Restorative effects of nature

experience: Theoretical and

methodological considerations

Terry Hartig

Institute for Housing and Urban Research

and

Department of Psychology

Uppsala University

Some pathways through which natural environment can affect the health of

broad segments of populations. Four of the pathways go through contact

with nature, whereas two others go directly from the natural environment to

air quality and stress, respectively, implying that the natural environment

may affect health without an individual or group consciously engaging with

nature as such. From Hartig, Mitchell, de Vries, & Frumkin (2014).

Components of the Stress Pathway

Nature can displace or otherwise protect

people from stressful exposures (mitigation).

Nature can afford opportunities to acquire new

adaptive resources (instoration).

Nature can support renewal of adaptive

resources that have become depleted in

meeting everyday demands (restoration).

Stress

Perspective

Coping

Perspective

Restoration

Perspective

Theoretical

Premise

Heavy

demands can

undermine

adaptation.

Readily

available

resources

support

adaptation.

Adaptation

requires

periodic

restoration.

Practical

Premise

Interventions

can eliminate

or mitigate

demands.

Interventions

can ensure the

availability of

resources.

Interventions

can enhance

opportunities

for restoration.

Complimentary perspectives on adaptation and health and on provision of

adaptational support as a basis for promoting health (from Hartig, 2008).

Two Key Terms

Restoration: a rubric covering processes through which depleted adaptive capacities are renewed.

Restorative environment: an environment that promotes (and not only permits) restoration.

• permits – by allowing a sense of psychological distance (i.e., relative absence)

• promotes – by stimulating and encouraging positive engagement (i.e., relative presence)

These are inherently relational terms.

See for example Hartig (2007).

Starr Ranch

City of Orange

The Social Ecology of Stress and Restoration

People cycle through stress arousal and

restoration processes.

Stress-restoration cycles are regulated by

activity cycles (which encompass behavior

settings and movements among them).

Social, economic and other structural factors

influence individuals’ activity cycles.

Theory Antecedent

condition

Role of environmental

experience in restoration

Attention

restoration theory

(ART)

(Kaplan, 1995)

directed

attention

fatigue

being away, fascination,

extent, compatibility

Psycho-

evolutionary theory

(PET)**

(Ulrich et al., 1991)

psycho-

physiological

stress

environmental contents and

attributes of visual stimulus

array

Two Current Theories of Restorative Experience

** Also referred to as stress reduction theory (SRT)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Priests_traveling_across_kealakekua_bay_for_first_contact_rituals.jpg

Theory Antecedent

condition

Role of environmental

experience in restoration

ART directed

attention fatigue

being away, fascination,

extent, compatibility

PET (SRT) psycho-

physiological

stress

environmental contents and

attributes of visual stimulus

array

Existing or

possible

various permitting and/or promoting?

General theory

of restorative

environments

(GTRE)

combinations of

one or more

form of depleted

capacity

psychological distance and

positive engagement

Measures for the Study of Restorative Experience

Type Strengths Weaknesses

”Actual”

restoration

Stronger evidence of practically

meaningful environmental effects

Costly, reduces options for

environmental sampling

Perceived

restoration

Inexpensive relative to repeated

measures meant to capture

actual change

Retrospective reports of

change may be sensitive to

demand characteristics, etc.

Perceived

likelihood of

restoration

Simple, taps into accumulated

experience, suited to studies of

planned (simulated) settings

Uncertain correspondence

with restoration actually

realized on given occasions

Restorative

quality

Appropriate for testing claims

about the mediating process

Available measures (based

on ART) have a variety of

shortcomings

Sample Items, Perceived Restorativeness

Scale (PRS)

Being Away subscale

• Being here gives me a break from my everyday

routine.

• This place is a refuge from unwanted distractions.

Fascination subscale

• My attention is drawn to many interesting things.

• There is much to explore and discover here.

Streetscape image with lowest

mean rating for restoration

likelihood (M = 2.33, SD = 1.62).

Streetscape image with closest-

to-average mean rating for

restoration likelihood (M = 3.86,

SD = 1.81).

Streetscape image with highest

mean rating for restoration

likelihood (M = 5.23, SD = 2.02).

From Lindal & Hartig (2013).

Mediation model with being away and fascination as mediators of the

effects of physical environmental components of urban streetscapes on

judgments of restoration likelihood. N = 145 images, 39-49 raters (Icelandic

adults) per psychological variable per image. From Lindal & Hartig (2013).

Streetscape image with lowest

mean restoration likelihood rating

(M = 2.43, SD = 2.19).

Streetscape image with closest-to-

average mean restoration likelihood

rating (M = 4.24, SD = 1.74).

Streetscape image with highest

mean restoration likelihood rating

(M = 6.74, SD = 2.51).

From Lindal & Hartig (2015).

Images by Pall Jakob Lindal

Window view with lowest mean rating

for restoration likelihood (M = 1.43, SD

= 2.67)

Window view with closest-to-average

mean rating for restoration likelihood

(M = 3.62, SD = 1.86)

Window view with highest mean

rating for restoration likelihood

(M = 5.87, SD = 2.29)

From Masoudinejad & Hartig (under review).

Images by Sepideh Masoudinejad

Park with highest mean rating

for restoration likelihood

(M = 7.73, SD = 1.01)

Park with lowest mean rating for

restoration likelihood (M = 2.18,

SD = 1.72)

Park with closest-to-average mean

rating for restoration likelihood (M =

4.82, SD = 1.78)

From Nordh, Hartig, Hagerhall, & Fry (2009).

Photos by Helena Nordh

The effect of garden greenery on self‐perceived health as mediated by restorative quality variables and visitation in serial. The values represent unstandardized regression coefficients with standard errors in parentheses. N = 290 older people in 72 care homes. *P < 0·05. From Dahlkvist et al. (2016).

Photo by Marianne Gonzalez

Model Mediator (∆T2-T5) Moderator (∑T2 to T5) Summary

B(SE) P B(SE) P R2 (R2adj)

I→∆BA→∆BDI 1.82 (0.58) 0.004 0.55 (0.24) 0.029 0.35 (0.30)

I→∆FA→∆BDI 2.19 (0.64) 0.002 0.15 (0.20) 0.445 0.32 (0.26)

Tests of mediation of change in depression severity (ΔBDI)

during a therapeutic horticulture intervention (I) by change

in experiences of being away (ΔBA) and fascination (ΔFA)

(N = 28 adults with clinical depression).

From Gonzalez, Hartig, Patil, Martinsen, & Kirkevold (2010).

Environmental Conditions as Stressors

versus Constraints on Restoration

To what extent do unwanted sound (noise), air

pollution and other environmental conditions

work against health by taxing adaptive resources

versus hindering the recovery of resources

depleted in efforts to meet other demands?

Estimates in different settings will reflect on the

added value of considering their restorative

quality versus simply considering how stressful

they are.

middle

east

west

Sampling around 31 sound

measurement points in three

areas of the lower Inn valley,

Austria

Innsbruck

to S

alzb

urg

Structural equation model showing the estimated effects of perceived traffic-related

exposures on health and residential satisfaction. Calculations for the direct, indirect

and total effects based on these coefficients are given in the panels below the path

model. To enhance readability, manifest indicators for latent constructs and error

terms are omitted. From Von Lindern, Hartig, & Lercher (2016).

Cool Summer Weather as a Constraint

on Restoration

Unseasonably cold summer weather is not ordinarily a stressor of itself, as people can easily cope by remaining indoors. This may however imply reduced involvement in outdoor activities that are relatively restorative.

Restriction of restorative outdoor activities due to cold summer weather can contribute to outcomes in which chronic stress has an etiological role.

-10

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

1 7 13 19 25 31 37 43 49 55 61 67 73 79 85 91

96 Months from 1/1991 through 12/1998

Me

an

Mo

nth

ly T

em

pe

ratu

reMean monthly temperature in Sweden 1991-98 (in °C).

Defined daily doses (DDD) per 1000 inhabitants of

antidepressants dispensed monthly by the state pharmacy

system to the Swedish population during the 114 months

beginning July, 1990 (males left panel, females right

panel) (from Hartig, Catalano, & Ong, 2007).

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

jul-90 jul-91 jul-92 jul-93 jul-94 jul-95 jul-96 jul-97 jul-98 jul-99

114 Months Begining July 1990

DD

D fo

r fe

ma

les

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

jul-90 jul-91 jul-92 jul-93 jul-94 jul-95 jul-96 jul-97 jul-98 jul-99

114 Months Begining July 1990

DD

D fo

r M

ale

s

June July August

Test month

temperature

(men)

-.0524 (.0465) -.0747* (.0325) .0475 (.0433)

Test month

temperature

(women)

-.1317 (.1116) -.2159** (.0717) .1212 (.1174)

Estimated parameters for monthly dispensation of defined

daily doses of selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors per

1000 persons to men and women in Sweden, 1991–98.

Note. Standard errors in parentheses. *p < .05, one-tailed. **p < .01, one-tailed.

Natural logarithm of the monthly odds of very low weight

birth (< 1500 g) for infants in Sweden during the 38 years

1973-2010 (males left panel, females right panel)(from

Hartig & Catalano, 2013).

June July August

Test month

temperature

(males)

-.0593** (.0282) -.0289 (.0259) -.0453* (.0271)

Test month

temperature

(females)

-.0357 (.0301) .0394 (.0252) -.0146 (.0308)

Estimated parameters for the log odds of very low weight

birth (< 1500 g) for male and female infants in Sweden,

1973-2010. From Hartig & Catalano (2013).

Note. Standard errors in parentheses. *p < .05, one-tailed. **p < .01, one-tailed.

The Social Ecology of Stress and Restoration

People cycle through stress arousal and

restoration processes.

Stress-restoration cycles are regulated by

activity cycles (which encompass behavior

settings and movements among them).

Social, economic and other structural factors

influence individuals’ activity cycles.

Vacation Legislation and Collective Restoration

Legislative action can improve access to relatively

restorative environments not only by promoting

environmental design that enhances restorative

quality, but also through the social regulation of

time for restoration.

Theory and research converge in support of the

argument that large-scale vacationing can enable

the spread of psychological benefits beyond those

people who are taking time away from paid work.

Variation in the number of vacationing Swedish workers (in

10 000’s) over 147 months (January, 1993 - March, 2005).

From Hartig, Catalano, Ong, & Syme (2013).

Men

20-64

Women

20-64

Men

>64

Women

>64

Vacationers -.0030**

(.0007)

-.0028**

(.0008)

-.0023**

(.0008)

-.0031**

(.0008)

July -.2333*

(.1249)

-.3100**

(.1497)

-.2599*

(.1538)

-.2553*

(.1466)

Coefficients (standard errors in parentheses) from models of

defined daily doses of selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors,

dispensed monthly from January, 1993 through March, 2005,

per 1000 Swedish men and women.

Note: The dispensation variables were transformed to natural logarithms and

adjusted for autocorrelation prior to analysis, The estimates reflect additional

adjustments for autocorrelation and control variables.

*p < .05, one-tailed. **p < .01, one-tailed.

Closing Remarks

Research into restorative experience gains from

awareness of aspects of its social ecology, such

as relations among behavior settings and the

social regulation of time for restoration.

For a person with some depleted resource(s),

restoration will be carried by person-environment

transactions characterized by psychological

distance and positive engagement; it is not an

automatic outcome of objective exposures.

References

Dahlkvist E, Hartig T, Nilsson A, Högberg H, Skovdahl K, Engström M (2016). Garden greenery and the health of older people in residential care facilities: A multi-level cross-sectional study. Journal of Advanced Nursing.

Gonzalez MT, Hartig T, Patil GG, Martinsen EW, Kirkevold M (2010). Therapeutic horticulture in clinical depression: A prospective study of active components. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 66, 2002-2013.

Hartig T (2007). Three steps to understanding restorative environments as health resources. In C. Ward Thompson & P. Travlou (Eds.), Open space: People space (pp. 163-179). London: Taylor & Francis.

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