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Iran's culture and architecture through timeTRANSCRIPT
Neda Norouzi Arch 6390 Independent Study Professor Amir Ameri
Iran�’s Architecture
If we consider architecture as the art and science of designing and erecting buildings and
culture as the development of intellect through training and education, the question
immediately posed is do they affectively co-relate so that one changes or has a direct effect on
the other? I would say yes. However, it is hard to tell which influences the other first. History
and technology also have immediate effect on architecture. This research follows the historical
events in Iran and focuses on the changes that have affected Iran�’s architectural culture and
technology.
Image 1a: Iran on the world map Image 1b: Map of Iran, 2011
Iran is located in the Middle East and borders the Gulf of Oman, Persian Gulf, and
Caspian Sea. Its mountains have helped to shape both the political and the economic history of
the country for several centuries. The mountains enclose several broad basins, or plateaus, on
which major agricultural and urban settlements are located. The southwestern part of the
Iranian plateau participated in the wider Ancient near East with Elam, from the Early Bronze
Age. The Persian Empire proper begins in the Iron Age, following the influx of Iranian peoples
which gave rise to the Median, Achaemenid, the Parthians, the Sassanid dynasties during
classical antiquity. Once a major empire of superpower proportions, Persia as it had long been
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called, has been overrun frequently and has had its territory altered throughout the centuries.
Invaded and occupied by Greeks, Arabs, Turks, Mongols, and others, and often caught up in
the affairs of larger powers, Persia has always reasserted its national identity and has
developed as a distinct political and cultural entity.
Iranian architecture presents great variety, both structural and visual, developing
gradually and coherently out of prior traditions and experiences. It is often studied whether as
an example of Islamic architecture or in relation to Mesopotamian architecture which suggests
a sharp distinction or a sudden shift in it. However, according to Pirnia one of the most well-
known Iranian scholars without sudden innovations, and despite the repeated trauma of
invasions and cultural shocks, it has achieved �“an individuality�” distinct from that of other
Muslim countries. Nader Ardalan, an award winning Iranian architect, underlines its cosmic
symbolism as the guiding, formative motif of Iranian architecture has been by which man is
brought into communication and participation with the powers of heaven. This theme, not only
has given unity and continuity to the architecture of Persia, but has been a primary source of its
emotional characters as well.1 Based on above mentioned understanding of Iranian
architecture, my aim is to examine this gradual development considering its underlying derives.
Thus for the sake of study, I will follow Pirnia�’s division of Iranian architectural styles which are
mainly chronologically, but also geographically separated. In other words, I will study the
different historical periods and the changes of architectural style in each period. Among the
various sources which have resulted in these changes, I will mainly emphasize the cultural
shifts and improvement in construction technology.
It is in the study of this area where the �“Iranian identity�” optimally expresses itself. Iran�’s
geographical situation has given it the opportunity of being in contact with different cultures.
Other than the gradual changes it has caused in Iranian culture, it also has let them freely
adapt to all they found useful in other civilizations. Thus an eclectic cultural elasticity has been
said to be one of the key defining characteristics of the Iranian spirit and a clue to its historic
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longevity. This feature can be easily traced in Persepolis where for instance the columns
resemble Greek architecture yet it remains totally unique in the addition of the elements.
Image 2a: Columns of Persepolis Image 2b
As a general description Iranian Style can be defined as the architecture in �“Greater
Iran�” that has a continuous history from at least 8000BCE to the present, with characteristic
examples distributed over a vast area from Syria to North India and the borders of China, from
the Caucasus to Zanzibar. Iranian buildings vary from peasant huts to garden pavilions to
�“some of the most majestic structures the world has ever seen�”. 2 According to Arthur Pope, a
pioneer in the study of the art and architecture of Asia, Iran�’s architecture�’s paramount virtues
are several: �“a marked feeling for form and scale; structural inventiveness, especially in vault
and dome construction; a genius for decoration with a freedom and success not rivaled in any
other architecture�”. 3Traditionally, the guiding, formative, motif of Iranian architecture has been
its cosmic symbolism "by which man is brought into communication and participation with the
powers of heaven. 4This theme has been a primary source of its emotional characters as well.
Traditional Iranian architecture has maintained a continuity that, although frequently shunned
by western culture or temporarily diverted by political internal conflicts or foreign intrusion,
nonetheless has achieved a style that could hardly be mistaken for any other. In this
architecture, �“there are no trivial buildings; even garden pavilions have nobility and dignity, and
the humblest caravanserais generally have charm. In expressiveness and communicatively,
most Persian buildings are lucid-even eloquent. The combination of intensity and simplicity of
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form provides immediacy, while ornament and, often, subtle proportions reward sustained
observation.�” 5
Describing the different styles of Iranian architecture, Pirnia counts some common
features as their fundamental characteristics. These are: mardom-vari (anthropomorphism),
parhiz az bihoodegi (Minimalism), niaresh (Structure), khod-basandegi (Self-Sufficiency)
daroon-garaaee (Introversion). Mardom-Vari (anthropomorphism) concerns user needs and
functionality issues in a building. It means that all needs of a user in a building regardless of
their social class should be responded to; therefore the first mission in a design deals with
fulfillments of human basic needs through responsible function. This begins with correlations of
ideal human proportions with architecture. The human need as being the principal source of
proportion among the classical orders architecture guided the design of an Iranian house. The
bedrooms were very small in comparison with huge guest rooms, to demonstrate the
importance of guests in Iranian culture. Parhiz az Bihoodegi (Minimalism), by avoiding un-
necessities, the Iranian architects attempt to address all practical efforts made to achieve the
highest performance for user regarding issues such as waste, control, cost, and avoiding
unnecessary construction loads ( making the structure as light as possible through removing
some parts of dead load). Niaresh (Structure) is not separated from form of the space. It
embraces the necessities required in building statistics and dynamics and includes all
endeavors carried out in construction in accordance with the existing level of knowledge and
technology. The architects used module (Peymoon) as a basic unit of measurement which is
the base for other measurements. The measurement unit in Iran was called Gaz (103 cm). All
elements used to be built based on this unit and its proportions in the building system. This
system of measurement supported stakeholders to apply geometry and its advantages for
better perception of forces behavior in building structure. Khod- basandegi (Self-Sufficiency)
which refers to the use of vernacular materials is always one of the concerns in Persian
architecture. As an example they used to use excavated foundation soil in order to make
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bricks. Iranian�’s architects use local material such as unbaked bricks for walls or local stones
for stairways and columns. Daroon-garaaee (Introversion) is related to the respect that of the
Persian community for family and its privacy, this idea resulted in distinction between two types
of spaces in their design. The activities pertain to the family and their privacy was located in
separate spaces from public activities, and the functional zoning was arranged in a way to fulfill
this objective. Ideally each building would have one or more spaces between the private and
public space. The same idea can be traced in every detail, for instance the exterior doors had
two separate Coobeh, (to knock on the door) for female and male. Each Coobeh made a
different sound so that the persons in the house would know if a male or female is behind the
door. This shows the sensitivity of architecture toward society member�’s culture and customer
satisfaction based on real needs and desires.
Image 3: Coobeh
Image 4: Diagram of traditional residential design
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Image 5: Example of a Residential design They were the common features ruling Iranian architecture, but as already mentioned, it did not
mandate a rigid form of construction; quiet reverse, like any other tradition, it has changed in
response to various cultural shift. Though it is hard to trace a sharp line between different
styles of Iranian architecture, there are a few attempts among scholars to do so, which are
useful for our study. One of the widely accepted classifications is introduced by Pirnia.
According to him the traditional architecture of the Iranian lands throughout the ages can be
categorized into the seven following styles: Pre-Islamic: the Pre-Parsi style, the Parsi Style, the
Parthian Style and Islamic: the Khorasani Style, the Razi Style, the Azari Style, the Isfahani
Style.6
However, there were un-continuous civilizations in Iran before the country became
unified, and even though the first period of Iranian architecture was from Hakhamaneshian
(Achaemenid), there are evident influences of the pervious civilization in the later periods that
would make them worth mentioning here.
Iran before Islam:
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Before Arians
Native Civilizations:
Jiroft: This civilization is a postulated early Bronze Age archaeological culture, located
in what is now Iran's Sistan and Kerm n Provinces. The hypothesis is based on a
collection of artifacts that were confiscated in Iran and accepted by many to have
derived from the Jiroft area in south central Iran, reported by online Iranian news
services, beginning in 2001. By the new discoveries in Jiroft, it is proved that Jiroft
citizens were the first people who created writing, not Sumerians. The proposed type
site is Konar Sandal, near Jiroft in the Halil River area.
Image 6a: Jiroft Image 6b: Jiroft
Image 6c: Writing Samples Image 6d: Geometrical writings that haven�’t
been de-coded yet.
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Sialk Hill: Tepe Sialk is a large ancient archeological site in a suburb of the city of
Kashan, Isfahan Province, in central Iran, close to Fin Garden. The culture that
inhabited this area has been linked to the Zayandeh Rud Civilization. Tepe Sialk is a
mud-brick platform, possibly a support for some kind of building standing atop the
platform but not necessarily a temple. Some have speculated it is a ziggurat, but the
evidence does not point to that kind of structure. At the site, there are actually two
structures (necropolises) at Sialk situated several hundred feet from each other. The
Louvre has also excavated a cemetery near the structures that has been dated as far
back as 7,500 years. The site still remains to be registered as a World Heritage Site at
UNESCO for protection. Sialk, and the entire area around it, is thought to have first
originated as a result of the pristine large water sources nearby that still run today. The
Cheshmeh ye Soleiman (Solomon's spring) has been bringing water to this area from
nearby mountains for thousands of years. The Fin garden, built in its present form in the
17th century, is a popular tourist attraction. It is here that the Persian kings of the
Safavid dynasty would spend their vacations away from their capital cities.
Image 7a: The oldest residence within the protective Image 7b
walls in Iran
Image 7c: The 5,500-year-old skeletons are preserved Image 7d: Details of the wall of the second platform
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Burnt City: Known as Shahr-e Sukhteh is an archaeological site of a sizable Bronze
Age urban settlement, associated with the Jiroft culture. It is located in Sistan and
Baluchistan Province, the southeastern part of Iran, on the bank of the Helmand River.
Artifacts recovered from the city demonstrate a peculiar incongruity with nearby
civilizations of the time and it has been speculated that Shahr-e-Sookhteh might
ultimately provide concrete evidence of a civilization east of prehistoric Persia that was
independent of ancient Mesopotamia.
Image 8a: Shahr-e Sukhteh
Image 8b
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Elamian: Great example left from this period is Chogha-Zanbil which is an ancient
Elamite complex in the Khuzestan province of Iran. It is one of the few existent
ziggurats outside of Mesopotamia. It lies approximately 42 kilometeres South
Southwest of Dezfoul, 30 kilometres West of Susa and 80 kilometres North of Ahvaz.
Choga Zanbil means �“basket mound�”. It was built about 1250 BC by the king Untash-
Napirisha, mainly to honor the great god Inshushinak. The complex is protected by
three concentric walls which define the main areas of the 'town'. The inner area is
wholly taken up with a great ziggurat dedicated to the main god. The middle area holds
eleven temples for lesser gods in the outer area are royal palaces, a funerary palace
containing five subterranean royal tombs.
Image 9a Image 9b
Image 9c Image 9d
Image 9e Image 9f Image 9g
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Maad-ha: The Medes were ancient Iranian people who lived in central Iran in an area
known as Media and spoke a language referred to as the Median language. Their
arrival to the region is associated with the first wave of Iranian tribes in the late second
millennium. The Medes established their authority in Iran and lasted for about sixty
years; from the Battle of Nineveh until Cyrus the Great established the Achaemenid
Empire by defeating the Median king Astyages.
Image 10a
Image 10b Image 10c: Goor Dakhmeh
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Arians
Arian Civilizations
Hakhamaneshian: The Achaemenid dynasty of Iran was the first and the largest empire
that the ancient world had seen, extending from Anatolia and Egypt across western
Asia to northern India and Central Asia. Darius the Great was the third king of the
empire who kept the empire at its peak. Under Darius the empire was stabilized, with
roads for communication and a system of governors established. He added
northwestern India to the Achaemenid realm and initiated major building projects, one
of which is the creation of the new dynastic center of Persepolis (Takht Jamshid); the
buildings were decorated by Darius and his successors with stone reliefs and carvings.
These show tributaries from different parts of the empire processing toward the
enthroned king or conveying the king's throne.
In this period, architecture was an imperial art on a scale the world had not seen before.
Materials and artists were drawn from all the lands ruled by the Great King, and thus
tastes, styles, and motifs became mixed together in an eclectic art and architecture that
in itself mirrored the empire and the Iranian' understanding of how that empire ought to
function. Yet the whole was entirely Persian. Just as the Achaemenid were tolerant in
matters of local government and custom, as long as Iranian controlled the general
policy and administration of the empire, so were they tolerant in art so long as the
finished and total effect was Persian. At Pasargadae, the capital of Cyrus the Great and
Cambyses in Fars, the Persian homeland, and at Persepolis, the neighboring city
founded by Darius the Great and used by all of his successors, one can trace to a
foreign origin almost all of the several details in the construction and embellishment of
the architecture and the sculptured reliefs, but the conception, planning, and overall
finished product are distinctly Iranian and could not have been created by any of the
foreign groups who supplied the king of kings with artistic talent.
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Image 11a: Persepolis
Image 11b: Persepolis
Image 11c: Persepolis,
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Ashkanian: Major achievement of this period was revival of Iranian traditions, increase
interaction with Rome, developments in the field of architecture and urbanism: Dome,
Vaulted porch, urban pattern, use of indigenous materials such as bricks, attention to
the magnificence of the buildings, checkered division of cities.
Image 12a: Use of Bricks Image 12b
Image 13a: Construction of Vaults Image 13b Image 13c
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Anahita Temple: is one of the two archaeological sites in Iran popularly thought to have been
attributed to the ancient deity Anahita. The larger and more widely known of the two is located
at Kang var in Kermanshah Province and the other is located at Bishapur.
Image 14a: Anahita Temple at Bishapur Image 14b
Sasaanian: The Sassanid Empire was the last pre-Islamic Persian Empire, ruled by the
Sasanian Dynasty. The Sassanid era, during Late Antiquity, is considered to have been
one of Persia's/Iran's most important and influential historical periods. In many ways,
the Sassanid period witnessed the peak of ancient Persian civilization, and constituted
the last great Iranian empire before the Muslim conquest and the adoption of Islam.
Persia influenced Roman civilization considerably during the Sassanid period.
Surviving palaces illustrate the splendor in which the Sassanid monarchs lived.
Architectural examples include palaces at Firouzabad and Bishapur in Fars, and the
capital city of Ctesiphon in Khvarvaran province. In addition to local traditions, Parthian
architecture influenced Sassanid architectural characteristics. All are characterized by
the barrel-vaulted iwans introduced in the Parthian period. During the Sassanid period,
these reached massive proportions, particularly at Ctesiphon. There, the arch of the
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great vaulted hall, attributed to the reign of Shapur I, has a span of more than 80 feet
(24 m) and reaches a height of 118 feet (36 m). This magnificent structure fascinated
architects in the centuries that followed and has been considered one of the most
important examples of Persian architecture. The Persians solved the problem of
constructing a circular dome on a square building by employing squinches, or arches
built across each corner of the square, thereby converting it into an octagon on which it
is simple to place the dome. The dome chamber in the palace of Firouzabad is the
earliest surviving example of the use of the squinch, suggesting that this architectural
technique was probably invented in Persia.
Image 15a: Firouzabad Image 15b
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Image 16a: Ghale-Dokhtar Castle at Firouzabad Image 16b
Image 16c
Image 16d
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Ctesiphon Castle or Taagh-e Kasra is the imperial capital of the Parthian Arsacids and
of the Persian Sassanid, was one of the great cities of ancient Mesopotamia. The ruins
of the city are located on the east bank of the Tigris, across the river from the Hellenistic
city of Seleucia. Today, the remains of both cities lie in Iraq �“The remains of this castle
can still be seen 38 km from Baghdad. It is still alive and speaks of the great and
magnificent Persian civilization and culture.�”7 The two most important features of this
castle are: first the use of Golden Triangular in the main building and second is the use
of ordinary and local material such as brick, plaster and mortar. Mortar (Sarooj) was
made by combining lime grout, burnt grape sap, clay and half cooked plaster.
Image 17a: Taagh-e Kasra Image 17b
Image 17c Image 17d
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Image 18a: Sarvestan Palace Image 18b
Image 19a: Taagh-e-Bostan
Image 19b Image 19c
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Takht-e Soleym n, recognized as a World Heritage Site in July 2003, is place in West
Azarbaijan, Iran. Takht-e Soleym n was formally occupied by Maads and Uratoo, thus it
reflects their architecture. The citadel includes the remains of a Zoroastrian fire temple
built during the Sassanid period and partially rebuilt during the Sassanid period. This
temple housed one the three "Great Fires" or "Royal Fires" those Sassanid rulers
humbled themselves before in order to ascend the throne. The fire at Takht-e Soleym n
was called dur Wishn sp and was dedicated to the arteshtar or warrior class of the
Sassanid.
Image 20a: Takht-e Soleym n
Image 20b Image 20c
Iran was conquered by Alexander of Macedonia (Eskandar e Maghdooni), Aryans gave
their name to this land and called it "land of Aryans" or Iran. Pirnia studied Iran�’s architecture
before and after Islam and divided it to different styles; here I analyze each style, the historical
events, and changes in architectural culture and technology that happened in each period.
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Architectural styles and their characteristics:
Pre- Parsi Style: Iran had a rich architecture called Pre-Parsi style before the Aryans
emigrated to the Iran heights 8,000 years ago. In order to respect the culture of that period, the
houses that were built in this area had Myansara, main building, kitchen, storage. Myansara is
an internal space to separate the main building from the noise and daily activities of the streets
and to protect the privacy of the families who live in the house. The houses were made out of
local and natural materials. The buildings found in the Elam area were rectangular with barrel
shaped ceilings (Asemaane).
Example of this style:
Chogha-Zanbil is one of the most valuable architecture in Elam and was built mainly to
honor the great God. The buildings were built with large enameled bricks and natural tar. The
complex is protected by three concentric walls which define the main areas of the 'town'. The
inner area is wholly taken up with a great ziggurat dedicated to the main god, which was built
over an earlier square temple with storage rooms also built by Untash-Napirisha. The middle
area holds eleven temples for lesser gods. The largest example of Elam�’s architecture is
Ziggurat. The design of Ziggurat is a square; each side is 105 meter, and the corners are
pointed at the four main directions, north, south, west and east.
Image 21a Image 21b
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Parsi Style: Before Modern architecture, invention was not a preference, so Iranians
like many others would rather do a good copy than a bad invention. When the Aryans were
crossing the Oroomie Lake, they got introduced to Urartu architecture and reproduce it. Today
in Abianeh and Afooshteh people are still building with the same Urartu style. Examples of this
architecture style are the parours with pillars. Urartu used Wood for their pillars and roofs, but
Pars used Stones and sun-dried bricks for their buildings. The buildings with wood pillars have
been burned or destroyed in time, but the best example of a building with stone columns is
Persepolis.
Example of this style:
Persepolis (Takht-e Jamshid) is considered as a setting for ritual ceremonies of the
Persian Empire during the Achaemenid dynasty. Persepolis is situated 70 km northeast of the
modern city of Shiraz in the Fars Province. Persepolis is constructed on a huge platform of
125,000m2; the construction uses black limestone similar to marble, excavated and brought to
the site from quarries in a distance of 40 km on the west of Persepolis. Standing on its rock-cut
podium, the great hall of Persepolis contained thirty-six columns (in six rows), 18.5m high and
10m apart that were done for the first time in the world. The walls were of mud brick and
ornamented with painted and floral designs. Ivory, gold, and precious stones were among
materials used in the mosaic works of the hall. The rooms were built with two columns in the
middle, and two wooden beams that tied together with Cannabis on top of the columns. This
would enable the columns and the beams to carry more weight. The stairways of Persepolis
are another reflection of the majesty and splendor of Achaemenid architecture, cut out of huge
stones, and each row consists of 111 steps.
Due to the strong respect for women, and the belief of women needing to be protected,
daroon garaaee is observance at Persepolis. There are also no engravings of women images
on the stones. Parsi Style architecture used ornaments on capital of columns. Archeologists
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believe that the columns were connected to one another with ropes, and the shape of these
ties and knots of the ropes had change in time and created the ornaments that exist, today.
Image 22a Image 22b
Image 22c
Achaemenid architecture has been compared with Greek architecture, and there have
been inspirational moves from Greek architecture, but the major difference is that Achaemenid
architecture is based on religion of Iran. The design and construction of these buildings could
make one believe that Ahura Mazd and believing in single god was the main motivation. Iran�’s
architecture grew massively due to cooperation and collaboration of artists and architects of
other countries that were part of Iran in Achaemenid period. The influence from Urartu is the
design of rectangular saloons with columns. Maads influenced the funeral architecture of
Achaemenid; Cyrus�’s tomb resembles Ziggurat of Elam.
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Image 23a: Cyrus�’s tomb Image23b:Choghazanbil zigurat
Technology of this style:
1. Constructing and building the buildings on top of platforms or on wide and flat land.
2. Building ceilings and roofs with perpendicular columns and beams
3. Making the building foundations of corpse or carcass
4. Separation walls built of sun-dried bricks
5. Building bowers when necessary.
6. The concealment connection between the kitchen and the main building.
7. Using ornaments, water �– vlew, ponds, basins, and plantation to create a beautiful
landscape.
8. The use of expensive, good quality, and sculptured stones for exterior and glazed tiles
in the interior.
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Parthian style: This style of architecture includes designs from the Seleucid, Parthian, and
Sassanid eras, reaching its apex of development by the Sassanid period. Achaemenid dynasty
was dethroned by Alexander the Great. After him Seleucus established Seleucid dynasty. The
Seleucid Empire was a major centre of Hellenistic culture which maintained the preeminence of
Greek customs and where Macedonian political elite dominated, mostly in the urban areas.
Seleucid expansion into Greece was unexpectedly halted after decisive defeats at the hands of
the Roman army. Much of the eastern part and eventually the whole empire were conquered
by the Parthians.
The specialties of this Partian style are using symmetry (Joft) in sacred places and
asymmetry (par joft) for houses, mansion and palaces. One of the main reasons that Iranian
architects didn�’t want to follow Greek architecture was that most buildings in Greece were build
of local stones, and even though Iran had stone mines, but because of the inconsistency of
climate with stones, the buildings were mostly built with sundried bricks, except in Persepolis.
Example of this style:
Khorheh, a city located in the Markazi province of Iran near Mahallat. In ancient times it
was an important location for Zoroastrianism. It has a cold climate and strong winds during
spring and summer. The city is one of the major producers and exporters of flowers in Iran.
Every September the city holds a flower festival. In addition, the area surrounding the city is
rich with travertine deposits, which are refined into tiles in nearby factories. Khorheh is the only
architecture close to Greek architecture in Iran.
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Image 24a Image 24b
Image 25a Image 25b
During the Parthian period, city planning was quite innovative; rather than manipulating
space by correcting its faults, building plans conformed to the natural setting. One notes the
appearance of many places of amusement and leisure, notably the multiplication of theatres
and parks.
Building arches and Forum multiplicative was one of the most Outstanding Features of
Parthian style. They used Plaster, in way that as soon as the bricks were in place, they got
covered by plaster Mortar. Using plaster instead of expensive scaffold, allow the ability of
building the arches taller than it was ever built before. The most important fact in the debate is
that the house plans changed from having a hall with a pair of columns set in the opening on
the side of the court to that of a barrel-vaulted ayv n as the building's most important roofed
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structure, indicating the practical application of a previously well-known constructional
technique the barrel vault of brick-to a portion of the building was no longer an important
aspect. Barrel vaults of brick had been built as much as a millennium and a half earlier in Iran
(at Susa, for example), but it was the application of the vaulted ayv n to the main units of a
building in the late Parthian period which gave Iranian architecture such a regal reception hall
through emphasis on the height of the room and the longitudinal axis. The ground-plan change
was negligible, but the visual aspect as vaults replaced columns and beams was revolutionary.
The problem of the heavy lateral thrust of brick vaulting was solved by flanking corridors
which buttressed the main vault by carrying the thrust out through a series of parallel side
walls. Whatever use was then made of the corridors must have been secondary to the original,
structural contribution. In some instances where square chambers have been added at the rear
of an ayv n complex, the use of a corridor is still retained, a clumsy arrangement which
suggests a formative stage when architects had not as yet worked out how to create a unified,
integrated layout.
Technology of this style:
1. The use of arch (chafd or chaghd) for building domes and doorways
2. Stone foundations
3. Use of wood in the coroners of a stone dome in order to convert the square to an
octagon
4. Use of Local Materials for construction
5. Use of plaster to cover the brick of the interior walls
6. Use of indentation on the façade of the buildings
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The Introduction of Islam in Iran:
The bedouin Arabs who toppled the Sassanid Empire were propelled not only by a desire for
conquest but also by a new religion, Islam. The Arab forces occupied the Sassanid capital of
Ctesiphon (which they renamed Madain), and defeated the Sassanid army at Nahavand. After
that, Iran lay open to the invaders. The Islamic conquest was aided by the material and social
bankruptcy of the Sassanids; the native populations had little to lose by cooperating with the
conquering power. Moreover, the Muslims offered relative religious tolerance and fair treatment
to populations that accepted Islamic rule without resistance. It was not until eight years later,
however, that resistance in Iran was quelled. Conversion to Islam, which offered certain
advantages, was fairly rapid among the urban population but slower among the peasantry and
the dean of the tribe (dihqhan). It took two centuries for the majority of Iranians to become
Muslim. The introduction of Islam, with its different religious attitudes has influenced Iranian
architecture to the extent that these days, even in the country Iranian architecture is mainly
known as Islamic architecture. Regardless of how precise this title is and the gradual re-
emergence of pre-Islamic motifs during Islamic time, it reflects the amount of changes in this
tradition. From one view, what Pirnia categorizes as Khorasani style, might be considered
subdivisions of Islamic architecture in Iran.
Khorasani style is one of the architectural styles after Islam in Iran. In Farsi "khor"
means "sun" and "san" means "the place", "the dwelling". Khorasan, a province in the East of
Iran, is the "place where the sun rises". Due to cultural transformations of Khorasan a new
architecture was born in Iran. Islam intrusion made changes in Iranian culture; therefore it
affected the architecture as well. For example the architecture became more Inward-looking
after Islam than it was before; it was more about the Islam�’s requirements than the culture and
privacy of the people. In Iran, the Muslim conquest of Persia, is referred both as introduction of
Islam and Arab invasion. These two seemingly opposite different reading of the same historical
event can also be followed in two opposite influence of it on architecture. on the one hand, as
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the result of war, The quality of construction got lowered, and buildings weren�’t as beautiful any
more. There was less innovation and more repetitions. On the other hand, the new belief, not
quite in contrast with Zoroastrian religion of the time, re-enforced some religious aspects of
architecture such as introversion. Quite interestingly, the religious culture continued respecting
holly places. Most of the early mosques had been Zorovasterian temples before that. Other
holly places changed their name, yet keeping their functions. For instance, the places
associated with the goddess of water, where turned to what related to Ali, the first Imam of
Shia, as the word Cheshme-Ali (literally minig Ali�’s spring) reveals.
Examples of this style:
The most important buildings that were built in this period were masques. Mosque
architecture is a continuation of pre-Islamic architecture of palaces built during the Parthian and
Sassanid dynasties of Persia. The masques were retrieved from Tahrang Masque in Medina,
Saudi Arabia. This masque was made with local stones without any mortar, it is as tall as the
tallest Arab man who has his hands raised to the sky, and the roof was temporary at the time of
the construction. They used palm trees for columns and beams, and then they covered them
with un-used animal skins. These ideas later were brought to Iran and used for the design of
early Iranian�’s masque.
One of the first examples of this style in Iran is the Fahraj Masque (Masjid-i Fahraj) that
is the congregational mosque of the town of Fahraj, east of the city of Yazd. The mosque is
significant as one of the oldest extent mosques in Iran, representing an important evolutionary
stage in mosque construction from post and lintel systems, to wooden roofs on arcades, finally
to full scale vaulting with permanent materials. The mosque primarily consists of an internal
courtyard, vaulted sanctuary and arcades, and a clay minaret8. It is largely built of sun-dried,
unfired clay tiles and mud bricks. Its modest internal courtyard is lined with clay tiles and
contains a now dry central ablution tank. The internal facades are near symmetrical and consist
of three arched bays defined by thick piers, partly relieved by vertical niches. The court's
30
roofline is uninterrupted and a decorative cornice emphasizes horizontality. The minaret is built
as a tapering cylinder with an internal spiral staircase lit by slits that form a regular pattern on
the minaret's external elevation. The projecting balcony is crowned by triangular crenellations
with a pronounced batter accentuating the minaret's verticality. The Fahraj minaret is one of the
first known Iranian minarets after the minaret at Siraf, and has played a pivotal role in
developing the cylindrical minaret form.
The mosque design's simplicity and lack of ornamentation have denied it the public attention
and preservation efforts deserved by a building emblematic of so pivotal a stage in Iranian
Islamic architecture and heritage.
Image 20a: Masjid-i Fahraj Image 20b: Masjid-i Fahraj
Friday Mosque of Isfahan (Masjid-i-Jomeh): The mosque reached an unprecedented
position under the Seljuq who were a Turco-Persian, Sunni Muslim dynasty that ruled parts of
Central Asia and the Middle East for three centuries. They established an empire, the Great
Seljuq Empire, which at its height stretched from Anatolia through Persia. The dynasty had its
origins in the Turcoman tribal confederations of Central Asia. After arriving in Persia, the
Seljuqs adopted the Persian culture and the Persian language as the official culture and
language of the government and made Isfahan the capital of their reign. Much of the rebuilding
of the mosque was undertaken by Nizam al-Mulk. This is confirmed by an inscription found in
the collar of the large dome over the mihrab stating that it was built for Malik Shah by order of
his Minister. There is a large brick dome in front of the mihrab in the imitation of the Umayyad
mosques. This is the first recorded example of the adoption of the Mihrab dome. Historically,
31
the mosques had square or rectangular plans with grand entryways, tall towers and covered
prayer hall that would position one in the direction of the Qibla, the point toward which Muslims
turn to pray. These mosques had an enclosed courtyard to accommodate the large number of
worshippers during Friday prayers. Most early hypostyle mosques had flat roofs on prayer
halls, which required the use of numerous columns and supports. Ottomans introduced central
dome mosques and Masjid-i-Jomeh is one of the first examples of this style. The introduction of
dome changed the previously one direction design and made the center of the building more
important than the direction. These mosques have a large dome centered over the prayer hall.
In addition there are smaller off-center domes throughout the rest of the mosque where prayer
is not performed. The idea of having an arched entrance and a central dome is clearly one
borrowed from pre-Islamic, Iraninan architecture. It is known as a Persian archetype (chalipa)
which was previously done in Maad tombs. This is also related to the use of 4 Iwan in later
examples.
Image 21a: Friday Mosque of Isfahan in its Image 21b: Friday Mosque of Isfahan in earlier years Al-e Booieh�’s period
Image 21c: The iwan of the qibla side was made Image 21d: Section of Muqarnas of the half larger and emphasized by the two dome of the ayv n. minarets which were added by the Safavids.
32
A sister dome was later added to Masjid-i-Jomeh by Taj al-Mulk at the opposite end on the
northern axis of the dome of Nizam al-Mulk. The alignment of the walls' decorated panels and
the squinches and windows above them expressed an impressive verticality and achieved a
structural consonance and a hierarchy of well-ordered parts seen only in the High Gothic
period of thirteen-century Europe.
Masjid-i-Jomeh caught fire in1120-1121 and most of the original mosque except Taj al-
Mulk's dome was damaged. It was during this time that the hypostyle plan of the mosque was
transformed into a four ayv n scheme arranged around a large courtyard. A new mosque plan
that was to dominate much of the religious architecture of the Muslim east was therefore born.
The ayv n can be briefly described as a vaulted hallway leading to a courtyard often taking the
form of a monumental entrance. Masjid-i-Jomeh emerged as a large complex consisting of a
vast prayer hall with a courtyard occupying its heart flanked with four monumental ayv ns
connecting the four sides of the sanctuary. These ayv ns were arranged in axial plan of equal
size and facing each other, except for the southern side where the ayv n was deliberately
enlarged above the others to emphasise the direction of the Qibla and the presence of the
mihrab. Further prominence of this side was expressed by the two cylindrical minarets that
were raised on both sides of the ayv n by the Safavids.
Image 22a: side chamber to the southern Image 22b dome of the masjid-i-jami, morning light filtered through a brick lattice window.
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Technology of this style:
1. post and beam systems
2. wooden roof on arcade
3. full scale vaulting with permanent materials
4. developing the cylindrical minaret form
Iran made great contributions to Muslim architecture culminating in the introduction of
the cylindrical minaret form, the four-iwan plan and according to some sources, the madrasa
building schemes.
Raazie style reached its peak in the city of Rayy near Tehran. It emerged in northern
Iran and has preserved traces of the Parthian style. It has elaborate external ornamentation
and was largely developed by the Ziyarid kings who built conical towers such as Gonbad-e
Qabous, a style that continued during the Seljuq period until its decline during the
Kharezmshahi era some 300 years later. As Iranian semi-independent states were formed in
the second and third centuries of Islamic calendar, a movement began which has been known
as the "Iranian Scientific and Literary Revival in the Islamic Period". Architecture played a vital
role in this regard. This period is called the "Renaissance of Iranian Art", but unfortunately, the
devastation caused by the Mongol invasion led to destruction of many aspects of this glorious
civilization of Islamic Iran. According to historical accounts, Rayy and its adjoining areas had
6000 schools, 400 public baths, 1700 minarets and 15,000 wells during this early Islamic
period. This city was looted and destroyed by the Mongols. The city of Rayy that was once
called the "Bride of the World" has never regained its lost glory. Raazie style includes daroon-
garaaee from Parsi Style, the glory of Parthian style, and the intricacy of Khorasani style.
Razzie style started in north of Iran and spread to the east.
34
Examples of this style:
The main features of the Raazi style architecture are conical towers to house tombs,
and mosques that have been built in this shape. Some of these towers had simple brick work
while others had rich decorations on the external walls. Gunbad-e Q bus or Gonbad-e K vus,
Samanid mausoleum, Kharraqan towers and Mosque and Miarret of Barsian are early
examples of this style.
Gunbad-e Q bus: The most important and remarkable tomb tower of Qaboos is located
in the middle of the city of Gorgan. This tower though beautiful, is perhaps one of the first
specimens of stalactite ornomation used in Islamic building which later on was gradually
perfected. It is still the world's tallest pure-brick tower. The tomb, built of baked bricks, is an
enormous cylinder capped by a conical roof. The circular plan, broken by 10 flanges, is 17
meters in diameter with 3 meter thick walls. Small and big bricks have been used for the facade
of the dome with Qur'anic verses inscribed in the Kufic style. Plasterwork and tiles are among
other features of this style. Double-layered domes also abounded in this period. The reason for
calling it double-layered was that the external and internal diameters of the dome were of
different specifications.
Image 24a: Gunbad-e Q bus Image 24b: Gunbad-e Q bus
The Samanids Mausoleum is the oldest Bukhara�’s structure, which remained intact to
the present day. It was built for Ahmed ibn Asad by order of his son Amir Ismail
35
Samani, the founder of the first centralized state in Central Asia. The mausoleum is not
large, which allows viewing the whole of this unique structure instantly. It is built in the
form of a cube with each side being about 10 meters in length. But the designers of the
building made its walls slightly leaning inward, thus giving this architectural �‘miniature�’ a
monumental look. The walls and corners inside the mausoleum have little arches that
support an octahedral base of the dome above. To lessen the weight of the gently
sloping larg dome, the corners are punctuated with small domical forms that sit above
the cube. Along the upper part of the building runs a reach-through gallery; it has 40
openings to give �“lightness�” to the structure. All four facades of the mausoleum are
identical; centered within each façade is an arched opening framed by bricks laid in
basket weave, the spandrels composed of diagonally set end brick. A frieze of small
arches on columns encircles the top of the cube forming a miniature arcade.
The Samanids Mausoleum was the first Central Asian building to be made of baked
bricks, which were used both as construction and decorative material. The interior and
exterior of the mausoleum have patterned decorative brickwork; specialists distinguish
over 20 configurations of the bricks. Twenty-first-century man, accustomed to industrial
construction technologies, can hardly believe that each brick of the mausoleum was
separately modeled out of the best clay, baked and polished carefully, and only then
highly skilled bricklayers got down to work. The ancient masters made the decorative
brickwork patterns in such a way that during the day the ornament changes depending
on the light. No architectural monuments in the world can boast such a wall decoration
effect. Connoisseurs say that the light and shadow effect on the walls of the mausoleum
is best viewed in the moonlight. The relief surface of the bricks, besides decorative
effect, allows great cohesion between the bricks and the alabaster mortar. This quality
and 1.8-metre-thick walls ensured the amazing durability of the monument.
36
Image 24 a: The Samanid Mausoleum Image 24 b
Image 24 c: Structural and decorative Image 24 d: Interior of the large dome brick work
Image 24e: Interior Image 24e: Interior of the small dome
37
Technology of this style:
In this period, double- layered domes were built in two different ways:
1. One was placing the dome on walls that are built in a cone shape (Grive)
2. The other is placing the dome on walls that are built as a cylinder (Arbaane).
Goharshaad mosque is a great example for this.
3. Baked brick structure
Azari style: The emergence of this style happened in Iran after the Mongols attack
Iran. Ilkhan who is the founder of the Ilkhanate dynasty was Hulagu khan, Genghis Khan�’s
grandson became the king of Iran after his grandfather. He started his Kingdom in Azarbaijan
where Iranian architecture is rather important. The three styles of Parthian, Azari, and Isfahani
originated here and have reached across the country. Azari style includes two periods, first
period happened during the Holakoo�’s empire and when Maraghe was the capital of Iran and
the second period was during Taimur�’s kingdome and when Samarqand was the capital. In the
second period, great architects from Khorasn designed and built many exclusive buildings. One
of the main building goals during this period was to shorten the construction time. Therefore the
architects used geometry to design their buildings. Shrine of Imam Reza one of the great
examples of this style, consists of 33 buildings embodying Iranian Islamic architecture through
5 continuous centuries. Halls, porticos, ayv n, minarets; belfries of religious buildings and
mosques have been decorated with a great number of arts such as tile work, inlay, mirror work,
stucco carving, stone carving, painting, illumination and muqarnas (honey comb work). Other
examples of this style are soltanie, Goharshad Mosque.
Examples of this style:
Soltaniyeh situated in the Zanjan Province of Iran, some 240 km to the north-west from
Tehran, used to be the capital of Ilkhanid rulers of Persia in the 14th century. Its name
translates as "the Imperial". In 2005, UNESCO listed Soltaniyeh as one of the World
38
Heritage Sites. The central magnet of Soltaniyeh's several ruins is the Mausoleum of Il-
khan Öljeitü also known as Muhammad Khodabandeh traditionally known as the Dome
of Soltaniyeh. Its importance in the Muslim world may be compared to that of
Brunelleschi's cupola for Christian architecture. It is one of the largest brick domes in
the world, just at the theoretical engineering limit for a brick dome and the third largest
dome in the world after domes of Florence Cathedral and Hagia Sophia. The Dome of
Soltaniyeh paved the way for more daring Iranian-style cupola constructions in Muslim
world, such as the Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasavi and Taj Mahal. Much of its
exterior decoration has been lost, but the interior retains superb mosaics, faience, and
murals. People have described the architecture of the building as �“anticipating the Taj
Mahal.�”The estimated 200 ton dome stands 49 meters (161 ft) tall from its base, and is
currently undergoing extensive renovation.
Goharshad Mosque is a former free standing mosque in Mashhad, Iran, which now
serves as one of the prayer halls within the Imam Reza Mosque complex. It was built
by the orders of Queen Goharshad, the wife of Shah Rukh of the Timurid Dynasty. The
Architect of Goharshad Mosque, Ghavameddin Shirazi, designed many of Shah Rukh's
great buildings, with the architectural and decorative manpower supplied from Shiraz
and Isfahan. The mosque underwent some renovations during the Safavid and Qajar
era. It has 4 ayv ns and a courtyard measuring 50 X 55 meters, as well as several
Shabestans.The double layered dome of the mosque was severely damaged in
bombings by Russian troops. The structure is the first and greatest surviving Persian
monument of the fifteenth century, now abutting the Imam Reza shrine in Mashhad. Its
portals continue the Samarghand style of arch within arch, enriched by a succession of
bevels and reveals that give it depth and power. The thick, tower like minarets, merging
with the outer corners of the portal screen, extend the ground and, together with the
high foundation revetment of marble, give the ensemble the impression of solidity
39
necessary to support its exuberant color. The entire court facade is faced with enamel
brick and mosaic faience of the finest quality. The full scale of colors includes a
dominant cobalt blue and turquoise, white, a transparent green, yellow, saffron,
aubergine and mirror black-all tones fluctuating through several shades. The patterns,
lucid and vigorous, are artfully adapted to their decorative role, whether for eye level
panels, or dome ornament meant to be effective at a thousand feet. Monotony is
avoided by the energy of the faience floral patterns and brick geometrical schemes; by
the emphatic rhythm of the arcades, open galleries and deep recesses; and especially
by the striking contrast of the iwans. The Sanctuary ayv n is in pure white, while in the
other three ayv ns the ground color of the vault is pale red, carrying large white-
outlined kufic inscriptions of light turquoise that appear green against the reddish
ground. The whole decor is interlaced with an unusual amount of white, which adds
clarity and excitement to the total effect.
Image 25a Image 25b
Technology of this style:
1. Use of Geometery in Design
2. Brick Domes
40
Isfahani style: This is the last architectural style in Iran. Isfahani architecture didn�’t
start in Isfahan but the most important building of this style were built in this city. During
the Safavid kingdom Isfahan became the capital of Iran and received high level of
attention. The Safavid dynasty were chiefly instrumental in the emergence of this style
of architecture. Available building materials dictate major forms in traditional Iranian
architecture. Heavy clays, readily available at various places throughout the plateau,
have encouraged the development of the most primitive of all building techniques,
molded mud, compressed as solidly as possible, and allowed to dry. This technique
used in Iran from ancient times has never been completely abandoned. The abundance
of heavy earth, in conjunction with a tenacious lime mortar, also facilitated the
development of the brick. One of the richest artistic centers of Iran is the city of Isfahan.
In some art works created in Isfahan, such doors, seven famous arts of joinery, gold
beating, embossing, lattice work, inlay, raised work, and painting are used at once.
During the Islamic period, several palaces, bridges, avenues, and gardens were either
built or reconstructed in various towns of Iran, particularly in Isfahan. Historic
monuments of the latter town are so numerous that it could be compared to huge
museum of art works. Foreign travelers called it "Half of the World". Sir Jean Chardin a
dependable observer and a French traveler who made journeys to Iran and visited
Isfahan during Safavid period, said in 1666 that the town had 164 mosques, 48
madreseh (schools), 182 caravanserais, and 373 baths.
Examples of this style:
Naqsh-i-Jahan : The great square at Isfahan called Naqsh-i-Jahan (world image)
contains a galaxy of excellent architectural works of Iran. The square is situated in the center of
the present city of Isfahan, and has been described as unique by world archaeologists in terms
of architectural style, dimensions, and splendor. This unique phenomenon of art and
architecture is a creation of experienced and creative Iranian architects. The most famous
41
architectural works of Maydan Naqsh-i-Jahan are Masjid-i-Shah (now Imam Mosque), Shaykh
Lutf' Allah mosque, and the Al Qapu Palace, seat of government, situated in their full splendor
at the north end, east and west of maydan, respectively.The southern side of maydan leads to
the great bazaar of Isfahan, which is one of the most attractive and beautiful bazaars of the
east, representing the great era of Islamic architecture with its buildings, the maydan and its
historic monuments during the Safavid period.
Image 26
Masjid-i-Shah (Imam Mosque) was under construction for twenty six years and it
represents the culmination of a thousand years of mosque building in Iran, with a majesty and
splendor which places it among the world's greatest buildings. In designing and constructing
domes, minarets, ayv n, halls, Shabistans, and Mihrabs of this mosque, Iranian architects
have made use of their utmost degree of taste and artistry. Inscriptions of the mosque have
been written on colored tiles by the most famous calligraphers of Safavid period. The massive
dome of the mosque is of double shell type, the highest exterior point of which rises 54m above
42
ground. Its interior and exterior facings are decorated as beautifully as possible with plain and
patterned tiles.
Mosque of Shaykh Lutf Allah: one of the most beautiful architectural monuments of Iran is
situated on the east side of the Naqsh-i-Jahan square. Designs and colors used in the dome
mosaics are among the most elegant designs and colors existing in Iranian architecture.
According to A.U. Pope, there is no weak point in this building. Its plan and design are so
strong and attractive. It is a combination of excitement and passion, glorious calm and rest
which originates but from religious faith and divine inspiration.
Image 26a Image 26b
Masjid-i-Jameh (Friday Mosque) is another valuable architectural work of Islamic period
displaying experiences of more than nine hundred years of creativity. Thirty various historical
inscriptions give details on different architectural structures of the mosque. The mosque has
been restored and changed several times and by several generations of artists and architects.
Skillful Iranian tile makers have embellished its walls and vaults with astonishingly beautiful
43
tiles and mosaics. The tiles are decorated with floral designs in arabesque style and phrases
from the Holy Quran.
Image 27
Technology of this style:
1. Use of compressed dried module mud bricks
Iranian architecture makes use of abundant symbolic geometry, using pure forms such
as the circle and square, and plans are based on often symmetrical layouts featuring
rectangular courtyards and halls. Professor A.U. Pope believed: �“The supreme Iranian art, in
the proper meaning of the word, has always been its architecture. The supremacy of
architecture applies to both pre and post Islamic periods.�” In summary, the pre-Islamic styles
draw on thousands years of architectural development from various civilizations of the Iranian
plateau, while the post-Islamic architecture in turn, adds to the ideas drawn from predecessor
the geometrical forms, as well as richly decorated surfaces. Among pre-Islamic ones, each of
the periods of Elamites, Achaemenids, Parthians, and Sassanids were creators of great
architecture that over the ages has spread wide and far to other cultures being adopted.
44
The Achaemenids built on a grand scale. The artists and materials they used were
brought in from practically all territories of what was then the largest state in the world. Parthian
innovations fully flowered during the Sassanid period with massive barrel-vaulted chambers,
solid masonry domes, and tall columns. The Islamic period is marked with creation of
remarkable religious buildings in Iran. Arts such as calligraphy, stucco work, mirror work, and
mosaic work, became closely tied with architecture in Iran in the new era. This as mentioned
before was largely under the influence of Sasanian architecture, as Archaeological excavations
have provided evident of Islam in Fran gave rise to great upheavals in architecture, and laid the
foundations for Islamic architecture all over the world. A great surge of building works together
with unique decorations and calligraphy appeared in these centuries.
Architectural monuments of Iran are extremely versatile. Different valuable samples of
such monuments are already surviving in smaller and larger towns of Iran. The value and
respect given by Iranians to their religious leaders also have deeply penetrated in their
traditional and Islamic architecture. Certain design elements and characteristics of Iranian
architecture have persisted throughout the history of Iran. Through the ages, these elements
have recurred in completely different types of buildings constructed for various programs and
under the patronage of a long succession of rulers. The most striking characteristics are a
marked feeling for scale and a discerning use of simple and massive forms. The consistency of
decorative preferences, the high-arched portal set within a recess, columns with bracket
capitals, and recurrent types of plan and elevation can also be mentioned. Among elements,
the columned porch or talar, seen in the rock-cut tombs near Persepolis, reappear in Sassanid
temples, and in late Islamic times as the entrance of a palace or mosque. Similarly, the dome
on four arches of Sassanid times is still to be found in many religious buildings, so do the
interior court and pool, the angled entrance and extensive decoration.
In traditional Iranian architecture, semi-circular and oval-shaped vaults appeared and
Iranians showed their extraordinary skill in making massive domes which are the dominant
45
elements in their architecture. Iranian domes are distinguished for their height, proportion of
elements, and roundness of the dome stem. The outer surfaces of the domes are mostly
mosaic faced, and create a magical view. The art of tile work used to decorate all sorts of
ayv n, domes, and portals, is so interesting that each part of it seems, to be a magnificent
piece of painting.
In Iranian artists' brick work, one should never talk of Iranian brick work, but mainly of
the magic of Iranian brick work. Endless variety of arches and cross vaults with their exciting
shapes, all stem from the artistic taste of Iranian brick work architects.Huge brick tower
construction represents another creative aspect of Iranian architecture. Gunbad-i-Qabus is one
of the greatest and most beautiful brick towers of Iran built approximately thousand years ago,
which stands in perfectly good condition. It is the earliest and most expressive of a series of
some fifty monumental towers still standing. Palaces and gardens of Islamic period introduce
us to other aspects of Iranian architecture. Chehel Sutun palace at lsfahan, for instance, was
built in 16 century A.D. during the reign of Safavids. Here one could see the finest paintings of
Safavid period. Mirror work designs and latticed windows too, are unique in themselves.
Stucco is another decorative art of Iranian architecture, especially Stuccos using
carving, molding and painting, constitute one of the main decorative elements of Iranian
architecture, and have a long history of development. Types of stucco decoration have been
tested by Iranian architects since approximately 2000 years ago. Stone and stucco carvings
have played a significant role in the internal and external decorations of Seljoogh buildings, the
most remarkable examples of which are the magnificent inscriptions in kufic and nastaliq
calligraphy as well as stucco carvings of mosques. During this period, stucco carving was used
not only for the decoration of mosques but also for palaces and houses of the nobility, with
themes varying from landscapes or hunting scenes of kings accompanied by their courtiers and
princes. In addition to religious structures, there are a number of old houses in various towns of
Iran which were decorated with unique stucco carvings, already being preserved.
46
Mirror work is another decorative element of Iranian structures during Islamic period.
The finest examples of skillfully fulfilled mirror work can be seen in the religious buildings of
Mashhad, Shiraz, Qum, and Rey. The technique has been used in palaces and magnificent
traditional houses as well, and follows architectural elements such as domes, minarets, and
towers in terms of significance.
In studying Iranian architecture, one should never overlook the architectural techniques
used in the construction of schools, baths, and historical caravanserais, a number of the most
significant examples of which have survived until today. The Iranian architecture can be further
traced in historical and famous bazaars of Iran. The bazaars apart from being centers of
commercial and civic activity were mostly surrounded by public facilities such as the mosques,
baths, and caravanserais to meet the requirements of travelers, merchants, and nearly
inhabitants. Some of the most beautiful traditional and historical bazaars of Iran built in Isfahan,
Shiraz, Tabriz, Yazd, and Mashhad.
In conclusion, the endless variety of architectural monuments in Iran shows that Iranian
architects enjoyed highly valuable creativities and experiences in various fields. Despite
intervals due to wars, military expeditions, and foreign offensives, Iranian architecture has
continued to develop and flourish through the ages. Artists have enriched their previous styles
and methods and built on them. Although temporarily influenced by foreign art styles, they
proved capable of dissolving such influences in their own arts and creating new forms of
Iranian art, even influencing the architecture of other countries.
Architecture in Iran has a continuous history of more than 8,000 years with
characteristic examples distributed over a vast area of Asia. Iranian architecture has
manifested its own particular characteristics and originality throughout its prolonged history. It
was based on a multi-thousand years of experience which, according to A.U. Pope, was
popular. Despite being at the service of kings and rulers the main agents of Iranian architecture
47
were artists arising from among the people which could be the ground of Pirnia�’s characteristic
of Iranian architecture.
Religious beliefs, particularly during the Islamic period, played a decisive role in giving birth to
the majority of Iranian architectural monuments. Faith, thinking, and creativity were three
elements out of which rose Iranian architecture.
1 Arthur Upham Pope. Persian Architecture. George Braziller, New York, 1965. p.266 2 Arthur Upham Pope. Introducing Persian Architecture. Oxford University Press. London. 1971. p.1 3 Ibid. Arthur Upham Pope. Persian Architecture. George Braziller, New York, 1965. p.266 4 ".Nader Ardalan and Laleh Bakhtiar. Sense of Unity; The Sufi Tradition in Persian Architecture. 2000. ISBN 1-871031-78-8 5 Ibid. Arthur Upham Pope. Persian Architecture. George Braziller, New York, 1965. p.10 6 ("sabk")Sabk Shenasi Mi'mari Irani(Study of styles in Iranian architecture), M. Karim Pirnia. 2005. ISBN 964-96113-2-0. 7 http://wadias.in/site/arzan/blog/historic-kasra-arch/ 8 Minaret: The tall, slender tower that usually is situated at one of the corners of the mosque structure.
48
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Image References:
1. Sabk Shenasi Mi'mari Irani (Study of styles in Iranian architecture), M. Karim Pirnia. 2005.
2. Iranian Architecture and Town Planning (A pictorial Record), M.Y. Kiani 3. persian.i-vahid.com/?p=199 4. www.dezfulcity.org/post/12 5. www.njavan.ir/forum/showthread.php?t=23535 6. forum.shahrood.net/showthread.php?t=582 7. old.nlai.ir/nli/nli_history.asp 8. http://www.cafedexign.com/showthread.php?t=7881 9. shayan525.blogfa.com/cat-8.aspx 10. www.livius.org/.../gate/gateofallnations.html 11. members.virtualtourist.com/m/212bd/1af010/ 12. www.reep.org/.../design-chaharbagh-layout.php 13. www.derafsh-kaviyani.com/english/anahita 14. http://historicaliran.blogspot.com/2009/12/khorheh-village.html 15. karenswhimsy.com/assyrian-empire.shtm 16. www.itto.org/tourismattractions/?sight=779 17. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctesiphon 18. http://www.livius.org/sao-sd/sarevestan/sarvestan.html 19. http://shw.kousha.fotopages.com 20. www.muslimheritage.com 21. http://www.flickr.com/photos/seier/1747762067/in/set-72157600283667645/
b-e : http://archnet.org/library/sites 22. http://www.phocas.de/Uzbekistan/Bukhara/bukhara.html