resettling displaced people in a coastal zone mining project evaluating the agricultural and land...

8/23/2019 Resettling Displaced People in a Coastal Zone Mining Project Evaluating the Agricultural and Land use Potential of

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Journal of Environment and Earth SISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225Vol. 3, No.4, 2013

Resettling Displace

Evaluating the A

Proposed Resettleme

Heme1. Department of Agricultural

195-80108 Kilifi, Kenya2. Department of Environme

University of Mombasa, P.3. Kenya Agricultural Resear*Email of Corresponding Auth

This research was financed by TiSamuel Bibuzi from KARI, Mtwap

Abstract

Preparations to mine titanium in Maand farmers affected by the projeccondition that they should be settleis availed for social infrastructure.South, and between longitudes 390 1It receives an annual rainfall of 1,2the land is low-lying and 50% ofallocation process, fearing aboutdisintegration of existing socio-cult

proposed resettlement site was eval

livelihoods of the communities. Thpotassium, and organic carbon contorganic fertilizers should be used fmatter levels in the soil. Drainagetopography of the resettlement site,other social infrastructure as demandisplacement.Key words: Titanium Mining, Disp

1.0 Introduction

The Kwale County is one of the sixIt borders Kilifi and Mombasa coun

the Indian Ocean in the East. The(CL) zones 2-6. The first three Athe hinterland (Jaetzold and Schmiand are suitable for rain-fed agriculAEZs. The last two AEZs, CL 5AEZs are found deep in the hinterreceiving less than 800 mm annuallrange from 24.3 to 27.5 0C.

The Maumba/Noma area of Msambare rich in titanium, and the GovernKiruku hills, and Ramisi River (KirAEZs CL2 and CL3 (the Lowland

is described as warm and humid1,200-1,400 mm and has two croppwhile the second season (short rain

cience-0948 (Online)

152

d People in a Coastal Zone Min

gricultural and Land use Poten

nt site A Case of Titanium Mi

i Mkuzi1, Saeed Mwaguni2*and Kengo Danda3Sciences, School of Pure and Applied Sciences, Pwa

t and Health Sciences, Faculty of Pure and Applied S. Box 90420-80100 Mombasa, Kenya

h Institute, Mtwapa, P.O. Box 16 Kikambala, Kilifir: [email protected] Inc. Kenya Limited. The contribution of Mofor the field work in this research are also acknowled

umba and Noma areas of Msambweni District, Kwalet are to be resettled in another area. The displaced

in area where their farming activities are enhanced;he identified site for resettlement site lies between lat6 and 390 20 East, and extends from Kiruku and M0-1,400 mm and is therefore suitable for rain-fed agrthis is prone to flooding. Both communities are

he quality and size of the land to be allocated tral structures. As good practise in integrated coastalated to assess its suitability for crop and livestock p

results of the evaluation show evidence of soil; theents in the soils were generally low. To reverse ther crop and forage production to encourage build upcanals should be reconstructed to control flooding.the portion on raised ground should be set aside fo

ded is be availed so that the communities continue wi

acement of Communities, Resettlement

counties in the Kenya Coast. It is located in the Souties in the North, Taita Taveta County in the West, Ta

county is divided into five agro-ecological zones (AZs, CL 2-4, are the dominant zones and extend about, 1983). These AEZs usually receive an annual r

ture. Average temperatures of 24-26.6 0C are experand 6, form the Livestock-Millet and Ranching zoneland and form the semi-arid and arid zones of they. The average temperatures of the arid and semi-a

weni District of the Kwale County was found to havment planned to evict and resettle the people in an aku/Mwangwei/ Kigombero area). The proposed resetugarcane Zone and the Coconut-Cassava Zone, resp

(Nyandat and Oswago, 1970). The area receivesing seasons per year. The first season (long rains) ss) begins in October. About 75% of the annual rai

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ing Project:

ial of the

ing in Kenya

i University, P.O. Box

iences, Technical

hamed Mzingirwa andged.

County are in progress,people have made it aand that adequate landitudes 40 28 and 40 32angwei to Kigombero.

iculture. About 75% oforried about the landeach, and the likely

zone management, theoduction to sustain the

nitrogen, phosphorous,ituation, inorganic andof nutrient and organicDue to the low lying

r the homesteads. Andth their life, despite the

ern part of the country.zania in the South, and

Zs); Coastal Lowlands35 km from the sea to

infall of over 800 mmenced in the first threes, respectively. TheseKwale County, usuallyid zones of the district

e underlying rocks thatea between Mrima andtlement site falls withinctively). The climate

an annual rainfall oftarts in March or Aprilfall is received during


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the long rains season.

According to Jaetzold and Schmidt

1. Food crops: Maize, cassava2. Cash crops: Sugarcane, co

pawpaw, guava, pineapple,pumpkin, melons, cucumber,

3. Forages: Napier grass, and leIn preparation for the resettlementarea to assess the suitability of the r

The specific objectives were to:

Describe the climate of the reg Undertake a broad scale recon Evaluate the land capability o

for agricultural production and

Identify suitable crops, bearineconomic considerations suc

production of cash crops, inclu

Identify the major impacts that Identify and assess any signi

intensive occupation of the lan

Provide recommendations onpotential of the area.

2.0 Methodology

A multi-disciplinary team was con(Team Leader), a chemist, an agron

conducted in the following four stag1. Acquisition of secondary i2. Field work:

a. General observation ofb. Digging soil profile pitsc. Field survey to intervie

3. Laboratory analysis of soil2.1 Secondary information

The sources of secondary informatiDevelopment: Analysis and Policy,

resettlement site. Other sources ocovering Ramisi, Mrima and Kikoduring the field work:

1. Map sheet 200 and 201 (App2. Map sheet 202 (Appendix 1b

2.2 General observation

A transect was identified, running Eused to determine the position of thto determine the position of the ssettlement, infrastructure, and presidentified transect, the team drove

and the current settlers.


153

1983), the area is suitable for growing the following

, cowpea, dolichos bean, green grams

conut, mango, citrus, cashewnut, banana, bixa, a

roundnut, sunflower, soy bean, simsim, vegetablesgarlic, okra, egg plant, brinjals, tomato, onion, kale, a

ume supplements (sirtro, centro, and Leucaena)

process, an evaluation was conducted in the Kiruku/settlement site for certain crop and livestock producti

ion, primarily from an agricultural perspective.

aissance soil survey of the study area.

the area at a reconnaissance level, and comment ongrazing.

in mind both climatic and edaphic constraints of thas proximity to potential markets and other co

ding tree crops.

result from present agricultural practices.

ficant impacts on the soils and land use that could by host settlers.

how to mitigate any negative impacts and how to e

tituted to carry out the evaluation. The team consomist, a socio-economist and laboratory technologist

es:formation on the resettlement site

he site

and soil sampling

: i) current settlers on the site; the farmers to be rese

and interpretation of the results

n included the Farm Management Handbook of KenPersonal communication with farmers and key info

information included reports of previous soil surveyeni, in Kwale district. The following reconnaissanc

ndix 1a to Report No. 3 Soils of the Kwale-Mombas

to Report No. 3 Soils of the Kwale-Mombasa-Lunga

ast-West from the slopes of Mrima hill to Kigomberoproposed settlement site on the world map. This e

oil profile pits. An observation was made on soent agricultural practices. In addition to makinground the proposed settlement site to gather more in

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rops and forages:

vocado, sweet potato,

(chillies, sweet pepper,nd cabbage)

Mwangwei/Kigomberoon.

he potential of the area

e landscape, as well asstraints related to the

result from the more

nhance the agricultural

isted of a soil scientist. The evaluation was

tled

a (Vol. II), Poverty andrmants at the proposed

s conducted in the areae soil maps were used

a-Lungalunga area)

lunga area)

(Plate 1). A GPS wasuipment was also used

ils, vegetation, currentobservations along theormation about the site


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2.3 Soil profile pits

Three profiles were dug along the itypes based on physical observation

pits were on land that had grey socracking than the other. The third

of the soil profile pits is as shown in

Plate 1: Soils and positioning of p

Key:

PA1: Very deep, well drai

PA3: Very deep, moderatloamy sand texture.

PA4: Very deep, moderat

sandy clay texture.

PA7: Very deep, imperfetexture. In some pl

USmr Very deep, well drtexture.

Boundary of the res

Transect

Soil profile pit

SOIL MAP FOR THE


154

entified transect (Plate 1). The profile pits were locas made on the soil and information on soil maps for tils but one of these was located in an area with strprofile pit was dug on land that had red soils. The

Table 1.

rofile pits in the resettlement site

ed soils with reddish yellow to white colour and san

ly to imperfectly drained soils with light grey to yelThere is evidence of mottling in the sub-soil.

ly to imperfectly drained soils with brown to grey co

These soils are mottled.

tly to poorly drained soils with brownish grey toaces, cracking is evident.

ined soils with red to dark red colour and sandy cl

ttlement site

ESETTLEMENT SITE - KIRUKU/MWANG

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ed within different soilhe area. The first twoonger evidence of soilgeographic positioning

to loamy sand texture.

low colour and sand to

lour and sandy loam to

rown colour and clay

ay loam to sandy clay

EI AREA


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Table 1:

Soil profile No. Altitude

(m asl)

1 35.0 4

2 29.5 4

3 81.5 4

Metres above sea level

Five soil samples were taken withi

0-20, 20-40, 40-60, 60-80, and 80chemical soil properties with depth.and 20-40 cm, surrounding each psamples were therefore taken from t

2.4 Field survey

The specific objectives of the surve

(i) To characterise farmers and tareas.

(ii) To establish the farmers percep(iii) To solicit suggestions from the

that will enhance success of thData was collected through persontotal of 23 respondents were interv

interviewed in the Maumba/Nomacleaned and analysed using the Sta

frequencies a

2.5 Laboratory analysis

The samples were air-dried and grofor: nitrogen, phosphorous, potassiCritical levels of nutrients describedsufficient or inadequate for crop and

3.0 Results

3.1 General observation

The proposed resettlement site lies b390 20 East. The altitude of thedifferent types of vegetation, inclushrubs and palms (mikoma), and nathe Mombasa-Lungalunga road.

About 75% of the land is low-lyinused for sugarcane growing by thfactory to remove excess water frThere was evidence of an elaborate

but most of the roads were impassa

washed away by flood water. Thresettlement site.


155

Positioning of soil profile pits in the proposed settlem

atitude Longitude Remarks

0

30.024 S 390

16.700 E There was evidenrecent past.

0 30.078 S 390 17.568 E Land covered by

burnt recently. T

remained uncultiv0 30.574 S 390 19.887 E Land covered by

burnt recently. Th

recent cultivation.

each profile pit; one sample was taken from each o

-100 cm. These samples were used to assess va. Ten more soil samples were taken from five posiofile pit to assess spatial variability in the surface

he proposed settlement site.

were:

e farming systems in Kiruku/Mwangwei/Kigombe

tions to the resettlement initiative.

affected communities on what they would consider

resettlement process.al interviews with the aid of a structured formal questewed in the Kiruku/Mwangwei/Kigombero area whilrea. Data was then coded and entered into an Exceltistical Analysis System (SAS Inst., 1990) software.nd cross-tabulations were generated for interpretation.

nd to pass a 2 mm sieve. Sub-samples of about 25m, calcium, magnesium, organic carbon, pH, and paby Okalebo et. al. (2002) were used to determine whfodder production.

etween latitudes 40 28 and 40 32 South, and betweerea ranges from 25 m to 85 m above sea level. T

ding natural grass (mainly Panicum spp), bushes cural forests. The natural forests were mainly found

and 50% of this is prone to flooding. The low-lyiRamisi Sugar Factory. Most of the drainage ca

m the fields have since collapsed due to neglect bnetwork of murrum roads that had been constructed ble because either they have been overgrown by bush

re were only two primary schools and no health fa

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ent area

e of cultivation in the

grass that had been

e land seems to have

ted for some time.

bush that had been

re was no evidence of

f the following depths:

iation in physical andions, at depths of 0-20soil. A total of 45 soil

o and Maumba/Noma

s workable approaches

ionnaire (Annex 1). Ae 29 respondents werefile. This data was thenDescriptive statistics,

.

0 g were then analyzedticle size (i.e. texture).

ether the nutrients were

longitudes 390 16 ande site was covered bynsisting of mixture of

around Mvumoni along

g land was previouslyals constructed by they the host community.y the sugarcane factoryes or culverts had been

cilities at the proposed


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Population at the proposed settlemecarried out farming activities bothfound in the low lying area. Therelying on cassava, maize and rice

produce from the trees was the far

as well as keep livestock. UncultivaThe farmers use traditional agricult

burning of grass and bushes for easto severe destruction of the environimpact. Bare soil is prone to lossinterferes with the infiltration of ware usually destroyed by burning.

plant nutrients from such material.

3.2 Soil characteristics

3.2.1 General observation

The soils showed colour variationswas either yellow or red. The soilstherefore be prepared by tractoraggregates in pits 1 and 2 showedeep-rooted crops such as the cococm.

When attempts were made to dig prThis was clear evidence of a sObservations made at the nearestsurface.

3.2.2 Physical and chemical an

Laboratory results showed that thetexture of the underlying soil horizo

lower clay content but higher levelsoils organic carbon content wasorganic carbon), influences a numbematter (SOM) improves water holdSOM in cultivated soils (caused bmeasure of the extent of chemicalmatter of necessity, have to ensure band by continued application of oorganic matter content of the soil wthe other benefits mentioned aboveand, therefore, improve the soils ch

Table 2:

Soil depth (cm)

0-20

20-40 Sa

40-60 Sa

60-80 Sa

80-100 Sa

The soils around profile 1 had a san52-77% and 68-86%, respectively.a better water holding capacity than

profile pits 2 and 3 are therefore likthan the former. A short dry spell


156

t site was sparse. The residents had their homesteaaround their homes and in the low-lying areas.communities residing in the area mainly consisted

for food. Tree crops were concentrated around theers source of cash. The farmers practice mixed fa

ed land is usually used for communal grazing.ral practices, with no regard to environmental conceof land preparation or to encourage fresh growth of

ment. Soil left bare is exposed to climatic forces suchrough wind erosion, while raindrop impact causester into the soil profile. Soil organisms (important cThis interferes with organic matter breakdown an

own the profiles. While the top soil was grey or broare very deep and there were no rock outcrops in the

or animal-drawn implements without problem. Thevidence of well aerated profiles. The deep soil

nut and cashew nut. Grass roots were observed up

file pits 1 and 2 beyond one metre, moisture in the sallow water table around the area where the sell showed that the water surface in the well was ab

alysis

soils at the proposed settlement site have sandy suns varies from sandy loam to clay loam. As expect

s of organic carbon than those of the underlying homuch lower than adequate. Soil organic matter (r of physical and chemical processes in the soil. Aning capacity and the ease with which soils release ny practices such as burning or removal of crop reand physical soil degradation. Farmers in the reseuild up of organic matter in the soil by stopping the brganic fertilizers (animal manures) on their farms.ll lead to improved soil structure (better aggregate fo. Mineralization of the organic matter will contribemical fertility.

Soil texture by depth within the profile

Soil profile

1 2

Sand Sandy loam

ndy loam Clay loam

ndy loam Clay loam

ndy loam Clay loam

ndy loam Clay loam

content of 44-94% while those around profiles 2 anSoils with relatively high clay (and high SOM) contthose with relatively high sand (and low SOM) con

ly to hold more water than those around pit 1. Theis therefore more likely to cause wilting in maiz

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ds on raised ground butfew homesteads were

of subsistence farmers,omesteads and sale ofming: they grow crops

ns. Such practices asnatural pastures has ledh as wind and raindrop

soil capping and thusomponents of soil life), hence, the release of

wn, the underlying soilentire area. Land cane arrangement of soilprofiles are suited forto a depth of about 60

il increased drastically.il profiles were dug.ut 1.8 m from the soil

rfaces (Table 2). Thed, the surface soils had

rizons (Table 3). Themeasured indirectly asincrease in soil organicutrients. A decline insidues) is an effectivettlement site will, as arning of plant material

An improvement inrmation), in addition tote nitrogen to the soil

3

Loamy sand

Sandy clay loam

Sandy clay loam

Sandy clay loam

Sandy clay loam

3 had sand contents ofents are known to haveent. The soils around

latter will dry up fastere grown on soils with


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properties similar to those of profile

Table 3:

Soil depth

(cm)

Profile 1

% Organic C

0-20 0.43 (vl)

20-40 0.42 (vl)

40-60 0.17 (vl)

60-80 0.18 (vl)

80-100 0.14 (vl)

Key: L = low; vl = very low

Soils at the proposed settlement sithree major nutrients were belowsignifying low soil fertility. The slevel in the top 40 cm (Table 4). Stop 40 cm. The top 30-40 cm ofeeder-roots of some tree crops suchave a negative impact on crop alivestock. Under situations as thooption but to supplement the soil nu

Table 4: The soils nit

Soil depth

(cm)

Profile 1

N P

0-20 0.5 9.1

20-40 0.6 3.1

40-60 0.4 2.4

60-80 0.3 1.7

80-100 0.2 17.7

N < 0.5 = very low, 0.5-1.2 = low;

K < 50 = very low, 50-100 = low

Soils at the proposed settlement sit4.9-7.5 while those around profileslower range (4.9 or 5.1) tend to beits pH. The soils around profile pivery high levels of the nutrient. M

Table 5: The

Soil depth(cm)

Profile 1pH Ca

0-20 5.4 67.7

20-40 4.9 164.0

40-60 5.1 149.7

60-80 5.4 149.7

80-100 5.4 235.3

Ca < 500 = very low, 500-1000 = lo

Mg < 20 = very low, 20-40 = low, 4

3.2.3 Potential of the 5-acre p

The results of thee laboratory anaresearch in coastal lowland Kenya


157

1 than in maize grown on soils similar to those of pro

Soil organic carbon and clay contents

Profile 2

% Clay % Organic C % Clay % Or

6 1.09 (L) 15 0.8

16 0.20 (vl) 33 0.7

17 0.08 (vl) 32 0.4

18 0.04 (vl) 37 0.3

19 0.05 (vl) 36 0.2

e were highly variable in their chemical properties.the critical levels required for profitable productioils in the low-lying area (Profile pits 1 and 2) had v

oils on raised ground (Profile pit 3) had low to moderf soil forms the layer mostly exploited by roots oh as citrus. Inadequate levels of nutrients in this sd fodder production, leading to low crop yields anse shown by the soil data from the resettlement siterient levels by applying fertilizers.

rogen (g kg-1), phosphorous (mg kg-1) and potassium

Profile 2

K N P K N

11.7 0.8 4.3 37.6 1.2

8.7 0.3 0.7 66.5 0.9

10.2 0.4 0.3 63.5 0.5

8.7 0.2 0.7 75.7 0.3

10.2 0.8 0.2 80.2 0.3

P < 10.0 = very low, 10.0-20.0 = low;

had highly variable pH (Table 5). The soils aroun2 and 3 had pH of 4.9-9.1 and 5.1-6.5, respectively.

acidic and this, therefore, calls for the application ofts 1 and 3 had very low calcium levels but those arouagnesium levels ranged from low to very high.

soils pH, calcium (mg kg-1) and magnesium (mg kg-1

Profile 2Mg pH Ca Mg pH

32.3 6.1 574.0 348.8 6.5

134.9 7.9 852.2 994.8 5.3

136.0 8.1 909.2 808.2 5.4

165.4 8.4 2160.8 1127.9 5.5

209.1 9.1 3480.1 1156.3 5.1

, 1000-1600 = Moderate, 1600-2400 = high, > 2400

-80 = medium, 80-180 = high, > 180 = Very high

ots providing sufficient food for a household

lysis showed that soils in the resettlement site areas shown that optimal yields of maize grown on so

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files 2 and 3.

Profile 3

ganic C % Clay

2 (L) 12

7 (L) 29

(vl) 30

1 (vl) 30

2 (vl) 26

The levels of all then of most crops, thusry low to low nitrogen

ate nitrogen level in theannual crops and the

oil layer will therefored poor performance of, farmers will have no

(mg kg-1) content

Profile 3

P K

3.9 25.4

1.6 10.2

1.1 9.7

1.1 5.9

1.0 5.9

d profile 1 had a pH ofSoils with pH in the

lime to the soil to raisend profile 2 had low to

content

Profile 3Ca Mg

242.4 77.0

228.1 61.8

174.7 45.4

228.1 53.0

253.1 69.4

= very high;

generally poor. Pastils that are deficient in


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phosphorous and nitrogen can be obP per acre) and 60 kg N ha-1 (24 k20:20:0 per acre (that supplies 16 k

The expected yield of maize in thebags per hectare). If the expected

resettlement site) requires 1.5 acresfarmer applying agronomic recommfollowing agricultural advice will nThe rest of the land (3-3.5 acres) ca

Other studies conducted in coastrecommended rates in combinationthat are nearly as high as those prfarmers would cut the cost of fertilioption for farmers who cannot affor

At the current soil fertility status, fThe farmers, therefore, would not bamendments. Instead, a family of

year.

3.3Results of the field survey3.3.1 Introduction and general info

Data captured from key informantfamilies whose land was surveyedof stay and peoples ethnic groupsMost (92%) of the Maumba/Noma rAgro-forestry practices were evideFarm household sizes were above tsizes of 0.49 and 1.34 acres forcommunity (in the Kiruku/Mwang

in the Maumba/Noma area were mdifferent farming experiences betresettlement site will offer opportu

productivity.

3.3.2 Water sources

The survey results showed that theuse. In the Kiruku/Mwangwei arseasons while rivers (16%), wellMaumba/Noma area. Springs acceach water source supplied water tTo sustain households water requimprove the water situation. Farm

seasons compared to 0.36 km in the

Table 6:

Variable

Mean household size

% Households < 10 years stay

% Households 10-20 years stay

% Households > 20 years stay

% Households whose members are% households dependent on farmin


158

tained by applying the two major nutrients at the rateg N per acre), respectively. This can be achieved bP and 16 kg N) and 0.7 bag of CAN per acre (that su

region, when grown as recommended, is 20 bags (9maize yield is achieved, a household of 10 membe

of land to produce enough maize (30 bags) for oneendations will get at least 75% of the expected maizeed 30-40% of the 5 acres allocated to provide subsisbe used for the homestead, cash crops and other ente

al lowland Kenya showed that farmers can usewith farmyard manure and nitrogen fixing legumes

oduced by applying the full fertilizer rates. By usizer input by half from about Ksh. 4,000/= per acre.

to apply the full rates of fertilizer.

armers can only expect maize yields of about 4.5 bae able to produce adequate maize on their 5-acre far10 would require 7 acres of such poor land to meet t

rmation

within the migrating community showed that thernd 265 farm families with un-surveyed land. Farmvaried between the host and migrating communitieesidents, who were mainlyKambas, have stayed for ot in most farms; Casuarina and Eucalyptus were the district average of 7 people per household therebhe Kiruku/Mwangwei and Maumba/Noma areas, rei area) was dominated by members of the ijikend

re developed than those in the Kiruku/Mwangwei aeen the two communities. The mixing of thes

ities for sharing the valuable farming experiences fo

host and migrating communities had different sourcea, 100% of households got water from shallow wels (44%) and roof catchments (32%) were majorounted for only 8% of the water sources. In the

49 households as compared to 23 households in thirement after the resettlement process, there is ners walk for 0.87 km in Kiruku/Mwangwei to fetch w

wet season and 0.66 km in the dry season in Maumba

Household features for the two communities

Survey sit

Kiruku/Mwangwei/Kigombero

(n = 23)

9.0

31.6

42.1

26.3

ijikendas 94.772.2

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s of 40 kg P ha-1 (16 kgy applying 1.6 bags ofplies 9 kg N).

kg each) per acre (50s (as is the case at the

year. At farm level, ayield. Thus, a farmertence to the household.rprises.

fertilizer at half theto obtain maize yieldsng such combinations,This would be a good

gs per acre (1.0 t ha-1).s without applying soilheir maize demand per

e are a total 133 farmhousehold sizes, period

as shown in Table 6.ver 20 years in the area.common tree species.giving per-capita land

espectively. The hostethnic group. Farms

ea, a clear evidence ofe communities in ther improved agricultural

s of water for domesticls in both wet and drywater sources in theiruku/Mwangwei area,e Maumba/Noma area.d for interventions toter in both wet and dry

/Noma area.

e

Maumba/Noma

(n = 29)

13.0

4.0

4.0

92.0

28.068.0


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3.3.3 Farming systems

Farmers in both sites practised mixeof different tree/plantation crops ansize but in some cases ownershipriver-beds or swamps. Most farme

in Kiruku/Mwangwei/KigomberoFactory.

Major annual crops in the Kiruku/Mand cassava (95%). In the Maumand vegetables (57%) that includearea grew passion fruit. The annuaverage maize yields in the Kirukuacre, respectively. The mean acMaumba/Noma areas, respectively.Coast Province (Waaijenberg H.household consumption whereas innumber (36%) of farmers in the Ma

production while in the Kiruku/Mwpromising cash crop in the MKiruku/Mwangwei area, cassava wa

Crop-livestock farm level relationsof incomes generated from livestolivestock on-farm contributed to soil

Table 7:

Variable

% Households with more than one fMean farm size (acres)

Mean area under maize (acres) per

Mean no. local chicken per househo

Mean number of goats per househol

Mean number of cattle per househol

Mean h/hold monthly income (KSh.

Note: Figures in parenthesis are t

3.3.4 Constraints

Major constraints to farm liveliho

infrastructure (roads and transport fproduce), (ii) resources (clean watdiseases), and (iv) others (crop pest

poor road network, lack of public sas hospitals, schools and markets(Maumba/Noma) communities. Infarm inputs as well as transportatio

produce were critical problems thatconstraints in the Kiruku/Mwangw(Maumba/Noma). Wildlife damagcommunity with some members abmentioned, particularly regardingincluded high incidences of cropincomes and lack of job opportuniresource-poor households. Table 4


159

d farming: they grew crops and kept livestock (Tablefood crops were observed. Most farmers had one

of more that one parcel was guided by a preferenrs in Maumba/Noma area had title deeds for their lan

rea who were squatting on land previously owned

wangwei/Kigombero area include maize (grown by 1a/Noma area, the annual crops included maize (in 6gg plant (tunguja), tomatoes and kales. About 31l crops were all produced by under smallholder syst

/Mwangwei and Maumba/Noma areas were 3 and 6reage under maize was 1 and 2 acres for the

These yield figures are in agreement with those1994). In the Kiruku/Mwangwei area all the mthe Maumba/Noma area 76% was consumed and thumba/Noma area used external inputs (fertiliser and/

ngwei area none used such inputs. Passion fruits humba/Noma area, with a ready market and hs the main food crop but some of it was sold for cash

ips were mainly in the provision of labour by draughk sales and utilisation of crop residue as feed. Tfertility improvement and therefore substituting inor

Household resource profiles a

Survey site


(n = 23)

arm 36.84.4 (1-11)

ousehold 1.0

ld 16 (0-50)

d 5 (0-50)

d 1 (0-8)

) 2,987/=

e minimum and maximum stretches for the different

ods were classified into four categories: those co

or farm produce) and public institutions (hospitals, sr, soil, income, wildlife), (iii) disease incidences (s, job opportunities and food security situation) (Tabrvice vehicles or transport for farm produce, inadequas a major concern to both the host (Kiruku/Mwangthe Maumba/Noma area, lack of transport was repo

n of farm produce to markets. Lack of farm inputneed intervention. Lack of clean water and low soi area while wildlife damage was the major proble

e on crops has led to major shifts in the cropping sndoning the growing of maize. The problem of higalaria prevalence in the Maumba/Noma area. Oth

pests and inadequate food due to poor maize harties was of concern in Kiruku/Mwangwei area andshows the rating of the livelihood constraints in the t

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7). Complex intercropsiece of land of varyinge for growing rice onas opposed to farmers

by the Ramisi Sugar

00% of the households)7% of the households)

of the farmers in thism in both areas. Thebags (90-kg bags) periruku/Mwangwei and

eported earlier for theize produced was fore rest sold dry. A fairr pesticides) for maize

d emerged to be a veryigh returns. In thegeneration.

t oxen, ploughing backe use of manure fromanic fertilisers.

gregated by site

Maumba/Noma

(n = 29)

20.017.4 (3-36)

2.4

41 (6-200)

12 (0-45)

3 (1-18)

23,818/=

ariables

nstraints related to (i)

hool, markets for farmalaria and water-bornee 8). The problem ofate public utilities suchwei) and the migratingrted to affect access tos and markets for farmil fertility were critical

in the migrating sitestems of the migratingdisease incidence was

er problems mentionedests. Low householdthis was confirmed byo sites.


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Table 8:

Constraints

Poor infra-structure/institutional set-

Resource based constraints

High disease incidents

Other (crop pests, food shortages, u

3.3.5 Expectations from the res

Farm households expected some beexpected benefits was the hope thawhere the farmers have been livi

consider them for land allocationinfrastructure and institutions suchexpect will be solved through the rinput-output market that will leadshows the positive expectations ocreation or growth, and developmlooks at the resettlement initiative ahousehold incomes. The assumptsecurity measures for the success of

Other expectations were also citedgiven the first consideration duringresidents. On the other hand, the

and that every adult household meone that needs careful interpretatiocompensation procedures.

Table 9: Farm househ

Expectations

Resolved land ownership

Input/outputs market creation or grDevelopment of infrastructure and

Employment creation

Guaranteed security by the Govern

Other (first consideration, avoid re

On the other hand, the same scenarheads to share out land to their arecognised land owner is the one w

3.3.6 Fears by the communities

As much as there were some expec

affect their livelihood (Table 10).by the migrating community. Thipossibility of attacks by burglars


160

Agro-related liveliho

Survey sit


(n = 23)

--------------- % of respon

up 47.4

31.6

21.1

employment, ...) 21.1

ttlement initiative

efits from the resettlement initiative (Table 9). Theland ownership will be resolved in the Kiruku/Mwg as squatters. The farmers expect that the rese

ollowed by subsequent issuance of title deeds. Tas markets for farm produce were among the prosettlement of both the migrating and host communitto economic growth of the hybrid (host/migrating)both communities as demonstrated by the percennt of infrastructure and institutions. The resource

s a blessing for employment creation (53%) that willion by both communities was that the Governmenthe resettlement initiative.

by both communities. The host community expecland allocation, and that the authorities will avoid rigrating community expect that land allocation will

ber will be compensated. This expectation by theto the affected people. There is need for an inten

ld expectations expressed as benefits from the resettl

Survey si


(n = 23)

--------------- % of respon

47.4

owth 68.4institutions 68.4

52.6

ment 15.8

ocation, .) 10.5

io serves as a message to all land owners that it is idult children and the necessary documentation maose name appears on the title deed.

ted benefits, the communities still expressed fears th

The most notable among the stated fears was the isss community fear, in the event of them being paid tho may come for the compensation money. On t

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d constraints

e

Maumba/Noma

(n = 29)

ents ---------------

68.0

84.0

56.0

12.0

most crucial among thengwei/Kigombero areattlement initiative will

e problems of lack oflems that the farmerses, thereby creating ancommunity. Table 9responses for market

-poor host communityenable them raise theirt was putting in place

ted that they would belocation of the currente based on family size

igrating community issive education on land

ement initiative

te

Maumba/Noma

(n = 29)

ents ---------------

8.0

48.060.0

0.0

32.0

16.0

portant for householdde, otherwise the only

at the resettlement will

ue of security as raisedheir compensation, thee other hand, the host


10/14


community fear that burglars targsurrounding environs. The fear oefforts on land development and tocommunity which was more worrie

A close look at the socio-economi

place in the Maumba/Noma area.committees. These committees hthereby enabling households meet sthese successes that the affected cosocio-economic structures. It is alchurch or mosque are separated by

Table 10: Fears e

Fears

Insecurity

Allocation of inadequate or poor lan

Displacement or relocation

Degeneration of socio-cultural struc

Total loss of livelihoods (yields/inco

Others (unwelcoming hosts, conflict

Tree crops take a long time to estabinitiative will lead to total loss of lmeet most basic needs. Other f

community, possibility of conflictinenvironmental change, and the abse

3.3.7 Possible ImpactsShort and long term impacts ofcommunities and two levels (positiopposite views except for the b(educational and health) and impexpansion, job and income creatiocommunity who felt that the cominand probably had a better treat from

The issues of destroyed livelihood

such as possibility of insecurity, cha


161

eting the migrating community may also attack thf being displaced or relocated to another site (leadial loss of land) was more crucial to the host commuabout possible allocation of small and infertile piece

c structures of the communities revealed that vario

These structures included funeral and educationalve had considerable scio-economic impact among

uccesses in solving their education, health and burialmmunity fears that the resettlement initiative will co feared that faith-based structures may be destroyedllocating them distant land parcels.

pressed by both affected communities on resettlemen

Survey site


(n = 23)

----------------- % of respond

21.1

d 10.5

89.5

ures 5.3

mes) 16.8

s, ..) 5.3

lish and the community in the Maumba/Noma area fivelihood that will render them unable to neither edears expressed include the possibility of meeting

g development agenda, possible health problems assce of basic facilities such as fuel-wood.

the resettlement initiative were examined by boe and negative impacts) were identified. The twolief that the resettlement plan predicts positiveoved infrastructure (Table 11). The possibility on, and resolving land ownership issues was a bel

g of the migrating community was a blessing as theythe Government and Tiomin Company.

as given weight by the migrating community as do

nging life styles leading to poor school performance b

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eir homesteads or theng to loss of previousnity than the migratings of land.

s associations were in

nd health fund-raisingcommunity members;

problems. It is out ofmpletely destroy these, when members of one

t initiative

Maumba/Noma

(n = 29)

nts --------------

64.0

48.0

N/A

68.0

36.0

12.0

lt that the resettlementcate their children noran unwelcoming host

ciated with climatic or

h host and migratingcommunities expressedgrowth of institutionsf market creation andef shared by the hostwere more resourceful

other negative impacts

y their children.


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Table 11: Likely/e

Impact

Market creation/expansion

Job/income creation

Growth of institutions/infra-structur

Land ownership guaranteed

Destroyed livelihoods*

Increased crime rates*

Other*

*Negative impacts of the resettlem

Since the relocation plan was hatcland development because of the uuncertainty has caused changes in cthe migrating families.

3.3.8 Suggestions by the communitFor the success and fairness in rese(Table 12). The common suggestallocation process be applied throuhost and migrating communities.ensuring community participation.

synergy in the development of instipriority to the host community are aThese suggestions, therefore, sendearlier suggestion that the process bmigrating communities.

There is need to first develop the nclean water, hospitals and financial i

Table 12: Suggestions flo

Suggestion

Enhance dialogue with affected

village reps)

Consider h/hold sizes

Consider host community first

Develop infra-structure first

Prepare migrating farmers for the re

Other (livelihood support facility,

Other suggestions as listed b

-Need to allocate equ


162

pected short and long-term impacts of the resettleme

Survey site


(n = 23)

----------------- % of respond

68.8

75.0

e 62.5

37.5

6.3

6.3

6.3

nt initiative

ed over 5 years ago, members of the migrating comncertainty caused by the decision to resettle the afferopping patterns and the halting of the construction

es for a successful resettlement initiative

tling the affected households, the two communities ron by the two communities was that a participatorh the formation of a special committee with represThe need to recognize village institutions was emThe overall participation of different development

tutions. Consideration of household size during lanmong the opposite suggestions between the host andmessage of caution to the resettlement plan that cou

e overseen by a hybrid committee composed of me

ecessary infrastructure and facilities for basic humanstitutions that could provide credit was raised by the

ted by the affected communities for a successful rese

Survey site


(n = 23)

----------------- % of responde

through local 47.4

26.3

52.6

N/A

settlement N/A

) 5.3

elow:

l land parcel sizes to both communities

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t initiative

Maumba/Noma

(n = 29)

ents ---------------

28.8

14.3

66.7

19.1

52.4

4.8

6.8

munity stopped furthercted households. Thef permanent houses by

aised some suggestionsapproach to the land

ntatives from both thehasized as a basis for

partners would lead to

d allocation and givingigrating communities.

ld be eased through thebers from the host and

need including roads,migrating community.

tlement exercise

Maumba/Noma

(n = 29)

nts ---------------

48.0

16.7

4.4

26.1

60.7

14.8


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-Need to take affected

-Need to provide liMaumba/Noma com

-Need to speed up the

-Compensate all affecThe need to prepare the people forthe migrating community to existin

joint training/workshop between hoand coping strategies. The need forcommunity, especially in recogniti

become sustainable.

5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

Among both the host and migratingresettlement was first mentioned.exposed to speculation. It is hoco-existence among the affectedregarding the land, infrastructure an

The affected communities shothe resettlement initiative so th

Since a large part of the propshould be set aside for homestefor the homestead (on raised gr

The drainage canals in the low-their maintenance.

Both host and resettled farmersorder to facilitate nutrient and o

The soils at the resettlement sitfertilizer DAP (di-ammonium psince this can lead to increaseshould be use for crop and fodthis under expert guidance.

The farmers should be advisedboth chemical and physical deg

Infrastructure (including roadsdeveloped in order to march tcrucial for the communities siagricultural productivity.

Increased agricultural activitychemical farm inputs. This msource of water in the area.

place at the site for use by the i

5.1 Other issues to consider

Ensuring fair representation oallocation.

Any existing social structureslong-term socio-economic deve

There may be need of alternatiopt to buy land elsewhere.


163

communities to a trip of any successful settlement sc

elihood support during the lag/acclimatization tiunity

resettlement programme

ted household membersthe resettlement was raised and this calls for exposusettlement schemes, allowing them to tour the resett

st and migrating communities to enable them establrovision of a livelihood support facility was also sug

on of the lag-time between resettling and when ne

communities, uncertainty had loomed for quite someAs a result of this uncertainty, members of both ced that the recommendations of this report willommunities. Given the current state of the profacilities to support livelihoods, the following issues

ld be empowered to clearly understand short and lot they do not perceive themselves as either as losers.

sed resettlement site is prone to seasonal flooding,ads. It might be necessary to allocate two pieces of lund) and the other for farming activities (on the low-

lying area should be reconstructed and mechanisms b

are strongly advised to always use both organic andrganic matter build up in the soils since they are curre

tend to be acidic; most of them have pH of about 5.hosphate) to supply phosphorous to crops and fodded soil acidity. Instead, compound fertilizers suchder production. Liming is necessary for acidic soils

against poor agricultural practices such as burningadation of the soils at the proposed resettlement site.

and public institutions (market centers, schools ae population increase in the resettlement site. Go

nce a healthy labour force for farm activities is n

at the resettlement site is likely to cause increasay, in turn, cause contamination of ground water whi

reliable water supply, free from potential contamicreased population.

f both host and migrating communities in all m

should be given special consideration during lanlopment.

ve options in case some of the farm households ear

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eme

e especially for the

e trips for members oflement site and holdingish links, commonnessgested by the migratingw agricultural systems

time since the issue ofommunities have beene a basis for a goodosed resettlement siteneed to be attended to:

g term implications of

land on raised groundand per household: oneying area).

e put in place to ensure

inorganic fertilizers inntly degraded.

Continuous use of theshould be discourageds 20:20:0 or 20:10:10but farmers should do

f bush that has caused

d hospitals) should beod health facilities areecessary for improved

d use of organic andch is currently the onlyants, should be put in

tters to do with land

d allocation to ensure

arked for resettlement


13/14


REFERENCES

1. Jaetzold and Schmidt. (198Agriculture, Kenya, and th

2. Nyandat, N.N. and O.O. OAgriculture. National Agri

3. Okalebo, J.R., K.W. Gathuworking manual, Second e

4. SAS Institute. (1990), SAS5. Waaijenberg, H. (1994),

307 pp.


164

3), Farm Management handbook of Kenya. Vol. II/C,German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ).

swago. (1970), Soils of Ramisi Sugar Estates (Coastultural Laboratories, Soil Survey Unit

a and P.L. Woomer (2002), Laboratory methods of soition. KARI, TSBF-CIAT and SACRED Africa, Nair

/STAT users guide. SAS Inst., Cary, NC.

ijikenda Agriculture in Coast Province of Kenya. R

www.iiste.org

ast Kenya. Ministry of

Province). Ministry of

il and plant analysis: Aobi, Kenya 128 pp

oyal Tropical Institute.


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resettling displaced people in a coastal zone mining project evaluating the agricultural and land...

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