research methods

Chapter 4: Research Methods

Chapter 4

Research Methods

Chapter nos. Topics Page nos.

4. Research Methods

Observations Survey Method Experimentation Secondary Data

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OBSERVATION

Definition

It is the process of recognizing people, objects and occurrences rather than asking for information.


Instead of asking consumers what brand they buy the researchers arrange to observe what products are brought.

E.g. a large food retailer tested a new slot-type shelf arrangement for canned foods by observing shoppers as they used the new shelves.

Advantages of observation method

1. When the researcher observes and records events, it is not necessary to rely on the willingness and ability of respondents to report accurately.

2. The biasing effects of interviewers or their phrasing of the questions is either eliminated or reduced.

3. Data collection by observation is more objective and hence more accurate.

Disadvantages of observation method

1. Researchers have recognized the merits of observations opposed to questioning, yet the vast majority of researchers continue to rely on the use of a questionnaire.

2. The most limiting factor in the use of observation is the inability to observe things such as attitudes, motivation, etc.

3. Events of more than short-term duration such as a family’s use of leisure time and personal activities such as brushing of teeth are better discussed with questionnaires.

4. In some observational studies it is impractical to keep the respondent from knowing that they are being observed. This results in a biasing effect.

5. Cost is another major disadvantage. E.g. To observe the customers who come in to buy canned milk, an observer has to wait for the customers to come in and buy the milk. The unproductive time is an increased cost.

METHODS OF OBSERVATION

Observational studies can be classified on five bases:1. Whether the situation in which the observation is made is natural or contrived2. Whether the observation is obtrusive or unobtrusive.3. Whether the observation is structured or unstructured4. Whether the factor of interest is observed directly or indirectly5. Whether observers or mechanical means makes observations.


Direct observations

When an observer is stationed in a grocery store to note how many different brands of canned soup each shopper picks up before selecting one, there is unobtrusive, direct observation in a natural situation.

If a camera is positioned to record shopping actions, observation is by mechanical means

If the observer counts the specific cans picked up, the observation is structured.

If the observer has to go about observing how shoppers go about selecting a brand of soup, the situation is unstructured.

Structured direct observation

It is used when the problem at hand has been formulated precisely enough to enable researchers to define specifically the observations to be made

E.g. Observers in a supermarket might note the number of soup cans picked up by each customer. A form can easily be printed for simple recordings of such observations.

Not all observations are as simple as the above but experiments have shown that even observers with a different viewpoint on a given question tend to make similar observations under structured conditions.

Unstructured, direct observation

Observers are placed in situations and observe whatever they deem significant.

E.g. In an effort to find ways of improving the service of a store, observers may mingle with customers in the store and look for activities that suggest service problems. No one can observe everything that is going on, hence the observer must select certain things which he can make a note of. Customers standing at a counter with annoyed faces may be observed as irritated because of the service or lack of it.

Contrived observation

When researchers rely on natural direct observation it results in a lot of wasted time while they wait for the desired events to take place. To reduce this, it may be more desirable to contrive situations so that observations may be made more efficiently.

E.g. To study the bargaining between an automobile salesman and a customer, the observer can pose as a customer and take various bargaining attitudes from the most-eager-to-buy to the toughest price seeking. In each case the observer notes the salesperson’s response. As


long as the sales person believes the researcher to be a bonafide customer, there is no bias in the observation.

Contrived observations often have a validity and economic advantage.

Mechanical observation

A number of methods and devices have been developed for making such observations.

a) Audimeter- used by the A C Nielsen company to record when television and radio sets are tuned on and the stations to which they are tuned.

b) People meter- a device that can be held in the hand and has a number for each member of the household, which he/she is asked to punch when viewing TV.

c) Psycho galvanometer- measures minute emotional reactions through changes in the rate of perspiration. It is almost like a lie detector.

d) Eye camera- used to record the movements of the eye.

Indirect observation

One type of observation focuses on the physical traces left by the factors of interest. These traces are of two types;

1. Accretions left2. Erosion

3. Accretions involve studies such as the observation of liquor bottles in th 4. Erosion

Accretions involve a trash to eliminate the liquor consumption in cities without liquor stores.

Erosion observations are less frequent. An example would be the study of a relative readership of different sections of an encyclopedia by measuring the wear and tear on the pages.

Observation of the results of past actions will not bias the data if done on a one-time basis.

E.g. Pantry audits determine what purchases have been made in the past.

Observation of records

Whenever researchers use data collected for another purpose, they are employing the observation method in a manner similar in character to the observation of physical trace


The records of previous activities such as population census are physical traces of previous periods.

Survey method

Definition

Survey research is one of the most important areas of measurement in applied social research. The broad area of survey research encompasses any measurement procedures that involve asking questions of respondents.

Types of surveys

Surveys can be divided into two broad categories: the questionnaire and the interview.

Questionnaires are usually paper-and-pencil instruments that the respondent completes.

The interviewer based on what the respondent says completes interviews.

Questionnaires

Mail survey: when a respondent receives a questionnaire by mail it is known as mail survey.

Advantages: They are relatively inexpensive to administer. You can send the exact same instrument to a wide number of people. They allow the respondent to fill it out at their own convenience.

Disadvantages: Response rates from mail surveys are often very low. Mail questionnaires are not the best vehicles for asking for detailed written

responses.

Group-administered questionnaire

A sample of respondents is brought together and asked to respond to a structured sequence of questions.

Traditionally, questionnaires were administered in-group settings for convenience.

The researcher could give the questionnaire to those who were present and be fairly sure that there would be a high response rate

http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/survwrit.htm

http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/intrview.htm


If the respondents were unclear about the meaning of a question they could ask for clarification.

And, there were often organizational settings where it was relatively easy to assemble the group (in a company or business, for instance).

Interviews

Interviews are a far more personal form of research than questionnaires

Personal interviewThe interviewer works directly with the respondent

Advantages The interviewer has the opportunity to probe or ask follow-up questions. Interviews are generally easier for the respondent, especially if what is

sought is opinions or impressions

Disadvantages Interviews can be very time consuming and they are resource intensive. The interviewer is considered as a part of the measurement instrument

and interviewers have to be well trained in how to respond to any contingency.

Telephone Interview

Telephone interviews enable a researcher to gather information rapidly.

Advantages They allow for some personal contact between the interviewer and the

respondent. They allow the interviewer to ask follow-up questions

Disadvantages Many people don't have publicly-listed telephone numbers. Some don't

have telephones. People often don't like the intrusion of a call to their homes. Telephone interviews have to be relatively short or people will feel

imposed upon.

Selecting the survey method

Selecting the type of survey you are going to use is one of the most critical decisions in many social research contexts. You have to use your judgment to balance the advantages and disadvantages of different survey types.


Following are the issues that the researcher must look into before conducting a research.

Sampling issues

What data is available? What information do you have about your sample? Do you know their current addresses? Their current phone numbers? Are your contact lists up to date?

Can your respondents be located? Who is the respondent in your study? If the specific individual is unavailable is

the researcher willing to interview another? Are response rates likely to be a problem?

Questions

What types of questions can be asked? Are they personal or require a detailed answer?

Can question sequence be controlled? Your survey is one where you can construct in advance a reasonable

sequence of questions? Or, are you doing an initial exploratory study where you may need to ask lots of follow-up questions that you can't easily anticipate

Cost is often the major determining factor in selecting survey type. You might prefer to do personal interviews, but can't justify the high cost of training and paying for the interviewers. You may prefer to send out an extensive mailing but can't afford the postage to do so.

Do you have the facilities (or access to them) to process and manage your study? In phone interviews, do you have well-equipped phone surveying facilities? For focus groups, do you have a comfortable and accessible room to host the group? Do you have the equipment needed to record and transcribe responses

Some types of surveys take longer than others. Do you need responses immediately (as in an overnight public opinion poll)? Have you budgeted enough time for your study to send out mail surveys and follow-up reminders, and to get the responses back by mail? Have you allowed for enough time to get enough personal interviews to justify

Types of questions

Survey questions can be divided into two broad types: structured and unstructured

Dichotomous Questions When a question has two possible responses, we consider it dichotomous. Surveys often use dichotomous questions that ask for a Yes/No, True/False or Agree/Disagree response


Eg please enter your gender

Male female

Likert response scale An opinion question is asked on a 1-to-5 bipolar scale (it's called bipolar because there is a neutral point and the two ends of the scale are at opposite positions of the opinion):

The batting order of the Indian team shold be changed1 2 3 4 5 Strongly agree disagree neutral agree strongly disagree

Semantic differential Here, an object is assessed by the respondent on a set of bipolar adjective pairs (using 5-point rating scale).

EXPERIMENTATION

Experiments are frequently conducted to determine what effect advertising of an undesirable fact would have on consumer awareness of that fact. Advertising was conducted, and a measurement of consumer awareness was made. More advertising was followed by another measurement. As a consistent growth in consumer awareness took place, one would have confidence in the conclusion that the advertising was effective. Experiments are much more effective than descriptive techniques in establishing cause-effect relationships.

Definition of Experiment

It refers to that research process in which one or more variables are manipulated under conditions that permits the collection of data that show the effects, if any, of such variables in unconfused fashion.

Under most circumstances, experiments must create “artificial “ situations. Artificiality in general is the essence of the experimental method, for it gives researchers more control over the factors they are studying. If they can control the factors present in a given situation, they can obtain more conclusive evidence of cause and effect relationships between any two of them. Thus, the ability to set up a situation for the express purpose of observing and recording accurately the effect on one factor when another is deliberately changed permits researchers to prove or disprove hypotheses that they otherwise could only partially test.

Selected Experimental Designs


The researcher has an hypothesis that if an experimental variable (e.g. advertising, shell display, training) is applied to an experimental unit (e.g. a group of consumers, a store, some sales representatives), it will have a measurable effect (e.g. the number remembering the brand name, units sold, calls made). The following are most of the common designs for marketing experiments.

“After Only” Design.

This is the simplest of all experimental designs. As the “after only” name suggests, this design consists of applying the experimental variable (e.g. advertising) to an experimental group (e.g. consumers) and measuring the dependent variable (e.g. recall of brand name) after, and only after, the application of the experimental variable.

“Before-After “ Design

In this design, the experiments measure the dependent variable before exposing the subjects to the experimental variable and again after exposure to the experimental variable. The difference between the two is considered to be a measurement of the effect of the experimental variable.

“Four-Group—Six Study” Design

In this case, when the investigator is obtaining information in an undisguised manner directly from persons, the “before-after with control group” design is inadequate. Both the experimental and control groups are apt to be influenced, and in different ways, by the “before” measurement. To over these difficulties, this design is established as the ideal where there is interaction between the respondent and the questioning process. This design helps the researchers measure the size of the “interaction” effect.

The design has little practical value and the use of “before” measurements also creates statistical difficulties in testing the significance of results.

“After only with Control Group” Design”

In the “four group—six study” design, it is possible to determine the effect of the experimental variable from only two groups i.e. experimental group 2 and control group 2. The difference between the “before” and “after” measurements of control group 2 is the result of uncontrolled variables.

The “before-after” design permits an analysis of the process of change, whereas the “after only” design does not. . Thus, individual respondents can be identified and their reactions noted in a “before-after” study]

The “after only with control group” design fits many marketing problems and is easy to use. Many promotional devices can be tested this way. Frequently, product tests are also of the “after only with control group “ design e.g. General Motors ran such an experiment to determine the desirability of nylon cord tyres as compared to the traditional rayon cord tyres.

Ex Post Facto Design


One variation of the “after-only” design is called the ex post facto design. This differs from the “after only” design because the experimental and control groups are selected after the experimental variables is introduced instead of before.

One advantage is that the test subjects cannot be influenced, pro or con, toward the object be knowing they are being tested, since they are exposed to the experimental variable before being selected for the sample.

Another advantage of this method is that it permits the experimenter to let the experimental variable be introduced realistically and to control only observations. This is useful in advertising tests, which use commercial media.

E.g. A T.V public service announcement designed to inform consumers about the pro and cons of nuclear energy. This could be broadcast over cable T.V only, and interviewers could then determine with some objective accuracy whether a home had a cable TV or not.

Continuous Diary Panel Design

In most marketing research experiments, the subjects (individuals, dealers) from whom information is to be obtained are selected by some sampling procedure. After the information required by the product is obtained, these subjects are not “used” again. In some instances, however, a sample is recruited, and information is obtained from the members continuously or at intervals over a period of time. A permanent or fixed sample of this type is called a panel. Panels are used for both exploratory and conclusive studies.

Factorial Designs

In the above designs, a single experimental variable with usually one variable was considered. It is possible to test several “levels” of the experimental variable

For example several different ads could be tested, each with a separate experimental group. All but one group alternatively could be considered as control groups against which to compare the experimental group, or an additional control group not exposed to any advertising could be used to protect against possible negative effects of all ads.

Factorial designs permit the experimenter to test two or more variables at the same time and not only determine the main effects of each of the variables, but also to measure the interaction effects of variables.

SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data are data that were developed for some purpose other than helping to solve the problem at hand. Secondary data can be gathered quickly and is inexpensive as compared to primary data. Even when reports or publications are ordered, the time involved is generally less than the time required to collect original data.

A thorough search on secondary data will often provide sufficient information to resolve the problem. In some cases where the secondary data cannot solve the problem, they can often help to structure the problem and eliminate some variables


from consideration. Or, it may be possible to utilize the secondary data in conjunction with primary data. Secondary data can provide a complete or partial solution to many problems and help in structuring other problems. They tend to cost substantially less than primary data and can be collected in less time also.

Problems Encountered with Secondary Data

Before secondary data are applied to a particular marketing problem, their relevance and accuracy must be assessed.

Relevancy refers to the extent to which the data fits the information needs of research problem. Even when the data covers the same general topic as that required by the research problem, they may not fit the requirements of the problem. Three general problem’s reduces the relevance of data that would otherwise be useful. They are:

1) There is often a difference in the units of measurement. E.g. many retail decisions require detailed information on the characteristics of the population within their trade area. However, the available population statistics may focus on countries, cities or census tracts that do not match the trade area of the retail outlet.

2) The second general problem that can reduce relevancy of secondary data is the definition of classes. E.g. a manufacturer may have a product that appeals to children 8 to 12 years old. If available secondary data are based on age categories 5 to 9 and 10 to 14, the firm will have a hard time utilizing it.

3) The final major factor that is affecting relevancy is time. Generally, research problems require current, if not future, data. Most secondary data, on the other hand, have been in existence for some time. E.g. complete census reports are not available for several years. Data are frequently collected one to three years prior to its publication.

Accuracy is the second major concern of the user of secondary data. The real problem is not inaccuracy, it is the difficulty of determining how inaccurate the data is likely to be.

While using secondary data, the original source should be used if possible. This is important because, the original report is generally more complete than the second or third reports. Secondly using original source allows the data to be examined in context and may provide a better basis for assessing the competence and motivation of the collector.

Sources of Secondary Data

There are two general sources of secondary data – internal sources and external sources. Internal data are available within the firm whereas external sources provide data that are developed outside the firm.


Internal Sources

Internal sources include sales record, sales force reports, operating statements, budgets, previous research reports and the likes. The most useful type of internal information is generally sales data. But, unfortunately many companies do not collect or maintain sales data in the manner that allows the researcher to tap their full potential. Such records, if properly utilized, allows the researcher to isolate profitable and unprofitable customers, territories, and product lines, to identify developing trends and perhaps to measure the effects of manipulations of marketing mix variables.

Internal data must be collected in a usable format and must be analyzed to be of value. Many firms have useful but unutilized data. By changing the format of collection forms (sales invoices, salesman call reports, etc) other useful data can be often collected. They are available and inexpensive; internal data are the best information buy.

External Sources

Numerous sources external to the firm may produce data relevant to the firm’s requirements. There are four types of general external secondary information, they are:

1) Trade associations2) Government Agencies3) Other published sources, and4) Syndicated services

a) Trade AssociationsTrade associations frequently publish or maintain detailed information on industry sales, operating characteristics, growth patterns and the like. They may also conduct special studies of factors relevant to their industry. Since trade associations have good reputation for not revealing data on individual firms as well as good working relationships with the firms in the industry, they may be able to secure information that may be unavailable to other researchers. These materials may be published in the form of annual reports or as special reports.

b) Government agenciesFederal, state and local government agencies produce a massive amount of data that is of relevance to marketers. The federal government maintains five major agencies whose primary function is the collection and dissemination of statistical data, they are:

a) Bureau of Censusb) Bureau of Labor Statisticsc) National Center for Educational Statisticsd) National Center for Health Statistics, and


e) Statistical Reporting Service, Department of AgricultureThere are also a number of specialized analytic and research agencies, numerous administrative and regulatory agencies.

These sources produce two types of dataa) Statistics focused on people are produced. These include demographics, vital

and health statistics, labor and social conditions.b) The second broad category focuses on economic activity – commerce,

finance, agriculture and the like.Both types of data are widely used by business firms as an aid in decision-making.

The data available may be standardized, such as census data, or it may be in the form of special reports. Census publications are one of the most widely used sources of secondary data.

c) Other published SourcesThere is virtually endless array of periodicals, books, dissertations, newspapers and the like, that contain information relevant to marketing decisions.

d) Syndicated ServicesA number of firms regularly collect data of relevance to marketers that they sell on a subscription basis. Two types of syndicated services are widely used by marketing researchers – channel information and omnibus surveys.

Channel information is available to the firm at four levels – manufacturers, intermediaries, retailers and consumers. A manufacturers sales and shipment are generally available only through the firms own internal records. Therefore, although a firm can monitor its own activities at this level, it can only infer the output of other manufacturing firms.At the intermediary or wholesale level, several syndicated firms provide information on the flow of products and brands to retail outlets. Store audits provide data on the movement of brands through retail outlets.At the consumer level, consumer panels provide data on both purchasing pattern and media habits.

Omnibus surveys collect data that are useful to a number of subscribers from a series of independent samples.

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