resources and energy management grow together - … · resources and energy management grow...

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Resources and Energy Management Grow Together


Michael Jakuttis

1. Introduction .......................................................................................................111

2. Waste as energy source .....................................................................................112

2.1. Waste as fuel .......................................................................................................113

2.2. Waste-to-energy plants .....................................................................................114

3. Resource – Refuse derived fuel .......................................................................115

3.1. Sewage sludge ....................................................................................................115

3.2. Waste wood ........................................................................................................115

3.3. Plastic waste .......................................................................................................116

3.4. The light fraction from the MBT ....................................................................116

3.5. RDF power plants .............................................................................................117

4. Energy management .........................................................................................118

4.1. RDF co-incineration .........................................................................................118

4.2. Energy-optimized combustion........................................................................118

4.3. Waste-to-energy ................................................................................................119

5. Resource management .....................................................................................119

5.1. Resource recycling ............................................................................................119

5.2. Landfill mining ..................................................................................................120

6. Conclusion .........................................................................................................121

7. Literature ............................................................................................................121

1. IntroductionWaste was not always considered as a resource. In the past, waste disposal and waste management was much less organized and developed as today in Germany. At the end of the 19th century the conditions were critical especially in the urban region and hinterland, when waste was dumped directly in front of the house mostly. Thus, waste accumulated into piles of rubbish, resulting in a lack of hygiene. This caused diseases such as chole-ra. The spreading of such diseases and even epidemics in Germany caused a change in

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government’s and people’s awareness about the disposal of waste. In order to improve the hygienic standards and to protect the healthiness of the people, illegal waste dumping had to be avoided and a regulated waste management needed to be installed.

The first waste incineration plant in Germany with 36 oven cells was built in Hamburg in 1893 and started its regular operation in 1896. The ovens at that time were feed with waste manually. The plant produced 15 MWth thermal power, while 156 kWel electric power was produced by two steam generators. Already in 1903 one of the first Waste-to-Energy plants with combined heat and power generation was built in Copenhagen, Denmark. On the one hand the produced steam was used to generate electricity, on the other hand the heat was partly used to heat the nearby hospital, orphanage and poorhouse through a tunnel. During the First World War nearly all of the existing waste incineration plants were shut down due to high operation costs. Those were partly caused by the low heating value of waste, which consequently led to more waste being landfilled again. But with the economic recovery, waste incineration came back. The main reason was the increased heating value of waste, based on the implementation of plastics.

Today waste incineration provides a far greater role than just waste disposal. It is one of the important sources of renewable electricity and heat that saves resources and contributes to the protection of the environment.

The following article describes the role of waste and refuse derived fuels (RDF) as an energy resource. Different waste incineration plants for direct waste combustion as well as co-incineration are presented. Furthermore the contribution of waste within the field of resource and energy management will be discussed.

2. Waste as energy sourceGermany produced 344 million tons of waste in 2009, from which municipal solid waste represents 48.1 million tons (14 %). Each resident therefore generated 587 kg/a of waste. [1] About 34 % of this waste (16.5 million tons) was treated in waste-to-energy plants, almost half of it (48 %) was recycled and about 18 % was composted. [1]

Figure 1:

Waste incineration plant in Hamburg, 1896

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Figure 2: Municipal solid waste in Bavaria, 2002

Source: Bayerisches Landesamt für Umwelt, Restmüllanalysen – eine Grundlage eines nachhaltigen Stoffstrommanagements der Abfallwirtschaft, Fachtagung 2002

Among different waste treatment options, waste incineration is the best waste treatment method for the inertization and sanitation of waste. One positive side effect of this treat-ment option is the utilization of waste as an energy source and by that the generation of a remarkable amount of heat and power. The 69 classical waste incineration plants in Germany produced around 7 million MWhel electric power and 14.4 MWhth thermal power in 2008. To replace the produced electricity of these plants by renewable resources, such as the solar or wind energy, about 74 km2 of photovoltaic fields (taking up the size of 9,250 soccer fields) or 3,500 wind energy plants are needed. [2] Furthermore, the amount of produced heat can support about 2.1 million inhabitants with renewable heat theoretically. Considering the total German national power generation, the produced power by waste-to-energy plants represents only about 1 % of the 621 MWhel generated in 2010. [3]

2.1. Waste as fuelToday the average heating value of waste varies from 10 to 11 MJ/kg, not at least due to a higher content of plastics in the residual waste, which is in principle cut resistant oil. For-merly, waste consists predominantly of biomass with a high water content which results in a much lower calorific value. In 1896 the heating value of the waste was only about 5 MJ/kg. At this heating value an incineration in a self-sustaining manner could not be expected any longer.

The incineration of waste is much more difficult than other conventional fuels due to the heterogeneity of waste, especially its chemically composition. Based on these differences the amount of pollutants as well as the water content varies strongly. This influences the heating value. The differences are not only given by the chemical but also by the physical composition. Thus the proportion of the fuels particles varies sometimes considerably. Then the fuel shape has to be adapted by conditioning to allow proper fuel transportation and to guarantee an almost complete burn-off during the incineration.

organic20.6 %

other waste 1.5 %

plastics7.4 %

glass 4.4 %

middle fraction17.3 %

paper(-board)/cardboard7.9 %

sanitary products14.5 %

textiles 3.8 %

fine fraction 10.9 %

wood 1.8 %

composite6.5 %

inert material 2.6 %

metals 3.1 %

problematic waste 0.3 %

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2.2. Waste-to-energy plantsFor years the grate firing is used as the state of the art technology for the thermal recovery of inhomogeneous fuels. The rising heating value of waste in the last years has forced the grate technology to develop. That’s why newer WtE plants use water-cooled grates instead of the previously more common air-cooled grates. Water-cooled grates are more suitable for high calorific waste because of their ability to dissipate more heat. Therefore water-cooled grates are made for higher thermal stress applications.

Figure 3:

Waste incineration plant HR AVI Amsterdam, Netherland

Source: MVA Amsterdam: http://www.sarens.nl

However, the electrical efficiencies of waste incineration plants (in average 18-22 %) are much lower in comparison to conventional power plants. This is mainly due to the low used steam parameters (400 °C, 40 bar) which should not be exceed in order to protect the plant from corrosion. Another reason for the low efficiencies is the bad integration of many old plants in the district heating grid.

Modern WtE plants, such as the HR AVI Amsterdam plant, can obtain energy efficiencies over 30%. The Amsterdam plant came on stream in 2007 and operates with an increased steam temperature of 440 °C at the moment and should achieve 480 °C by a second stage of expansion in the future. [6]

While there are no problems with the power generation, most of current waste incineration plants do not sufficiently practice their heat extraction. Due to problems with prejudice and public acceptance of this technology in the past, many waste incineration plants were placed far away from the residential, commercial and industrial areas. Therefore the construction and operation of a district heating grid is economically not reasonable. Exceptional cases are cities like Munich or Rosenheim were the WtE plants are located inside the city and can therefore take the full advantage of the existent district heating grid. Furthermore, the WtE plant in Schwandorf (Bavaria), which is located in an industrial area, could provide the nearby industry with steam, which is particularly favorable from an energetic point of view. In an ideal case the WtE plant is build according to the costumers requirements located near the site.

Altogether, the inertization, volume reduction and the disposal of waste is the main focus of waste incineration, while energy recovery of waste comes secondary. The latter is not the case with refuse derived fuel (RDF), whose primary goal is the energy generation.

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3. Resource – Refuse derived fuel

Refuse derived fuels (RDF) first appeared about a decade ago and have since then gained more and more in importance. Generally, RDF are recovered from municipal, commercial waste or waste water, such as sewage sludge, waste wood, plastic waste and the light waste fraction from MBT plants. The fractions are separated from the residual waste and treated by mechanical biological treatment (MBT) to obtain a high calorific fuel fraction, which is initially burned either directly in special RDF-plants or co-incinerated. On the market, RDF is mostly sold as fluff or in the form of pellets. Its average heating value is between 11-20 MJ/kg. RDF power plants are similar to waste incineration plants, and are observed by the 17th Ordinance on the Implementation of the Federal Immission Control Act (Ordinance on Waste Incineration and Co-Incineration – 17. BlmSchV).

The preparation of RDF is a relatively simple process especially in the case of waste wood or plastic waste. Two steps that involve crushing and the sorting out of impurities such as metals or stones are usually sufficient. To prepare the RDF from municipal or commercial waste, further sorting such as mechanical and biological preparation steps are needed. The energy needed for the preparation steps has of course a negative impact on the overall energy balance. From an economic and ecological point of view a chance for a larger benefit from direct incineration should be taken into account.

3.1. Sewage sludge

Being the subject of new upcoming laws (Amendment to the Sewage Sludge Ordinance) with stricter limiting values for pollutants, the thermal treatment of sewage sludge is ex-pected to increase whereas the agricultural use will decrease in the near future. In 2006 the German average production was about 25 kg per inhabitant of sewage sludge (dry matter) [7], which represents altogether 2 million tons per year. About 48 % of the sewage sludge was incinerated in Germany [8]. Since the introduction of the Technical Instructions on Waste from Human Settlements in 1993 and the rising of concerns on agricultural use the thermal treatment of waste is continuously increasing since the middle of the 90s.

It is important to notice that while the range of Phosphorus reserves is limited, the element is largely present as P2O5 in the sewage sludge. Consequently, it’s recovery from the sludge makes sense from the resource economical point of view. [9]

3.2. Waste wood

The annual amount of waste wood in Germany is around 10 million tons (absolute dry matter), from which 65-70 % is available in separate fraction. [10, 11] The majority of waste wood originates from construction and demolition waste (45 %), as well as 30 % of the waste derived from the timber industry. About 66 % of waste wood is incinerated. [10] Therefore the thermal treatment is and will be the main disposal route for waste wood. It is incinerated directly, either in plants for the thermal treatment of residual or bulky waste, or in plants for the recovery of high calorific wastes for which a pretreatment of waste wood is necessary.

The material recovery of the remaining 34 % of waste wood mainly takes place in the timber industry. Waste wood is categorized into different classes, of which some can be recycled directly, while others need to be pretreated or are not allowed to be recycled at all. The most common material recovery of waste wood, which includes 1.5-3 million tons of waste wood material annually, is the production of chip- or fibreboard. [10]

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3.3. Plastic wastePlastic wastes are usually separated by households. In Germany plastic waste is collected separately, for example through the Dual System in Germany. Additional plastic fractions are collected within the municipal or bulky waste, respectively at the commercial customer or at the manufacturing industry.

Since 1994 the amount of plastic waste in Germany is rising annually for about 5 % [12], reaching about 4.86 million tons in 2007. About 60 % of the plastic wastes are packaging, which are due to it’s short lifetime often discovered in waste. About 1 million tons are generated during the production and processing of plastics. Approximately 1.6 million tons annually is caused by the commercial customer and about 2.1 million tons by private customers. The energy recovery of plastic waste has largely increased in the recent years. With nearly 52 % share it represents the main recovery route. About 43.5 % is incinerated in waste incineration plants directly, while the remaining 8.3 % is co-incinerated in RDF-plants or cement industries.

The mechanical recycling, a kind of material recycling, of plastic waste with a fraction of 43.1 % represents one of the principal treatment routes as well. The plastic waste is collected, crushed, purified, separated according to different types and finally compounded into new products. The used re-granulate is also often applied in combination with new granulates to produce plastic products.

From an economic point of view the mechanical recycling of heavily contaminated or mixed plastics is not viable. For this fraction the energy recovery or feedstock recycling, also a kind of material recycling, makes sense. During the feedstock recycling the chemical structure of the plastic material is broken down to smaller building blocks like monomers, oils or gases (e.g. synthesis gas). With a market share of only 1.7 %, feedstock recycling still remains a fringe market.

However, not at least because of the revised waste hierarchy (EU Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC) it is to expect that mechanical and feedstock recycling will gain importance in the future. Nevertheless the energy recovery of plastic wastes also decreased in the last years, since the disposal of plastics has recently fallen sharply.

3.4. The light fraction from the MBTIn the first step, the mechanical biological waste treatment plant (MBT) is used for the pre-treatment of wastes. It separates and sorts out the waste into different waste-material groups (metals, glass, ceramics, etc.). The remains are usually two carbonaceous mass flows

disposal4 %

energy recovery52 %

mechanical recycling43 %

feedstock recycling1 %

Figure 4:

Recovery of plastic waste in Germany, 2007

Source: BKV: Kunststoff – Werkstoff der Ressourceneffizienz, 2010

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in form of a fine and a coarse fraction. By reconditioning the coarse fraction as the next step, a high calorific light fraction can be produced that serves as a fuel for RDF plants. The remaining low calorific fraction of heavy and undesired materials is usually either directly incinerated in a waste incinerator or landfilled. The fine fraction on the other hand undergoes a biological treatment at the MBT plant to degrade the organic substances. In Germany there were about 60 MBT plants in operation in 2008. [13] The share of the high calorific fraction lies between 40-50 % for the household waste, between 50-60 % for commercial waste and between 75-85 % for bulky waste. [14, 15]

3.5. RDF power plants

Mono-incineration of sewage sludge Currently, around 2 million tons of sewage sludge is produced in Germany each year, from which 1 million tons undergo thermal treatment. More than half of the thermally treated sludge is incinerated in about 17 municipal and/or 5 industrial mono-incineration plants for sewage sludge. [16, 17] They are most commonly based on the fluidized bed technology whereas also multiple-hearth incinerators are used. Although the agricultural use of sewage sludge will decline sharply on behalf of the future legislation, fewer new mono-incineration plants are plan-ned or expected. Instead, capacity expansions of several existent plants are already in the planning or the implementation phase. Most sewage sludge incinerators in Germany are currently located in the Ruhr region. However, intensive research is going on in the field of decentralized sewage sludge in-cineration and related technologies. Ideally, such facilities can be placed directly at the source – the wastewater treatment plant. A technology which enables this is for example the sludge2energy process from Huber SE which was developed together with the ATZ Entwicklungszentrum. It is currently being implemented at the wastewater treatment plant in Straubing and expected to go on stream in 2011. [18]

Figure 5: Sludge2energySource: Huber SE, HUBER-Lösung sludge2energy für die Klärschlammverbrennung vor Ort, http://www.huber.de, Berching, 2011

1 Feed of dewatered sludge2 Sludge drying (belt dryer)3 Grate furnace incineration4 Exhaust air heat exchanger5 Micro gas turbine: power generation6 Exhaust gas cleaning from incineration7 Exhaust air treatment from belt dryer

1

2

3

45 6

7

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RDF Mono-incineration

The mono-incineration of RDF has gained importance in the recent years. The combustion takes place in either modified power plants, or in plants built especially for that purpose. RDF plants are principally based on the same structure as waste incineration plants but with a special consideration for a much higher heating value of the RDF fuel. Currently, there are about 28 waste incineration plants in Germany that use mainly RDF as fuel. Four more are planned to come on stream in 2011. The total capacity of these plants is currently 4.6 million tons in total and is expected to increase to 5.6 million tons annually with the new plants in 2011. However, the volume of RDF produced is not expected to change much in the coming years according to the scenario made by Prognos. [13]

RDF power plants are usually located in industrial parks, where they can provide the industry with heat and power. In contrast to waste incineration plants, disposal of waste and energy supply are of equal importance for these facilities. Moreover, energy recovery from alternative fuels is actually of higher importance, so they can be hardly classified as waste disposal facilities.

4. Energy managementIn addition to classical waste incineration and RDF plants, waste can also be co-incinerated in ordinary power plants. Base load power plants as well as industrial plants with high energy consumption such as the cement industry utilize waste.

4.1. RDF co-incinerationThe most important requirement for the co-incineration of RDF is primarily the extent of the grain size, that should as far as possible simulate regular fuel. This allows the mixing of RDF and regular fuel to feed the fuel for the combustion. Secondly the mixed fuel should not exceed the halogen content of the regular fuel to prevent corrosion of the boiler steels. Thirdly the quality of the residues needs to remain as constant as possible to meet the landfill requirements and to ensure the market competitiveness of the slag. The delivery of high quality RDF must be granted at all times. Currently about 54 % of the cement industry relies on RDF, such as plastic waste or used tires. In total this correlates to an amount of about 2.9 million tons of incinerated RDF annually. [20] Additionally the paper industry also uses about 1.4 million tons of RDF annually. [21]German coal-fired power plants used about 0.7 million tons of RDF in 2008 (contributing 5-10 % to the total thermal capacity). [22] The fraction of co-incinerated RDF usually does not exceed 10 % so that an increased risk of corrosion and reduced quality of ashes can be prevented. Other small utilizers of RDF are the steel and the lime industry.

4.2. Energy-optimized combustionWaste-to-Energy is an important part of the German energy and resources management and contributes its share to climate protection. Due to the ban on landfilling of untrea-ted wastes and the substitution of fossil fuels with renewables the GHG emissions were reduced significant. According to the EdDE-Study by Prof. Bilitewski and the AGEE-Stat the municipal waste used in Germany in 2008 instead of fossil fuels saved about 4 million CO2-Equivalents. In total about 740 million tons of CO2-Eq. were emitted in Germany in 2009. Half of them were produced by the energy industry. [23] Therefore the contribution of waste incineration to reduce CO2 emissions is around 1 %.

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The average gross efficiencies of German incineration plants is around 13 % for the pro-duction of electricity and about 34 % for the production of heat. In comparison with con-ventional power plants they are rather low. With reference to research and development in Germany and with regard to the security of supply as well as the efficiency of resources, the utilization of the energy content of waste needs to be improved. In this context two main points need to be mentioned.

Firstly for an energy-optimized combustion of waste the location of a WtE plant plays a crucial role. Most of the plants are not placed near potential consumers for produced steam/heat, making the utilization of heat physically impossible or economically unviable.

Secondly the technology of many old plants is overdue. Many of them use low steam parameters to avoid corrosion, drastically lowering their energy efficiency and becoming uncompetitive in comparison to conventional power plants.

4.3. Waste-to-energyWaste to energy contributes importantly to climate protection and to environmentally and friendly use of resources. The waste disposal and sanitation function of waste incineration must therefore be ensured in the future as well. However, waste should be perceived as an energy source and a resource, not as a disposal factor. In this case it becomes obvious that the waste management industry is already very far developed, whereas the resource management still has some backlog demand especially concerning the extraction rate of certain recyclables from waste streams. Waste incineration originated from the traditional power plants, which makes waste comparable to other conventional fuels. However, fuels vary in their popularity as much as they do in their homogeneity and the market price. These differences are mirrored in the technology and legislation conditions. The evaluation of the environmental impacts of energy production from waste varies among scientists and politicians as well. For example, a study by the Swiss Federal Environment Office classified the power from waste as environmentally less harmful than the power from wind, solar or other power plants. [24]

Furthermore, waste can be considered as a partially renewable energy source, due to its composition. About 50-60 % of German municipal waste is of biogenic origin, which serves as a CO2 neutral energy resource. [25]

In order to classify WtE plants with regard to its energy efficiency, the R1 formula was introduced by the EU. Only for an energy efficiency (energy output/energy input) above 60 % (for plants installed after 31 December 2008 over 65 %) the waste incineration could be seen as energetic recovery according to the European directive 2008/98/EC. Otherwise it is waste disposal. [2]

5. Resource management

5.1. Resource recyclingIn accordance to the European Waste Framework Directive (2008/98/EC) material re-covery has priority over thermal treatment of waste. Only non-recyclable waste substan-ces, that have reached the maximum of possible recycling cycles, and substances whose pretreatment or sorting is ecologically or economically unviable, should be treated thermally. Thus the primary energy savings made through direct thermal treatment is higher than through recycling, because additional efforts in sorting, transport and production follows to energetic inefficiency in this case.

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The rising of the market prices for raw materials and the ban on landfilling are increasingly influencing the resource and energy management, combining them into an important unit. For the rapid development especially of the developing countries in Asia the demand for raw materials will drastically rise worldwide. More and more attention is paid on providing non-renewable materials as metals and minerals. To understand the situation, one needs to take a look at the commodity exchange market. This raises the question how much control is necessary to control and prevent illegal dumping.

Especially for resource poor regions such as Europe, waste is an important source of raw materials, which can lower the continents dependency on import. Trying to secure their own resources, Africa and China rely on aggressive raw materials policy measures. Unlike these countries, Germany already can fall back on an intelligent waste management, which enables a vast utilization of secondary raw materials. Here the most important fact is to minimize the export of secondary raw material sources, such as old vehicles, metal scrap and WEEE (Electronic equipment and electrical waste), which contain large amounts of valuable copper, aluminum and other materials. Therefore further technical innovations as well as legal adjustments are necessary. This is why a new draft of legislation that imple-ments the Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act was submitted to the Ger-man Federal Government. The new law implements the new Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC and its ambitious recycling targets, by which the recycling rate of municipal waste should reach 65 % in 2020. For construction and demolition waste, this quota should be even higher – at least 70 %. Furthermore the packaging ordinance is to be upgraded to a recycling regulation, with targets like a better pre-sorting of municipal waste through the implementation of a unified national recycling bin. In addition, as of 2015 separated collection of biowaste, paper, metals, plastics and glass shall be obligating. [26]

Electronic as well as metal scrap represents another large resource reserve potential. Cur-rently about 142.000 tons of WEEE ends up in residual waste and finally in an incinerator. [27] This high-tech waste usually contains valuable trace elements, such as neodymium or lanthanum, for which no appropriate recycling technologies are available. At the moment high recovery rates are being achieved for conventional resources only, such as aluminum, copper or iron. Other metals and minerals, such as gallium, indium or barite are rarely recycled. Missing recovery and recycling technologies must be developed therefore.

Even after the thermal treatment of wastes, the recovery of metals is still possible. In com-parison with the mineral extraction from ores, the recovery of metals from incinerator slag can be sometimes cheaper in individual cases. Moreover, up to 80 % of the slag can be used in road construction after mechanical treatment and storage.

In total a cascade utilization of raw materials would be the best solution. Therefore raw materials are continuously recycled in order to take the full advantage of going through the material utilization cycle several times, before they are incinerated finally. In this way recycling saves the energy needed for production processes and if materials become un-recyclable its stored energy can be recovered by applying thermal treatment at the end.

5.2. Landfill mining

Secondary raw materials can also be obtained from existing landfills. Through landfill remediation (landfill mining) it is possible to recover significant quantities of raw materi-als. However, the current revenues attached to secondary resources are too low. Therefore further studies are needed to assess the resource potential of landfill sites. [28]

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6. ConclusionResources and energy management already grow together, expected to become even more interconnected and co-dependent in the future. Since years they formed a unit through the installation and operation of WtE and also the newer RDF power plants. Here the develop-ment from inhomogeneous waste to refuse derived fuels must be mentioned. The plants, whose job it was to manage waste disposal, are nowadays designed, planned and modernized for a better energy efficiency. This is especially valid for the steam or heat extraction from waste incineration plants by district heating grids to supply the nearby industry.

However, resource and energy management have to be well balanced and coordinated. Thus, the important question of valuable material recycling and/or energy recovery still needs to be answered. Furthermore a sustainable industrial society should have the target to cover its requirements for metals and minerals from secondary raw materials through an efficient resource management.

7. Literature[1] Eurostat, Pressemitteilung: Umwelt in der EU27, 37/2011, 8. März 2011

[2] Treder M.; Reimann, D.; Spohn C.: Auswertung der Umfrage aus den Jahren 2005-2008. ITAD

[3] Umweltbundesamt Bruttostromerzeugung: http://www.umweltbundesamt-daten-zur-umwelt.de/

[4] Bayerisches Landesamt für Umwelt, Restmüllanalysen – eine Grundlage eines nachhaltigen Stoffstrommanagements der Abfallwirtschaft, Fachtagung 2002

[5] MVA Amsterdam: http://www.sarens.nl

[6] Wandschneider, J.: Elektrischer Nettowirkungsgrad einer MVA größer 30 % – Benchmark HR AVI Amsterdam. Müll-Handbuch, Band 3, 7301, 2007 .

[7] Eurostat Gesamtklärschlammaufkommen aus öffentlicher Abwasserbehandlung, 2006, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu

[8] Eurostat 2006: Verbrennung von Klärschlamm aus öffentlicher Abwasserbehandlung

[9] U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of the Interior: Mineral Commodity Summaries 2011

[10] Kaltschmitt, M.; Hartmann, H.; Hofbauer, H.: Energie aus Biomasse. Springer 2. Auflage, 2009

[11] Knappe, F.; Böß, A.; Fehrenbach, H.; Giegrich, J.; Vogt, R.; Dehoust, G.; Schüler, D.; Wiegmann, K.; Fritsche, U.: Stoffstrommanagement von Biomasseabfällen mit dem Ziel der Optimierung der Verwertung organscher Abfälle. Förderkennzeichen 205 33313 i.A. UBA

[12] BKV: Kunststoff – Werkstoff der Ressourceneffizienz, 2010

[13] Prognos, NABU Studie, 2009

[14] Flamme, S.: Energetische Verwertung von Sekundärbrennstoffen in industriellen Anlagen – Ab-leitung von Maßnahmen zur umweltverträglichen Verwertung. Dissertation, Wuppertal 2002, S. 41

[15] Beckmann, M.; Thomé-Kozmiensky, K.J.: Das Ersatzbrennstoffproblem – Aufk ommen, Charak-terisierung und Einsatz. In: Thomé-Kozmiensky, K.J.; Beckmann, M. (Hrsg.): Ersatzbrennstoffe 5, Neuruppin: TK Verlag Karl Thomé-Kozmiensky, 2005, S. 7

[16] Statistisches Bundesamt Deutschland, Klärschlamm im Jahr 2009 überwiegend verbrannt, Pres-semitteilung Nr. 490, 30.12.2010

[17] UBA, Daten zur Analgentechnik und zu den Standorten der thermischen Klärschlammentsor-gung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 3. Überarbeitete Auflage, 2004

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[18] Huber SE, HUBER-Lösung sludge2energy für die Klärschlammverbrennung vor Ort, http://www.huber.de, Berching, 2011

[19] Gleis, M.; Raesfeld, U.: Ersatzbrennstoff-Kraftwerke in Deutschland – Status quo 2010?. Müll-Handbuch, Band 4, 7102, 2011

[20] Zeschmar-Lahl, B.: Ökologischer Vergleich verschiedener Verfahren der Restabfallbehandlung – MBA-Konzepte und thermische Verfahren. In: Thomé-Kozmiensky, K.J.; Beckmann, M. (Hrsg.): Erneuerbare Energien, Band 5. Neuruppin: TK Verlag Karl Thomé-Kozmiensky, 2011, S. 111-129

[21] Thomé-Kozmiensky, K.J., Thiel, S.: Restabfallentsorgung in Europa. Texte zur Abfall- und Ener-giewirtschaft, Neuruppin: TK Verlag Karl Thomé-Kozmiensky, 2007

[22] Vehlow, J., Abfallverbrennung in Deutschland, Müll-Handbuch, 2009

[23] http://www.itad.de/de/itad/klimaenergie/

[24] Doka, G.: Ökobilanz für Energie aus Kehrrichtverbrennungsanlagen, Bundesamt für Umwelt, Wald und Landschaft, Bern, 2005.

[25] IFEU, Öko-Institut: Klimaschutzpotentiale der Abfallwirtschaft, Darmstadt/Heidelberg/Berlin, 2010.

[26] Bundesumweltministerium, Entwurf eines Gesetzes zur Neuordnung des Kreislaufwirtschafts- und Abfallrechts, 3/2011

[27] Habel, A.; Elektro(nik)-altgeräte – Eine Ressourcenquelle mit Perspektive?-, Recycling und Roh-stoffe, Band 4, Neuruppin: TK Verlag Karl Thomé-Kozmiensky, 2011.

[28] Gäth, S., Nispel, J.: Ressourcenpotenzial von ausgewählten Hausmülldeponien in Deutschland. Lorber, K.E.; Adam, J.; Aldrian, A.; Arnberger, A.; Bezama, A.; Kreindl, G.; Müller, P.; Sager, D.; Sarc, R.; Wruss, K. (Hrsg.): Depotech 2010, Abfallwirtschaft, Abfalltechnik, Deponietechnik und Altlasten, Eigenverlag Institut für nachhaltige Abfallwirtschaft und Entsorgungstechnik iae, Leoben 2010, S. 375-380

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