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8/10/2019 Research Research Methods Assessment Portfolio

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Research Methods 1

RESEARCH METHODS

Name

Course

Professor

Date


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Research Methods 2

Task 1: Cognitive Bias

The term cognitive denotes anthing re!ating to thought and means an action or idea

that re!ates to the thin"ing #rocess$ Cognitive %ias is therefore an error that arises &hen human

'eings are #rocessing and inter#reting information in their surroundings (Caverni) *a're +

,on-a!e-) ./0/1$ 2t genera!! occurs due to the #redis#osition of #eo#!e to sim#!if information

#rocessing$ Cognitive 'iases are therefore shortcuts to information #rocessing and are considered

to 'e an easier &a of reaching a genera! 3udgment regarding #articu!ar information$ Ho&ever)

cognitive 'iases are often inaccurate and u!timate! !ead to #oor 3udgments (,rover) + 4ensen)

./001$ There are numerous causa! factors for cognitive 'iases) "e among them 'eing5 menta!

shortcuts a!so "no&n as heuristics &hich !ead to errors as one tries to summari-e information

hence distorting it) socia! #ressures) individua! motivations) emotions) and !imitations on the

minds a'i!it to #rocess information (%aumeister + 6ohs) .//71$

8hi!e these 'iases can 'e #erceived negative!) some are essentia! and 'eneficia! to an

individua!9s &e!fare and surviva! since the a!!o& #eo#!e to ma"e decisions #rom#t! es#ecia!!

&hen in trou'!e) for e:am#!e &hen one is in danger and decides to f!ee (,rover) + 4ensen) ./001$

2t is im#ortant to distinguishing 'et&een cognitive 'ias and !ogica! fa!!ac$ The common

assum#tion is that the t&o have a simi!ar meaning 'ut in essence) the are different &ith diverse

im#!ications$ A !ogica! fa!!ac originates from an error in sensi'!e reasoning &hi!e a cognitive

'ias has its 'asis in errors that arise from #rocessing thoughts (;-er't) serving 'ias &hich is a


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Research Methods 3

genera! inc!ination to&ards c!aiming more res#onsi'i!it for successes than fai!ures (Caverni)

*a're + ,on-a!e-) ./0/1$ Another cognitive 'ias is the decision>ma"ing) 'e!ief and 'ehavioura!

'iases &hich affect ho& individua!s start to deve!o# trust in something or human 'ehaviour$ An

e:am#!e under this c!assification is am'iguit effect &hich is descri'ed as the !i"e!ihood to avoid

choices for &hich the e:isting information ma"es the outcome of a decision to 'e un"no&n

(%aumeister + 6ohs) .//71$ Memor error is another form of cognitive 'ias that has t&o

im#!ications on the memor in that it either im#roves or &ea"ens the reco!!ection #rocess$ An

e:am#!e of a memor 'ias is 'i-arreness effect &here' grotes?ue! odd materia! is easier to

remem'er than &ide! found materia! (%aumeister + 6ohs) .//71$

There are various #ro'!ems that arise 'ecause of cognitive 'iases for instance) the can

resu!t in #erce#tua! distortion that is seeing or #erceiving forms that in actua!it do not e:ist$

Cognitive 'iases a!so !ead to i!!ogica! inter#retation &here one fai!s to ma"e sense of the

information the #erceive) !eading to inaccurate 3udgments) irrationa!it) and #oor decision>

ma"ing (,rover) + 4ensen) ./001$

The o'servation in %ritain that oung men &ho drive too fast o#t to drive '!ue cars is a

cognitive 'ias since it is a &rong assum#tion$ 2t is !i"e! that the 'e!ief came a'out after severa!

oung men have over the ears 'een seen driving '!ue cars 'ad! or at e:treme s#eeds)

effective! giving credence to the assum#tion$ Since #eo#!e tend to #rocess information in

#artia!it in order to arrive at their o&n #erceived !ogica! e:#!anations) the resu!t is a #revai!ing

assum#tion that oung men &ho drive '!ue cars are fast drivers$ 2t is ho&ever not accurate since

oung fema!e drivers a!so drive '!ue cars and there are s!o& driving oung men &ho drive '!ue

cars (Stoc"ing + ,ross) .//@1$ The #u'!ic #erce#tion of oung men in '!ue cars 3ust e!a'orates


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Research Methods 4

ho& cognitive 'ias can give &rong assum#tions regarding s#ecific incidents or dai!

occurrences$

The genera! #u'!ic o'servation in the B is that fast driving oung men #refer the co!our

'!ue for their cars$ Ho&ever) co!our is an individua!9s #reference) and co!our #artia!it varies

'et&een individua!s$ A s!o& driver man cou!d as easi! have a #enchant for a '!ue car simi!ar to

'o racers9) and regard!ess of age) this &i!! not ma"e them drive fast des#ite the fact that the

#u'!ic &i!! #erceive the driver to 'e a 'o racer9 ' on! vie&ing the car$ This is 'ecause the

im#ression is #reci#itated ' the cognitive 'ias a'out fast '!ue cars$ Since the notion is that the

fast '!ue cars are driven ' oung ma!es) most oung fema!e racers have deve!o#ed an affinit

for '!ue cars since the co!our is genera!! associated &ith s#eed (Stoc"ing + ,ross) .//@1$

The cognitive 'ias has eventua!! deve!o#ed &ithin the #u'!ic and racing communit

since an driver &ho &ants to drive fast o#ts for a '!ue car regard!ess of age or gender due to the

fact that the &rong #erce#tion a!read e:ists in the #u'!ic domain$ Conse?uent!) a '!an"et

conviction has 'een su#erim#osed on anone driving a '!ue car to 'e a 'o racer9 des#ite the

fact that current! there is #arit in the #ro'a'i!it of the driver of a fast '!ue car 'eing either

ma!e or fema!e$


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Research Methods 5

Task 2: Social Desirability Bias

Socia! desira'i!it 'ias is a genera! inc!ination ' res#ondents in a surve or #artici#ants

in research stud to res#ond to ?uestions in a &a that &i!! 'e #erceived favoura'! ' others

(*isher) .//71$ Res#ondents in an intervie& ans&er the ?uestions in a manner that societ deems

idea!$ 2t is a'out idea!ism and rea!ism in the sense that res#ondents ans&er idea!! as o##osed to

rea!istica!!$ 2dea! is &hat everone &ou!d a!! !i"e to have) 'ut it ma not 'e rea! or attaina'!e at

times) effective! "erne!!ing the socia! desira'i!it 'ias (*isher) .//71$ 2t is usua!! manifested

&hen res#ondents overstate that &hich is considered as good 'ehaviour and understating 'ad

'ehaviour (%oerger) ./0.1$ This tendenc is detrimenta! to research that is conducted in the form

of se!f>re#orts #recise! the ?uestionnaires !i"e the one administered in the .//7 #o!! on the

attitudes a'out internet dating$ This 'ias distorts inter#retation of aggregate tendencies as &e!! as

s#ecific #erson9s differences (;-er't)


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Research Methods 6

order to conform to e:isting socia! norms$ Res#ondents &ith a De!ightfu! attitude find #!easure in

on!ine dating re#resent individua!s comforta'!e &ith their o#inions &hi!e res#ondents &ith the

Confident and assured a'out on!ine

dating and those &ho are dis#!eased &ith the #ractice im#!ing the are contented or re#u!sed '

ne& socia! trends$ These are individua!s &ho are o#en a'out controversia! issues and are &i!!ing

to air their o#inions regard!ess of &hether these o#inions conform to e:isting socia! standards$

The res#onses to the #o!! are not necessari! honest or accurate since #eo#!e #refer to sa &hat

societ has deemed as acce#ta'!e) and the avoid saing &hat the societ deems im#ro#er

(%oerger) ./0.1$ The #o!! high!ights the vie&s of a cross>section of #eo#!e in societ and their

inc!ination to adhere to the socia! desira'i!it 'ias$ This is 'ecause #eo#!e tend to give 'ias

o#inions on #ersona! matters es#ecia!! in #u'!ic forums and avoid stating the truth in

accordance &ith the socia! desira'i!it 'ias (;-er't)


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Research Methods 7

Task 3: Deconstructing what is seen

Semiotics is the stud of signs &hereas a deconstruction is a method of ana!-ing te:ts

that go a!ong &ith signs (,ottdiener) shirts) 3eans to other t#es

of casua! &ear$ 8ea!th #eo#!e are a&are of the fact that the have mone and &ea!th) and can

afford !u:urious c!othes$ The have no #ro'!ems &ith their #ersona!ities as &e!! as their out&ard

e:#ression and the have high se!f>esteem considering their financia! ca#a'i!ities$ The tend to

en3o &earing these c!othes to a##ear !i"e an average or #oor #eo#!e$ Most rich #eo#!e do not

!i"e sho&ing off) as the are comforta'!e a!read$ Dressing in these "ind of c!othes tends to ma"e

them fee! norma! and at #ar &ith other common citi-ens$

2n contrast) the !ess fortunate in societ dress f!ashi! to a##ear &e!! off$ The don

e:#ensive c!othes and e:change trend &ear to sho& off &hat the do not have$ This is ref!ective

of an inferiorit com#!e: &here' the #oor fee! financia!! inferior hence the urge to dis#!a

&hat the crave for most) &ea!th$ A!! these tendencies are 'ased on &hat is seen and #erceived

since #eo#!e ma"e 3udgments 'asing on &hat the are immediate! seeing$ The notion is that if

one dresses e:#ensive! and &ears e:#ensive co!ogne and ma"e>u#) the are considered to 'e

&ea!th$ Converse!) the &ea!th &ear distressed c!othes that !oo" o!d and &orn out in order to

a##ear #oor and negate the #erce#tions and im#ressions of their actua! se!f$

2n addition) &ea!th individua! #refer &ear distressed c!othes as a &a of deter

unnecessar attention$ The are a&are of their &ea!th &hich can afford them f!ash c!othes and

therefore the o#t to dress casua!! in distressed c!othes in order to visit #u'!ic amenities such as


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Research Methods 8

ma!!s and 'eaches in order to '!end in &ith the #u'!ic &hi!e socia!i-ing$ On norma! occasions)

the rich dra& attention from the societ so dressing do&n he!#s them !oo" sim#!e and ena'!es

them to venture into #u'!ic arenas &ithout the e:tra effort of concea!ing their identit$

Task 4: Presentation: The Presient can only rea !ne"Page#


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Research Methods 9

%riefing on Austerit and Economic Recover for Em#!oer

Issue Description

Austerit is defined as an act of se!f>denia! of something regarded as a !u:ur &hi!e

economic recover refers to the measures set in #!ace ' the government to im#rove materia!

goods and financia! resources of its nation$ Economic recover he!#s to ensure that an state or

countr does not find itse!f in crisis$ The measures 'ehind economic recover aim at increasing a

countr9s overa!! #roductivit as &e!! as #rovision of income to the citi-ens$ Economic recover

refers to the time duration in &hich 'usiness activit increases indicating end of a recession$ 2t is

a stage in the economs !ife cc!e.

2t has severa! indicators some of &hich are5

,ross Domestic Product (,DP1

2nf!ation

*inancia! Mar"ets e$g$ the Stoc" e:change mar"ets$

nem#!oment

Em#!oers refrain from hiring ne& staff during the economic recover 'ecause the ta"e

time to ensure recover is #rogressive$ This e:#!ains &h unem#!oment remains high during

this #eriod$ Austerit is done to shrin" a gro&ing 'udget deficit$ The situation arises &hen a

government 'orro&s funds in foreign currenc that it has no authorit to give out$ A !ega! 'an to

a countr not to issue out its currenc a!so necessitates austerit measures$

Reasons for im#!ementing austerit and economic recover measures

Austerit and economic recover measures are done to reduce the gro&ing deficits and 'oost the

econom$

Answers to arising issues


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Research Methods 10

Austerit and economic recover measures are set out to contro! #u'!ic>sector de't

(Mau!din + Te##er) ./001$ Effectiveness of these measures has remained de'ata'!e) as the #u'!ic

is sce#tica! a'out these measures$ The negative effects inc!ude suffocating the !arger econom

thus curtai!ing ta: revenue$ Em#!oers shou!d 'e "een on ensuring that their su'ordinates have

standardi-ed sa!aries and &ages$ 2t is a!so im#ortant that em#!oees 'e registered under a trade

union that &i!! ensure their grievances are aired a##ro#riate!$ Austerit measures ma either 'e

#o!itica!! driven or ideo!ogica!! driven (Mau!din + Te##er) ./001$ The are #o!itica!! driven

in the sense that government #o!icies inf!uence these measures$ The are ideo!ogica!! driven

'ecause the encom#ass the vie&s of individua!s in authorit$ These measures are &ide!

un#o#u!ar as the have the effect of !o&ering the ?ua!it of services offered ' the government$

Such an effect ma"es the #eo#!e to re'e! them (%ar'ier) ./0/1$

Proposed solutions to the challenges

Been ana!sis at the t&o factors a'ove that is austerit) and econom recover 'rings out

various factors that affect a given econom$ %oth em#!oer and em#!oee are affected ' these

t&o factors$ The em#!oer &itnesses a dec!ine in the earnings &hi!e the em#!oee &itnesses a

dro# in their incomes$ A!though these t&o factors 'ring a'out #ositive changes) the tend

negative! to affect individua!s$ Their #ositive effects are on the !ong run as o##osed to short run

(%ar'ier) ./0/1$

The negative im#acts of austerit and economic recover inc!ude a reduction of #ensions

thus de#riving retirees their rightfu! a!!o&ances (Buttner) ./01$ A cut in hea!th care e:#enditure

has a negative conse?uence s!a##ed u#on hos#ita!s and u!timate! the #eo#!e$ Hos#ita!s !ac"

funds to su##ort their o#erations$


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Research Methods 11

2t is a high! de>motivating factor$ 2f a hea!thcare #rovider is not e?ui##ed &ith the necessar

faci!ities re?uired for hand!ing the #atients) then a #ro'!emarises$

Em#!oers are to adhere to the set code of regu!ations in carring out their duties$ At

times) austerit and economic recover measures negative! affect em#!oees in terms of sa!aries

and &ages$ 2t is the res#onsi'i!it of an em#!oer to safeguard the &e!!>'eing of the em#!oee

(Buttner) ./01$ Em#!oees have severa! cha!!enges inc!uding !o& sa!aries and &ages$ Poor #a

is de#ressing) as most #eo#!e cannot afford 'asic commodities !i"e food) c!othes and she!te r$

These cha!!enges ma"e the !ife of an em#!oee ver difficu!t$


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Research Methods 12

service industr) a ha## em#!oee &i!! serve customers satisfactori! hence retaining them$ The

ha## customers 'ring in others thus increasing revenue of the 'usiness$ An unha## em#!oee

!ac"s mora! to #erform duties effective!$ 2t affects customers as the re#e! unha## em#!oees$

Ever customer &ou!d !ove to 'e served ' a friend! and courteous em#!oee and not an

unha## one$ 2ssues such as remittance of ta:es to the government ' em#!oers cannot 'e

over!oo"ed$ The government shou!d set in #!ace a fair ta: regu!ation that ensures 'oth em#!oer

and em#!oee are ta:ed fair!$ Peo#!e shou!d #a ta:es according to their revenue or incomes$

Measures that ensure #rogressive ta:ation across various c!asses of #eo#!e in societ shou!d 'e

set in #!ace$

References


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Research Methods 13

%ar'ier) E$ ./0/$A global green new deal: rethinking the economic recovery) Cam'ridgeF

Cam'ridge niversit Press$

%aumeister) R$ *$) + 6ohs) B$ D$ .//7$ Encyclopedia of social psychology) Thousand Oa"s)

Ca!if$F Sage Pu'!ications$

%erm#erog!u) D$) + Pa##a) E$ ./0$ Spending-based austerity measures and their effects on

output and unemployment$ Ho!!and$

*isher) R$ 4$ .//7$ Social desirability bias) Ne& ;or"F 8i!e 2nterScience$

,ottdiener) M$)


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Research Methods 14

;-er't) 6$)

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