferes- with or changes 5 deli#erately 5 what is

#eing researched. he critics of action research argue that since the researcher

is changing what is #eing researched during the process of research, the work

cannot #e replicated. "f it cannot #e replicated its findings cannot #e tested in

other situations. his pre!ents general knowledge #eing de!eloped and thus it

cannot contri#ute to theory. Also, as the researcher is in!ol!ed in the change



process there is a loss of critical, detached o#4ecti!ity. here are two approaches

to action research:

Classical action research #egins with the idea that if you want to understand

something you should try changing it.

Ne+ paradi!" research is #ased on a new model or framework for research. "t

claims that research can ne!er #e neutral and that e!en the most static and

con!entional research eposes the need for change in what is #eing researched.

"t in!ol!es in$uiry into persons and relations #etween persons, and is #ased on a

close relationship #etween researcher and those #eing researched. he research

is a mutual acti!ity of a co/ownership- in!ol!ing shared power with respect to the

process and the outcomes of the research. hose #eing researched can, for

eample, decide how the research will #e undertaken, in what form and with what

$uestions #eing asked. he researcher is a mem#er of a community- and #rings

to it special skills and epertise. he researcher does not dictate what will

happen. his type of research is most easily carried out when working with

indi!iduals or small groups. "t means that the researcher must #e highly skilled

not only in research methods #ut also in the interpersonal skills of facilitating

others. "t is not, therefore, usually appropriate for an undergraduate student who

is carrying out a ma4or piece of research for the first time. Action research is often

used #y educationalists who are trying to impro!e their own practice #y making

changes to the deli!ery of their classes and #y o#ser!ing and asking students

which actions work #est.

As you can see, there are a num#er of types of research and not all may #e

suita#le for you in your dissertation. he key points to remem#er are as follows:

• %hile the purpose of your dissertation may ha!e some elements of eploratory or

descripti!e research you should concentrate on research that will mainly fall into

the eplanatory area, or perhaps predicti!e research if you are !ery confident.

Eplanatory research gi!es you the opportunity to demonstrate the skills of

analysis and e!aluation which will help you to score highly in your final marks.



• he process of your research can either #e $uantitati!e or $ualitati!e and the

different methods that can help you to carry out your research in this way are

outlined more fully in @nit +.

• "t is likely that you will #e carrying out #asic or pure research in the reflection

mode (rather than applied or action research) as this will gi!e you the #est

chance of showing that you can test out a theory in a new situation.

In(uiry ,ode:

;rom the process adopted to find answer to research $uestions 5 the two approachesare:

- Structured approach

- Unstructured approach

Structured approach:

he structured approach to in$uiry is usually classified as quantitative research.

Here e!erything that forms the research process/ o#4ecti!es, design, sample, and the

$uestions that you plan to ask of respondents/ is predetermined."t is more appropriate to determine the extent of a pro#lem, issue or phenomenon #y

$uantifying the !ariation.

e.g. how many people ha!e a particular pro#lem6 How many people hold a particular

attitude6

Unstructured approach:

he unstructured approach to in$uiry is usually classified as qualitative research.

his approach allows flei#ility in all aspects of the research process."t is more appropriate to eplore the nature of a pro#lem, issue or phenomenon without

quantifying it. Main o#4ecti!e is to descri#e the variation in a phenomenon, situation or

attitude. e,g, description of an o#ser!ed situation, the historical enumeration of e!ents,

an account of different opinions different people ha!e a#out an issue, description of

working condition in a particular industry.



Both approaches have their place in research. Both have their strengths and

weaknesses.

"n many studies you ha!e to com#ine #oth $ualitati!e and $uantitati!e approaches.

;or eample, suppose you ha!e to find the types of cuisine accommodation a!aila#le in

a city and the etent of their popularity.

#ypes of cuisine is the $ualitati!e aspect of the study as finding out a#out them entails

description of the culture and cuisine

he extent of their popularity is the $uantitati!e aspect as it in!ol!es estimating the

num#er of people who !isit restaurant ser!ing such cuisine and calculating the other

indicators that reflect the etent of popularity.

THE RESEARCH 'ROCESS

he research process is similar to undertaking a 4ourney.

;or a research 4ourney there are two important decisions to make/

') $hat you want to find out about or what research $uestions (pro#lems)

you want to find answers to&

*) %ow to go about finding their answers.

here are practical steps through which you must pass in your research 4ourney in order

to find answers to your research $uestions.

he path to finding answers to your research $uestions constitutes research

methodology.

At each operational step in the research process you are re$uired to choose from a

multiplicity of methods, procedures and models of research methodology which will help

you to #est achie!e your o#4ecti!es.

#his is where your knowledge base of research methodology plays a crucial role.



THE FI%E -.S/

%hen you start to think a#out your research pro4ect, a useful way of remem#ering the

important $uestions to ask is to think of the fi!e %s-:

%hat6

%hy6

%ho6

%here6

%hen6

nce you ha!e thought a#out these fi!e %s- you can mo!e on to think a#out how you

are going to collect your data.

%hat6

%hat is your research6 his $uestion needs to #e answered as specifically as possi#le.

ne of the hardest parts in the early stages is to #e a#le to define your pro4ect, so

much research fails #ecause the researcher has #een una#le to do this. A useful tip is to

sum up, in one sentence only, your research. "f you are una#le to do this, the chances

are your research topic is too #road, ill thought out or too o#scure.

%hy6

%hy do you want to do the research6 %hat is its purpose6 kay, you might ha!e #een

told to do some research #y your tutor or #y your #oss, #ut there should #e another

reason why you ha!e chosen your particular su#4ect. "t might #e solely to do with the fact

that you are interested in the topic. his is a good start as you need to #e interested

in your research if you are to keep up your enthusiasm and remain moti!ated. r you

might ha!e identified a gap in the research literature 5 this is good as it shows you ha!e

carried out careful #ackground research.

r perhaps you want to try to o#tain funding for a particular ser!ice or enterprise and

you need to do some research first to find out if there is demand for what you are

proposing.



%hate!er your reason, think !ery carefully a#out why you are doing the research as this

will affect your topic, the way you conduct the research and the way in which you

report the results. "f you-re doing it for a uni!ersity dissertation or pro4ect, does your

proposed research pro!ide the opportunity to reach the re$uired intellectual stan dard6

%ill your research generate enough material to write a dissertation of the re$uired

length6 r will your research generate too much data that would #e impossi#le to

summarise into a report of the re$uired length6 "f you-re conducting research for funding

purposes, ha!e you found out whether your proposed funding #ody re$uires the

information to #e presented in a specific format6 "f so, you need to plan your research in

a way which will meet that format.

%ho6

%ho will #e your participants6 ("n this #ook, people who take part in research will #e

called participants or respondents, rather than su#4ects-, which is a term that " ha!e

ne!er liked.) At this stage of the research process, you needn-t worry too much a#out

eactly how many participants will take part in your research as this will #e co!ered later

(see Chapter ?). Howe!er, you should think a#out the type of people with whom you will

need to get in touch with and whether it will #e possi#le for you to contact them. "f you

ha!e to conduct your research within a particular time scale, there-s little point choosing

a topic which would include people who are difficult or epensi!e to contact. Also, #ear

now pro!ides opportunities for contacting people cheaply, especially if you-re in mind

that the "nternet a student with free internet access.

%here6

%here are you going to conduct your research6 hinking a#out this $uestion in

geographical terms will help you to narrow down your research topic. Also, you need to

think a#out the resources in terms of #udget and time that are a!aila#le to you. "f you-re

a student who will not recei!e tra!el epenses or any other out of pocket epenses,

choose a location close to home, college or uni!ersity. "f you-re a mem#er of acommunity group on a limited #udget, only work in areas within walking distance which

will cut down on tra!el epenses. Also, you need to think a#out where you-ll #e carrying

out your research in terms of !enue. "f you-re going to conduct inter!iews or focus

groups, where will you hold them6 "s there a room at your institution which would



#e free of charge, or are you going to conduct them in participants- own homes6 %ould it

#e safe for you to do so6 %ould you #e comforta#le doing so6 "f you-!e answered

no- to either of these last two $uestions, may#e you need to think again a#out your

research topic. "n '? years " ha!e encountered only one uncomforta#le situation in a

stranger-s home. "t can happen and you must ne!er put yourself in a dangerous

situation. hink !ery carefully a#out whether your chosen topic and method might ha!e

an influence on personal safety.

%hen6

%hen are you going to do your research6 hinking a#out this $uestion will help you to

sort out whether the research pro4ect you ha!e proposed is possi#le within your time

scale. "t will also help you to think more a#out your participants, when you need to

contact them and whether they will #e a!aila#le at that time. ;or eample, if you want to

go into schools and o#ser!e classroom practice, you wouldn-t choose to do this research

during the summer holiday. "t might sound o#!ious, #ut " ha!e found some students

present a well/written research proposal which, in practical terms, will not work #ecause

the participants will #e una!aila#le during the proposed data collection stage.

nce you ha!e thought a#out these fi!e %s-, try to sum up your proposed pro4ect in one

sentence. %hen you ha!e done this, take it to se!eral people, including your #oss

andor tutor, and ask them if it makes sense. 7o they understand what your research is

a#out6 "f they don-t, ask them to eplain their confusion, re!ise your statement and take

it #ack to them.

" can-t o!eremphasise the importance of this stage of the research process. "f you get it

right now, you will find that the rest of your work should flow smoothly. Howe!er, if you

get it wrong, your pro#lems could well escalate.



Steps in Research Process:

01 For"ulatin! the Research 'roble"

21 E&tensive 3iterature Revie+

41 Developin! the objectives

51 'reparin! the Research Desi!n includin! Sa"ple Desi!n

61 Collectin! the Data

71 Analysis o# Data

81 9eneralisation and Interpretation

:1 'reparation o# the Report or 'resentation o# Results$For"al +rite ups o#

conclusions reached1

Step01 For"ulatin! the research proble"

"t is the first and most crucial step in the research process

/ Main function is to decide what you want to find out about.

/ he way you formulate a pro#lem determines almost e!ery step that follows.

Sources of research pro#lems

Research in social sciences re!ol!es around four 3s:

B 3eople/ a group of indi!iduals

B 3ro#lems/ eamine the eistence of certain issues or pro#lems relating

to their li!es& to ascertain attitude of a group of people towards an issue

B 3rograms/ to e!aluate the effecti!eness of an inter!ention

B 3henomena/ to esta#lish the eistence of a regularity."n practice most research studies are #ased upon at least a com#ination of two &s.

E!ery research study has two aspects:

'. Study population/



B 3eople: indi!iduals, organi0ations, groups, communities ( they provide you with

the information or you collect information about them)

21 Subject area$

B 3ro#lems: issues, situations, associations, needs, profiles

B 3rogram : content, structure, outcomes, attri#utes, satisfactions,

consumers,Ser!ice pro!iders, etc.

B 3henomenon: cause/and/effect relationships, the study of a phenomenon itself

('nformation that you need to collect to find answers to your research questions)

ou can examine the professional field of your choice in the context of the four &s in

order to identify anything that looks interesting.

Considerations in selectin! a research proble":

hese help to ensure that your study will remain managea#le and that you will remain

moti!ated.

'. Interest: a research endea!our is usually time consuming, and in!ol!es hard work

and possi#ly unforeseen pro#lems. ne should select topic of great interest to sustain

the re$uired moti!ation.

*. ,a!nitude "t is etremely important to select a topic that you can manage within the

time and resources at your disposal. arrow the topic down to something managea#le,

specific and clear.

+. ,easure"ent o# concepts: Make sure that you are clear a#out the indicators and

measurement of concepts (if used) in your study.

D. 3evel o# e&pertise: Make sure that you ha!e ade$uate le!el of epertise for the task

you are proposing since you need to do the work yourself.

?. Relevance: Ensure that your study adds to the eisting #ody of knowledge, #ridges

current gaps and is useful in policy formulation. his will help you to sustain interest in

the study.

. Availability o# data: 1efore finali0ing the topic, make sure that data are a!aila#le.

F. Ethical issues: How ethical issues can affect the study population and how ethicalpro#lems can #e o!ercome should #e thoroughly eamined at the pro#lem formulating

stage.



Steps in #or"ulation o# a research proble" :

%orking through these steps presupposes a reasona#le le!el of knowledge in the #road

su#4ect area within which the study is to #e undertaken. %ithout such knowledge it is

difficult to clearly and ade$uately dissect- a su#4ect area.

Step 0 Identi#y a broad #ield or subject area o# interest to you1

Step 2 Dissect the broad area into sub areas1

Step 4 Select +hat is o# "ost interest to you1

Step 5 Raise research (uestions1

Step 6 For"ulate objectives1

Step 7 Assess your objectives1

Step 8 Double chec;1

So far we ha!e focused on the #asis of your study, the research problem. 1ut e!ery

study in social sciences has a second element, the study population from whom the

re$uired information to find answers to your research $uestions is o#tained.

As you narrow the research pro#lem, similarly you need to decide !ery specifically who

constitutes your study population, in order to select the appropriate respondents.

Step 21 Revie+in! the literature:

/Essential preliminary task in order to ac$uaint yourself with the a!aila#le body of

knowledge in your area of interest.

/2iterature re!iew is integral part of entire research process and makes !alua#le

contri#ution to e!ery operational step.

/Re!iewing literature can #e time/consuming, daunting and frustrating, #ut is also

rewarding. "ts functions are:

a. 1ring clarity and focus to your research pro#lem&#. "mpro!e your methodology&

c. 1roaden your knowledge&

d. Contetualise your findings.

a.*rin! clarity and #ocus to your research proble"&



he process of re!iewing the literature helps you to understand the su#4ect area #etter

and thus helps you to conceptualise your research pro#lem clearly and precisely. "t also

helps you to understand the relationship #etween your research pro#lem and the #ody of

knowledge in the area.

b1I"prove your "ethodolo!y:

A literature re!iew tells you if others ha!e used procedures and methods similar to the

ones that you are proposing, which procedures and methods ha!e worked well for them,

and what pro#lems they ha!e faced with them. hus you will #e #etter positioned to

select a methodology that is capa#le of pro!iding !alid answer to your research

$uestions.

c1*roaden your ;no+led!e base in your research area:

"t ensures you to read widely around the su#4ect area in which you intend to conduct

your research study. As you are epected to #e an epert in your area of study, it helps

fulfill this epectation. "t also helps you to understand how the findings of your study fit

into the eisting #ody of knowledge.

d11Conte&tualise your #indin!s:

How do answers to your research $uestions compare with what others ha!e found6

%hat

contri#ution ha!e you #een a#le to make in to the eisting #ody of knowledge6 How are

your findings different from those of others6 ;or you to #e a#le to answer these

$uestions, you need to go #ack to your literature re!iew. "t is important to place your

findings in the contet of what is already known in your field of en$uiry.

3rocedure for re!iewing the literature:

i) search for eisting literature in your area of study&

ii) re!iew the literature selected&

iii) de!elop a theoretical framework&

i!) de!elop a conceptual framework.

earch for existing literature:

/o effecti!ely search for literature in your field of en$uiry, it is imperati!e that you ha!e

in mind at least some idea of #road su#4ect area and of the pro#lem you wish to

in!estigate, in order to set parameters for your search.



/et compile a #i#liography for this #road area. Sources are:

'. #ooks

*.4ournals

*OO<S

comprise a central part of any #i#liography.

Ad!antage/material pu#lished generally is of good $uality and the findings are integrated

with other research to form a coherent #ody of knowledge.

7isad!antage/material is not completely up to date, as it can take a few years #etween

the completion of a work and pu#lication in the form of a #ook.

Search for #ooks in your area of interest, prepare a final list, locate these #ooks in the

li#raries or #orrow from other sources. Eamine their content, if contents are not found to

#e rele!ant to your topic, delete it from your reading list.

=O>RNA3S

Gournals pro!ide you with the most up/to/date information, e!en though there is a gap of

two to three years #etween the completion of a research pro4ect and the pu#lication in a

4ournal.

As with #ooks, you need to prepare a list of 4ournals for identifying literature rele!ant to

your study. his can #e done as follows:

/ locate the hard copies of the 4ournal that are appropriate to your study&

/ use the internet

/ look at the inde of research a#stracts in the rele!ant field to identify and read the

articles.

%hiche!er method you choose, first identify the 4ournals you want to look at in more

detail for your re!iew of literature. Select the latest issue, eamine its content page to

see if there is an article of rele!ance to your research topic. "f you feel a particular article

is of rele!ance to you, read its a#stract. "f you think you are likely to use it, photocopy or

prepare a summary and record it for reference for later use.



*eview the literature selected+

After identifying #ooks and articles as useful, the net step is to start reading them

critically to pull together themes and issues that are associated.

"f you do not ha!e a theoretical framework of themes in mind to start with, use separate

sheets of paper for each article or #ook.

nce you de!elop a rough framework, slot the findings from the material so far re!iewed

into that framework, using a separate sheet of paper for each theme of that framework.

As you read further, go on slotting the information where it logically #elongs under the

theme so far de!eloped. 8ou may need to add more themes as you go.

Read critically with particular reference to the following aspects:

B ote whether the knowledge rele!ant to your theoretical framework is confirmed

#eyond dou#t.

B ote the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their #asis, the methodologies

adopted and the criticisms of them.

B Eamine to what etent the findings can #e generali0ed to other situations. Ascertain

the areas in which little or nothing is known/the gaps that eist in the #ody of knowledge.

evelop a theoretical framework+

As you ha!e limited time it is important to set parameters #y re!iewing the literature in

relation to some main themes pertinent to your research topic.

As you start reading the literature, you will reali0e that it deals with a num#er of aspects

that ha!e a direct and indirect #earing on your research topic. @se these aspects as a

#asis for de!eloping your theoretical framework.

@ntil you go through the literature you cannot de!elop a theoretical framework and until

you ha!e de!eloped a theoretical framework, you cannot effecti!ely re!iew the literature.

2iterature pertinent to your study may deal with two types of information:

/ uni!ersal&/ more specific( i.e. local trends or specific program)

"n writing a#out such information you should start with the general information,gradually

narrowing down to the specific.

$riting up the literature reviewed :

"n order to comply with the first function of literature re!iew



i.e. to provide theoretical background to your study+

/2ist the main themes that ha!e emerged while reading literature.

/Con!ert them into su#headings. hese su#headings should #e precise, descripti!e of

the theme in $uestion, and follow a logical progression.

/ow, under each su#heading, record the main findings with respect to the theme in

$uestion, highlighting the reasons for and against an argument if they eist, and identify

gaps and issues.

"n order to comply with the second function of literature re!iew

i.e. contextualising the findings of your study / re$uires you to !ery systematically

compare

your findings with those made #y others. 9uote from these studies to show how your

findings contradict, confirm or add to them. "t places your findings in the contet of what

others ha!e found out. his function is undertaken when writing about your findings i.e.

after analysis of your data.

THE *I*3IO9RA'H?

he #i#liography should gi!e a clear, complete description of the sources that were used

while preparing the report.

"t is an alpha#etical list as per the author-s surname.

'. ;or a 1ook

Surname of author, name or two initials, itle taken from titlepage/underlined or in italics,

Edition (if more than one), !olume if more than one, place of pu#lication, pu#lishers, date

on title page or copyright date.

e.g. Iothari, C.R., *esearch -ethods-ethods and #echniques,'=J=,ew 7elhi :%iley

Eastern 2imited,DJ+?*D Ansari Road, 7aryagan4, ew 7elhi ''K KK.

.hat is a research (uestion@

his is the $uestion that you are trying to answer when you do research on a topic or

write a research report.Should a research $uestion #e general or specific6

"t should #e as specific as possi#le. "n some cases, you may make two or more research

$uestions to co!er a comple topic.

.hat is an e&a"ple o# a research (uestion@



;or eample, if you are studying the effects of sleep on reflees, you might formulate the

following research $uestion:

%hat are the effects of sleep on reflees6

A similar $uestion might #e:

7oes sleep ha!e an effect on reflees6

r:

"s maimum refle efficiency achie!ed after eight hours of sleep6

he goal of your research is to find the answer to the research $uestion.

FINER criteria for a good research question

F Feasible • Adequate number of subjects• Adequate technical expertise

• Affordable in time and money• Manageable in scope

I Interesting • Getting the answer intrigues inestigator! peers and "ommunity#

N $oel • "onfirms! refutes or extends preious findingsE %thical • Amenable to a study that institutional reiew board

will approeR &eleant • 'o scientific (nowledge

• 'o clinical and health policy• 'o future research

Adapted with permission from )olters *luwer +ealth#

PICOT criteria

P ,opulation -patients. • )hat specific patient population are you interested in/

I Interention -forinterention studies only • )hat is your inestigational

interention/

C "omparison group • )hat is the main alternatie to compare with the interention/

O 0utcome of interest • )hat do you intend to accomplish! measure! improe or affect/

T 'ime • )hat is the appropriate follow1up time to assess outcome



Step 4 The #or"ulation o# objectives

/#4ecti!es are the goals you set out to attain in your study.

/hey inform a reader what you want to attain through the study.

/"t is etremely important to word them clearly and specifically.

#4ecti!es should #e listed under two headings:

a) <eneral o#4ecti!es ( aims)&#) Specific/o#4ecti!es.

B he general ob!ective is an o!erall statement of the thrust of your study.

"t is also a statement of the main associations and relationships that you seek to

disco!er or esta#lish.

Tips for developing research questions, hypotheses and obectives for research

studies

2# ,erform a systematic literature reiew -if one has not been done. to increase (nowledge

and familiarity with the topic and to assist with research deelopment#

3# 4earn about current trends and technological adances on the topic#

5# 6ee( careful input from experts! mentors! colleagues and collaborators

to refine your research question as this will aid in deeloping the

research question and guide the research study#

7# 8se the FI$%& criteria in the deelopment of the research question#

9# %nsure that the research question follows ,I"0' format#

:# ;eelop a research hypothesis from the research question#

<# ;eelop clear and well1defined primary and secondary -if needed.

objecties#

=# %nsure that the research question and objecties are answerable!

feasible and clinically releant#

FI$%& > feasible! interesting! noel! ethical! releant? ,I"0' > population

-patients.!interention -for interention studies only.! comparison group! outcome of interest!

time#



B he specificob!ectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to in!estigate

within the main framework of your study.

/hey should #e numerically listed.

/%ording should clearly, completely and specifically Communicate to your readers your

intention.

/Each o#4ecti!e should contain only one aspect of the Study.

/@se action oriented words or !er#s when writing o#4ecti!es.

The objectives should start +ith +ords such as

-to deter"ine/

-to #ind out/

-to ascertain/

-to "easure/

-to e&plore/ etc1

he wording of o#4ecti!es determines the type of research (descripti!e, correlational and

eperimental) and the type of research design you need to adopt to achie!e them.e.g.

7escripti!e studies:

#o describe the types of incentives provides by %otel /0 to employees in -umbai.

#o find out the opinion of the employees about the medical facilities provided by five

star hotels in -umbai.

Correlatinal studies:

/o ascertain the impact of training on employee retention.

#o compare the effectivenesss of different loyalty programmes on repeat clientele.

Hypothesis 5testing studies:

#o ascertain if an increase in working hours will increase the incidence of drug1alchohol

abuse.#o demonstrate that the provision of company accommodation to employees in -umbai

hotels will reduce staff turnover.



CHARACTERISTICS OF O*=ECTI%ES

Clear LComplete LSpecific L "dentify main L "dentify the !aria#les to direction of #e

correlated relationship

"escriptive tudies"

"..2orrelational tudies (experimental and nonexperimental)."

"%ypothesis testing studies..."

SMART

Speci#ic

,easurable

Attainable

Realistic

Ti"ebound

Identi#yin! %ariables:

"n a research study it is important that the concepts used should #e operationalised in

measura#le terms so that the etent of !ariations in respondents- understanding is

reduced if not eliminated.

echni$ues a#out how to operationalise concepts, and knowledge a#out !aria#les, play

an important role in reducing this !aria#ility.

heir knowledge, therefore is important in fine tuning- your research pro#lem.

;or eample:

/Get Airways- is a perfect eample of quality ca#in ser!ice.

/ ;ood in this restaurant is excellent.

he middle class in "ndia is getting more prosperous.

$hen people express these feelings or preferences, they do so on the basis of certain

criteria in their minds. #heir !udgement is based upon indicators that lead them to

conclude and express that opinion.hese are !udgements that re$uire a sound #asis on which to proclaim. his warrants

the use of a measuring mechanism and it is in the process of measurement that

knowledge a#out variables plays an important role.



The de#inition o# a variable:

An image, perception or concept that can #e measured 5 hence capable of taking on

different values/ is called a variable.

The di##erence bet+een a concept and a variable:

Concepts are mental images or perceptions and therefore their meaning !aries markedly

from indi!idual to indi!idual.

A concept cannot #e measured whereas a !aria#le can #e su#4ected to measurement #y

cruderefined or su#4ecti!eo#4ecti!e units of measurement.

"t is therefore important for the concept to #e con!erted into !aria#les .

Concept %ariable

/Su#4ecti!e impression / Measura#le though the

/o uniformity as to its degree of precision !aries

@nderstanding among from scale to scale and 7ifferent people !aria#le to !aria#le.

/As such cannot #e measured.

e.g. e.g.

B Ecellent / gender (malefemale)

B High achie!er / age ( years y months)

B Rich / weight ( //kg)

B Satisfaction / height ( // cms)

B 7omestic !iolence / religion (Catholic, Hindu)

/ "ncome ( Rs ///per year)



Concepts indicators and variables:

"f you are using a concept in your study, you need to consider its operationalisation/ that

is, how it will #e measured.

;or this, you need to identify indicators/ a set of criteria reflective of the concept which

can then #e con!erted into !aria#les. he choice of indicators for a concept might !ary

with researchers, #ut those selected must ha!e a logical link with the concept.

2oncepts3334'ndicators3333345ariables

__________________________________________ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@

Concepts Indicators Variables Working definition

___________________________________________ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@

Rich 2# Income 2# Income 2#If&s2BBBBB

3# Assets 3#'otal alue 3#If&s39BBBB

of home,car,

investments.

Effectiveness 2#$o# of guests 2#$o#of guests diff# in before

sered in MonthCyear and after leels

3#"hanges 3#$o# of excellent 1 do 1

in &atings per 2BB feedbac(

a ) extent of

b) pattern of

_____________________________________________ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@

Types o# "easure"ent scales

-easurement is central to any enquiry.

he greater the refinement in the unit of measurement of a !aria#le, the greater theconfidence, other things being equal , one can place in the findings.

S.S.Ste!ens has classified the different types of into four categories:

B ominal or classificatory scale

B rdinal or ranking scale

B "nter!al scale



B Ratio scale

The no"inal or classi#icatory scale:

A nominal scale ena#les the classification of indi!iduals, o#4ects or responses into

su#groups #ased on a commonshared property or characteristic.

A !aria#le measured on a nominal scale may ha!e one, two or more su#categories

depending upon the etent of !ariation. ;or eample, -water - or tree- ha!e only one

su#group, whereas the !aria#le Ngender O can #e classified into two su#/categories: male

and female. %otels- can #e classified into / su# /categories. he se$uence in which

su#groups are listed makes no difference as there is no relationship among su#groups.

The ordinal or ran;in! scale:

1esides categori0ing indi!iduals, o#4ects, responses or a property into su#groups on the

#asis of common characteristic, it ranks the su#groups in a certain order.

#hey are arranged either in ascending or descending order according to the extent a

subcategory reflects the magnitude of variation in the variable. "or example, income-

can #e measured either $uantitati!ely (in rupees and paise) or $ualitati!ely using

su#categories a#o!e a!erage-, a!erage- and #elow a!erage-. #he 6distance7 between

these subcategories are not equal as there is no quantitative unit of measurement.

Socioeconomic status- and attitude- are other !aria#les that can #e measured on

ordinal scale.

The interval scale:

An inter!al scale has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale. "n addition, it uses a unit

of measurement with an ar#itrary starting and terminating points.

"or example,

Celsius scale: KK C to 'KKK C

;ahrenheit scale: +*K ; to *'*K ;

Attitudinal scales: 'K/*K*'/+K

+'/DK etc

The ratio scale:



A ratio scale has all the properties of nominal, ordinal and inter!al scales plus its own

property: the ero point of a ratio scale is fixed, which means it has a fixed starting point.

Since the difference #etween inter!als is always measured from a 0ero point, this scale

can #e used for mathematical operations.

he measurement of !aria#les like income, age, height and weight are eamples of this

scale. A person who is DK year old is twice as old as one who is *K year old.

Constructin! hypotheses

.hat is a hypothesis@

A hypothesis is a statement that can #e pro!ed or dispro!ed. A research $uestion can

#e made into a hypothesis #y changing it into a statement. ;or eample, the third

research $uestion a#o!e can #e made into the hypothesis:

Maimum refle efficiency is achie!ed after eight hours of sleep.

.hat is a null hypothesis@

A null hypothesis (a##re!iated HK) is a hypothesis to #e dispro!ed. he hypothesis

a#o!e can #e turned into a working null hypothesis simply #y adding NnotO.

Maimum refle efficiency is not achie!ed after eight hours of sleep.

Another null hypothesis is:

Sleep does not ha!e an effect on reflees.

ull hypotheses are used in the sciences. "n the scientific method, a null hypothesis is

formulated, and then a scientific in!estigation is conducted to try to dispro!e the null

hypothesis. "f it can #e dispro!ed, another null hypothesis is constructed and the process

is repeated.

As an eample, we might #egin with the null hypothesis:

Sleep does not affect reflees.

"f we can dispro!e this, we find that sleep does ha!e an effect. %e might then go to the

net null hypothesis:

7ifferent amounts of sleep ha!e the same effect on reflees.

"f we can dispro!e this, we can go to:Maimum refle efficiency is not achie!ed after eight hours of sleep.

And so on. At each stage in the in!estigation, we conduct eperiments designed to try to

dispro!e the null hypothesis.



.hat is the relationship bet+een the null hypothesis and the thesis state"ent o# a

research report@

A generali0ed form of the final hypothesis (not the null hypothesis) can #e used as a

thesis statement. ;or eample, if our final pro!ed hypothesis is:

Maimum refle efficiency is achie!ed after eight hours of sleep

we might generali0e this to a thesis statement such as:

#his investigation demonstrated that sleep has an effect on reflex efficiency and that, in

fact, maximum reflex efficiency is achieved after a specific period of sleep.

As a researcher you do not know a#out a phenomenon, #ut you do have a hunch to form

the #asis of certain assumption or guesses. 8ou test these #y collecting information that

will ena#le you to conclude if your hunch was right.

he !erification process can ha!e one of the three outcomes. 8our hunch may

pro!e to #e:

'. right&

*. partially right& or

+. wrong.

%ithout this process of !erification, you cannot conclude anything a#out the !alidity of

your assumption.

Hence, a hypotheses is a hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion or an idea about a

&henomenon, relationship or situation, the reality or truth of which you do not know.

A researcher calls these assumptions hunches hypotheses and they #ecome the #asis

of an en$uiry. "n most studies the hypotheses will #e #ased upon your own or someone

else-s o#ser!ation. Hypotheses #ring clarity, specificity and focus to a research pro#lem,

#ut are not essential for a study. 8ou can conduct a !alid in!estigation without

constructing formal hypotheses.



!eductive reasoning wor(s from the

more general to the more specific#6ometimes this is informally called a Dtop1downD approach# )e might begin withthin(ing up a theor about our topic ofinterest# )e then narrow that down intomore specific hpotheses that we can test#)e narrow down een further when we

collect observations to address thehypotheses# 'his ultimately leads us to beable to test the hypotheses with specificdata 11 a confirmation -or not. of ouroriginal theories#

Inductive reasoning wor(s the other way!

moing from specific obserations to broadergeneraliEations and theories# Informally! wesometimes call this a Dbottom upD approach-please note that its Dbottom upD and not Dbottoms upD which is the (ind of thing thebartender says to customers when hes trying toclose for the night.# In inductie reasoning! we

begin with specific obserations and measures!begin to detect patterns and regularities!formulate some tentatie hypotheses that wecan explore! and finally end up deelopingsome general conclusions or theories#



hese two methods of reasoning ha!e a !ery different PfeelP to them when youQre

conducting research. "nducti!e reasoning, #y its !ery nature, is more open/ended and

eploratory, especially at the #eginning. 7educti!e reasoning is more narrow in nature

and is concerned with testing or confirming hypotheses. E!en though a particular study

may look like itQs purely deducti!e (e.g., an eperiment designed to test the hypothesi0ed

effects of some treatment on some outcome), most social research in!ol!es #oth

inducti!e and deducti!e reasoning processes at some time in the pro4ect. "n fact, it

doesnQt take a rocket scientist to see that we could assem#le the two graphs a#o!e into

a single circular one that continually cycles from theories down to o#ser!ations and #ack

up again to theories. E!en in the most constrained eperiment, the researchers may

o#ser!e patterns in the data that lead them to de!elop new theories.

.ritin! Hypotheses a student lesson

'urpose: to learn when and how to write hypotheses.

Most students #elie!e that they are going to #e eperimenting anytime they are gi!en a

la#oratory assignment in science. Howe!er, more often than not, students are doing

something other than eperiments. his is not necessarily #ad. A good deal of science is

o#ser!ational and descripti!e. ;or eample, the study of #io/di!ersity usually in!ol!es

looking at wide !ariety of specimens and may#e sketching and recording their uni$ue

characteristics. Howe!er, there are other times when we science teachers are trying to

teach students how scientists work and how we can !erify things which others may say

or #elie!e is so without any proof.

o learn a#out what is not known or to !erify a notion, the so/called Pscientific methodP

might #e carried out and an actual eperiment may #e conducted. "t does not matter that

your eperiment has #een done a thousand times #efore or that your teacher already

knows the results. %hat matters is that you donQt know the results and that you can

independently find a !erifia#le answer. "n real eperiments, real hypotheses should #e

written #efore the actual eperiment.

.hat Is a Real Hypothesis@

A hypothesis is a tentati!e statement that proposes a possi#le eplanation to some

phenomenon or e!ent. A useful hypothesis is a testable statement which may include a

prediction. A hypotheses should not #e confused with a theory. heories are general



eplanations #ased on a large amount of data. ;or eample, the theory of e!olution

applies to all li!ing things and is #ased on wide range of o#ser!ations. Howe!er, there

are many things a#out e!olution that are not fully understood such as gaps in the fossil

record. Many hypotheses ha!e #een proposed and tested.

.hen Are Hypotheses >sed@

he key word is testable. hat is, you will perform a test of how two !aria#les might #e

related. his is when you are doing a real eperiment. 8ou are testing !aria#les. @sually,

a hypothesis is #ased on some pre!ious o#ser!ation such as noticing that in o!em#er

many trees undergo color changes in their lea!es and the a!erage daily temperatures

are dropping. Are these two e!ents connected6 How6

Any la#oratory procedure you follow without a hypothesis is really not an eperiment. "t

is 4ust an eercise or demonstration of what is already known.

Ho+ Are Hypotheses .ritten@

'. Chocolate may cause pimples.

*. Salt in soil may affect plant growth.

+. 3lant growth may #e affected #y the color of the light.

D. 1acterial growth may #e affected #y temperature.

?. @ltra !iolet light may cause skin cancer.

. emperature may cause lea!es to change color.

All of these are eamples of hypotheses #ecause they use the tentati!e word Pmay.P.

Howe!er, their form is not particularly useful. @sing the word may does not suggest how

you would go a#out pro!ing it. "f these statements had not #een written carefully, they

may not ha!e e!en #een hypotheses at all. ;or eample, if we say Prees will change

color when it gets cold.P we are making a prediction. r if we write, P@ltra!iolet light

causes skin cancer.P could #e a conclusion. ne way to pre!ent making such easy

mistakes is to formali0e the form of the hypothesis.

The #unctions o# hypotheses:

B he formulation of hypothesis pro!ides a study with focus. "t tells you what

specific aspects of a research pro#lem to in!estigate.



B A hypothesis tells you what data to collect and what not to collect, there#y

pro!iding focus to the study.

B As it pro!ides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis enhances o#4ecti!ity in a

study.

B A hypothesis may ena#le you to add to the formulation of a theory. "t ena#les

you to specifically conclude what is true or what is false.

Step 51 'RE'ARIN9 THE RESEARCH DESI9N

*esearch design is the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted.

he function of research design is to pro!ide for the collection of rele!ant information

with minimal ependiture of effort, time and money.

he preparation of research design, appropriate for a particular research pro#lem,

in!ol!es the consideration of the following:

'. #4ecti!es of the research study.

*. Method of 7ata Collection to #e adopted

+. Source of informationSample 7esign

D. ool for 7ata collection

?. 7ata Analysis// $ualitati!e and $uantitati!e

'. Objectives o# the Research Study #4ecti!es identified to answer the research

$uestions ha!e to #e listed making sure that they are:

a) num#ered, and

#) statement #egins with an action !er#.

*. ,ethods o# Data Collection here are two types of data

3rimary 7ata collected for the first time

Secondary 7ata those which ha!e already #een collected

and analysed #y someone else.



Methods of 3rimary 7ata Collection

O*SER%ATION ,ETHOD

Commonly used in #eha!ioural sciences

"t is the gathering of primary data #y in!estigator-s own direct o#ser!ation of rele!ant

people, actions and situations without asking from the respondent.

e.g.

B 8 hotel chain sends observers posing as guests into its coffee shop to check on

cleanliness and customer service.

B 8 food service operator sends researchers into competing restaurants to learn

menu items prices, check portion sies and consistency and observe pointof

purchase merchandising.

B 8 restaurant evaluates possible new locations by checking out locations of

competing restaurants, traffic patterns and neighborhood conditions.

#ser!ation can yield information which people are normally unwilling or unable to

provide.

e.g. #ser!ing numerous plates containing uneaten portions the same menu items

indicates that food is not satisfactory.

Types o# Observation

'. Structured 5 for descripti!e research

*. @nstructuredfor eploratory research

+. 3articipant #ser!ation

D. on/ participant o#ser!ation

?. 7isguised o#ser!ation

3i"itations

/ feelings, #eliefs and attitudes that moti!ate #uying #eha!iour and infre$uent #eha!iour

cannot #e o#ser!ed.

/ epensi!e method

Because of these limitations, researchers often supplement observation with survey

research.



S>R%E? ,ETHOD

Approach most suited for gathering descripti!e information.

tructured urveys: use formal lists of $uestions asked of all respondents in the same

way.

9nstructured urveys: let the inter!iewer pro#e respondents and guide the inter!iew

according to their answers.

Sur!ey research may #e 7irect or "ndirect.

irect 8pproach: he researcher asks direct $uestions a#out #eha!iours and thoughts.

e.g. %hy don-t you eat at Mac7onalds6

'ndirect 8pproach: he researcher might ask: N%hat kind of people eat at Mac7onald-s6O

;rom the response, the researcher may #e a#le to disco!er why the consumer a!oids

Mac7onald-s. "t may suggest factors of which the consumer is not consciously aware.

AD%ANTA9ES

/ Can #e used to collect many different kinds of information

/ 9uick and low cost as compared to o#ser!ation and eperimental method.

3I,ITATIONS

/Respondent-s reluctance to answer $uestions asked #y unknown inter!iewers

a#out things they consider pri!ate.

/1usy people may not want to take the time

/may try to help #y gi!ing pleasant answers

/una#le to answer #ecause they cannot remem#er or ne!er ga!e a thought to

what they do and why

/may answer in order to look smart or well informed.



CONTACT ,ETHODS:

"nformation may #e collected #y

Mail

elephone

3ersonal inter!iew

,ail )uestionnaires:

8dvantages+

/ can #e used to collect large amounts of information at a low cost per respondent.

/ respondents may gi!e more honest answers to personal $uestions on a mail

$uestionnaire

/ no inter!iewer is in!ol!ed to #ias the respondent-s answers.

/ con!enient for respondent-s who can answer when they ha!e time

/ good way to reach people who often tra!el

Liitations:

/ not flei#le

/ take longer to complete than telephone or personal inter!iew

/ response rate is often !ery low

/ researcher has no control o!er who answers.

Telephone Intervie+in!:

/ $uick method

/ more flei#le as inter!iewer can eplain $uestions not understood #y the respondent

/ depending on respondent-s answer they can skip some 9s and pro#e more on others

/ allows greater sample control

/ response rate tends to #e higher than mail

Dra+bac;s

/Cost per respondent higher

/Some people may not want to discuss personal 9s with inter!iewer /"nter!iewer-s manner of speaking may affect the respondent-s answers

/7ifferent inter!iewers may interpret and record response in a !ariety of ways

/under time pressure ,data may #e entered without actually inter!iewing

'ersonal Intervie+in!

"t is !ery flei#le and can #e used to collect large amounts of information.



rained inter!iewers are can hold the respondent-s attention and are a!aila#le to clarify

difficult $uestions.

hey can guide inter!iews, eplore issues, and pro#e as the situation re$uires.

3ersonal inter!iew can #e used in any type of $uestionnaire and can #e conducted fairly

$uickly.

"nter!iewers can also show actual products, ad!ertisements, packages and o#ser!e and

record their reactions and #eha!iour.

#his takes two forms

'ndividual 'ntercept interviewing

:roup "ocus :roup 'nterviewing

Intercept intervie+in!:

%idely used in tourism research.

/allows researcher to reach known people in a short period of time.

/ only method of reaching people whose names and addresses are unknown

/in!ol!es talking to people at homes, offices, on the street, or in shopping malls.

/inter!iewer must gain the inter!iewee-s cooperation

/time in!ol!ed may range from a few minutes to se!eral hours( for longer sur!eys

compensation may #e offered)

//in!ol!es the use of !udgmental sampling i.e. inter!iewer has guidelines as to whom to

NinterceptO, such as *? under age *K and F? o!er age K

7raw#acks:

/Room for error and #ias on the part of the inter!iewer who may not #e a#le to correctly

4udge age, race etc.

/"nter!iewer may #e uncomforta#le talking to certain ethnic or age groups.



Focus 9roup Intervie+in!

"t is rapidly #ecoming one of the ma4or research tool to understand people-s thoughts

and feelings.

"t is usually conducted #y in!iting si to ten people to gather for a few hours with a

trained moderator to talk a#out a product, ser!ice or organi0ation. he meeting is held in

a pleasant place, and refreshments are ser!ed to create a relaed en!ironment.

he moderator needs o#4ecti!ity, knowledge of the su#4ect and industry, and some

understanding of group and consumer #eha!iour.

he moderator starts with a #road $uestion #efore mo!ing to more specific issues,

encouraging open and easy discussion to #ring out true feelings and thoughts.

At the same time, the inter!iewer focuses the discussion, hence the name focus group

interviewing.

often held to help determine the sub!ect areas on which questions should be asked in a

later, largescale, structureddirect interview

Comments are recorded through note taking or !ideotaped and studied later to

understand consumer- #uying process.

his method is especially suited for managers of hotels and restaurants, who ha!e easy

access to their customers.

e.g. ome hotel managers often invite a group of hotel guests from a particular market

segment to have a free breakfast with them. -anagers get the chance to meet the

guests and discuss what they like about the hotel and what the hotel could do to make

their stay more en!oyable and comfortable.

#he guests appreciate this recognition and the manager gets valuable information.

*estaurant managers use the same approach by holding discussion meetings over

lunch or dinner.

Dra+bac;s

/Cost: may cost more than telephone sur!ey

/Sampling: group inter!iew studies keep small sample si0e to keep time and cost down,therefore it may #e difficult to generali0e from the results.

/ "nter!iewer #ias.



EB'ERI,ENTA3 ,ETHOD

Also called ;mpirical *esearch or 2ause and ;ffect -ethod, it is a data/#ased research,

coming up with conclusions which are capa#le of #eing !erified with o#ser!ation or

eperiment.

Eperimental research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain !aria#les affect

other !aria#les in some way.

e.g.

#enderisers ( independent variable) affect cooking time and texture of meat(dependent

variable) .

#he effect of substituting one ingredient in whole or in part for another such as soya

flour to flour for making high protein bread.

evelop recipes to use products.

Such research is characteri0ed #y the eperimenter-s control o!er the !aria#les under

study and the deli#erate manipulation of one of them to study its effects.

"n such a research, it is necessary to get at facts first hand, at their source, and acti!ely

go a#out doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information.

/ Researcher must pro!ide self with a working hypothesis or guess as to the

pro#a#le results.

/ hen work to get enough facts (data) to pro!e or dispro!e the hypothesis.

/ He then sets up eperimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the

persons or the materials concerned so as to #ring forth the desired information.

E!idence gathered through eperimental or empirical studies today is considered to #e

the most powerful support possi#le for a gi!en hypothesis.

2owe,1elle&'=?J,;xperimental 2ookery, Gohn %illey > Sons, ew 8ork, pp +D/D



DETER,ININ9 SA,'3E DESI9N

Researchers usually draw conclusions a#out large groups #y taking a sample

8 ample is a segment of the population selected to represent the population as a

whole.

"deally, the sample should #e representati!e and allow the researcher to make accurate

estimates of the thoughts and #eha!iour of the larger population.

7esigning the sample calls for three decisions:

$ho will #e sur!eyed6 (#he ample)

B he researcher must determine what type of information is needed and who is

most likely to ha!e it.

%ow many people will #e sur!eyed6 (ample ie)

B 2arge samples gi!e more relia#le results than small samples. Howe!er it is not

necessary to sample the entire target population.

How should the sample #e chosen6 (ampling)

B Sample mem#ers may #e chosen at random from the entire population

( probability sample)

B he researcher might select people who are easier to o#tain information from

(nonprobability sample)

#he needs of the research pro!ect will determine which method is most effective

Types o# Sa"ples

'robability sa"ples

imple random sample+ E!ery mem#er of the population has a known and e$ual chance

of #eing selected.

tratified random sample +3opulation is di!ided into mutually eclusi!e groups such as

age groups and randomsamples are drawn from each group.

2luster(area)sample+ he population is di!ided into mutually eclusi!e groups such as

#locks, and the researcher draws a sample of the group to inter!iew.



Nonprobability sa"ples

2onvenience sample+ he researcher selects the easiest population mem#ers from

which to o#tain information.

<udgment sample+ he researcher uses hisher 4udgement to select population mem#ers

who are good prospects for accurate information.

=uota sample+ he researcher finds and inter!iews a prescri#ed num#er of

people in each of se!eral categories.

2 ;R 7AA C22EC" (RESEARCH "SR@MES)

he construction of a research instrument or tool for data collection is the most important

asp

of a research pro4ect #ecause anything you say #y way of findings or conclusions is

#ased upo

the type of information you collect, and the data you collect is entirely dependent upon

the

$uestions that you ask of your respondents. he famous saying a#out computers/

Ngar#age in

gar#age outO/ is also applica#le for data collection. #he research tool provides the input

into a

study and therefore the quality and validity of the output (the findings), are solely

dependent o

it.

!uidelines to "onstruct a Research Tool +

#he underlying principle behind the guidelines suggested below is to ensure the validity of your

instrument by making sure that your questions relate to the ob!ectives of your study.

tep '+ 2learly define and individually list all the specific ob!ectives or research

=uestions for your study.tep ''+ "or each ob!ective or research questions, list all the associated questions

#hat you want to answer through your study.

tep '''+ #ake each research question listed in step '' and list the information

*equired to answer it.

tep '5+ "ormulate question(s) to obtain this information.



The )uestionnaire:

Structured sur!eys inter!iews employ the use of a $uestionnaire.

8 questionnaire consists of a set of questions presented to a respondent for answers.

#he respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down the

answers themselves.

"t is called an 'nterview chedule when the researcher asks the questions (and if

necessary, explain them) and record the respondent7s reply on the interview schedule.

1ecause there are many ways to ask $uestions, the $uestionnaire is !ery flei#le.

9uestionnaire should #e de!eloped and tested carefully #efore #eing used on a large

scale.

here are three #asic types of $uestionnaire:

B Closed 5ended

B pen/ended

B Com#ination of #oth

01Closed ended )uestionnaire:

/Closed ended $uestions include all possi#le answersprewritten response categories,

and respondents are asked to choose among them.

/ e.g. multiple choice $uestions, scale $uestions

/ ype of $uestions used to generate statistics in $uantitati!e research.

/ As these follow a set format, and most responses can #e entered easily into a

computer for ease of analysis, greater num#ers can #e distri#uted.

21 Open$ended )uestionnaire:

/ pen/ended $uestions allow respondents to answer in their own words.

/ 9uestionnaire does not contain #oes to tick #ut instead lea!es a #lank section for the

respondent to write in an answer.

/%hereas closed 5ended $uestionnaires might #e used to find out how many people use

a ser!iceopen/ended $uestionnaires might #e used to find out what people think a#out a ser!ice.

/As there are no standard answers to these $uestions, data analysis is more comple.

/ As it is opinions which are sought rather than num#ers, fewer $uestionnaires need to

#e distri#uted.

41 Co"bination o# both



/his way it is possi#le to find out how many people use a ser!ice and what they think of

the

ser!ice in the same form.

/1egins with a series of closed 5ended $uestions, with #oes to tick or scales to rank,

and then

finish with a section of open/ended $uestions or more detailed response.

Ho+ to construct (uestionnaires

B 7eciding which $uestionnaire to use/ / closed or open ended,

self or interviewer administered

B %ording and structure of $uestions

/ 9uestions should #e kept short and simple//a!oid double barreled i.e. two $uestions in

one 5ask two 9s rather than one.

/ A!oid negati!e $uestions which ha!e not in them as it is confusing for respondent to

agree or disagree.

/ 9uestion should not contain &restige Bias 5 causing em#arrassment or forcing the

respondent to gi!e false answer in order to look good. 9uestions a#out educational

$ualification or income might elicit this type of response

/ @se indirect $uestions for sensiti!e issues/ in indirect $uestions respondents can relate

their answer to other people .

/ @sing closed/ ended $uestions/ try to make sure that all possi#le answers are co!ered

so that respondents are not constrained in their answer. N7on-t InowO category also

needs to #e added.

/A!oiding 2eading 9uestion: 7on-t lead the respondent to answer in a certain way. e.g.

NHow often do you wash your car6O assumes that respondent has a car and he washes

his car. "nstead, ask a filter $uestion to find if he has a car, and then, "f you wash your

car, how many times a year6-

B 2ength and ordering of the 9uestions:/ Ieep the $uestionnaire as short as possi#le

/ Ask easy 9s. %hich respondents will en4oy answering

/ "f com#ined $uestionnaire, keep open ended 9s for the end.

/ Make 9s as interesting as possi#le and easy to follow #y !arying type and length of

$uestion



/ <roup the $uestions. "nto specific topic as this it makes it easier to understand and

follow.

/ 2ayout and spacing is important as cluttered 9uestionnaire is less likely to #e

answered.

SE3S " 7ES"<"< A 9@ES"A"RE "ERT"E% <@"7E

• 7esigning a good $uestionnaire always takes se!eral drafts.

• "n the first draft we should concentrate on the content. "n the second, we should look

critically at the formulation and se$uencing of the $uestions.

• hen we should scrutini0e the format of the $uestionnaire.

SE3S " 7ES"<"< A 9@ES"A"RE

• we should do a test/run to check whether the $uestionnaire gi!es us the information

we re$uire and whether inter!iewers as well as respondents feel at ease with it.

@sually the $uestionnaire will need some further adaptation #efore we can use it for

actual data collection.

Step 0 Content

• ake your o#4ecti!es and !aria#les as a starting point.

• 7ecide what $uestions will #e needed to measure or (in the case of $ualitati!e

studies) to define your !aria#les and reach your o#4ecti!es.

• %hen de!eloping the $uestionnaire, you should reconsider the !aria#les you ha!e

chosen and, if necessary, add, drop or change some. 8ou may e!en change some of

your o#4ecti!es at this stage.

Step 2 For"ulatin! (uestions

• ;ormulate one or more $uestions that will pro!ide the information needed for each

!aria#le.



• ake care that $uestions are specific and precise enough so that different

respondents don-t interpret them differently.

;or eample, a $uestion such as: .%here do community mem#ers usually seek

treatment when they are sick6, cannot #e asked in general.

• Each respondent may ha!e something different in mind when answering the $uestion:

ne informant may think of measles with complications, and say he goes to the

hospital, another of cough, and say he goes to the pri!ate pharmacy

E!en if #oth think of the same disease, they may ha!e different degrees of

seriousness in mind and thus answer differently

"n all cases, self/care may #e o!erlooked

• he $uestion therefore, as a rule, has to #e #roken up into different parts and made

so specific that all informants focus on the same thing. ;or eample, one could:

Concentrate on illnesses that ha!e occurred in the family o!er the past 'D days

and ask what has #een done to treat these from the onset& or

Concentrate on selected diseases, ask whether they ha!e occurred in the family

o!er the past months (chronic or serious diseases ha!e a longer recall period

than minor ailments) and what has #een done to treat each of them from the

onset.

• Check whether each $uestion measures one thing at a time.

;or eample: the $uestion, .

7o you think that the war situation leads to mental pro#lems that re$uire

treatment #y health staff6, #rings three topics, which should #e split up in

mental pro#lems resulting from the war,

treatment re$uired, and

who should pro!ide the treatment.



• A!oid leading $uestions.

A $uestion is leading if it suggests a certain answer.

;or eample: the $uestion, .7o you think that people ha!e to gi!e #ri#es at hospital U

to #e seen #y a doctor6. hardly lea!es room for no- or for other options. A #etter

$uestion would #e: .Ha!e you recently !isited hospital U6.

his would #e followed #y a series of other pro#ing $uestions such as, .1y whom

were you seen6 %hat were the complaints6 How much were you asked to pay 6 Are

the fees fied6 7o they include an eamination #y the doctor if the condition of a

patient is serious6 7o all patients ha!e e$ual access to a doctor in case of need 6

%as this what you epected6.

• Sometimes, a $uestion is leading #ecause it presupposes a certain condition. ;or

eample:

%hat action did you take the last time your child had diarrhoea6 presupposes the

child has had diarrhoea.

A #etter set of $uestions would #e: .Has your child e!er had diarrhoea 6. ("f yes:)

.%hen was the last time6. .7id you do anything to treat it6. ("f yes:) .%hat6.

• A!oid words with dou#le or !aguely defined meanings or that are emotionally laden.

Concepts such as dirty (clinics), la0y (patients), or unhealthy (food), for eample,

should #e omitted.

• Ask sensiti!e $uestions in a socially accepta#le way:

9uestions relating to a#ortion, seual practices of adolescents, or A"7S and mental

illness in the family are usually sensiti!e. Such $uestions should #e formulated in

such a way that the $uestion does not 4udge or em#arrass the respondent.

;or eample: .Many teenagers ha!e had a#ortions for unwanted pregnancies. 7o

you know girls who had this pro#lem6 Ha!e you e!er had an a#ortion6.

you could ask: .



"f your friend was considering a#ortion for her daughter who #ecame pregnant while

in school, what would you ad!ise her6.

• A common weakness in $uestionnaires is the inappropriate transformation of

research $uestions into inter!iew $uestions.

8ou cannot ask informants: .%ould a woman-s educational status influence her

health6. hat is eactly what you ha!e to find out #y relating indi!idual women-s

le!el of education to a num#er of health conditions.

Ask the $uestions

• o yourself or

• o a friend , and check whether the answers you get are the type of responses you

want.

Step 4 Se(uencin! the (uestions

7esign your inter!iew schedule or $uestionnaire to #e Ninformant friendlyO

he se$uence of $uestions must #e logical for the informant and allow, as much as

possi#le,for a Nnatural con!ersationO, e!en in more structured inter!iews.

At the #eginning of the inter!iew a limited num#er of $uestions concerning

#ackground !aria#les-. (e.g., age, education, marital status) may #e asked.

As informants may #e reluctant to pro!ide personal information and may #ecome

worried a#out confidentiality, or #ored #y a list of unrelated and, to them, senseless

$uestions, you should restrict yourself to an essential minimum.

8ou may postpone $uestions on religion until later when cultural $uestions are #eing

asked.

Socio/economic status occupation income $uestions can also #etter #e postponed

until later when you can link them to pro#lems (e.g., low ser!ice utili0ation).



Start with an interesting #ut non/contro!ersial $uestion (prefera#ly open) that is

directly related to the su#4ect of the study. his type of #eginning should help to raise

the informants. "nterest and lessen suspicions concerning the purpose of the

inter!iew.

3ose more sensiti!e $uestions as late as possi#le in the inter!iew (e.g., $uestions

pertaining to income, political matters, seual #eha!iour, or stigma eperienced in

case of stigmatising diseases).

@se simple, e!eryday language.

"f inter!iews are carried out in English (or any other secondary language), local

terminology should #e used for crucial concepts that do not ha!e the eact e$ui!alent

in the secondary language.

Step 5 For"attin! the (uestionnaire

%hen you finalise your $uestionnaire, #e sure that:

A separate, introductory page is attached to each $uestionnaire, eplaining the

purpose of the study, re$uesting the informant-s consent to #e inter!iewed and

assuring confidentiality of the data o#tained.

Each $uestionnaire has a heading and space to insert the num#er, date and location

of the inter!iew, and, if re$uired, the name of the informant. 8ou may add the name of

the inter!iewer, to facilitate $uality control.

2ayout is such that $uestions #elonging together appear together !isually. "f the

$uestionnaire is long, you may use su#headings for groups of $uestions.

Sufficient space is pro!ided for answers to open/ended $uestions, categories such

as other and for comments on pre/categorised $uestions.

Step D: ;ormatting the

$uestionnaire



• 1oes for pre/categorised answers are placed in a consistent manner (e.g., on the right

half of the page).

• "f you use a computer, the right margin of the page should #e reser!ed for #oes

intended for computer codes. (Consult an eperienced facilitator when designing your

$uestionnaire.)

8our $uestionnaire should not only #e ";RMA / #ut also RESEARCHER

;R"E728V

Step 6 Translation

• "f inter!iews will #e conducted in one or more local languages, the $uestionnaire should

#e translated in order to standardi0e the way $uestions will #e asked.

• After ha!ing it translated you should ha!e it retranslated into the original language #y a

different person. 8ou can then compare the two !ersions for differences and make

decisions concerning the final phrasing of difficult concepts.

>pen questions



'n the open question, the respondent is not given a list of possible answers. $hen it is desirable

to focus on (emphasie) some aspect of special interest, then the open question may refer to

these special interests in broad, general terms.

2losed questions

• >ffer a list of options that are exhaustive cover all possibilities. 't is easily achieved,

where necessary, by adding a residual or dumping category at the end of the list of

options

• 'f possible offer a list of options that bare mutually exclusiveany one option excludes all

the others

• >ffer only a small number of options. ?eep the number of options in a closed question to

the minimum consistent with the needs and ob!ectives of the study.

=uestion structure

• 2losed question the closed question offers a list of possible options (answers) from

which the respondents must select at least one answer. 8nswers not included in the list

are not permitted

• >pen question the open question asks the respondent to answer in his1her own words

)uestionnaire 3ay$out

• Make the $uestionnaire easier to use during the inter!iew

• <i!e #etter guidance to the inter!iewer

• 3re!ent confusion as how to indicate the response to a $uestion

• Make it less likely that $uestions, answers or instructions will #e o!erlooked. 9uestions

and instructions should #e clearly separated

• Ieep ample space for writing down the answers especially if the $uestion is open. Ieep

sufficient space #etween $uestions and items

• Make it easier at the analysis stage to interpret the answer

• he $uestionnaire should #e printed clearly and professionally



• "t should #e !isually easy to read

• "t is customary for first few lines of a $uestionnaire to include the la#el confidential-, the

respondent-s "7 num#er, title of the study, a #rief introduction

• A thank you statement should #e gi!en at the end

• Any filter $uestion (for $uestions do not apply on some respondents) must understand

which $uestion to go to net

Step 7 're$testin!

• "deas and topics should #e tested on colleagues

• @se a pilot test on a small group similar to your sample

– %hether wording is clear

– %hether direction is clear

– 7elete or re!ise $uestions those most respondents did not understand

– "f most people circle one choice con!ert to more specific choices in the final

!ersion

'ilotin! the )uestionnaire

• nce you ha!e constructed your $uestionnaire, you must pilot it.

• his means that you must test it out to see if it is o#taining the result you re$uire.

• his is done #y asking people to read it through and see if there are any am#iguities

which you ha!e not noticed.

• hey should also #e asked to comment a#out the length, structure and wording of the

$uestionnaire

• Alter the $uestions accordingly



QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN CHECKLIST

Make your $uestionnaire as short as possi#le.

Make sure people will #e a#le to answer your $uestions.

7on-t assume knowledge or make it seem that you epect a certain le!el of knowledge

#y the way your $uestions are worded.

Start with easy to answer $uestions. Ieep comple $uestions for the end.

Ask for personal information at the end.

@se a mi of $uestion formats.

7on-t cause offence, frustration, sadness or anger.

A!oid dou#le/#arreled $uestions.

A!oid words with emotional connotations.

A!oid negati!e $uestions.

A!oid 4argon and technical words.

A!oid words with multiple meanings.

A!oid leading $uestions.

A!oid !ague words such as often- and sometimes-.

3ro!ide all possi#le responses in a closed $uestion.

Consider as many alternati!es as possi#le.

@se specific time frames when asking a#out #eha!iour.

@se specific place frames, e.g. "n which country were you #orn6-

Step 6 CO33ECTIN9 DATA

Ha!ing formulated the research pro#lem,, de!eloped a study design, constructed a

research instrument and selected a sample, you then collect the data from which you will

draw inferences and conclusions for your study. 7epending upon your plans, you might



commence inter!iews, mail out a $uestionnaire, conduct eperiments andor make

o#ser!ations.

Collecting data through any of the methods may in!ol!e some ethical issues in relation

to the participants and the researcher :

/ hose from whom information is collected or those who are studied #y a researcher

#ecome participants of the study.

/ Anyone who collects information for a specific purpose, adhering to the accepted code

of conduct, is a researcher .

a) Ethical issues concerning research participants: here are many ethical issues in

relation to participants of a research acti!ity.

i) Collecting information:

8our re$uest for information may put pressure or create aniety on a respondent. "s it

ethical6

Research is re$uired to impro!e conditions. 3ro!ided any piece of research is likely to

help society directly or indirectly, it is accepta#le to ask $uestions, if you first obtain the

respondents7 informed consent.

"f you cannot 4ustify the rele!ance of the research you are conducting, you are wasting

your respondents- time, which is unethical.

ii)Seeking consent:

"n e!ery discipline it is considered unethical to collect information without the knowledge

of the participant, and their epressed willingness and informed consent.

'nformed consent implies that su#4ects are made ade$uately aware of the type of

information you want from them, why the information is #eing sought, what purpose it will

#e put to, how they are epected to participate in the study, and how it will directly or

indirectly affect them. "t is important that the consent should #e !oluntary and without

pressure of any kind.

iii) 3ro!iding incenti!es:

Most people do not participate in a study #ecause of incenti!es, #ut #ecause they reali0e

the importance of the study.

"s it ethical to pro!ide incenti!es to respondents to share information with you #ecause

they are gi!ing their time 6



<i!ing a present #efore data collection is unethical.

i!) Seeking sensiti!e information:

Certain types of information can #e regarded as sensiti!e or confidential #y some people

and thus an in!asion to their pri!acy, asking for such information may upset or

em#arrass a respondent.

;or most people, $uestions on drug use, pilferage, income, age, marital status etc are

intrusi!e. "n collecting data you need to #e careful a#out the sensiti!ities of your

respondents.

"t is not unethical to ask such $uestions pro!ided that you tell your respondents the type

of information you are going to ask clearly and frankly, and gi!e them sufficient time to

decide if they want to participate, without any ma4or inducement.

!) he possi#ility of causing harm to participant:

%hen you collect data from respondents or in!ol!e su#4ects in an eperiment, you need

to eamine carefully whether their in!ol!ement is likely to harm them in any way. %arm

includes l research that might include haardous experiments, discomfort, anxiety,

harassment, invasion of privacy, or demeaning or dehumaniing procedures. "f it is likely

to, you must make sure that the risk is minimal i.e. the etent of harm or discomfort is not

greater that ordinarily encountered in daily life. "f the way information is sought creates

aniety or harassment, you need to take steps to pre!ent this.

!i) Maintaining confidentiality:

Sharing information a#out a respondent with others for purposes other than research is

unethical. Sometimes you need to identify your study population to put your findings into

contet. "n such a situation you need to make sure that at least the information pro!ided

#y respondents is kept anonymous.

"t is unethical to identify an indi!idual-s responses. herefore you need to ensure thatafter the information has #een collected, the source cannot #e known.

#) Ethical issues relating to the researcher:



i) A!oiding #ias:

1ias on the part of the researcher is unethical. 1ias is a deli#erate attempt to either to

hide what you ha!e found in your study, or highlight something disproportionately to its

true eistence.

ii) 3ro!ision or depri!ation of a treatment:

1oth the pro!ision and depri!ation of a treatment inter!ention may pose an ethical

dilemma for you as a researcher. "s it ethical to pro!ide a study population with an

inter!ention treatment that has not yet #een conclusi!ely pro!en effecti!e or #eneficial6

1ut if you do not test, how can you pro!e or dispro!e its effecti!eness or #enefits6

here are no simple answers to these dilemmas. Ensuring informed consent, minimum

risk- and frank discussion as to the implications of participation in the study will help to

resol!e ethical issues.

iii) @sing inappropriate research methodology:

"t is unethical to use a method or procedure you know to #e inappropriate e.g. selecting

a highly #iased sample, using an in!alid instrument or drawing wrong conclusions.

i!) "ncorrect reporting:

o report the findings in a way that changes or slants them to ser!e your own or

someone else-s interest, is unethical.

!) "nappropriate use of the information:

he use of information in a way that directly or indirectly ad!ersely affects the

respondents is unethical. "f so, the study population needs to #e protected.

Sometimes it is possi#le to harm indi!iduals in the process of achie!ing #enefits for the

organi0ations. An eample would #e a study to eamine the feasi#ility of restructuring an

organi0ation. Restructuring may #e #eneficial to the organi0ation as a whole #ur may #e

harmful to some indi!iduals.

Should you ask respondents for information that is likely to #e used against them6

"t is ethical to ask $uestions pro!ided you tell respondents of the potential use of the

information, including the possi#ility of it #eing used against some of them, and you let

them decide if they want to participate.



Step 7 'ROCESSIN9 AND ANA3?SIN9 DATA

3rocessing and analysing data in!ol!es a num#er of closely related operations which

are performed with the purpose of summari0ing the collected data and organi0ing these

in a manner that they answer the research $uestions (o#4ecti!es).

he 7ata 3rocessing operations are:

'. Editing/ a process of eamining the collected raw data to detect errors and omissions

and to correct these when possi#le.

*. Classification/ a process of arranging data in groups or classes on the #asis of

common characteristics. 7epending on the nature of phenomenon in!ol!ed

a) 2lassification according to attributes: here data is analysed on the #asis of

common characteristics which can either #e

: descriptive such as literacy, sex, religion etc. or

: numerical such as weight, height, income etc.

Such classification can #e either:

Simple classification+ where we consider only one attri#ute, and di!ide the uni!erse into

two classesone class consisting of items possessing the gi!en attri#ute and the other

class consisting of items which do not possess the gi!en attri#ute.

a#le '. Hotel Employees with M1A 7egree

8es o otal

M1A 7egree *' = +K

-anifold classification+ Here we consider two or more attri#utes simultaneously, and

di!ide the data into a num#er of classes.

a#le *. Educational 9ualification of Hotel Employees

Hes $o 'otal

M F M F M F

MA ;egree 23 J 5 : 29 29

#6c# +K+A 29 29 B B 29 29



#) 2lassification according to class @intervals: is done with data relating to income, age,

weight, tariff, production, occupancy etc. Such $uantitati!e data are known as the

statistics of variables and are classified on the #asis of class 5inter!als.

e.g. persons whose income are within Rs *KK' to Rs DKKK can form one group or class,

those with income within Rs DKK' tK Rs KKK can form another group or class and so

on.

he num#er of items which fall in a gi!en class is known as the fre$uency of the gi!en

class.

a#le +. 3ocket Money Recei!ed #y "HM Students

Income

&ange Frequency L

&s#2BB213BBB 2B 9B

&s#3BB215BBB = 7B

&s#5BB217BBB 3 2B

'otal 3B 2BB

+. a#ulation/a#ulation is the process of summari0ing raw data and displaying the

same in compact form for further analysis. "t is an orderly arrangement of data in

columns and rows. a#ulation is essential #ecause:

a) "t conser!es space and reduces eplanatory and descripti!e statement to a

minimum.

#) "t facilitates the process of comparison.

c) "t facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions.

d) "t pro!ides the #asis for !arious statistical computations.

a#ulation may also #e classified as simple and comple ta#ulation. Simple ta#ulation

generally results in one/way ta#les which supply answers to $uestions a#out one

characteristic of data only. Comple ta#ulation usually results on two/way ta#les (which

gi!e information a#out two inter/related characteristics of data), three 5way ta#les or still

higher order ta#les, also known as manifold ta#les.



7ata Analysis Methods

9ualitati!e 7ata Analysis:

9ualitati!e data analysis is a !ery personal process with few rigid rules and procedures.

;or this purpose, the researcher needs to go through a process called 2ontent 8nalysis.

Content Analysis means analysis of the contents of an inter!iew in order to identify the

main themes that emerge from the responses gi!en #y the respondents .his process

in!ol!es a num#er of steps:

Step '. 'dentify the main themes. he researcher needs to carefully go through the

descripti!e responses gi!en #y respondents to each $uestion in order to understand the

meaning they communicate. ;rom these responses the researcher de!elop #road

themes that reflect these meanings 3eople use different words and language to epress

themsel!es. "t is important that researcher select wording of the theme in a way that

accurately represents the meaning of the responses categori0ed under a theme. hese

themes #ecome the #asis for analy0ing the tet of unstructured inter!iews.

Step *. 8ssign codes to the main themes+ "f the researcher wants to count the num#er of

times a theme has occurred in an inter!iew, heshe needs to select a few responses to

an open/ ended $uestion and identify the main themes. Heshe continues to identify

these themes from the same $uestion till a saturation point is reached. %rite these

themes and assign a code to each of them, using num#ers or keywords.

Step +. 2lassify responses under the main themes+ Ha!ing identified the themes et

step is to go through the transcripts of all the inter!iews and classify the responses

under the different themes.

Step D. 'ntegrate themes and responses into the text of your report+ Ha!ing identified

responses that fall within different themes, the net step is to integrate into the tet of

your report. %hile discussing the main themes that emerged from their study, someresearchers use !er#atim responses to keep the feel of the response. here are others

who count how fre$uently a theme has occurred, and then pro!ide a sample of the

responses. "t entirely depends upon the way the researcher wants to communicate the

findings to the readers.



9uantitati!e 7ata Analysis:

his method is most suita#le for large well designed and well administered sur!eys

using properly constructed and worded $uestionnaire.

7ata can #e analysed either manually or with the help of a computer .

-anual ata 8nalysis+ his can #e done if the num#er of respondents is reasona#ly

small, and there are not many !aria#les to analyse. Howe!er, this is useful only for

calculating fre$uencies and for simple cross/ta#ulations. Manual data analysis is

etremely time consuming. he easiest way to do this is to code it directly onto large

graph paper in columns. 7etailed headings can #e used or $uestion num#ers can #e

written on each column to code information a#out the $uestion.

o manually analyse data (fre$uency distri#ution), count !arious codes in a column and

then decode them. "n addition, if you want to carry out statistical tests, they ha!e to #e

calculated manually. %owever, the use of statistics depends on your expertise and the

desire1need to communicate the findings in a certain way.

ata 8nalysis 9sing a 2omputer+

"f you want to analyse data using computer, you should #e familiar with the appropriate

program. "n this area, knowledge of computer and statistics plays an important role.

he most common software is S3SS for windows. Howe!er, data input can #e long and

la#orious process, and if data is entered incorrectly, it will influence the final results.

Step: RE'ORTIN9 THE FINDIN9S:

%riting the report is the last, and for many, the most difficult step of the research

process. he report informs the world what you ha!e done, what you ha!e disco!ered

and what conclusions you ha!e drawn from your findings. he report should #e written in

an academic style. 2anguage should #e formal and not 4ournalistic.



%ritten Research 3ro4ect Report ;ormat: raditional written reports tend to #e produced

in the following format.

Title Pa#e

$Title o# the Research 'roject

$Na"e o# the researcher

$'urpose o# the research project e1!1 A research project subitted in partial

$ul$illent o$ the re%uireents o$ &'PS(M) *SMMU) $or the de#ree o$ Masters o$

Public health) epideiolo#y

$Date o# 'ublication

Table o$ "ontents

In this section is listed the contents o# the report either in chapters or in

subheadin!s

e1!1

Contents 'a!e No

Introduction 0

Chapter I Theoretical Fra"e+or; and Revie+ o# Related 3iterature

Chapter II Research Desi!n

Chapter III Data Analysis and Interpretation

Chapter I% Su""ary and Conclusion

Su!!estions #or Further Research

Re#erences *iblio!raphy

Appendices

Appendi& I )uestionnaire #or E"ployees

Appendi& II )uestionnaire #or ,ana!ers

List o$ Tables

This section includes title and pa!e nu"ber o# all tables e1!1 Table No1 Title 'a!e

No1

0 Inco"e levels o# Respondents



2 A!e distribution o# Respondents

List ($ +i#ures

This section contains title and pa!e nu"ber o# all !raphs pie charts etc1 e1!1

Fi!ure No1 Title 'a!e No

01 'ie Chart sho+in! a!e distribution o# respondents

21 *ar 9raph sho+in! popularity o# "enu ite"s

8cknowledgements

Here the researcher may acknowledge "nstitute 3rincipal, ;aculty <uide/#oth research

guide and technical guide, research participants, friends etc.

'ntroduction

This section introduces the research settin! out ai"s and objectives1

It includes a rationale #or the research1

Theoretical +rae,or and Revie, o$ Literature

In this section is included all your bac;!round research +hich "ay be obtained

#ro" the literature revie+1 ?ou "ust indicate #ro" +here all the in#or"ation has

co"e so re"e"ber to ;eep a co"plete record o# everythin! you read1 I# you do

not do this you could be accused o# pla#iaris +hich is a #or" o# intellectual

the#t1 .hen you are re#errin! to a particular boo; or journal article use the

Harvard syste"1

Research desi#n :

This section includes all practical details #ollo+ed #or research 1 A#ter readin! this

any interested party should be able to replicate the research study1 The "ethods

used #or data collection ho+ "any people too; part ho+ they +ere chosen +hattool +as used #or data collection ho+ the data +as analysed etc1

Data Analysis and 'nterpretation:



I# you have conducted a lar!e (uantitative survey this section "ay contain tables

!raphs pie charts and associated statistics1 I# you have conducted a (ualitative

piece o# research this section "ay be descriptive prose1

Suary and "onclusion:

In this section you su" up your #indin!s and dra+ conclusions #ro" the"

perhaps in relation to other research or literature1

Recoendations

I# you have conducted a piece o# research #or a hotel or any other client

or!aniation this

section could be the "ost i"portant part o# the report1 A list o# clear

reco""endations +hich have been developed #ro" the research is included$

so"eti"es this section is included at the be!innin! o# the report1

Su##estion $or +urther Research

It is use#ul in both acade"ic reports and +or;$related reports to include a section

+hich

sho+s ho+ the research can be continued1 'erhaps so"e results are

inconclusive or perhaps the research has thro+n up "any "ore research

(uestions +hich need to be addressed1 It is use#ul to include this section because

it sho+s that you are a+are o# the +ider picture and that you are not tryin! to

cover up so"ethin! +hich you #eel "ay be lac;in! in your o+n +or;1

List o$ Re$erences .*iblio#raphy

$ List o$ re$erences contains details only o$ those ,ors cited in the te/t0

$ A biblio#raphy includes sources not cited in the te/t but ,hich are relevant to

the subject01lar#er dissertations or thesis2$ S"all research projects +ill need only a re#erence section1 This includes all the

literature to +hich you have re#erred in your report1 The popular re#erencin!

syste" 3arvard Syste lists boo;s and periodicals in the #ollo+in! "anner

+or *oos



'.Authors surname ( alpha#etically), followed #y their initials,

*.7ate of pu#lication

+.itle of #ook in italics

D.3lace of pu#lication, 3u#lisher. e.g.

3hilip, .E.& '=J, -odern 2ookery for #eaching and #rade, Mum#ai, rient 2ongman.

+or 4ournal Article:

he title of the article appears in in!erted commas and name of the 4ournal comes in

italics,

followed #y !olume num#er and pages of the article. e.g.

3hilip, .E.& N"nfluence of 1ritish Ra4 on "ndian CuisineO& <ournal of %ospitality ;ducation&

?:?/''

Appendices:

"f you ha!e constructed a $uestionnaire or "nter!iew schedule for your research, it may

#e useful to include them in your report as an appendi.

Appendices do not count towards your total num#er of pageswords. "t is a useful way of

including rele!ant material so that the eaminer can gain a deeper understanding of your

work #y reading it.

2ertification &age+

2;*#'"'28#;

2ertified that this research pro!ect

titled is the bonafide record of work

carried out by for final year -&%.;pidemiology and Biostatistics

#echnical :uide *esearch 2oordinator &rincipal

&lace ate



%alidity

he degree to which the data measured what they were intended to measure

the #est a!aila#le approimation to the truth of a gi!en proposition, inference, or conclusion

Talidity has #een descri#ed as Qthe agreement #etween a test score or measure and the

$uality it is #elie!ed to measureQ (Iaplan and Saccu00o, *KK'). "n other words, it measures

the gap #etween what a test actually measures and what it is intended to measure.

Closeness of the measurement to the true !alue

Accuracy

How close is a test result to the truth

3roportion of all tests, #oth positi!e and negati!e, that are correct

his gap can #e caused #y two particular circumstances:

(a) the design of the test is insufficient for the intended purpose, and

(#) the test is used in a contet or fashion which was not intended in the design.

Talidity

he degree to which the inference drawn from a study, warranted when account is taken of

the study methods, the representati!eness of the study sample, and nature of the population

from which it is drawn

wo !arieties of study !alidity are distinguished



"nternal !alidity: he degree to which the results of a study are correct for the sample of

patients #eing studied.

"t is related to the design of the eperimentWrandomnessX

"t is determined #y how well the design, data collection, data analysis are carried out

and is threatened #y all of the #iases and random !ariation.

"nternal !alidity is necessary #ut not sufficient for the study

;or internal !alidity any of the following $ualities are noted

;ace !alidity: %hen a test, $uestion or measure is considered #y the researcher to #e logically

rele!ant to what !aria#le he wants to measure , we may say that the $uestion, test or measure

has face !alidity.

Consensual !alidity:

%hen se!eral eperts agree that the measure is !alid we consider that consensual !alidity

eists. Most cases measures that achie!es consensual !alidity also ha!e face !alidity.

Researcher should not feel discouraged if consensual !alidity is not o#tained for his logical

propositions. ruth is #ound to pre!ail in due course.

Content !alidity:

%hen a new measure is used for a !aria#le, 4udgment a#out its goodness of fit- are often made

#y comparing the results o#tained from this new measure with those of a standard measure.

he degree to which the results of the second measure match with the results of the criterion

gi!e the criterion !alidity. Criterion !alidity issues are important su#4ects of discussion when

de!eloping new techni$ues or deciding new indicators.

Construct !alidity:

A construct !alidity is a concept which can not #e directly measured or o#ser!ed. ;or eample

religiosity , work moti!ation, patriotism. Such constructs are measured using se!eral other

measures. %hen results of these measures confirm the concept, we conclude that construct

!alidity is present.

Con!ergent !alidity:

%hen finding of a measure selected corro#orate or support each other.

his corro#oration may #e concurrent or predicti!e

Concurrent !alidity: is confirmed when data collected at the same time corro#orate.

3redicti!e !alidity: is confirmed when data collected or o#tained sometimes in the future

support the !alidity of measure.



7iscriminate !alidity: where measures selected can discriminate or differentiate correctly

#etween the construct under study and other constructs.

"nternal !alidity

"nternal !alidity is the degree to which the results of a study are correct for the sample

of patients #eing studied.

"t is internal #ecause it applies to the conditions of the particular group of patients

#eing o#ser!ed and not necessarily to others.

he groups are selected and compared in such a manner that the o#ser!ed

differences #etween them on the dependent !aria#les under study may #e only

attri#uted to the hypothesi0ed effect under in!estigation

"t is related to the design of the eperiment, such as in the use of random assignment

of treatments.

he internal !alidity of research is determined #y how well the design, data collection,

and analyses are carried out and is threatened #y all of the #iases and random

!ariation.

"nternal !alidity is necessary #ut not sufficient for a study

Eternal !alidity

"t is the degree to which the results of an o#ser!ation remain true for other setting.

Eternal !alidity occurs when the causal relationship disco!ered can #e generali0ed to

other people, time, contets

Representati!e sampling will allow generali0ation and hence gi!e eternal !alidity

Eternal !alidity

"s the degree to which the results of an o#ser!ation remain true for other settings

Eternal !alidity is the etent to which the results of a study apply to people not in it

his aspect of !alidity is only meaningful with regard to a specified eternal target

population

Eternal !alidity occurs when the causal relationship disco!ered can #e generali0ed

to other people, times and contets.

Correct sampling will allow generali0ation and hence gi!e eternal !alidity.

http://changingminds.org/explanations/research/design/three_izings.htm

http://changingminds.org/explanations/research/design/three_izings.htm



Threats

Talidity as concluded is not always accepted #y others and perhaps rightly so. ypical reasons

why it may not #e accepted include:

"nappropriate selection of measures/ insta#le characteristics (insta#ility of

measures).

"nsufficient data collected to make !alid conclusions.

Measurement done in too few contets, few measurement !aria#les.

"nade$uate selection of target su#4ects (selection, mortality).

Su#4ects gi!ing #iased answers or trying to guess what they should say

(maturation).

Selection/maturation interaction

method not !alid (testing, instrumentation).

peration of eperiment not rigorous.

ther unplanned e!ents going on during the study period may contri#ute to

changes

Relia#ility

he degree of sta#ility ehi#ited when a measurement is repeated under identical

conditions.

he degree to which the results o#tained #y a measurement, procedure can #ereplicated.

o ha!e the same result when repeated (repeata#ility)

he etent to which result is reproduci#le (reproduci#ility)

Reasons for !ariation

• %ithin o#ser!er !ariation

• 1etween o#ser!er !ariation

• Random su#4ect !ariation

• 1iased su#4ect !ariation



Errors in Epidemiology

(a) Error is une$ual in one of thesegroups leading to a false interpretation

of the pattern of disease

/ falsely detecting differences

(#) Error is une$ual in one of thesegroups leading to a false interpretation

of the pattern of disease

/ here failure to detect differences



A false or mistaken result may #e o#tained in an epiedmiological study. 7ifferent kinds of error

can occur in epidemiology.

• Random or chance error

• 1ias or systematic error

1ias and chance are not mutually eclusi!e. "n most situations #oth are present. he main

reason for distinguishing the two is that they are handled differently.

Random Error

Random error is the proportion of !ariation in a measurement generally regarded as due

to chance.

the play of chance may always affect the results o#ser!ed simply #ecause of random!ariation from sample to sample.

Random error can ne!er #e completely eliminated& can #e reduced.

Measurement error, #iological !ariation, sampling error are the ma4or sources of random

error.

Systematic Error

7e!iation of results or inferences from truth, or processes leading to such de!iation.

A process at any stage of inference tending to produce results that depart systematically

from the true !alues.

Any trend in the collection, analysis, interpretation, pu#lication, or re!iew of data that can

lead to conclusions that are systematically different from the truth.

"t is consistently wrong in a particular direction.

7oes not necessarily carry an imputation of pre4udice or other su#4ecti!e factor.

1ias in theory can #e pre!ented #y conducting studies properly or corrected through

proper data analysis



Typin# and *indin# o$ Research Project Report:

'aper *ond 'aper G need not be e&ecutive bond

Sie :16inches B 00 inches

,ar!in 3e#t$ 016 inch

Top$ 0 inch

*otto" 0 inch

Ri!ht 0 inch

Font Ti"es Ne+ Ro"an

Font Sie 02

Spacin! 016

*indin! *lac; *ottle !reenNavy blue Re&in

9old E"bossin! on Cover

Research Title

Student &ae

&ae o$ 'nstitute

5ear o$ Subission

research methodology_original

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