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Academia Journal of Scientific Research 3(10): 160-169, October 2015 DOI: 10.15413/ajsr.2015.0129 ISSN 2315-7712 ©2015 Academia Publishing

Research Paper

The effect of conversion of oak forest to dry land grape garden on some soil physical, chemical and biological properties in different slopes

Accepted 24th August, 2015 ABSTRACT Forest area soils are seriously facing soil degradation due to the land-use change to dryland grape garden. Land-use change affects soil properties such as soil organic matter, soil structure and hydraulic properties that influence soil productivity and the environment. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of cultivation of oak forest by dryland grape on soil physical, chemical and biological properties after more than 20 years in southern province of West Azerbaijan, Iran. The results showed that the land-use effect on soil physical, chemical and biological properties was significant. Maximum and minimum bulk density (BD) was observed in 20 - 40 cm depth of dryland garden (1.4 g/cm3) and 0-20 cm depth of the forest soil (1.2 g/cm3), respectively. The lowest soil resistance to the root penetration was observed in dryland garden at the 0-20 cm soil depth at the slopes of less than 10% and more than 20%. The results also demonstrated that the conversion of the forest to the garden leads to the loss of soil organic carbon (SOC), available phosphorus and potassium, total nitrogen and electrical conductivity (EC). The soil respiration, soil available K+ and P, soil total N, and EC were higher in the forest soil compared to the garden soil. In contrast, soil resistance to the root penetration and soil hydraulic conductivity (Ks) for garden were more than forest soils in the study area. Measured water stable aggregatesvalues were found to be higher by 55, 57 and 62% for forest when compared with dryland garden at depths of 0-20 cm at < 20%, 10-20%, and >20% slopes, respectively. However, soil texture and moisture release curve did not show any significant change between two land-use types. Therefore, it is suggested that the appropriate indices of land-use change be identified and documented in different soils and areas. Key words: Dryland grape garden, forest, land use change, physical and chemical properties, slopes, respiration.

INTRODUCTION Soil degradation is known as a major threat in world caused by land use change (Cammeraat & Imeson, 1996). Between 1995 and 2005 in the world, the total forests areas have decreased significantly by approximately 3% (FAO, 2007). An increasing rate of land use changes leads to disturb physical soil properties, causing many regions to undergo accelerated environmental degradation in terms of soil

erosion and reservoir sedimentation (Bayramin et al., 2008). Increase in the human population increases demands on soil resources and requires farmlands for food leading to converting forests to the croplands. Considering population growth during the past 40-50 years in Iran, the needs for food and construction activities have increased near the forest areas, leading to degradation of the parts of

Mahdi Shorafa*, Amir Nikbakhsh, Manoochehr Gorjiand Fereshte Haghighi Fashi Soil Science and Engineering Department, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran. *Corresponding author Email: [email protected]

Academia Journal of Scientific Research; Shorafa et al. 161 these areas. The forest lands in Iran, have decreased by about one-third within 35 years (Mohajer, 2006). Conversion of the forests to garden lands in the vast parts of the forest areas has caused soils to be more vulnerable to erosion and low productivity in particular, in sloping areas. The conversion of natural land into cropland may decrease the rate of soil infiltration and affect soil physical characteristics that increase erosion (Li et al., 2007). Pore size distribution, bulk density and aggregate stability are important soil physical property that can be to a great extent influenced by the land degradation due to the cultivation (Celik, 2005). Bormann and Klaassen (2008) and Haghighi et al. (2010) observed significant land-use impacts on BD and saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks). The characterization of the physical, chemical and biological behavior of soils is important to knowledge of the effects of land-use change on soil degradation. One of the important soil hydraulic properties is water retention capacity, which affects soil productivity and management. Upon conversion of natural lands to cultivated fields, water retention capacity is influenced (Zhou et al., 2008). The characteristic of soil water retention is affected by soil organic carbon (SOC) content and porosity, which are significantly influenced by land-use type (Zhou et al., 2008). Saturated hydraulic conductivity is sensitive to soil disturbance, and can serve as indicator for the land-use impact on the soil (Zimmermann et al., 2005). Bayramin et al. (2008) reported that as compared to Ks of the forest and pasture, that of the cultivated land significantly decreased in a southern Mediterranean highland of Turkey. This decrease can be ascribed to the decrease in the percent of water-stable aggregates by tillage. A decrease in Ks is related to root systems with a lower density (Baumhardt and Lascano, 1996), soil aggregate stability, SOM, and porosity (Celick, 2005; Haghighi et al., 2010). Soil aggregate stability is a dynamic property of soil that changes over time (Coote et al., 1988). Soil aggregation is an indicator of ecosystem vulnerability under semi-arid and sub-humid conditions. The importance of soil aggregation for soil erosional processes is well-known (Cammeraat and Imeson, 1996).

The loss of structure is a type of physical soil degradation which is usually related to specific land-uses, particularly to cultivation. Soil structure is affected by crop production activities and mechanic exposures. Several authors have observed a loss of soil structural stability under the influence of cultivation (Barral et al., 2007, Haghighi et al., 2010), which frequently involves a decrease in SOM contents (Bruce et al., 1999). Soil organic matter is a major factor in the maintenance of soil aggregate stability and enhances water retention and infiltration (Gregorich et al., 1994). Macro-pores have a major effect on water and nutrient transport into soils. Secondary macro-pores mostly depend on root system (Tippkötter, 1983) and the soil fauna (Bastardie et al., 2005, Bormann and Klassen, 2008). Soil cultivation causes strong modifications to soil

structure, reducing soil porosity. Bodhinayak and Cheng Si (2004) showed that the average total porosity of cultivated land was substantially lower than that of native grassland. In addition, the relationships among SOM, soil aggregation, and biological properties are important and complex as affected by land-use change; this, in turn, influences carbon cycle as the main biogenic factor (Barral et al., 2007). Barral et al. (2007) found that released C-CO2 by SOM mineralization in the pasture was higher than that of cultivated soils demonstrating a lower microbial activity in the cultivated soils.

Investigations on soil hydraulic properties affected by land-use are not comprehensive when compared to studies on soil chemical and biological properties. Despite its importance, there is a lack of documentations of forest change to the dryland garden, in particular, in sloping areas. The objective of this work was to compare and quantify the effect of change of the forest lands to dryland garden on soil physical, chemical and biological properties, and to evaluate the interaction of different slopes on these effects. MATERIALS AND METHODS This study was conducted on lands in the West Azerbaijan in Iran, which was covered by forest and dryland grape gardens (converted more than 10 years ago). The site (36° 15' N and 45° 22' E) had an elevation of 1430 m. According to climatology station data, the minimal and maximal daily temperatures were approximately -9.1 and 35.1°C, respectively. The mean annual rainfall and temperature was 950 mm and 13.05°C, respectively. The land slope was classified to < 10, 10-20 and >20%. The dominant forest plant species was oak, which was converted into grape garden. The overall soil properties was determined by 48 disturbed soil sample and 48 undisturbed steel cores that were 98.125 cm3 (volume) by 5 cm (height) with four replicates taken from depths of 0 -20 cm and 20 -40 cm. The core method was used to measure soil bulk density (Blake and Hartge, 1986), and the soil saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) was measured using a full automatic apparatus based on falling head method (Klute and Dirksen, 1986). Forty eight composite soil samples were air-dried and passed through a 2-mm sieve. The particle size distribution was determined using a hydrometer method (Gee and Bauder, 1986), and the OM content was determined using a wet oxidation method previously described by Walkley and Black (1934). Soil EC and pH were determined using the methods described in Page et al. (1982). The θh and water potential (Ψ) data were obtained from laboratory measurements. θ(h) was determined at various potentials (0, 0.1, 0.32, 0.5, -1, 5, 10, and 15 bar) by a pressure chamber apparatus with four replicates (Klute, 1986). The θ(h) data were used to derive soil pore size distribution for two land-use types using the retention curve. The resistance to root penetration was measured by

Academia Journal of Scientific Research; Shorafa et al. 162

Table 1. General soil properties for the two selected land-use types.

Slope Land use Depth

(cm)

Soil particle size distribution (%) Texture

Sand Silt Clay

< 10%

Forest 0-20 27.0 38.1 34.9 Clay Loam

20-40 27.2 34.3 38.5 Clay Loam

Dryland garden 0-20 19.5 34.4 46.1 Clay Loam

20-40 18.5 36.1 45.4 Clay Loam

10-20%

Forest 0-20 31.8 37.0 31.2 Clay Loam

20-40 31.4 38.7 29.9 Clay Loam


20-40 23.9 41.2 34.9 Clay Loam

> 20%

Forest 0-20 37.5 29.5 33.0 Clay Loam

20-40 35.8 27.5 36.7 Clay Loam


20-40 28.9 28.1 43 Clay Loam

using a hand penetrometer device.

The dry samples were sieved to obtain water stable aggregates with size <4 mm. The aggregate stability was obtained as indicated in Equation 1:

100))/()(( stssa MMMMWSA

(1)

where Ma+s is the weight of the water stable aggregates plus sand (g), Ms is the weight of sand (g), and Mt is the weight of the sieved soil.

Total N concentration was determined by the Kjedahl method, available P by the Olsen extraction method (Olsen and Sommers, 1982), pH by using a pH meter in a 1:1 soil/water ratio, and available K was determined by flame emission. The cation exchange capacity (CEC) was determined by extraction with ammonium acetate at pH 8.2 (Bouwer method). The respiration was determined by using titration method (Isermeyer, 1952) and then calculated as show in Equation 2:

CO2 (mg)/SW/t = (V0 – V)×2.2/dwt (2)

Where SW is weight of dry soil (g), t is time (h) and 2.2 is conversion coefficient. V and V0 are the volumes of acid used for titration of soil and control samples, respectively.

The microbial biomass carbon was determined based on soil chloroform-fumigation in a vaccum desiccator. The difference between organic carbon in fumigated and unfumigated samples demonstrates the microbial biomass

carbon content (Sparling and West, 1988). Statistical analysis A significant test on the land use was performed using the analysis of variance (ANOVA) within the nested analysis and SAS9.1 software (1999). Means were compared at the 5% significance level. RESULTS Soil physical properties Table 1 presents soil particle distribution for depths of 0-20 cm and 20-40 cm corresponding to two land-use types at three slope classes. The textural class of soils at both depths and land-uses was clay loam. Figure 1a and b presents bulk density (BD) and total porosity (TP) for depths of 0-20 cm and 20-40 cm corresponding to two land-use types at three slope classes, respectively. The results showed a significant difference in BD between the 0– 20 cm and 20-40 cm depths of the forest in 0-10% and 10-20% slope ranges (at p < 5%). However, significant differences in the BD and total porosity (TP) were not observed between dryland garden and forest at the three slope classes (Figures 1). Maximum and minimum BD was observed in 20-40 cm depth of dryland garden (1.4 g cm-3) and 0-20 cm depth of forest soil (1.2 g cm-3), respectively. However, differences in BD and TP between the two land-use types were not significant. The maximum TP was observed in 0-20 cm


(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Figure 1. Effect of land use change on (a) soil bulk density, (b) total porosity, (c) soil saturated hydraulic conductivity, (d) soil aggregate stability, (e) soil resistance, and (f) soil available water content. The values of the same group that share the same letters (a-d) are not significantly different at p < 0.05).

depth of the forest soils.

It was observed that the saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) was a highly dynamic soil property between both the land-uses. Soil Ks values of the two land-uses at different slope ranges are presented in Figure 1c. For the three slope classes,

0-10%, 10-20%, > 20%, and the two land-uses, the Ks values of dryland garden were significantly higher than those of the forest soils only at 0 – 20 cm depth.

The soil aggregate stability values of the both land-uses at the three different slopes and the two

depths are presented in Figure 1d. The results showed a significant difference in water stable aggregate (WSA) between the 0–20 cm depths of both land-uses at the three slope classes (at p < 5%). The results indicated that the conversion of forest to dryland garden led to a significant


decrease in the WSA at a depth of 0-20 cm. Measured WSA values were found to be higher by 55, 57 and 62% for forest when compared with dryland garden at depths of 0-20 cm at < 20%, 10-20%, and >20%, respectively. The lowest soil resistance to the root penetration was observed in dryland garden at the 0–20 cm soil depth at the slopes of less than 10% and more than 20% (Figure 1e). The results indicated that the conversion of forest to dryland garden led to a significant increase by 70 and 52% in the soil resistance at a depth of 0-20 cm only at the slopes of less than 10% and more than 20%, respectively.

Soil sample water contents at different pressure heads under both land-use types and different slopes are presented in Figure 2. The overall measured soil water retention curves did not show significant difference within the selected water potentials for both land-use types in this study. As expected from the soil texture and similar soil particle size measurements, soil water content was not significantly different between the two land-use types.

In this study, there were not statistically significant differences in water availability between the two types of land-use presented in Figure 1. Despite the strong relationship between the SOM and porosity, the porosity was not affected by land-use change or decrease of the SOM in dryland garden. Soil chemical and biological properties Significant difference in the soil organic carbon was observed between dryland garden and forest at the three slope classes only at 0 – 20 cm depth (Figure 3a). The soil organic carbon of the soils under forest was significantly higher than that in dryland garden at 0-20 cm depth. The differences between the pH of soils under the different land-uses and the slopes were generally negligible (Figure 3b). The soil pH ranged from 7.4 to 7.9 for both land-uses and depths. The EC of the soils ranged from 0.2 to 0.6 dSm-1, highest under forest and lowest under garden lands. The difference between the two land-use types was significant at three slope ranges and both depths except for 20 – 40 cm depth at the less than 10% slope, as shown in Figure 3c. The CEC of the forest and dryland garden soils ranged from 12.4 to 16.9 mEq 100 g-1 soil, highest and lowest at 0 – 20 cm depth and 20 – 40 cm depth of garden soils, respectively (Figure 3d). The average total N content of the soil was significantly higher in the forest only at the depth of 0-20 cm at slope range of > 20% (Figure 3e). Compared to the dryland garden, as expected from the soil OC content that is higher in the organic materials, the total N values for the forest and surface soil was higher.

The available P content ranged from 13.9 to 36.6 ppm, lowest in dryland garden at the depth of 20 – 40 cm in < 10% slope and the highest in the forest soils at the depth of 0 -20 cm in 10-20% slope (Figure 4a). The K+ content of the soils showed significant differences at 0– 20 cm depth

between the two land-use types (Figure 4b). The significant difference was observed between soil respiration in the forest and dryland garden at 0– 20 cm in the three studied slopes, which is coincident with the higher SOC content in the forest soils (Figure 4c). The soil microbial biomass carbon indicated statistically insignificant difference between land-use types at the slopes of <10% and 10-20%, but the significant difference was observed at > 20% slope between land-use types (Figure 4d). The soil microbial biomass carbon was highest under forest at 0-20 cm depth. DISCUSSION Soil physical properties In general, soil particle size distribution did not differ between the forest and dryland grape garden soils. Soil texture change is a time consuming processes. Thus, during 20-30 years, negligible leaching under dryland garden and the limited tillage, have not affected the soil clay movement and the soil texture class.

Bodhinayak and Cheng Si (2004) reported that the mean bulk density of the cultivated land was significantly higher than that of the grasslands. They attributed the low bulk density in grasslands to the presence of a higher amount of organic matter and root density. In general, dense root systems in natural land soils can increase total porosity (Celik, 2005) due to positive effects of vegetation on SOM, TP, and BD (Cerda, 1996). Also, soil tillage can reduce the pore volume and destroy the pore continuity (Larink and Schrader, 2003).

The increase in Ks values of dryland garden can be ascribed to annual tillage in cultivated area. Tillage may create more large pores for surface soil but may also disrupt pore network connectivity especially for subsurface flow (Buczko et al., 2006). Overall, the two land-use types significantly differed in saturated hydraulic conductivity. Therefore, an increase in Ks at the dryland garden can be caused by a decrease in BD and a change in pore-size distribution due to the tillage (Celik, 2005).

The structure deterioration in dryland garden may be attributed to annual plow and agricultural practices and the higher biological activity in the forest soils leading to a decrease in soil aggregate stability. Several authors have observed a loss of soil structural stability under the influence of cultivation (Caravaca et al., 2005; Barral et al., 2007; Haghighi et al., 2010), which frequently involves a decrease in SOM contents. The higher SOM in forest soils may lead to a higher MWD and greater number of macro-aggregates (Duiker et al., 2003; Zhou et al., 2008). These findings agree with the earlier studies of Celick et al. (2005), who found that the aggregate stability of cultivated lands was 61 and 52% lower than forest soils for the 0-10 cm and 10 -20 cm depths, respectively.

The decrease in soil resistance of the cultivated soil


Figure 2. Soil water content as a function of pressure head for two land use types.

relative to the forest soils may be attributed to the soil loosening by the tillage. It was observed that the tillage effect on soil loosening and soil resistance to the root in the garden was higher than the effect of higher SOM and root system of the forest, in the studied area.

The soil water content of the forest soils was only slightly greater than the garden soils at the low pressures (Figure 2), that can be assumed as to be due to the higher SOM and favourable structural properties in the forest soil. A previous study has shown that improper soil management decreases the soil macro-porosity in the long-term affecting the θs (Ndiaye et al., 2007). Therefore, higher soil water retention would be expected upon conversion of natural lands to cultivated lands, after decades from land-use change. As a result, the lower BD and higher SOM in the

forest soils have likely led to higher soil water retention at the low potentials affecting water retention properties. Previous studies on the effect of land-use have demonstrated clear changes in soil physical properties, such as soil porosity, SOM, and BD, in relation to hydraulic properties (Celick, 2005; Bormann and Klassen, 2008; Haghighi et al., 2010), which agrees with the some results obtained in the present study. Soil chemical and biological properties Land use change may influence biomass production (Foster et al., 2003) and decrease soil organic matter. These differences can be attributed to tillage practices (Haghighi


(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

Figure 3. Effect of land use change on (a) soil organic carbon, (b) soil pH,(c) EC,(d) cation exchange capacity, and (e) total soil nitrogen. The values of the same group that share the same letters (a-d) are not significantly different at p < 0.05).


(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 4. Effect of land use change on (a) available P, (b) available K+, (c) soil respiration, and (d) soil microbial biomass carbon.The values of the same group that share the same letters (a-d) are not significantly different at p < 0.05).

et al., 2010). These results agree with the findings of Wu and Tiessen (2002), Celik (2005), Emadi et al. (2008). The negligible differences between the pH of soils under the different land-uses and the slopes may be attributed to the low calcium carbonate content of the soil and no deep tillage in the dryland garden. The significant difference of EC between the two land-use types can be related to the higher Ks observed in garden due to the effect of tillage on soil infiltrability improvement and a higher leaching resulted from plowing. This result agrees with the

studies of Wu and Tiessen (2002) who found that the EC was increased under cultivation compared with the rangeland soil. There was no significant difference between the land-use types in term of CEC. A possible reason for this result may be the similar clay content and soil particle size distribution observed between the two land-uses. The CEC of the soil is determined by the amount of clay and SOM content. Therefore, the observed difference between two soil depths may be due to the different SOC content, soil clay content and type

of clay minerals at the soil surface and subsurface. Sunchez-Maranon et al. (2002) obtained similar result in the mountain areas.

The observed significant difference between the two land-use types may be resulted from differences in leaching rate, cultivated crops, SOM content and erosion rate (Bewket and Stroosnijder, 2003). This result is in accordance with Xiangmin et al. (2014) study who found that the SOC content in natural forest soil decreased 62 and 50%, after converting forest to cropland and the total

Academia Journal of Scientific Research; Shorafa et al. 168 nitrogen content in forest was higher than that of cropland.

The observed difference in available P content may be attributed to the higher SOM content in the forest than the garden soils that a high proportion of the available P is retained by SOM. Moreover, leaching rate, erosion intensity, crop types and intensity of cultivation affect available P and may be possible reason for the obtained result (Bewket and Stroosnijder, 2003). The significant difference in K+ content at 0–20 cm depth between the two land-use types may be attributed to the higher SOM content in the forest soil indicating no leaching process of K+ due to the higher surface cover in the forest soils than dryland garden.

The observed difference between soil respiration in the forest and dryland garden is coincident with the higher SOC content in the forest soils. The soil tillage and disturbance may make the SOC more available for decomposition. The more SOC content in the forest soil can increase microbial population, leading to the higher microbial activity and soil respiration. The result obtained in this study is in accordance with the finding of Xiangmin et al. (2014) who found that the microbial community is affected by reduced SOM and total nitrogen content due to the conversion of natural forest to the agricultural land-uses. The highest soil microbial biomass carbon under forest may be attributed to more SOM and thus, microbial population. However, this difference was not significant. This decrease in soil microbial biomass carbon content may be attributed to the reduced SOM due to the tillage, cultivation and loss of SOM nutrients. The results of this study are similar to those obtained by Xiangmin et al. (2014) who demonstrated that agricultural land-use may lead to a decrease in soil organic carbon and microbial biomass, consequently. The several researchers showed a correlation between SOC or total nitrogen and microbial biomass carbon because biological activity often depends on SOM (Yang et al., 2010; Xiangmin et al., 2014).

For several years, the land-use has changed from the forest to dryland farming. This land-use change has affected some soil physical, chemical and biological properties based on laboratory measurements. The highest soil resistance to the root penetration was observed in forest at the 20-40 cm soil depth at the slopes of less than 10%. The results showed that the conversion of forest to dryland garden led to a significant decrease in the water stable aggregates at a depth of 0-20 cm. In addition, the saturated soil water conductivity (Ks) was affected by the land-use change. For the two land-uses and three slope classes, the Ks values of forest were significantly lower than those of the dryland garden soils only at 0 – 20 cm depth. The results of this study indicated that higher soil organic carbon would be expected upon conversion of natural lands to cultivated lands. The more SOC content in the forest soil can increase microbial population, leading to the higher microbial activity and soil respiration. Differences in CEC and pH values between the two land-use types were statistically insignificant. In contrast, a significant difference was observed in the values of EC and available P at the 0–20 cm depth. Moreover, because

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Cite this article as:

Shorafa MS, Nikbakhsh AN, Gorji MG, Fashi FH (2015). The

effect of conversion of oak forest to dry land grape garden

on some soil physical, chemical and biological properties in

different slopes. Acad. J. Sci. Res. 3(10): 160-169.

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