HOW MUCH ENERGY IS USED ANNUALLY?

1 QUAD ~ 100 BILLION KWH ~ 200 MILLION BARRELS OF OIL

USA ANNUALLY USES ~ 80 QUADS

SOURCE: QUADS USA TOTAL RESOURCE

COAL: ~15 >6000

NATURAL GAS: ~20 400

OIL: ~40 400

NUCLEAR: ~5 BREEDER REACTOR > 600,000 NON-BREEDER 1000

HYDROELECTRIC: ~3 RENEWABLE

GEOTHERMAL: ~0.1 RENEWABLE

SOLAR (TOO SMALL TO MEASURE ON THIS SCALE)

ENERGY RESOURCES

DEPLETABLE RESOURCES:

FOSSIL FUELS: NUCLEAR:

NATURAL GAS FISSIONOIL NON-BREEDER

COAL REACTORS

RENEWABLE OR NON-DEPLETABLE:

FISSION(BREEDER) NUCLEAR

FUSION (DEUTERIUM)

WIND SOLAR OTEC

DIRECT

GEOTHERMAL

HYDROELECTRIC

NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

HYDROCARBONS: NATURAL GAS, OIL

PROBLEMS: COMBUSTION PRODUCES CO2 ACID RAIN (FROM SULFUR CONTENT)MOST LIMITED QUANTITY OF FUELTRANSPORT FROM "TROUBLED AREAS"

POTENTIAL: EXTENSIVE RESERVESRELATIVE LOW POLLUTINGMOST CONVENIENT OF FUELS

WHY ARE HYDROCARBONS USED:FUEL OF CHOICE DUE TO HIGH ENERGYCONTENT IN CONVENIENT FORM

TRANSPORTATION AND UTILIZATION ISFULLY MATURE WITHIN OUR ECONOMY...

RESOURCE USEAGEPROFILES OVER TIME

Note: Arctic Reserve estimated at 10-20 billion barrels, plus ‘new’ areas Canadian Reserves with Tar Sands ~ 100 billion barrelsRussia has unknown additional quantities, Caspian, Siberia, KamchatkaWestern USA Oil Shale resource >> Saudi Oil resource.

A piece of Oil Shale

The USA has at least3 Trillion barrels of OilEquivalent of this resource.

Coal

• Carbon, water, impurities

• C + O2 CO2

• HALF IS CLINKER

: COAL

US Coal Consumption

• Coal 22 QBtu (23%)

• 80% used by electric utilities

Major Coal-Producing States

Coal

• Anthracite• 22 – 28 million Btu per ton• Not plentiful

• Bituminous • 19 – 30 million Btu per ton• Most plentiful

• Subbituminous• 16 – 24 million Btu per ton• Low sulfur content

• Lignite (Brown Coal)• 9 – 17 million Btu per ton• Local value only

Coal Resources and Consumption

• Global Recoverable• 1,000 billion tons

• Global Consumption• 5.2 billion tons/year

• US Recoverable• 274 billion tons

• US Consumption• 1.1 billion tons/year

Global Coal Resources

• United States 25%

• Russia 16%

• China 12%

• India 9%

• Australia 8%

• Germany 7%

• South Africa 5%

RENEWABLE OR NON-DEPLETABLE:

FISSION(BREEDER) NUCLEAR

FUSION (DEUTERIUM)

WIND SOLAR OTEC

DIRECT

GEOTHERMAL

HYDROELECTRIC

A major drawback of fission energy: Diversion to bombs

CHERNOBYL REGION RADIOACTIVITY

Potential for accidental or intentional containment failure.

Cleanup can be effected by biological and other means

GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES

LIMITATIONS AND PROBLEMS:

AVAILABLE ONLY IN GEOLOGICALLY ACTIVEREGIONS

RELEASED VOLCANIC GASES CONTAIN ACIDS ANDOTHER POLLUTANTS

REQUIRES MANAGEMENT TO MAINTAIN RESOURCE

POTENTIAL:

STABLE SOURCE OF POWER, IF MANAGEDPROPERLY

EARTH CORE HEAT (IF WE CAN GET DOWN TO THE20 KM LEVELS REQUIRED) IS AN UNLIMITED POWERSOURCE, NOT FEASIBLE TODAY.

ANY APPROACHWHICH REDUCESENERGY USE ISUSEFUL TO EXTEND OUR RESOURCES,

I.E.

CONSERVATION ISTHE FASTESTMETHOD TO GETNEW ENERGY

SOLAR ENERGY

CHARACTERISTICS:

DIFFUSE SOURCE OF ENERGY(< 1KILOWATT/SQUARE METER)

FEASIBLE USE AT LOCAL SITES AS WELL ASLARGE PLANT SITES

DIURNALLY VARIABLE (12-ON_12-OFF), CLOUDS

NEED FOR STORAGE/EXCESS COLLECTIONSOLAR PONDS, PUMPED RESERVOIRS

LONG DISTANCE POWER TRANSMISSION?

COLLECTION IN SOUTHWEST IMPLIESTRANSMISSION TO AREAS WHERE USED...

RELATIVELY NON-POLLUTING

FABRICATION OF COLLECTORS REQUIRESMANUFACTURING TYPE POLLUTION, NOATMOSPHERIC OR WATER POLLUTION

LAND AREA REQUIRED TO REPLACE PRESENTENERGY RESOURCE IS NOT INFEASIBLE

AREA TO BE USED INCLUDES ROOFTOPS, NON-ARABLE LAND; ECOLOGY, ESTHETICS IMPORTANT

SOLAR ENERGY NOW IN USE

SOLAR FURNACES: BARSTOW, CA. 100 MW STATION EQUIVALENT TOPOWERING 50,000 HOMES

PROBLEM: HIGH INSTALLATION COST (PROTOTYPE)ABOUT 10X COAL-FIRED PLANT

SIZE OF SOLAR RESOURCE: TO EQUAL ALLPRESENT POWER REQUIREMENTS FOR USA:

~1% OF WESTERN USA ASSUMING 10% EFFICIENCY

WIND POWER:

PROBLEMS: WINDS ARE ERRATIC, STORAGE IS REQUIRED

WIND SPEEDS BETWEEN 10 AND 30 MPH ARENEEDED FOR EFFICIENT USE (E.G. MOUNTAINS ORTRADE WIND REGIONS)

LARGE AREA WINDMILLS ARE REQUIRED (SOURCEIS 250 WATTS/SQUARE METER OR LESS SO THAT FOOTBALL FIELD SIZE WINDMILL COLLECTS ONEMEGAWATT

WINDMILLS ARE NOISY, UNATTRACTIVE, INTRUSIVE,DISRUPT LOCAL TV RECEPTION, ETC.

POTENTIAL:

LOW TECHNOLOGY, RELIABLE, INEXPENSIVE

LOW POLLUTING EXCEPT FOR ABOVE

CAN BE A RESOURCE EQUALING 10% OF NEED

ROOFTOP SOLAR ENERGY USE:

FACT: HEATING WATER IS ABOUT 30% OF OURENERGY REQUIREMENT...

PROBLEMS: RELATIVELY HIGH INITIAL COSTS, REQUIRES 5-10 YEARS TO RECOVER.

MAINTENANCE IS REQUIRED

POTENTIAL:LOW TECHNOLOGY, CAN REDUCE ENERGYREQUIREMENT FROM NON-RENEWABLEENERGY SOURCES BY 30%!

MORE "HOME SOLAR" OPTIONS

SPACE HEATING: ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN TO USE WALLS, ETC. TOCOLLECT, DISTRIBUTE SOLAR HEAT

SOLAR ENERGY STORAGE, INEXPENSIVELY

HYDROELECTRIC RESOURCES

LIMITED RESOURCE: PRIMARILY IN NW PORTION OF USA, TOTALRESOURCE IS <10% OF REQUIREMENT

PROBLEMS: ECOLOGICALLY DISRUPTIVE DUE TO WATERIMPOUNDMENT, REDUCED WATER FLOW;LIMITEDLIFETIME DUE SILTATION, DOWN STREAM EFFECTS

EXAMPLES, ASWAN DAM, THREE GORGES DAM(UNDER CONSTRUCTION), HOOVER DAM

POTENTIAL: USEFUL AT LIMITED SITES, IN DEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES

OCEAN THERMAL-ELECTRIC CONVERSION

PROBLEMS:OPERATES A REFRIGERATOR IN REVERSE, CARNOTCYCLE ENGINE OF LOW EFFICIENCY

BIOFOULING IN OCEAN

VULNERABLE TO HURRICANES

LONG DISTANCE FOR POWER TRANSMISSION

POTENTIAL:VERY LARGE RESOURCE WITH CONSTANTAVAILABILITY (ENTIRE OCEAN IS ENERGYRESERVOIR)

RELIABLE SOURCE, ECONOMICAL, AVAILABLE

PHOTOVOLTAICS

DIRECT CONVERSION OF SOLAR ENERGY TOELECTRICITY USING SEMI-CONDUCTORS

PROBLEMS:

INSTALLATION COST IS HIGH, BUT REPAID INABOUT THREE YEARS AT TODAY'S COST (WASTEN YEARS A DECADE AGO)

REQUIRES STORAGE MEANS OR CONNECTIONTO PUBLIC ELECTRICITY UTILITY FOR DARKPERIODS

REQUIRES MAINTENANCE, CLEANING

POTENTIAL:

SIZE OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC RESOURCE:

AT 10% EFFICIENCY: 60 QUADS OF ELECTRICITYWOULD REQUIRE A TOTAL COLLECTION AREA OF50,000 KM2 (500 X 100 KILOMETERS)

DESIRABILITY/EFFICIENCY/COST, ALL FAVORABLEOVER THE COMING DECADES

Multi-junction Photovoltaics utilize much more of solar spectrum,MORE THAN 30% EFFICIENCY ALREADY ACHIEVED!

Highly Efficient Energy Utilization

Industrial scale Fuel Cells…

EFFICIENCY OF FUEL CELLS:

CHEMICAL, NOT THERMAL PROCESS

DIRECTLY USES ELECTRICITY

WASTE HEAT MUCH LESS THAN OTTO CYCLE ENGINE

MAX. EFFICIENCY HEAT ENGINE ~ 25-30%

MAX. EFFICIENCY FUEL CELL ~75-80 %

WASTE PRODUCTS DEPEND UPON FUEL

WATER IN CASE OF HYDROGEN FUEL

INTERSTITIAL HYDROGEN IN METALS, EQUALS ENERGY DENSITY OF GASOLINE…

ENERGY RESOURCE AND USEAGE DIRECTLY AFFECTED BYPOPULATION AND STANDARD OF LIVING...