research on cognitive process and subliminal...

Research on Cognitive Process and

Subliminal Advertising

KAREN WONG

Supervisor: Dr. Kara Chan

School of Communication

Hong Kong Baptist University

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ACKNOWLEDMENT The dissertation and the master course can hardly be accomplished without the support and help form all of the above person, the love and endurance of my family and love ones in all these years. The work with this dissertation has been extensive and trying, but in the first place exciting, instructive, and fun. Without help, support, and encouragement from several persons, I would never have been able to finish this work. I wish to thank Professor John. H. Murphy for his valuable lessons. He opened my eyes by introducing the world of advertising. He has also enriched me with the understanding on the field, the media, and professional from the industry. With the deepest gratitude, I thank the unconditional support and kindness from the following individuals and parties: friends and colleagues from CUHK & IBM, for their tolerance and precious opinions; all my classmates from this master course who “rescue” me from all the unsolvable problems; and most importantly they made this two years fly as a blink of an eye. Also, the distinguished faculty members and lecturers of the School of Communication, for their breadth and depth of their knowledge and professional experience that enrich the classroom and allow students to discover the dynamic world of communication. Last, but not least, I thank my parents, for having me if their life in the first place, for giving me a loving family and protected environment to grow up with, for providing first class education that anyone can ever asks for. Without the love from my brothers Jackie and Stanley, my creativity and independence wouldn’t be built so flourishingly. I am thankful for begin the daughter of my parents and the little sister of my two brothers; because of them, my life is blessed with joy and happiness.

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ABSTRACT

The public uproar over subliminals began with in the late 1950s. The frenzy continued and became one of the few advertising notorious strategies. With the “birth” of subliminal advertising, advertiser and professional from the field have experience the impact dramatically. The ethnic and conducts are both being challenged by people who believes in subliminal practice existence. Without a proven evidence for the effectiveness of subliminal approach, people who learned about the practice might view the media message completely different ever after. With all the conspiratorial talk, what effect subliminal really does is not the focus of this study. Rather, this attempt is to learn the correlation of one’s adaptation and cognitive learning process after the encounter of subliminal advertising. Most foreign studies emphasize the impact and content of subliminal advertising. In Hong Kong, the understanding and awareness are relatively low; The study hopes to show a significance outcome and analyze how is the cognitive theory plays a part on the learning process and behavior changes and effect on one’s view after they learnt the knowledge of the subliminal advertising.

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TABLE OF CONTENT ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ……………………………………………….. 2 ABSTRACT ……………………………………………….. 3 TABLE OF CONTENT ……………………………………………….. 4 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Research Motives ………………………………………………. 5 1.2 Objectives ………………………………………………. 6 1.3 Study Procedures ………………………………………………. 7 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Subliminal Perception …………………………………………. 8 2.2 Subliminal Advertising …………………………………………. 9 2.3 Social Cognitive Theory…………………………………………. 11 2.4 Cognitive Response Theory ……………………………………... 16 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHOD 3.1 Research Framework …………………………………………. 22 3.2 Research Method & Design……….. …………………………… 23 CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 4.1 Sample Summary ………………………………………………. 26 4.2 Analysis …………………………………………………………. 27 CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION 5.1 Research Limitations…………………………………………… 30 5.2 Suggestions ……………………………………………………. 30 5.3 Conclusion …………………………………………………….. 30 REFERENCE …………………………………………………... 33 APPENDIX 1 Pretest Questionnaire ………………………..………. 38 APPENDIX 2 Posttest Questionnaire ……………………………….. 41 APPENDIX 3 Print Ad Layouts ……………………………………… 43 APPENDIX 4 Statistical Tables ………………………………………. 47

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research Motives

What is subliminal advertising? Should we be worried about its power of mind

manipulation, thoughts, attitudes and even our behaviors? For nearly half of a

century, countless of researches and investigations have been searching for its

answers. Some believe that subliminal advertising can make people behave the

way it wants them to rather than they way they want to...that it can make people

buy things that they neither want nor need…that it can make them believe things

that are not true – and all of this without being aware of what is happening to them.

Do subliminal techniques really exist? Or those “hidden” messages really deliver

the message in an “effective” way as the marketer wants. The public uproar over

subliminal took place over two key periods. In 1957, the second greatest invention

next to nuclear bomb – the subliminal advertising, has been “broken and entered”

people’s mind without one’s knowing. The incident focused on James Vicary’s

claims that he had inserted split-second, invisible ad messages into movies. While

opponent were furious about such unforgivable psychological manipulations being

“invented”; the advertising professional were vociferously claimed that neither

they nor anyone they knew had created subliminal advertising. By 1970s, Wilson

Bryan Key rekindled the frenzy with his book Subliminal Seduction, which

purported to reveal that ads for liquor and other everyday products were riddled

with the hidden skulls and nude body in ice cube.

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Two decades may have separated the subliminal scares, but the popular critique

was essentially the same: secret, hidden messages in advertising manipulate an

unwitting public into buying things they don’t need. Today, subliminal stimulation

continues to spark interest among marketers, advertisers, psychologists and the

general public. Experimental psychologists continue to develop and debate

sophisticated methodologies to examine conscious and unconscious perceptual

processing and their effects, while advertisers and academic scholars continue to

express concern about the public’s widespread belief in the phenomenon and its

alleged effects.

To assess the persuasive impact of subliminal advertising, we can use theoretical

rationales: Social Cognitive Theory, an individual’s behavior is uniquely

determined by personal, behavior, and the environment factors. Social cognition

has its roots in social psychology which attempts “to understand and explain how

the thoughts, feelings and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual,

imagined, or implied presence of others” (Allport, 1985). It studies the individual

within a social or cultural context and focuses on how people perceive and

interpret information they generate themselves and from others (Sternberg, 1994).

This review will explain how the effect of interaction with the learning process,

results with the subliminal advertising exposures of the public; specifically, the

impact and difference for one’s views after they gain the knowledge of subliminal

advertising.

1.2 Objectives

Regarding the motivation of this research, the study will discuss the difference of

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the effect of one’s perception before and after the learning of subliminal

advertising practices. The objectives of this study are shown as follows:

a. Compare the difference between audiences’ view before and after they

learn about the practices of subliminal advertising

b. Whether or not subliminal advertising education will influence their

attitude and perception toward advertisement after the learning

c. Whether or not audience believe in the usage of subliminal advertising

d. Exploring the impact of reactions and response to subliminal advertising

e. Evaluate persuasiveness of and response to such advertising

1.3 Study Procedure

After research motives and objectives of this study being identified, literature is

collected about subliminal advertising, subliminal perception, subliminal

persuasion and Social Cognitive Theory etc. Then questionnaires are designed,

followed by analysis of the results and finally conclusions are made. The

procedure of this study is shown below:

1. Collection of Information and Literature

2. Build the Structure of the Study

3. Design Questionnaire and Sampling

4. Collect Questionnaires and Adjustment

5. Analyze Information and Explain

6. Conclusion and Suggestion

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Subliminal Perception

Perception is the natural, normal way you receive impression from your

environment conscious awareness. “Subliminal perception” means that the

stimulation is so weak that individual almost can’t feel the existence of it. The

concept of subliminal perception is close to “seeing without looking at and with

being aware that seeing has take place. “Subliminal” means “below threshold”. An

individual’s perceptual threshold is usually defined as stimulus value that is

correctly detected 50% of the time. The threshold is therefore, a statistical

abstraction. This threshold may vary from second to second, and differ rather

widely between individuals. (Moore, 1982)

How can one show that a stimulus has had and influence if a person claims to be

unaware of its exact nature or even existence? This paradox has traditionally been

resolved using indirect methods showing that stimuli can influence a person’s

thoughts or judgments even when they are unable to identify or recognize the

stimulus. For a truly subliminal stimulus, scientists predict a null effect for

measures of conscious awareness, but significant effects on some other judgment,

attitude, preference, or behavioral measure.

According to Moore, we may use the term subliminal perception to the following

situations:

1. The subject responds to stimulation that falls below he ever reported

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awareness of the stimulus in some previous threshold determination.

2. Individual responds to a stimulus of which he pleads total unawareness

3. Individual reports that he is being stimulated but denies any awareness of

what the stimulus was.

Cognitive and social psychologists are now learning that stimuli presented

subliminal can not only be perceived, but can have a considerable influence over a

variety of cognitive process (possibly even behavior). The next section will show

there are different kinds of advertising use subliminal perception in our daily life.

2.2 Subliminal Advertising

The idea of subliminal advertising first came to the public’s attention in 1957,

when Jim Vicary, a motivational researcher, conducted a subliminal advertising

strategy in the movie theatre. He allegedly flashed the messages Eat Popcorn and

Drink Coke so fast that the audience couldn’t consciously see the words. Vicary

claimed Coke sales jumped 18.1% and popcorn sales leaped 57.7%. The

subliminal advertising was officially born on that day. It is widely agreed that

Vicary is the originator of the subliminal advertising. However, his study on the

other hand has been largely disregarded in the scholarly community due to lack of

scientific documentation of methodology and failure to replicate.

In 1972, subliminal advertising was once again invented by a Canadian university

professor Wilson Bryan Key. His extensive studies on subliminal advertising have

done a profound impact in the professional field. According to his books

Subliminal Seduction, Media Sexploitation, and The Clam-Plate Orgy, the

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subliminal techniques are in widespread use by media, advertising, and public

relations agencies, industrial and commercial corporations and by the government.

With the acknowledgment that the advertising industry disagrees with his views,

Key documents numerous examples of the letters SEX, nude bodies, genitalia, the

animals appearing in a variety of magazine advertisements. Key maintains that

these messages do not appear by accident, coincidence, or as the work of and

individual artist. His allegations, however, have not been favorably received by the

scientific community.

The definition of subliminal advertising is embedding materials in print, audio, or

video messages so faintly that they are not consciously perceived (Martha & Kirk,

1993). Subliminal advertising uses stimuli that operate below the threshold of

consciousness but that can be perceived subconsciously. It is believed by some

researchers to influence people’s behavior without their being aware that any

communication has taken place.

Moore defined subliminal stimulation into three types of format:

(a) stimuli that presented at a rapid speed in visuals such as movies and

commercials,

(b) accelerated speech in low volume auditory messages, and

(c) stimuli such as words and sexual images that are embedded in printed

matter

Based on the Social Cognitive Theory, we can predict their reaction after the

audiences learned about Subliminal Advertising. The conscious level should be

higher when they perceive the advertising message. Their attitude and perception

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should have changed toward the media and advertisement content. The learning

process is described and explains in detail with the following section.

2.3 Social Cognitive Theory

(A.) Background

Albert Bandura, the originator of the Social Cognitive Theory. The Social Cognitive

Theory stemmed from the Social Learning Theory. It evolved under the umbrella of

behaviorism, which is a cluster of psychological theories intended to explain why

people and animal behave the way that they do. Bandura has led the efforts on

cognitive Social Learning Theory development (Bandura and Walters, 1963).

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory places a heavy focus on cognitive concepts. His

theory focuses on how children and adults operate cognitively on their social

experiences and how these cognitions then influence behavior and development.

His theory was the first to incorporate the notion of modeling, or vicarious learning,

as a form of social learning. In addition, Bandura also introduced several other

important concepts, including reciprocal determinism, self-efficacy, and the idea that

there can be a significant temporal variation in time lapse between cause and effect. In

1986, Bandura renamed his Social Learning Theory, Social Cognitive Theory, as a

better description of what he had been avocation since the 1960’s (Bandura, 1986).

This name change was also likely the result of an effort to further distant himself and

his theory from the behaviorist approach.

The Social Learning Theory has its origins in the discipline of psychology, with its

early foundation being laid by behavioral and social psychologist. Behaviorism,

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introduced by John Watson in 1913, too an extremely mechanistic approach to

understanding human behavior. According to Watson, behavior could be explained in

terms of observable acts that could be described by stimulus-response sequences

(Crosbie-Brunett and Lewis, 1993; Thomas, 1990).

Graph 1-1 Social Cognitive Theory

Source: Pajares (2002).

(B) Definition

Social Cognitive Theory defines human behavior as triadic, dynamic, and reciprocal

interaction of personal factors, behavior, and the environment. According to this

theory, and individual’s behavior is uniquely determined by each of these three

factors. While Social Cognitive Theory upholds the behaviorist notion that response

consequences mediate behavior, it contends that behavior is largely regulated

antecedently through cognitive processes. The theory has a strong emphasis on one’s

cognition suggests that the mind is an active forces that constructs one’s reality,

selectively encodes information, performs behavior on the basis of value and

expectations, and imposes structure on its own action (Jones, 1989).

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According to Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, there are two major purposes of

theory:

• To understand and predict individual and group behavior

• To identify methods in which behavior can be modified or changed

This theory implies that people will have different expectations or values after they

encode the subliminal knowledge. Social Cognitive Theory explains psychosocial

functioning in terms of triadic reciprocal causation in which the three determinants:

1. Behavior, 2. Internal personal factors (cognitive, biological factors) and 3.

Environment, interact and influence each other bi-directionally and their respective

influence may be of different strength and not occur simultaneously. To sum up,

people are both products and producers of their environment (Bandura, 1977).

Within this social cognitive theory perspective, humans are characterized in terms of

five basic and unique capabilities:

Symbolizing Capability: This is the most external influences effect behavior through

cognitive process (Bandura 1989). Bandura suggests that it is symbols that serve as

the mechanism for thought. Through the formation of symbols, such as images (or

embedded subliminal images) or words, humans are able to give meaning, form, and

contiguity to their experiences and knowledge. It provides humans with a powerful

tool for comprehending their environment and for creating and regulating

environmental events that touch virtually every aspect of their lives.

Vicarious Capability: This capability enables people to expand their knowledge and

skills on the basis of information conveyed by modeling influences; learning can

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result from observing the actual behaviors of others and their consequences.

Observational Learning is regarded as the modeling aspect of social cognitive theory.

Symbolic modeling is important to understand the effects of mass communication.

Observational learning is governed by:

1. Attention Span: Determines what is selectively observed in the modeling

influence and what information is extracted. Determinants include (i)

modeled events (salience, attractiveness and functional value),

(ii)observer characteristics (cognitive skills, preconceptions and value

preference) and (iii) structural arrangements of human interactions and

associational networks (complexity, prevalence and accessibility).

2. Retention Processes: Involves active transformation and restructuring of

information about events for memory representation in the form of rules

and conceptions. Influential factors include symbolic coding, cognitive

organization and symbolic rehearsal. In short, to remember what you

have paid attention to. This is where imagery and language come in: we

store what we have seen the model doing in the form of metal images or

verbal descriptions. When stored, it can be “brought up” later as an image

or description, so that one can reproduce it with one’s own behavior.

3. Motor Reproduction Processes means symbolic conceptions are

translated into appropriate courses of action. Influential factors include

physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction and accuracy of

feedback (corrective adjustments during behavior production).

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4. Motivational Processes: People do not perform everything they have

learned. It is influenced by three types of incentive motivators. Influential

factors include external, vicarious and self-produced.

The third one is Forethought Capability: it is a person’s capability to motivate

themselves and guide their actions anticipatorily (Banduran, 1989). While the Social

Cognitive Theory hold that stimuli influences that likelihood of a behavior through

the predictive function of an outcome, the stimuli is not automatically linked to the

response by contiguity. Instead, previous experiences create expectations of the

outcome that will occur as a result of performing a behavior, before the behavior is

performed. This point is significantly important the learning process of the Subliminal

Advertising. Expectations of behavioral outcomes, more so than actual outcomes.

There will be an Expectancies refer to a person’s evaluation of the anticipated

outcome. The capacity to regulate one’s behavior based on expectations and

expectancies provide the mechanism for foresightful behavior.

Self-regulatory Capability: It provides humans with internal standards and

evaluative reactions to one’s own behavior, people try to reduce discrepancy between

one’s perceived performance and reference standard and people also motivate and

guide their actions through proactive control by setting themselves higher valued

goals. Bandura proposes that self-regulatory systems mediate external influences and

provide a basis for the purposeful action, allowing people to have personal control

over their own thoughts, feelings, motivations, and actions (Bandura, 1989).

Self-reflective Capability: It concerns one’s own thinking and personal efficacy,

people monitor their ideas and act on them or predict occurrences from them, they

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judge from the results the adequacy of their thoughts and change them accordingly.

It enables people to analyze their experiences, think about their own thought

processes, and alter their thinking accordingly. One of the most important types of

self-reflection is self-efficacy. A person’s self-efficacy develops as a result of their

history of achievement in a particular area, from observations of others successes

and failures, from the persuasion of others, and from one’s own physiological state

while performing a behavior (Bandura, 1977b).

Accordingly to the five capabilities, the audiences’ behavior shall change

according to their learning of the subliminal advertising practices. Their behavior

and perception will be alerted and become conscious. After the learning stage, they

might find themselves being altered or presume that subliminal advertising is

being used, even when they are present with normal advertisement.

2.4 Cognitive Response Theory

(A) Background

Consumer response to advertising has been researched extensively since

advertising became recognized as a significant part of our culture. In the 1960s,

Lavidge and Steiner explored the hierarchy of effects theory; a theory based on the

idea that when making purchases, people go through certain decision levels from

awareness to purchase, and proposed a new model. This new model involved

three steps: cognitions (reactions), affect (attitudes), and conation (behavior).

Shortly after this model was formed, a number of tests conducted in hopes of

discovering a correlation between the recall of ads and cognition and emotions

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(Smith and Swinyard, 1988). Subsequently, Greenwald took all the previous

research on theories of attitude and combined them into what he termed Cognitive

Response Theory.

Greenwald defined cognitive response as “thoughts generated in response to

persuasive communication that trigger an attitude change (Nixon 2000, General

Information section)”. The theory attempted to find a connection between the

initial response to a persuasive message and the attitude change that occurred after

receiving the message. Greenwald believed that once a person received a

communication of any kind, they were expected to accept or reject the

communication. After a persuasive message is communicated, a person relates it

back to already existing attitudes, behavior, knowledge, and feelings. Because of

this, the response to the persuasive message is shaped not only by the message

itself, but by the “extracommunication” shaped by the individual’s “attempt to

relate the new information to his existing attitudes, knowledge, feelings, etc.

(Greenwald 1968, p. 149)”.

Greenwald’s cognitive response expanded on previous theories that had examined

the role of learning on attitude change (Eagly and Chaiken, 1993). The cognitive

response model emphasized the distinctive thoughts (cognitive responses) that

people generate rather than the reception process that was emphasized in previous

learning theories (Greenwald, 1968).

Peter Wright examined Greenwald’s psychological theory in the 1960s and began

to apply it to marketing and advertising with the hope of discovering insights about

persuasion. Wright organized the cognitive response model into three categories:

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counterargument, support argument, and source derogation. Counterargument is

defined as “statements against the idea or the use of the products in the

advertisement” (Nixon 2000, Application section). Support arguments are “in

favor of the idea or product in an advertisement” (Nixon 2000, Application

section). Source derogation is “a statement expressing lack of trust in the

advertiser or product” (Nixon 2000, Application section).

Wright determined that support arguments are what advertisers’ desire in response

to their ads because they want people to have a positive attitude towards the

persuasive message (Nixon, 2000). Wright also found that a person that sees an

ad is relying “heavily on her evaluative mental responses to message content,

rather than on the content itself, to arrive at an attitudinal position after exposure

(Wright 1973, p. 60).” This is precisely the view touted in Greenwald’s theory

and suggests that a person’s previous attitudes and experiences play an important

part in how they perceive advertising messages. Wright labeled this existing

knowledge as “primary thoughts”, and believed that for researchers to truly

understand consumer response, both cognitive structure (attitudes, beliefs, and

behavior) and primary thoughts needed to be studied (Smith and Swinyard, 1988).

A cognitive response is a thought generated in response to persuasive

communication (Petty, 1981) and therefore, triggers an attitude change. The way in

which a cognitive response effects attitude, after being exposed to persuasive

communication, has to do with the way the recipient of the communication

manipulates, elaborates and integrates the information (Greenwald, 1968). When

people are exposed to information, they relate it to pre-existing thoughts that they

already have on the subject. People are of course more likely to be persuaded by

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messages to which they have previously thought optimistically.

The cognitive response theory attempts to understand the link between the initial

response to communication and the attitude change that results. The theory says

that a cognitive response influences final attitude and therefore may effect

behavior.

(B) Cognitive Learning

It has been inferred that the success of an advertisement correlates with the

consumer learning curve of the persuasive message. It is still uncertain whether

there is a connection between positive feedback and consumer preservation of the

advertisement. Many psychologists believe that consumer learning leads to

acceptance of the advertising message, but “the persuasion as a function of

retention hypothesis” is not highly supported in studies. (Insko, 1964; Miller &

Campbell, 1959; Watts & McGuire, 1964). From the studies it can be assumed that

“either learning of attitude relevant cognition (i.e., persuasive arguments) is

unrelated to attitude formation and change or persuasive communications can

induce attitude change without necessarily providing the cognitive content on

which the attitude is based.” (Greenwald, 1968)

(C) Cognitive Response

A cognitive response is the attitude a consumer depicts after seeing and

advertisement. The consumer will either agree or disagree with the message and

may transmit the message to previous beliefs about the particular product. Hovland

says: When exposed to a persuasive communication, a member of the audience is

assumed t o react with at least two distinct response. He thinks of hi s own opinion,

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and also of the opinion suggested by the communicator. Merely thinking about the

new opinion along with the old would not, in itself lead to an opinion change. The

individual could memorize the content of the new opinion while his opinion

remained unchanged. Practice, which is so important for memorizing verbal

materials in educational or training situations, in not sufficient for bringing about

the acceptance of a new opinion (Hovland, 1953).

The idea of persuasion means that someone can be influenced by something.

Cognitive response is based on the same idea meaning that a consumers mind can

by swayed through knowledge. The theory proposes that persuasion produced by

an act of communication is in fact self-persuasion which is produced by the

receiver while reading, listening to, or watching the communication. These

thoughts may be about the content of the communication or other aspects of the

communication process, such as reflection on the credibility of the source. If, by

and large, the communication act evokes feelings supportive of the position being

advocated, the receiver will move towards that position.

(D) Cognitive Model

The cognitive response model follows the belief that “people activity relate

information contained in persuasive messages to their existing feelings and beliefs

about the message topic (Petty, Ostrom, & Brock 1981).” Pre-existing thoughts

generated by the consumer may be positive, negative or neutral to the message. It

is more likely that people agree with persuasions that already follow their own

beliefs and disagree with persuasions that are not consistent to their preconceived

opinions.

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The model is still accepted today due to its acceptance of different attitudes in the

persuasion process. The participant is an active subject and is allowed to openly

express attitudes and feelings during experimentation. The down side to the theory

is the complexity of the theory itself. The cognitive response model encompasses

many different components and classifications. The theory, however, does not take

into account that some people change their mind for no reason or don’t know why

they do.

Graph 2-1 Cognitive Response Model

Source: Lutz and Swasy 1977, p. 367

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CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHOD

3.1 Research Framework

Even though numerous literature reviews and extensive studies have addressed the

topic of subliminal advertising, there is still no consensus on the effectiveness of

subliminal advertising in affecting consumer choice. For the social cognitive

theory, it was a theory about a view of human functioning that accords a central

role to cognitive, vicarious, self-regulatory, and self-reflective process in human

adaptation and change. From this theoretical perspective, human functioning is

viewed as the product of a dynamic interplay of personal, behavioral, and

environmental influences.

It is to believe that the respondents will view and perceive the advertisement

differently after the learning process of the subliminal advertising subject; with the

cognitive theory support, their cognitions (reactions), affect (attitudes), and

conation (behavior) toward the advertisement content, message and the industry

practices may have certain degree of changes/bias compare to their previous

knowledge of advertising.

Hypotheses

Will there be any difference made between two groups in a presentation of the

subliminal stimuli during a cover experiment which had the stated purpose of

establishing recognition thresholds for various messages? For the group who

doesn’t has prior knowledge of subliminal message, will their perception and

behavior change toward the same message after the subliminal messages being

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taught? For those who know about the subliminal, will they have different view or

change of perspective toward the advertising message and professional practices

from the view?

According to the objective and previous literature described, we can have set some

hypothesis as follows:

H1. Respondent’s behavior, attitudes and perception may be affected upon the

learning on the subject of subliminal advertising.

H2. Respondent with no previous exposure on the subject of subliminal

advertising may have negative feelings toward media message.

3.2 Research Method & Design

The purpose of this section is to examine the focus of the study: they are

perception and attitude change toward the print ad and media. A survey

implementation will start with a pretest, briefing and posttest. The result of both

the pretest and posttest will be compared. The features of this research design are:

1. The shift of perception is measured at pre-to-post exposure of the

advertisements.

2. The impression and the effect of the ad are assessed at post exposure of the

advertisements.

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3.2.1 Respondents & Sampling Description

The data of 60 respondents were collected for the research. Screening is conducted

to ensure none of the respondents has prior knowledge of subliminal advertising.

The sampling for the research consists of the followings:

Ex-colleagues in CUHK

Colleagues from current work

Church friends

3.2.2 Design of the Questionnaire

In order to produce a comparable result of pretest to compare to post-test, the first

half(pretest) of the questionnaire was designed as a general survey on advertising,

while the second half focuses on the perception and attitude changes of respondents.

A 15 minutes briefing on the subject of subliminal advertising will be introduced after

the pretest. Respondents will be given a treatment - a subliminal advertising

introduction including the websites, articles and previous scholarly research on the

topic. In order to propose a neutralize position and avoid bias opinion intervention ,

both pro and con for the subject will be included. A general understanding of the

subject is ensured. After the treatment, respondents will be given a post-test. The

post-test will be asked to go over the same questionnaire but this time just for the

‘impression’ portion. In this way, we hope to ascertain to the extent, if any, result of

the pretest and posttest differentiated in terms of their attitudes and perception toward

the message presented. The study result should provide conceptual understanding of

public opinion about the studied phenomenon. With the experiment result, we hope to

see the impact of subliminal persuasion.

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Questionnaire Structure:

Q1: Pre-exposure to advertisements;

Q2: Post-exposure to advertisements;

Q5-8: Impression of the ads;

Q9-12: Demographic information on the respondents: sex, age, educational level

3.2.3 Data Analysis

The process of the data collection was as follows:

The data had been collected in person

The collected data were imported to SPSS for the analysis.

In SPSS, data were recoded to make the greater number mean the more

positive aspect

Between groups t-test will be used to examine differences between two

groups measured on dependent variable.

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CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

4.1 Sample Summary

The data collected would be analyzed in this chapter. To examine the significance

of hypotheses, with valid questionnaire as a goal, this study listed distribution of

respondents according to sex, age, marital status and education level. The

respondent demographics summary is shown in appendix 4.1. The research was

surveyed with 30 males and 30 females.

Age Group

The biggest group of respondents is from the group of age 23 – 30. Total of 19

respondents belong to the second largest age group of 22 and below. The third

group is 31 – 38 which includes 10 respondents. The last group is also the least

group which contains 4 respondents from the age group of 39 – 45.

Martial Status

73% and a total of a44 respondents are single. Less then 1/3 of the respondent, a

total of 16 of them are married.

Education Level

Concerning educational level, 8(13.4%) respondents attained matriculation level or

below, while 52(86.6%) respondents attained university or above.

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4.2 Analysis

According to the some previous studies done by others, the general conclusion

found that the unethical perceptions of the subliminal advertisement shown

significantly and negatively affected all advertising response variables examined in

the study. For this reason, we provided a total of 10 descriptions in the listed order

as follows:

1. Confusing

2. Important

3. Hard to believe

4. Interesting

5. Memorable

6. Relevant to me

7. Persuasive

8. Deceived

9. Sex Appealing

10. Ethical.

To examine the perception toward the subliminal from the respondents, we have

chosen the last four descriptions to study the hypotheses. Studies show these

wordings ere most used and describe on the perception of subliminal.

As we want to know whether if there’s any an attitude change or perception

changes after the learning of the subject, these four set are chosen for comparison

of the pre and posttest result. It is presumed that the respondents will have higher

response rate toward these wordings. During the survey, a set of 4 ad layouts

28

(appendix 3) are shown respectively as in the sequence of: Ad#1 – Stella Artois;

Ad#2 – Camel; Ad#3 – Vodka; Ad#4 – Marlboro.

Significant Findings

Ad#1 – Stella Artois: (see appendix 4.2)

Out of the response, impression#4 (M=-30, SD=.67, t(59)=-3.46, p<.05);

impression #7 (M=-.28, SD=1.04, t(59)=-2.1, p<.05); impression#8 (M=-.38,

SD=1.15, t(59)=-2.58, p<.05); impression#10 (M=.50, SD=1.13, t(59)=3.44,

p<.05). were found significantly more then the rest of the group.

Ad#2 – Carmel (see appendix 4.3)

There are significant difference findings between the pre and post test of the

questionnaire. All 10 impressions detected a significant effect of this ad.

Ad#3 – Vodka (see appendix 4.4)

Other then Impression#6, the rest of the group are detected a strong significance.

The comparison of the pre and post test indicated a major difference. All of the

p-value is under .05.

Ad#4 – Marlboro (see appendix 4.5)

Among the 4 ad layouts, the findings detected significance on the last 4 set of

impression. Impression#7 (M=.50, SD=1.08, t(59)=.78, p<.05); Impression#8

(M=-.40, SD=1.27, t(59)=-2.44, p<.05); Impression#9 (M=.52, SD=1.38,

t(59)=2.89, p<.05); Impression#10 (M=.25, SD=.12, t(59)=2.21, p<.05).

29

Hypothesis

H1. Respondent’s perception may be affected upon the learning on the subject of

subliminal advertising.

Base on the 4 major sets finding that over the 4 ad layouts show overall significant

difference in between the pre and post test result. Frequencies on the impression of

‘persuasive’, ‘deceived’, ‘sex appealing’ and ‘ethical’ appeared more after the

treatment and reflected on the post test.

H2. Respondent with no previous exposure on the subject of subliminal advertising

may have negative feelings toward media message.

Base on the frequency among the 10 impression, the last 4 set of impression

perception changes appear significantly toward the negative descriptions. After the

treatment, respondents tend to have more negative feeling toward the ad shown to

them during the questionnaire. The result was reflected on the post test

questionnaire result finding.

30

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

5.1 Research Limitations

Internal Validity:

The maturation effect is concerned since the participants change over the duration

of the study. During the study, a pre and post tests were given, the same test is

given at two different times to the same group. Due to too little time given in

between 2 tests, memory effect may produce inappropriately high correlation.

Eternal Validity:

The concept and understanding is not widely expected in the environment of Hong

Kong. Most people do not have any general knowledge about the advertising

practice. The acceptance and minimal understanding of the subliminal may be

varied as each individual take the matter differently. Some may react dramatically

toward the introduction of subliminal from the respondents.

5.2 Suggestions

Due to limit of the length of questionnaire, open questions were not used; detailed

comments on perception of the subject were thus unavailable. If more comments

could be collected, more detailed analysis could be done. It was suggested to carry

out a detailed survey research through an open questionnaire if a similar study

would be carried out.

31

In addition, a limitation of information on the subliminal subject was observed.

Although the briefing – treatment gave detailed info on the subject, it was a

secondary source of information, which might be biased by the viewpoints and

interests of the author. This factor might have affected the accuracy of the

information and analysis included in this study. It was suggested to give a more

thorough information on the subject; most importantly, a long digest period is

suggested as well if a similar study would be carried out.

5.3 Conclusion

According to Gould & Gupta’s study (2000), the fact that 75 to 85 percent of

American adults are familiar with the concept of subliminal advertising and 75 to

85 percent of those familiar with the concept think advertiser use it at least

sometimes, it suggested that subliminal advertising has become a recognizable part

of the culture. Between 70 percent and 80 percent of those who are familiar with it

believe that the technique “works” in the sense that it can influence people’s

behavior.

The existence of a subconscious mind and subliminal perception is still a

controversy today. There is vast evidence for the existence of both, but the

evidence is based on a methodology that is by nature not pure scientific. Despite

the lack of conventional scientific evidence, I believe the quest for the search on

the area has risen. With the study, it shows that respondents tend to change their

views on the same media presented after they’ve learnt on the subject of

subliminal. It appears that people show the negative feeling toward the message,

without knowing the proof of subliminal stimuli existence. The same result could

32

be assumed and predicted for anyone who does not have knowledge of such.

In Hong Kong, both the concept and the practice of subliminal advertising are

relatively low. With the study done here, the result finding is astonishing,

enormous and expected. Subliminal may not be known by everyone; however, the

impact and its influence affect one’s perception and attitude. It is always been my

strong belief that once one learned the subliminal subject, he/she will view the

media, advertising and the professional in a completely way. Without knowing the

existence, accuracy and the whole truth about the subliminal usage, the viewer

tends to have a bias view toward the media messages or advertising he/she will

later on come across. This particular human will go through an extra mile on their

thinking whether the subliminal approach is being used. He is likely to be

concerned whether their minds are being “manipulated” from the message he

perceives.

These changes are not necessary a good impact to the industry or profession from

the field. Audience or viewer shifts their view from positive to negative. An

assumption of malpractice may be created by them. Bias opinions on the hard

works create by the hearty designers, etc. All these reaction could only do harm

to the industry reputation and lower the credibility of the professional. In this

research, the highlights may be not the cognitive process, or the social cognitive

theory, nor the advertising layouts; but the knowing of such is and see the view

difference is what made the research so interesting.

33

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APPENDIX 1 Pretest Questionnaire Dear respondents, Currently completing my Master in Communication at Hong Kong Baptist University, in the course of my thesis, which is about ‘Perception of Advertising', I have decided to implement a survey based on the people who exposed to the typical advertisement, ie you. Indeed, for once, a questionnaire will enable you to give your opinion about this topic. If you feel uncomfortable answering any questions, you can withdraw from the survey at any point. It is very important for me to learn your opinions. Your survey responses will be strictly confidential and data from this research will be reported only in the aggregate. Your information will be coded and will remain confidential. Thank you very much for your time and help. Karen Wong Have you heard of the following brands? 1. Stella Artois Yes No 2. Camel Cigarette Yes No 3. Vodka Yes No 4 Marlboro Yes No Please think about what was said of the products in the ads then click the buttons which you feel describes the brand. For the following statements, please indicate whether you 5=strongly agree; 4=agree; 3=neither agree nor disagree; 2=disagree; 1=strongly disagree 5. What was said about the product in the "Stella Artois" ad was: 1 Confusing 1 2 3 4 5 2 Important 1 2 3 4 5 3 Hard to believe 1 2 3 4 5 4 Interesting 1 2 3 4 5 5 Memorable 1 2 3 4 5 6 Relevant to me 1 2 3 4 5 7 Persuasive 1 2 3 4 5

39

8 Deceived 1 2 3 4 5 9 Sex Appealing 1 2 3 4 5 10 Ethical 1 2 3 4 5 6. What was said about the product in the "Carmel" ad was: 1 Confusing 1 2 3 4 5 2 Important 1 2 3 4 5 3 Hard to believe 1 2 3 4 5 4 Interesting 1 2 3 4 5 5 Memorable 1 2 3 4 5 6 Relevant to me 1 2 3 4 5 7 Persuasive 1 2 3 4 5 8 Deceived 1 2 3 4 5 9 Sex Appealing 1 2 3 4 5 10 Ethical 1 2 3 4 5 7. What was said about the product in the "Vodka" ad was: 1 Confusing 1 2 3 4 5 2 Important 1 2 3 4 5 3 Hard to believe 1 2 3 4 5 4 Interesting 1 2 3 4 5 5 Memorable 1 2 3 4 5 6 Relevant to me 1 2 3 4 5 7 Persuasive 1 2 3 4 5 8 Deceived 1 2 3 4 5 9 Sex Appealing 1 2 3 4 5 10 Ethical 1 2 3 4 5 8. What was said about the product in the "Marlboro" ad was: 1 Confusing 1 2 3 4 5 2 Important 1 2 3 4 5 3 Hard to believe 1 2 3 4 5 4 Interesting 1 2 3 4 5 5 Memorable 1 2 3 4 5 6 Relevant to me 1 2 3 4 5

40

7 Persuasive 1 2 3 4 5 8 Deceived 1 2 3 4 5 9 Sex Appealing 1 2 3 4 5 10 Ethical 1 2 3 4 5 The last section of the questionnaire contains a series of questions about your demographic characteristics such as age and income. We are asking these questions in order to determine if various groups have different opinions and attitudes about hospital care. Please answer these personal questions. No one will ever associate these responses with your name. 9. Sex of person completing this questionnaire: __ Male __ Female 10. What is your age group __ 22 and below __ 23 - 30 __ 31 - 38 __ 39 – 45 __ 46 + 11. Marital status of person completing this questionnaire: __ Married __ Single 12. What is your education level? __ Primary __ Secondary __ University __ Graduate Thank you for your assistance.

41

APPENDIX 2 Posttest Questionnaire Please think about what was said of the products in the ads then click the buttons which you feel describes the brand. Please note: 5=strongly agree; 4=agree; 3=neither agree nor disagree; 2=disagree; 1=strongly disagree 1. What was said about the product in the "Stella Artois" ad was: 1 Confusing 1 2 3 4 5 2 Important 1 2 3 4 5 3 Hard to believe 1 2 3 4 5 4 Interesting 1 2 3 4 5 5 Memorable 1 2 3 4 5 6 Relevant to me 1 2 3 4 5 7 Persuasive 1 2 3 4 5 8 Deceived 1 2 3 4 5 9 Sex Appealing 1 2 3 4 5 10 Ethical 1 2 3 4 5 2. What was said about the product in the "Carmel" ad was: 1 Confusing 1 2 3 4 5 2 Important 1 2 3 4 5 3 Hard to believe 1 2 3 4 5 4 Interesting 1 2 3 4 5 5 Memorable 1 2 3 4 5 6 Relevant to me 1 2 3 4 5 7 Persuasive 1 2 3 4 5 8 Deceived 1 2 3 4 5 9 Sex Appealing 1 2 3 4 5 10 Ethical 1 2 3 4 5

42

3. What was said about the product in the "Vodka" ad was: 1 Confusing 1 2 3 4 5 2 Important 1 2 3 4 5 3 Hard to believe 1 2 3 4 5 4 Interesting 1 2 3 4 5 5 Memorable 1 2 3 4 5 6 Relevant to me 1 2 3 4 5 7 Persuasive 1 2 3 4 5 8 Deceived 1 2 3 4 5 9 Sex Appealing 1 2 3 4 5 10 Ethical 1 2 3 4 5 4. What was said about the product in the "Marlboro" ad was: 1 Confusing 1 2 3 4 5 2 Important 1 2 3 4 5 3 Hard to believe 1 2 3 4 5 4 Interesting 1 2 3 4 5 5 Memorable 1 2 3 4 5 6 Relevant to me 1 2 3 4 5 7 Persuasive 1 2 3 4 5 8 Deceived 1 2 3 4 5 9 Sex Appealing 1 2 3 4 5 10 Ethical 1 2 3 4 5

43

APPENDIX 3

Ad #1 – Stella Artois

44

Ad #2 - Camel

45

Ad#3 - Vodka

46

Ad#4 - Marlboro

47

APPENDIX 4.1

Gender

Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Male 30 50.0 50.0 50.0

Female 30 50.0 50.0 100.0

Valid

Total 60 100.0 100.0

Age Group


Cumulative

Percent

22 and below 19 31.7 31.7 31.7

23 - 30 27 45.0 45.0 76.7

31 - 38 10 16.7 16.7 93.3

39 - 45 4 6.7 6.7 100.0

Valid

Total 60 100.0 100.0

Marital Status


Cumulative

Percent

Married 16 26.7 26.7 26.7

Single 44 73.3 73.3 100.0

Valid

Total 60 100.0 100.0

Ed Level


Cumulative

Percent

Elementary 1 1.7 1.7 1.7

Secondary 7 11.7 11.7 13.3

University 36 60.0 60.0 73.3

Graduate 16 26.7 26.7 100.0

Valid

Total 60 100.0 100.0

48

APPENDIX 4.2 Paired Samples Statistics

Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

1Stella 2.83 60 .886 .114Pair 1

1POSTSTALL 2.98 60 .833 .108

2Stella 2.90 60 .817 .105Pair 2

2POSTSTALL 3.08 60 .743 .096

3Stella 3.05 60 .811 .105Pair 3

3POSTSTALL 3.15 60 .732 .095

4Stella 3.03 60 .882 .114Pair 4

4POSTSTALL 3.33 60 .774 .100

5Stella 2.85 60 1.005 .130Pair 5

5POSTSTALL 2.97 60 .920 .119

6Stella 2.88 60 .904 .117Pair 6

6POSTSTALL 2.98 60 .792 .102

7Stella 2.72 60 .885 .114Pair 7

7POSTSTALL 3.00 60 .781 .101

8Stella 2.93 60 1.039 .134Pair 8

8POSTSTALL 3.32 60 1.127 .146

9Stella 2.72 60 1.367 .176Pair 9

0POSTSTALL 3.20 60 1.147 .148

10Stella 2.98 60 1.127 .146Pair 10

10POSTSTALL 2.48 60 .854 .110

Paired Samples Correlations

N Correlation Sig.

Pair 1 1Stella & 1POSTSTALL 60 .593 .000








Pair 9 9Stella & 0POSTSTALL 60 -.190 .145


Paired Samples Test

Paired Differences t df

Sig.

(2-tailed)

Mean

Std.

Deviation

Std. Error

Mean

95% Confidence Interval of

the Difference

Lower Upper

Pair 1 1Stella - 1POSTSTALL -.150 .777 .100 -.351 .051 -1.495 59 .140



Pair 4 4Stella - 4POSTSTALL -.300 .671 .087 -.473 -.127 -3.461 59 .001

Pair 5 5Stella - 5POSTSTALL -.117 .958 .124 -.364 .131 -.943 59 .350


Pair 7 7Stella - 7POSTSTALL -.283 1.043 .135 -.553 -.014 -2.104 59 .040

Pair 8 8Stella - 8POSTSTALL -.383 1.151 .149 -.681 -.086 -2.579 59 .012

Pair 9 9Stella - 0POSTSTALL -.483 1.944 .251 -.986 .019 -1.926 59 .059

Pair 10 10Stella -

10POSTSTALL .500 1.127 .146 .209 .791 3.435 59 .001

49



1camel 3.08 60 .869 .112Pair 1

1POSTCAM 3.32 60 .701 .090

2camel 3.02 60 .892 .115Pair 2

2POSTCAM 3.40 60 .807 .104

3camel 3.05 60 .675 .087Pair 3

3POSTCAM 3.47 60 .724 .093

4camel 3.10 60 .933 .120Pair 4

4POSTCAM 3.65 60 .685 .088

5camel 3.13 60 .700 .090Pair 5

5POSTCAM 3.57 60 .621 .080

6camel 2.92 60 .944 .122Pair 6

6POSTCAM 3.30 60 .889 .115

7camel 2.98 60 .854 .110Pair 7

7POSTCAM 2.65 60 .755 .097

8camel 3.07 60 .989 .128Pair 8

8POSTCAM 2.42 60 .809 .104

9camel 2.67 60 .877 .113Pair 9

9POSTCAM 3.15 60 1.273 .164

10camel 3.10 60 .933 .120Pair 10

10POSTCAM 2.58 60 .869 .112


N Correlation Sig.

Pair 1 1camel & 1POSTCAM 60 .679 .000










Paired Samples Test


Sig.

(2-tailed)

Mean

Std.

Deviation

Std. Error

Mean


the Difference

Lower Upper

Pair 1 1camel - 1POSTCAM -.233 .647 .084 -.401 -.066 -2.791 59 .007






Pair 7 7camel - 7POSTCAM .333 .877 .113 .107 .560 2.946 59 .005

Pair 8 8camel - 8POSTCAM .650 1.273 .164 .321 .979 3.954 59 .000

Pair 9 9camel - 9POSTCAM -.483 1.112 .144 -.771 -.196 -3.366 59 .001

Pair 10 10camel - 10POSTCAM .517 1.255 .162 .192 .841 3.188 59 .002

50



1vodka 3.02 60 .833 .108Pair 1

1POSTVOD 3.30 60 .809 .104

2vodka 2.98 60 .833 .108Pair 2

2POSTVOD 3.25 60 .816 .105

3vodka 3.05 60 .852 .110Pair 3

3POSTVOD 3.27 60 .841 .109

4vodka 2.90 59 1.012 .132Pair 4

4POSTVOD 3.14 59 .973 .127

5vodka 2.92 60 .671 .087Pair 5

5POSTVOD 3.05 60 .622 .080

6vodka 3.20 60 .898 .116Pair 6

6POSTVOD 3.28 60 .825 .107

7vodka 3.00 60 .823 .106Pair 7

7POSTVOD 2.72 60 .761 .098

8vodka 2.67 60 .655 .085Pair 8

8POSTVOD 3.05 60 .769 .099

9vodka 2.83 60 .763 .098Pair 9

9POSTVOD 3.28 60 .885 .114

10vodka 2.90 60 .796 .103Pair 10

10POSTVOD 3.55 60 .675 .087


N Correlation Sig.

Pair 1 1vodka & 1POSTVOD 60 .772 .000









Pair 10 10vodka & 10POSTVOD 60 -.211 .105

Paired Samples Test


Sig.

(2-tailed)

Mean

Std.

Deviation

Std. Error

Mean


the Difference

Lower Upper

Pair 1 1vodka - 1POSTVOD -.283 .555 .072 -.427 -.140 -3.953 59 .000





Pair 6 6vodka - 6POSTVOD -.083 .619 .080 -.243 .076 -1.043 59 .301

Pair 7 7vodka - 7POSTVOD .283 1.075 .139 .006 .561 2.042 59 .046


Pair 9 9vodka - 9POSTVOD -.450 1.141 .147 -.745 -.155 -3.054 59 .003

Pair 10 10vodka - 10POSTVOD -.650 1.147 .148 -.946 -.354 -4.389 59 .000

51



1mar 2.88 60 .865 .112Pair 1

1POSTMAR 2.87 60 .873 .113

2mar 3.00 60 .991 .128Pair 2

2POSTMAR 3.17 60 .977 .126

3mar 2.93 60 .634 .082Pair 3

3POSTMAR 3.03 60 .663 .086

4mar 3.00 60 .974 .126Pair 4

4POSTMAR 3.08 60 .869 .112

5mar 3.05 60 .811 .105Pair 5

5POSTMAR 3.08 60 .766 .099

6mar 2.97 60 .901 .116Pair 6

6POSTMAR 3.10 60 .986 .127

7mar 2.93 60 .880 .114Pair 7

7POSTMAR 2.43 60 .673 .087

8mar 2.88 60 .922 .119Pair 8

8POSTMAR 3.28 60 .825 .107

9mar 3.00 60 1.150 .148Pair 9

9POSTMAR 2.48 60 .748 .097

10mar 2.88 60 1.136 .147Pair 10

10POSTMAR 2.63 60 1.089 .141


N Correlation Sig.

Pair 1 1mar & 1POSTMAR 60 .405 .001







Pair 8 8mar & 8POSTMAR 60 -.045 .733

Pair 9 9mar & 9POSTMAR 60 -.020 .881

Pair 10 10mar & 10POSTMAR 60 .664 .000

Paired Samples Test


Sig.

(2-tailed)

Mean

Std.

Deviation

Std. Error

Mean


the Difference

Lower Upper

Pair 1 1mar - 1POSTMAR .017 .948 .122 -.228 .261 .136 59 .892

Pair 2 2mar - 2POSTMAR -.167 .960 .124 -.415 .081 -1.345 59 .184

Pair 3 3mar - 3POSTMAR -.100 .817 .105 -.311 .111 -.948 59 .347

Pair 4 4mar - 4POSTMAR -.083 .944 .122 -.327 .161 -.684 59 .497

Pair 5 5mar - 5POSTMAR -.033 .780 .101 -.235 .168 -.331 59 .742

Pair 6 6mar - 6POSTMAR -.133 1.065 .138 -.408 .142 -.970 59 .336

Pair 7 7mar - 7POSTMAR .500 1.081 .140 .221 .779 3.581 59 .001

Pair 8 8mar - 8POSTMAR -.400 1.265 .163 -.727 -.073 -2.449 59 .017

Pair 9 9mar - 9POSTMAR .517 1.384 .179 .159 .874 2.892 59 .005

Pair 10 10mar - 10POSTMAR .250 .914 .118 .014 .486 2.120 59 .038

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