"Retrieving European Lives"

by Charles Tilly

RETRIEVING EUROPEAN LIVES

Charles Till y

Utaiversi t y of Michigan.

June 1984

t o appear in O l i v i e r Zunz, editor,

RELIVING THE PAST (Un ivers i ty of North carol-ina !#L86tf#)!

Why Go Back?

H o w d i d E u r o p e a n s l i v e t h e b i g c h a n g e s ? I n d i f f e r e n t

E u r o p e a n r e g i o n s a n d e r a s , w h a t were t h e c o n n e c t i o n s -- c a u s e , e f f e c t , o r c o r r e l a t i o n -- b e t w e e n v e r y l a r g e

s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e s s u c h a s t h e g r o w t h o f n a t i o n a l s t a t e s a n d

t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c a p i t a l i s m , o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t h e

c h a n g i n g e x p e r i e n c e s o f o r d i n a r y p e o p l e , o n t h e o t h e r ? The

c o m p l e x s e c o n d q u e s t i o n m e r e l y a m p l i f i e s t h e f i r s t . I n i ts

muted o r i t s a m p l i f i e d f o r m , t h i s q u e s t i o n d e f i n e s t h e

c e n t r a l m i s s i o n o f E u r o p e a n s o c i a l h i s t o r y .

Many e x p e r t s t h i n k o t h e r w i s e . D e s p i t e a p p e a r a n c e s , i n

t h e f i r s t p l a c e , my d e f i n i t i o n is r a t h e r m o d e s t . F o r s o c i a l

h i s t o r i a n s i n c l i n e t o i m p e r i a l d e f i n i t i o n s of t h e i r f i e l d .

I n t h e p r e f a c e t o h i s e n o r m o u s l y p o p u l a r E n g l i s h Soc ia l

H i s t o r y , G.M. T r e v e l y a n o f f e r e d o n e o f t h e b e s t - r e m e m b e r e d

. d e f i n i t i o n s . "Social h i s t o r y , " h e d e c l a r e d , " m i g h t b e

d e f i n e d n e g a , t i v e l y a s t h e h i s t o r y o f a p e o p l e w i t h t h e

p o l i t i c s l e f t o u t ." T r e v e l y a n a r g u e d f o r a t h r e e - l a y e r e d

a n a l y s i s : Economic c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r l i e t h e s o c i a l s c e n e ,

w h i c h i n t u r n p r o v i d e s t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r p o l i t i c a l e v e n t s .

" W i t h o u t s o c i a l h i s t o r y , " h e c o n t i n u e d , " e c o n o m i c h i s t o r y i s

b a r r e n a n d p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y is u n i n t e l l i g i b l e . ,I 1

P e r h a p s b e c a u s e T r e v e l y a n d e f i n e d h i s soc i a l h i s t o r y

n e g a t i v e l y , l a t t e r - d a y p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f t h e a r t h a v e commonly

a n n o u n c e d more p o s i t i v e p r o g r a m s . B u t t h o s e p r o g r a m s h a v e

b e e n e q u a l l y m a s s i v e . S o c i a l h i s t o r y " m i g h t be d e f i n e d ,"

commen ts P e t e r B u r k e

"as t h e h i s t o r y o f soc ia l r e l a t i o n s h i p s ; t h e h i s t o r y of

t h e soc ia l s t r u c t u r e ; t h e h i s t o r y o f e v e r y d a y l i f e ; t h e

h i s t o r y o f p r i v a t e l i f e ; t h e h i s t o r y o f s o c i a l

s o l i d a r i t i e s a n d s o c i a l c o n f l i c t s ; t h e h i s t o r y o f soc i a l

c lasses ; t h e h i s t o r y o f soc i a l g r o u p s ' s e e n b o t h a s

s e p a r a t e a n d a s m u t u a l l y d e p e n d e n t u n i t s ' . T h e s e

d e f i n i t i o n s a re v e r y f a r f r o m b e i n g s y n o n y m o u s ; e a c h

c o r r e s p o n d s t o a d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h , w i t h i t s a d v a n t a g e s

a n d d i s a d v a n t a g e s . " Some g r o u p o f s c h o l a r s h a s o p t e d f o r . e a c h o f t h e s e

a p p r o a c h e s , a n d o t h e r s s t i l l .

Y e t most o f t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s o f s o c i a l h i s t o r y make

h o p e l e s s l y a m b i t i o u s c la ims . T h e " h i s t o r y o f s o c i a l

r e l a t i o n s h i p s " f o r e x a m p l e , e n c o m p a s s e s almos t a n y s u b j e c t

a n y o r d i n a r y h i s t o r i a n m i g h t claim t o s t u d y , p l u s a g r e a t

d e a l more. A f t e r a l l , p o l i t i c s , d i p l o m a c y , w a r , e c o n o m i c s ,

a n d i m p o r t a n t p a r t s o f c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n c o n s i s t o f s o c i a l

r e l a t i o n s h i p s . What is more , s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x t e n d

t h r o u g h o u t t h e d o m a i n s o f t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s a n d i n t o t h e

s t u d y o f o t h e r a n i m a l s t h a n homo s a p i e n s .

To t h e e x t e n t t h a t p e o p l e who d e f i n e s o c i a l h i s t o r y a s

t h e h i s t o r y o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s mean w h a t t h e y s a y , t h e y

are c l a i m i n g a n e m p i r e . I n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s t o d a y , a number

of s o c i a l h i s t o r i a n s a t t a c h t h e m s e l v e s t o a d i s c i p l i n e c a l l e d

M a a t s c h a p p i j g e s c h i e d e n i s : t h e h i s t o r y o f s o c i e t y . D u t c h

i m p e r i a l i s m is a p p a r e n t l y a l i v e a f t e r a l l ; t h e v e r y name

d e c l a r e s a n e x c e e d i n g l y a m b i t i o u s p r o g r a m .

To b e s u r e , t w o c o m p e t i n g m e a n i n g s o f t h e word " h i s t o r y "

c o n f u s e t h e i s s u e . On t h e o n e h a n d we h a v e h i s t o r y a s t h e

c o n n e c t i o n o f e x p e r i e n c e s i n t i m e , o n t h e o t h e r h i s t o r y a s

t h e analysis o f t h a t c o n n e c t i o n . I n t h e f i r s t s e n s e , s o c i a l

r e l a t i o n s h i p s c e r t a i n l y h a v e a h i s t o r y ; t h e y h a v e c o n n e c t i o n s

o v e r t i m e . I n t h e s e c o n d s e n s e , h o w e v e r , I d o u b t t h a t i t is

h u m a n l y p o s s i b l e t o c o n s t r u c t a c o h e r e n t a n a l y s i s o f t h e

h i s t o r y o f a l l s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s ; t h e o b j e c t o f s t u d y is

s i m p l y too c o m p l e x , d i v e r s e , a n d b i g .

, Soc ia l h i s t o r y h a s o t h e r less a m b i t i o u s v e r s i o n s a s

w e l l . Some soc ia l h i s t o r i a n s h o p e to r e c a p t u r e a n e t h o s , a n

o u t l o o k , a r h y t h m o f e v e r y d a y l i f e i n much t h e m a n n e r t h a t a

p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a v e l e r p o r t r a y s e x o t i c climes a n d p e o p l e s .

T h e y g i v e u s s k e t c h e s o f a n a g e , o f a c i t y , o f a s o c i a l

c l a s s . S t i l l o t h e r s r a k e t h e coals o f t h e p a s t f o r e v i d e n c e

b e a r i n g o n p r e s e n t - o r i e n t e d t h e o r i e s : t h e o r i e s o f f e r t i l i t y

d e c l i n e , o f c a p i t a l a c c u m u l a t i o n , o f a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m . T h e y

t h e n p r o d u c e s t u d i e s t h a t d i f f e r l i t t l e i n t e x t u r e f r o m

c o n t e m p o r a r y a n a l y s e s o f t h e same p h e n o m e n a .

All o f t h e s e e f f o r t s q u a l i f y a s s o c i a l h i s t o r y . A l l o f

t h e m , a t times, p r o d u c e o u t s t a n d i n g w o r k : R i c h a r d T r e x l e r ' s

f r e s h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f p u b l i c l i f e i n R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e

u s e s s o c i a l h i s t o r y d e f t l y t o g i v e m e a n i n g to we l l -known

p o l i t i c a l e v e n t s . Our u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f E u r o p e a n s o c i a l l i f e

would b e t h e p o o r e r w i t h o u t Emmanuel L e Roy L a d u r i e ' s

M o n t a i l l o u , a n e s s e n t i a l l y e t h n o g r a p h i c a c c o u n t o f a

f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y P y r e n e a n v i l l a g e . Ron L e s t h a e g h e ' s

a n a l y s i s o f f e r t i l i t y d e c l i n e i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y B e l g i u m

p r o v i d e s a t e l l i n g e m p i r i c a l c r i t i q u e o f s t a n d a r d n o t i o n s

a b o u t t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m h i g h t o l o w f e r t i l i t y . S o c i a l

h i s t o r i a n s c a n claim t h e s e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s p r o u d l y .

A s a d i s t i n c t e n t e r p r i s e , s o c i a l h i s t o r y g r e w u p i n

o p p o s i t i o n t o p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y d e f i n e d i n terms o f

s t a t e c r a f t a n d n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s . I n F r a n c e , f o r e x a m p l e ,

t h e A n n a l e s o f Marc B l o c h a n d L u c i e n F e b v r e ( i n s p i r e d t o some

e x t e n t b y E m i l e D u r k h e i m ' s p r o g r a m f o r a r e g a l s o c i o l o g y a n d

F r a n s o i s S i m i a n d s s e a r c h f o r s u p r a h i s t o r i c a l r h y t h m s t o

a c c o u n t f o r t h e e b b a n d f l o w o f h i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e ) c a l l e d

f o r a g l o b a l h i s t o r y t h a t w o u l d s u r p a s s a n d e x p l a i n mere

e v e n t s . I n E n g l a n d , l i k e w i s e , M a r x i s t s a n d o t h e r m a t e r i a l i s t s

s o u g h t t o c o n s t r u c t h i s t o r i e s r e s t i n g f i r m l y on c h a n g i n g

modes o f p r o d u c t i o n a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g s h i f t s i n p o p u l a r l i f e ;

w e l l b e f o r e Wor ld War' 11, t h e w o r k s o f S i d n e y a n d B e a t r i c e

Webb, of J.L. a n d B a r b a r a Hammond, a n d o f R.H. Tawney

e x e m p l i f i e d t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f E n g l i s h r a d i c a l s t o soc i a l

h i s t o r y . I n Germany, Max Weber a n d h i s f o l l o w e r s t y p i f i e d

t h e e f f o r t t o p l a c e t h e h i s t o r y of E u r o p e a n s t a t e s i n a b r o a d

c o n t e x t o f s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e .

A l t h o u g h a l l t h e s e e n t e r p r i s e s ( n o t t o m e n t i o n t h e i r

c o u n t e r p a r t s e l s e w h e r e i n E u r o p e ) f o r m e d i n o p p o s i t i o n t o

n a r r o w p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y , e a c h o f them impl ies a somewhat

d i f f e r e n t a1 t e r n a t i v e : g l o b a l h i s t o r y , t h e h i s t o r y o f

mater ia l l i f e , t h e c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y o f s o c i e t i e s , a n d so o n .

What is more, soc i a l h i s t o r y b r a n c h e s i n t o se t o f

s p e c i a l t i e s , e a c h t y p i c a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r

s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o r p r o c e s s : f a m i l y h i s t o r y , u r b a n h i s t o r y ,

a g r i c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y , d e m o g r a p h i c h i s t o r y , t h e h i s t o r y o f

crime a n d p u n i s h m e n t , t h e h i s t o r y of soc ia l m o v e m e n t s t a n d

many more. The f i e l d a s a w h o l e a l s o o v e r l a p s w i t h o t h e r

l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d s p e c i a l t i e s , s u c h a s l a b o r h i s t o r y a n d

e c o n o m i c h i s t o r y .

F i n a l l y , t h e n e g a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r i e s

f r e q u e n t l y e n g a g e s s o c i a l h i s t o r i a n s o f a g i v e n c o u n t r y i n

t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e p r e v a i l i n g q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h a t

c o u n t r y , a n d i n b a t t l i n g f o r a c o m p e t i t o r t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g

a n s w e r s . T h u s , a s ~ i i r q e n Kocka p o i n t s O u t , German s o c i a l

h i s t o r i a n s f i n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o e s c a p e a c o m p e l l i n g q u e s t i o n :

Why t h e N a z i s ? A s a r e s u l t t o some e x t e n t e a c h c o u n t r y h a s

i t s own b r a n c h a n d b r a n d o f soc ia l h i s t o r y .

A Program for European Social History

A s a c t u a l l y p r a c t i c e d t h e n E u r o p e a n s o c i a l h i s t o r y

i n c l u d e s a w i d e r a n g e o f e n t e r p r i s e s r n o t a l l o f them

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h e a c h o t h e r . Its b o u n d a r i e s a re u n c l e a r .

E u r o p e a n soc i a l h i s t o r y resembles a s t r o n g - p o l e d m a g n e t i c

f i e l d : most o f t h e work t h a t h a s a c lear r a t i o n a l e p i v o t s

a r o u n d a s i n g l e core. E u r o p e a n soc i a l h i s t o r y ' s c e n t r a l

a c t i v i t y r a s I see i t r c o n c e r n s r e c o n s t r u c t i n g o r d i n a r y

p e o p l e ' s e x p e r i e n c e o f l a r g e s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e s .

The s t a t e m e n t h a s a d e s c r i p t i v e s i d e a n d a n o r m a t i v e

s i d e . A s a matter o f d e s c r i p t i o n , t h e s e a r c h f o r l i n k s

b e t w e e n small-scale e x p e r i e n c e a n d l a r g e - s c a l e p r o c e s s e s

i n f o r m s a l a r g e s h a r e o f a l l t h e work E u r o p e a n soc i a l

h i s t o r i a n s a c t u a l l y d o . A s a matter o f p r e s c r i p t i o n , t h a t

l i n k a g e i d e n t i f i e s t h e o n e e n t e r p r i s e t o w h i c h a l l t h e o t h e r s

c o n n e c t , t h e o n e e n t e r p r i s e i n w h i c h s o c i a l h i s t o r i a n s h a v e

t h e g r e a t e s t o p p o r t u n i t y t o e n r i c h o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

soc i a l l i f e . N e i t h e r t h e s t u d i e s I h a v e m e n t i o n e d n o r o t h e r s

l i k e them m o t i v a t e t h e s u s t a i n e d c u m u l a t i v e a n d p a r t l y

a u t o n o m o u s i n q u i r y e n t a i l e d b y a s k i n g how p e o p l e l i v e d t h e

b i g c h a n g e s . T h a t i n q u i r y t t h e c e n t r a l q u e s t o f E u r o p e a n

soc i a l h i s t o r y , w i l l o c c u p y most o f t h i s e s s a y .

Taken b a c k t o t h e a g e s w e c a n r e a c h o n l y t h r o u g h

a r c h e o l o g y a n d e x t e n d e d t o t h e c o n t i n e n t I s o u t e r m o s t l i m i t s

E u r o p e a n soc ia l h i s t o r y ' s " b i g c h a n g e s " i n c l u d e t h e r i se a n d

f a l l o f t h e Roman E m p i r e r t h e c r e a t i o n o f a v a s t C h r i s t i a n

c h u r c h , t h e g r o w t h o f Is lamic e m p i r e s a r o u n d t h e

M e d i t e r r a n e a n t t h e s e a f a r i n g o f t h e Normans , t h e r e p e a t e d

a r m e d i n v a s i o n s f r o m C e n t r a l A s i a , t h e s h i f t . o f t r a d e a n d

c i v i l i z a t i o n f r o m t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n t o w a r d t h e A t l a n t i c a n d

much more. T h e s e c h a n g e s w i l l f i g u r e l i t t l e r o r n o t a t a l l r

i n my s u r v e y . I g n o r a n t o f e a r l i e r p e r i o d s a n d more d i s t a n t

p l a c e s f u r t h e r m o r e I w i l l c o n c e n t r a t e on W e s t e r n C e n t r a l

a n d N o r t h e r n E u r o p e s i n c e a b o u t 1500,

Two g r e a t c i r c u m s t a n c e s d i s t i n g u i s h t h a t b l o c k o f

E u r o p e a n l i f e f r o m l i f e a n y w h e r e a t a n y o t h e r t i m e : 1) t h e

e x c e p t i o n a l p o w e r o f t h e d i s t i n c t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n s w e c a l l

n a t i o n a l s t a tes a n d 2) t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f work f o r w a g e s u n d e r

c o n d i t i o n s o f e x p r o p r i a t i o n . T h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d r

p r i n c i p a l i t i e s a n d e m p i r e s h a v e r i s e n a n d f a l l e n t h r o u g h o u t

t h e w o r l d f o r s e v e n m i l l e n n i a , B u t n a t i o n a l s t a t e s -- l a r g e

s p e c i a l i z e d , c e n t r a l i z e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s e x e r c i s i n g

m o n o p o l i s t i c c o n t r o l o v e r t h e p r i n c i p a l c o n c e n t r a t e d means o f

c o e r c i o n w i t h i n s h a r p l y - b o u n d e d t e r r i t o r i e s -- o n l y became

t h e d o m i n a n t E u r o p e a n s t r u c t u r e s a f t e r 1 5 0 0 . A g a i n , many

f o r m s o f f o r c e d l a b o r o n m e a n s o f p r o d u c t i o n n o t b e l o n g i n g t o

w o r k e r s h a v e a r i s e n t h r o u g h t h e same s e v e n m i l l e n n i a r b u t t h e

c o m b i n a t i o n o f f o r m a l l y f r e e wage l a b o r a n d c o n c e n t r a t e d r

e x p r o p r i a t e d m e a n s o f p r o d u c t i o n m a r k s o f f f r o m a l l o t h e r s

t h e c a p i t a l i s t era s i n c e 1 5 0 0 o r s o ,

To be s u r e , a number o f o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a l s o

d i s t i n g u i s h o u r era f r o m a l l o t h e r s : t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f

t e c h n o l o g y r t h e w i d e u s e o f i n a n i m a t e s o u r c e s o f e n e r g y r t h e

t h r e a t o f n u c l e a r w a r , t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n a n d p o w e r o f h u g e

o r g a n i z a t i o n s , t h e s p e e d o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n , t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f

h i g h l i f e e x p e c t a n c y a n d s t i l l o t h e r m a r k e r s of m o d e r n times.

S t a t e m a k i n g a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c a p i t a l i s m c o u n t a s m o r e

p r o f o u n d c h a n g e s t h a n t h e e m e r g e n c e of t h e s e o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s

o n two g r o u n d s :

1. To t h e e x t e n t t h a t w e c a n d i s t i n g u i s h t h e m r t h e

f o r m a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l s t a t e s a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

cap i ta l i sm t o u c h e d t h e l i v e s o f o r d i n a r y p e o p l e more

d i r e c t l y a n d d e e p l y t h a n t h e o t h e r c h a n g e s on t h e

l i s t , I n terms o f t h e a l l o c a t i o n o f a c t i v i t i e s

among h o u r s i n t h e d a y , f o r e x a m p l e t h e e x p a n s i o n

o f s a l a r i e d , s c h e d u l e d w o r k i n f a c t o r i e s a n d o f f i c e s

f a r f r o m home -- a d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f c a p i t a l i s m -- made more d i f f e r e n c e

t h a n a n y o t h e r c h a n g e ,

2. B r o a d l y s p e a k i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c a p i t a l i s m a n d

t h e f o r m a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l s t a t e s u n d e r l a y a l l t h e

o t h e r c h a n g e s . T h e m a k e r s o f s t a t e s r f o r e x a m p l e ,

c r e a t e d t h e l a r g e s t most p o w e r f u l o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f

a l l , a n d d e t e r m i n e d l y p u s h e d t o w a r d more a n d more

d e a d l y m e a n s o f d e s t r u c t i o n . ~ l t h o u g h a l l s u c h

i n f l u e n c e s a re m u t u a l , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c a p i t a l i s m

l i k e w i s e p r o m o t e d h i g h - e n e r g y p r o d u c t i o n a n d l a r g e

o r g a n i z a t i o n s r a t h e r more s t r o n g l y a n d d i r e c t l y t h a n

t h o s e t w o phenomena p r o m o t e d c a p i t a l i s m .

Modern E u r o p e a n s o c i a l h i s t o r y h a s n o r e a s o n t o n e g l e c t

c o m p l e x t e c h n o l o g i e s , t h e s h i f t t o i n a n i m a t e s o u r c e s o f

e n e r g y , a n d o t h e r g r e a t c h a n g e s . B u t c a p i t a l i s m a n d

s t a t e m a k i n g p r o v i d e i ts l a r g e s t f r a m e . T h e u n i f y i n g ,

m o t i v a t i n g t a s k o f E u r o p e a n soc ia l h i s t o r y s i n c e a b o u t 1500

is t h i s : c o n n e c t i n g t h e c h a n g i n g e x p e r i e n c e s o f o r d i n a r y

p e o p l e t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c a p i t a l i s m a n d t h e f o r m a t i o n o f

n a t i o n a l s t a tes .

Bad Ideas

I n o r d e r t o d i s c o v e r t h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e

e x p e r i e n c e s o f o r d i n a r y E u r o p e a n s a n d t h e b i g c h a n g e s -- e s p e c i a l l y t h e f o r m a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l s t a t e s a n d t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f cap i t a l i sm -- soc ia l h i s t o r i a n s h a v e t o f i g h t

t h e i r way pas t p l a u s i b l e b u t b a d i d e a s a b o u t s o c i a l c h a n g e .

T h e s t r o n g e s t o f t h e s e b a d i d e a s o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e v e r y

e n c o u n t e r s of n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E u r o p e a n o b s e r v e r s w i t h t h e

b i g c h a n g e s . A s E u r o p e a n b u r g h e r s , a r i s t o c r a t s , a n d

i n t e l l e c t u a l s f a c e d t h e f a c t s o f a g r o w i n g p r o l e t a r i a t , o f

v a s t , u n h e a l t h y i n d u s t r i a l c i t i e s , o f c o n c e n t r a t i n g c a p i t a l ,

l a b o r , a n d p o p u l a t i o n , o f m i l i t a n t p o p u l a r m o v e m e n t s , t h e y

f a s h i o n e d f o r t h e m s e l v e s a s e t o f m i s t a k e n a n a l y s e s o f w h a t

t h e y s a w .

The c e n t r a l a r g u m e n t s r u n r o u g h l y a s f o l l o w s : Under

n o r m a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e w o r l d d i v i d e s u p i n t o d i s t i n c t

c o h e r e n t s o c i e t i e s e a c h h a v i n g i ts own u n i f y i n g b e l i e f s a n d

i n s t i t u t i o n s . T h o s e s o c i e t i e s r e m a i n c o h e r e n t t h r o u g h a

b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e e x t e n t o f t h e i r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n d t h e

s t r e n g t h o f t h e i r i n t e g r a t i n g b e l i e f s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s .

Social c h a n g e g e n e r a l l y p r o c e e d s t h r o u g h i n c r e a s i n g

d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . When d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o c c u r s s l o w l y a n d

e v e n l y r i t l e a d s t o s o c i a l a d v a n c e m e n t . B u t when i t becomes

r a p i d a n d i r r e g u l a r , c h a n g e e x c e e d s t h e i n t e g r a t i v e c a p a c i t y

o f e x i s t i n g b e l i e f s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s .

T h a t g a p r a c c o r d i n g to t h e s t a n d a r d a r g u m e n t r c a u s e s

t r o u b l e . A s a r e s u l t o f d e c l i n i n g i n t e g r a t i o n -- d e t a c h m e n t

o f p e o p l e f r o m u n i f y i n g b e l i e f s r weakened a b i l i t y o f

i n s t i t u t i o n s to c o n t r o l t h e i r m e m b e r s r a n d s o on -- d i s o r d e r

s p r e a d s . D i s o r d e r r a n g e s f r o m i n d i v i d u a l p a t h o l o g y a n d

crime t o c o l l e c t i v e c o n f l i c t . I n t h e f a c e o f r a p i d

d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n r a t t h e e x t r e m e , d r a s t i c a l l y d e c l i n i n g

i n t e g r a t i o n p r o d u c e s r e v o l u t i o n . B u t n o r m a l l y a s o c i e t y

f a c e d w i t h s o c i a l c h a n g e d e v e l o p s new b e l i e f s a n d r e f o r m e d

i n t e g r a t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s ; a f t e r a p e r i o d o f d i s o r d e r

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e x c e s s i v e l y r a p i d s o c i a l c h a n g e r a new

e q u i l i b r i u m b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n d i n t e g r a t i o n comes

i n t o b e i n g .

I n commonsense f o r m s , t h e s e i d e a s became t h e b a s e s o f

s t a n d a r d n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y b o u r g e o i s d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e

p r o b l e m s o f c i t i e s , o f crime, o f t h e p o o r , o f p o p u l a r

r e b e l l i o n . R e f i n e d , a b s t r a c t e d , a n d a t t a c h e d t o r e g u l a r i z e d

o b s e r v a t i o n s , t h e y f o r m e d t h e b a c k b o n e s o f mu1 t i p l e

s o c i o l o g i e s a n d p r o g r a m s o f s o c i a l r e f o r m . They a l s o

p r o v i d e d a m a j o r b a s i s f o r soc i a l h i s t o r i a n s ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s

o f n i n e t e e n t h - a n d t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y s o c i a l c h a n g e .

T h e s e i d e a s are s e d u c t i v e . They a r e w i d e l y h e l d . Y e t

t h e y are wrong . They a re b a d i d e a s , b o t h b e c a u s e t h e y rest

o n a series o f u n f o r t u n a t e f i c t i o n s a n d b e c a u s e t h e y c o n t a i n

e m p i r i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n s t h a t f a i l t o f i t r e a l i t y . The

f i c t i o n s i n c l u d e t h e n o t i o n o f d i s t i n c t , c o h e r e n t , i n t e g r a t e d

s o c i e t i e s , t h e s u p p o s i t i o n o f i n t e g r a t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d

i d e a s , t h e p o s t u l a t i o n o f a g e n e r a l p r o c e s s o f c h a n g e t h r o u g h

d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . The e m p i r i c a l l y i n c o r r e c t p r o p o s i t i o n s

i n c l u d e t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t a r a p i d p a c e o f soc i a l c h a n g e

p r o m o t e s more d i s o r d e r t h a n a s l o w p a c e o f c h a n g e , t h e

t h o u g h t t h a t c o l l e c t i v e c o n f l i c t a n d i n d i v i d u a l p a t h o l o g y

s p r i n g f r o m s i m i l a r c a u s e s , t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t d r a s t i c a l l y

d e c l i n i n g commi tment t o e x i s t i n g b e l i e f s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s

c a u s e s r e v o l u t i o n s .

A 1 t h o u g h some s o c i a l h i s t o r i a n s s t i l l h o l d bad

n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y i d e a s , c u m u l a t i v e e m p i r i c a l c r i t i q u e v i a

t h e a c t u a l p r a c t i c e o f s o c i a l h i s t o r y h a s l i t t l e by l i t t l e

d e s t r o y e d t h e i r c r e d i b i l i t y . N o s i n g l e a1 t e r n a t i v e h a s

s u p p l a n t e d them. Y e t on t h e w h o l e t o d a y ' s E u r o p e a n soc i a l

h i s t o r i a n s l e a n t o w a r d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l rea l i sm: t o w a r d t h e

i d e a t h a t s t a t e s , c o r p o r a t i o n s , f a m i l i e s , a s s o c i a t i o n s ,

p a r t i e s , p l u s a g r e a t many o t h e r g r o u p s e x i s t a n d a c t , b u t

t h a t " soc ie t iesn are a t b e s t c o n v e n i e n t f i c t i o n s .

O r g a n i z a t i o n a l realism sometimes a l i g n s soc i a l

h i s t o r i a n s w i t h Karl M a r x ' s h i s t o r i c a l mater ia l i sm, sometimes

w i t h Max W e b e r ' s s t r u c t u r a l i d e a l i s m sometimes w i t h J o h n

S t u a r t M i l l ' s r a t i o n a l i s t i c i n d i v i d u a l i s m r sometimes w i t h

o t h e r major t r a d i t i o n s o f s o c i a l t h o u g h t , a n d sometimes w i t h

a s o r t o f ec lec t i c p r a g m a t i s m , I n t h e l a s t case , t h e s o c i a l

h i s t o r i a n s i n v o l v e d u s u a l l y l a c k a c o h e r e n t s c h e m e , a n d

c o n t e n t t h e m s e l v e s w i t h p a r t i a l t h e o r i e s a b o u t p a r t i c u l a r

k i n d s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s o r w i t h a g n o s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n s o f

soc i a l s i t u a t i o n s . D e s p i t e t h e l o s s o f a c e r t a i n u n i t y ,

h o w e v e r , E u r o p e a n soc ia l h i s t o r i a n s a re be t te r o f f f o r h a v i n g

a b a n d o n e d t h e b a s i c n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s c h e m e .

Social. Elistory Forms and Reforms

A l t h o u g h t h e d i s t i n c t i v e e n t e r p r i s e o f E u r o p e a n soc ia l

h i s t o r y r e a c h e s b a c k i n t o t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , i t b e g a n

f l o u r i s h i n g a s n e v e r b e f o r e f o l l o w i n g World War 11. One s i g n

is t h e set o f h i s t o r i c a l j o u r n a l s f e a t u r i n g s o c i a l h i s t o r y .

W h i l e s u c h j o u r n a l s a s P a s t & P r e s e n t , Q u a d e r n i ~ t o r i c i ,

A n n a l e s , a n d C o m p a r a t i v e S t u d i e s i n S o c i e t y a n d H i s t o r y

f r e q u e n t l y p r i n t e d s o c i a l h i s t o r y , o t h e r s made . i t t h e i r ma in

b u s i n e s s : S o c i a l H i s t o r y , t h e J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l H i s t o r y ,

H i s t o r y Workshop , t h e J o u r n a l o f I n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y History,

P a s s a t o e P r e s e n t e , ~ o c i e t i e S t o r i a , G e s c h i c h t e und

G e s e l l s c h a f t s t o o d b e s i d e more s p e c i a l i z e d j o u r n a l s s u c h a s

A n n a l e s d e ~ 6 m o g r a p h i e H i s t o r i q u e , t h e J o u r n a l o f F a m i l y

H i s t o r y r o r t h e J o u r n a l o f U r b a n H i s t o r y . L e a r n e d s o c i e t i e s , .

c o n f e r e n c e s , c o u r s e s , c o l l e c t i v e v o l u m e s , h a n d b o o k s r a n d

c r i t i c a l e s s a y s l i k e w i s e p r o l i f e r a t e d . More i m p o r t a n t

E u r o p e a n h i s t o r i a n s t r a i n e d t h e i r s i g h t s on a w i d e r a n g e o f

s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y c o n c e r n i n g t h e p e r i o d s i n c e

1 7 0 0 .

T h e f l o u r i s h i n g o f social h i s t o r y d i d n o t m e r e l y a d d

a n o t h e r s p e c i a l t y to t h e E u r o p e a n h i s t o r i a n ' s d i v i s i o n o f

l abor . I t a l s o e x p a n d e d t h e r a n g e o f a n a t t i t u d e t h a t had

b e e n rare i n p r e v i o u s h i s t o r i e s : a b e l i e f t h a t w i t h i n l i m i t s

o r d i n a r y p e o p l e make t h e i r own h i s t o r y . Of c o u r s e , a s a

p r e f a c e t o more s e r i o u s matters t h e c h a p t e r o r b o o k

c o n c e r n i n g p o p u l a r c u s t o m s a n d d a i l y l i f e d a t e s b a c k t o t h e

G r e e k s . To be s u r e , r o m a n t i c s s u c h a s M i c h e l e t had l o n g

s i n c e w r i t t e n h i s t o r y a s t h e w o r k o f a n a b s t r a c t P e o p l e , a n d

M a r x i s t h i s t o r i a n s s u c h a s ~ a u r e s h a d p o r t r a y e d t h e w o r k i n g

c l a s s a s a major h i s t o r i c a l a c to r . N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e e f f o r t

t o r e t r i e v e p a s t e x p e r i e n c e b y r e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e l i v e s o f

o r d i n a r y p e o p l e a n d c o n n e c t i n g them t o g r e a t s t r u c t u r e s ,

cr ises , a n d c h a n g e s came i n t o i ts own w i t h E u r o p e a n s o c i a l

h i s t o r y f o l l o w i n g World War 11.

One name f o r t h e p r o g r a m w a s " h i s t o r y f r o m be low." A s

p r a c t i c e d b y E . J . H o b s b a w m , G e o r g e ~ u d 6 t a n d many o t h e r s ,

h i s t o r y f r o m b e l o w t o o k u p c r u c i a l h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s b y

b u i l d i n g u p p o r t r a i t s -- i n d i v i d u a l a n d c o l l e c t i v e -- o f

t h e i r r a n k - a n d - f i l e p a r t i c i p a n t s . I t a r g u e d t h e m e a n i n g o f

t h o s e e v e n t s , a t l e a s t i n p a r t , a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e i r p a r t i c i p a n t s . G e o r g e ~ u d 6 ' s Crowd

i n t h e ' ~ r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n , f o r e x a m p l e e x a m i n e d a ser ies o f

P a r i s i a n e v e n t s b e f o r e a n d d u r i n g t h e R e v o l u t i o n o f

1789-1799: t h e s t r u g g l e s o v e r f o o d i n 1 7 7 5 , t h e p o p u l a r

o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t i n t h e f a l l o f 1 7 8 8 , t h e a t t a c k s

on. m a n u f a c t u r e r s ~ Q v e i l l o n a n d H e n r i o t i n A p r i l 1 7 8 9 , t h e

s e a r c h f o r a r m s t h a t p r e c e d e d t h e i n v a s i o n o f t h e B a s t i l l e i n

J u l y 1 7 8 9 , a n d so o n .

I n e a c h case, Rude a s s e m b l e d s u c h b i o g r a p h i c a l material

a s h e c o u l d f r o m a r r e s t r e c o r d s a n d s i m i l a r d o c u m e n t s ; h e

t h e n u s e d d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t s o f t h e a c t i o n t o e s t a b l i s h i ts

s e q u e n c e , d i r e c t i o n , g e o g r a p h y , a n d r a t i o n a l e . Rude s o u g h t

t o make r e v o l u t i o n a r y c r o w d s c o h e r e n t , m e a n i n g f u l h i s t o r i c a l

a c t o r s b y a c t u a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i r m e m b e r s h i p a n d

a c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n b y a s s i g n i n g t h e m a p r i o r i some g r a n d ( o r

d i a b o l i c a l ) h i s t o r i c a l r o l e .

I n o n e v e r s i o n or a n o t h e r , t h a t s o r t o f p o p u l i s m

i n s p i r e d a w h o l e g e n e r a t i o n of E u r o p e a n s o c i a l h i s t o r i a n s .

Temma K a p l a n t f o r e x a m p l e t r e a t s t h e p o l i t i c s o f A n d a l u s i a ' s

l i t t l e p e o p l e s e r i o u s l y . S h e r o o t s A n d a l u s i a n a n a r c h i s m i n

t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y e x p e r i e n c e o f a r t i s a n s a n d p r o l e t a r i a n

w i n e g r o w e r s who f a c e d a n a l l i a n c e o f l a r g e l a n d o w n e r s a n d

m e r c h a n t s w i t h a ' c o r r u p t s t a t e . F o r K a p l a n , t h e moves o f

r u r a l p e o p l e e l s e w h e r e i n E u r o p e toward c o l l e c t i v i s t a n d

c a p i t a l i s t s o l u t i o n s serve a s i m p l i c i t m a r k e r s o f a l t e r n a t i v e

r o a d s f r o m t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

R a i n e r ' W i r t z ' t r e a t m e n t o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y German

c o n f l i c t s l i k e w i s e i l l u s t r a t e s t h e p o p u l i s m o f soc i a l

h i s t o r i a n s . A t t e m p t i n g t o c o n s t r u c t a c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s

a n a l y s i s o f " v i o l e n t soc i a l p r o t e s t n i n Baden f r o m 1 8 1 5 t o

18481 W i r t z s e i z e s o n E.P, T h o m p s o n ' s m e t a p h o r o f a f i . e l d of

f o r c e d e f i n i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s among classes. D e s c r i b i n g 1 0 1

i n c i d e n t s o v e r t h o s e y e a r s , Wi r t z w o r k s o u t f r o m t h e e v e n t s

t o q u e s t i o n s ' a b o u t t h e i r soc i a l s e t t i n g , H e m a k e s a

p l a u s i b l e case t h a t 1848 m a r k e d t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f a

w h o l e s y s t e m o f r i g h t s t u n d e r s t a n d i n g s t a n d c l a s s r e l a t i o n s ,

a " m o r a l economyn g i v i n g p o o r p e o p l e claims o n t h e p o w e r f u l ,

By n o m e a n s a l l p o p u l i s t soc ia l h i s t o r i a n s s h a r e t h e

b r o a d l y M a r x i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f ~ u d e ' r K a p l a n t a n d W i r t z ,

J o h n B r e w e r t f o r e x a m p l e t b r i l l i a n t l y p o r t r a y s t h e

e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y mock e l e c t i o n a t G a r r a t a v i l l a g e s o u t h

of London. " T h e mock e l e c t i o n s t " h e r e p o r t s , "were

b o i s t e r o u s a n d e x u b e r a n t r l i k e a c a r n i v a l . D r i n k f l o w e d

f r e e l y r t h e r e w a s d a n c i n g a n d m u s i c i n t h e s t ree t s ! men a n d

women a c c o m p a n i e d t h e l u d i c r o u s c a n d i d a t e s d r e s s e d a s z a n i e s

o r m e r r y a n d r e w s . . . or i n t h e i r b e s t h o l i d a y f i n e r y . " '

D u r i n g t h e 1 7 6 0 s r B r e w e r n o t e s t h e l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d

mock e l e c t i o n became t h e o b j e c t o f s t r u g g l e r i n t h e p r e s s a n d

o n t h e stage a s w e l l a s i n G a r r a t ' s s t r e e t s r b e t w e e n r a d i c a l s

a n d t h e i r o p p o n e n t s . A London t h e a t r i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e

c e r e m o n y a t t r a c t e d n a t i o n a l a t t e n t i o n a n d d r e w t h o u s a n d s t o

t h e v i l l a g e e a c h y e a r . B u t i t s f o l l o w i n g d e c l i n e d r a d i c a l l y

i n t h e 1 7 9 0 s .

B r e w e r u s e s h i s w e l l - t o l d t a l e t o make t h r e e p o i n t s :

1) t h a t e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o p u l a r p o l i t i c s d i d n o t

m e r e l y h a v e a t h e a t r i c a l s i d e ; t o a n i m p o r t a n t

d e g r e e i t was t h e a t e r ; i t s d r a m a t i c d i s c o u r s e u n i t e d

p l e b e i a n s a n d p o w e r s ;

2 ) t h a t n e v e r t h e l e s s t h e a t t e m p t o f r a d i c a l s t o

a p p r o p r i a t e p o l i t i c a l t h e a t e r t o a n a t i o n a l c a u s e

e x p o s e d them t o t h e i r o p p o n e n t s r who c o u l d e a s i l y

e v o k e t h e e l i t e c o n t e m p t a n d f e a r s t i r r e d b y t h e

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c a u s e w i t h r i o t o u s p o p u l a r

f e s t i v a l s ;

3 ) t h a t i n t h e a g e o f t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n t h e s o b e r

r a d i c a l s e a r c h f o r r e s p e c t a b i l i t y e n c o u r a g e d

a c t i v i s t s t o t u r n a w a y f r o m s u g g e s t i o n s o f

i r r e s p o n s i b l e s p o n t a n e i t y a n d d e b a u c h ; p o l i t i c a l

t h e a t e r t h e r e f o r e d e c l i n e d .

B r e w e r m a k e s t h e s e p o i n t s p e r s u a s i v e l y . H e makes them b y

a p p e a l i n g i m p l i c i t l y t o h i s r e a d e r s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w h a t

came b e f o r e a n d a f t e r : " T h e G a r r a t e l e c t i o n t h e r e f o r e

r e p r e s e n t s b o t h a p a r t i c u l a r moment i n t h e h i s t o r y o f E n g l i s h

r a d i c a l i s m , a n d a p a r t i c u l a r p h a s e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

c l a s s r e l a t i o n s i n e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l a n d . 1, 4

S o c i a l h i s t o r i a n s i n B r e w e r ' s v e i n re jec t ~ u d g ' s

f r a m e w o r k o f c l a s s ' c o n f l i c t . B u t t h e y t e n d t o a g r e e w i t h

Rude i n 1) r e s i s t i n g t h e r e d u c t i o n o f p o p u l a r c o l l e c t i v e

a c t i o n to a f a c e l e s s , i r r a t i o n a l Crowd , 2 ) s e e k i n g t h e secret

o f t h a t a c t i o n b y means o f c l o s e s t u d y o f rea l p a r t i c i p a n t s

a n d t h e i r a c t u a l b e h a v i o r . E s s e n t i a l l y s imi l a r a t t i t u d e s -- r e j e c t i o n o f c o n d e s c e n d i n g a t t r i b u t i o n s o f i r r a t i o n a l i t y ,

i n s i s t e n c e o n t h e d i r e c t s t u d y o f e v e r y d a y p a r t i c i p a n t s -- c h a r a c t e r i z e a w i d e r a n g e o f s o c i a l h i s t o r y : F a m i l y h i s t o r y ,

d e m o g r a p h i c h i s t o r y , u r b a n h i s t o r y , a n d many o t h e r h i s t o r i e s

h a v e t a k e n o n a p o p u l i s t c a s t .

Collective Biography and Systematic Comparison

One g e n e r a l p r o c e d u r e became t h e emblem o f a l l t h e s e

soc i a l h i s t o r i e s : c o l l e c t i v e b i o g r a p h y . C o l l e c t i v e b i o g r a p h y

c o n s i s t s o f t h e a s s e m b l y o f c o m p a r a b l e f i l e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e

l i v e s o f many i n d i v i d u a l s , f o l l o w e d b y t h e r e g r o u p i n g o f

t h o s e f i l e s i n t o a c o l l e c t i v e p o r t r a i t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n

i n v o l v e d . ~ u d d ' s t a l l y i n g o f a r r e s t l i s t s f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n s

of a g e s , o c c u p a t i o n s , a n d g e o g r a p h i c o r i g i n s i l l u s t r a t e s

c o l l e c t i v e b i o g r a p h y a t i t s s i m p l e s t . The o b v i o u s n e x t s t e p

is t o s e a r c h o u t f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e

i n d i v i d u a l s i d e n t i f i e d b y t h e a r r e s t l i s t i n o t h e r s o u r c e s :

c e n s u s e s , p a r i s h r e g i s t e r s , a n d so o n . F u l l - f l e d g e d

c o l l e c t i v e b i o g r a p h y u s u a l l y i n v o l v e s c o m p i l i n g b i o g r a p h i c a l

i n f o r m a t i o n o n many i n d i v i d u a l s s y s t e m a t i c a l l y f r o m more t h a n

o n e s o u r c e .

The most c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d s u c c e s s f u l u s e s o f c o l l e c t i v e

b i o g r a p h y h a v e a p p e a r e d i n h i s t o r i c a l d e m o g r a p h y . T h e r e ,

h i s t o r i a n s h a v e p a i n s t a k i n g l y a b s t r a c t e d i n d i v i d u a l p a r i s h

r e g i s t r a t i o n s o f b i r t h s , d e a t h s , a n d m a r r i a g e s (more e x a c t l y ,

o f b a p t i s m s , b u r i a l s , a n d w e d d i n g s ) i n t o s k e l e t a l f a m i i l y

h i s t o r i e s , a n d t h e n c e i n t o estimates o f f e r t i l i t y , m o r t a l i t y ,

a n d n u p t i a l i t y f o r w h o l e p o p u l a t i o n s -- l o c a l , r e g i o n a l , o r

e v e n n a t i o n a l .

H i s to r i ca l d e m o g r a p h e r s h a v e moved f r o m i n d i v i d u a l v i t a l

e v e n t s t o a g g r e g a t e p o p u l a t i o n d y n a m i c s o v e r t w o d i f f e r e n t

p a t h s : v i a families a n d v i a localities. On o n e s i d e , t h e y

h a v e g r o u p e d o b s e r v a t i o n s b y f a m i l y , c o n c e n t r a t e d t h e i r

a t t e n t i o n on t h o s e f a m i l i e s t h a t l i v e d o u t t h e i r l i v e s ( a n d

t h e r e f o r e t h e i r d e m o g r a p h i c h i s t o r i e s ) w i t h i n t h e l o c a l i t y

u n d e r s t u d y , a n d a g g r e g a t e d i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e women who had

c o m p l e t e d t h e i r c h i l d b e a r i n g i n t o est imates f o r t h e

p o p u l a t i o n a s a w h o l e . T h i s is t h e p a i n s t a k i n g method o f

! f a m i l y r e c o n s t i t u t i o n ." F a m i l y r e c o n s t i t u t i o n h a s d i s a d v a n t a g e s : I t e x c l u d e s

m o b i l e f a m i l i e s a n d is e n o r m o u s l y t i m e - c o n s u m i n g . I t s

a d v a n t a g e s , h o w e v e r , a re t o b e e x t r e m e l y p r e c i s e w i t h i n t h e

p o p u l a t i o n i t c o v e r s a n d t o p e r m i t c lose c o m p a r i s o n s among

d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s . T h u s , e x a m i n i n g t h e

p o p u l a t i o n o f Caen f r o m 1 7 4 0 t o 1 7 8 9 , J e a n - C l a u d e P e r r o t

e s t a b l i s h e s t h a t ( d e s p i t e v e r y l o w i l l e g i t i m a c y a n d

i n f r e q u e n t p r e n u p t i a l c o n c e p t i o n ) P r o t e s t a n t s a v e r a g e d h i g h e r

f e r t i l i t y t h a n C a t h o l i c s . T h a t w a s d u e , h e g o e s o n t o show,

n o t t o t h e l a r g e s i z e o f P r o t e s t a n t f a m i l i e s , b u t m a i n l y t o

t h e f a c t t h a t t h e m a r r i e d C a t h o l i c s o f Caen w e n t c o m p l e t e l y

c h i l d l e s s more of t e n t h a n t h e i r P r o t e s t a n t n e i g h b o r s .

R e c o n s t i t u t i n g f a m i l i e s o f n e a r b y Rouen f r o m 1 6 7 0 t o 1 7 8 9 ,

J e a n - P i e r r e B a r d e t s h o w s t h a t c o m p l e t e d f a m i l y s i z e d e c l i n e d

i n a l l soc i a l c lasses , b u t t h a t n o t a b l e s l e d t h e way w i t h a

d r o p f r o m 7.2 l i v e b i r t h s p e r m a r r i e d woman i n 1670-1699 t o

4.1 l i v e b i r t h s i n 1760-1789. T h e f i n d i n g s o n Rouen a n d

Caen h e l p u s u n d e r s t a n d how t h e i r p r o v i n c e o f Normandy became

o n e o f E u r o p e ' s e a r l i e s t r e g i o n s o f l o n g - t e r m d e f i n i t i v e

f e r t i l i t y d e c l i n e . P a i n s t a k i n g f a m i l y r e c o n s t i t u t i o n made

s u c h f i n d i n g s p o s s i b l e .

On t h e o t h e r s i d e , d e m o g r a p h i c h i s t o r i a n s sometimes

b y p a s s t h e f a m i l y t o a c c u m u l a t e o b s e r v a t i o n s o f b i r t h s ,

d e a t h s a n d m a r r i a g e s f o r w h o l e c o m m u n i t i e s . Then t y p i c a l l y

t h e ser ies y i e l d a n n u a l r a t e s , w h i l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f

c o m m u n i t i e s -- r i c h o r p o o r , a g r i c u l t u r a l o r i n d u s t r i a l e t c ,

-- s u b s t i t u t e f o r v a r i a t i o n i n h o u s e h o l d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

The most s a l i e n t d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f t h i s a g g r e g a t i v e method

s t e m f r o m t h e u n c e r t a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e v i t a l e v e n t s

a n d t h e p o p u l a t i o n a t r i s k ; w i t h n o c h a n g e i n b e h a v i o r

p a t t e r n s , f o r e x a m p l e t h e s e l e c t i v e o u t - m i g r a t i o n o f young

p e o p l e t e n d s b y i t se l f t o d e p r e s s t h e b i r t h r a te .

The a d v a n t a g e s o f a g g r e g a t i v e m e t h o d s a r e t h e i r r e l a t i v e

e f f i c i e n c y a n d t h e i r s e n s i t i v i t y t o y e a r - t o - y e a r c h n g e s .

T h u s i n t h e i r m a s s i v e a n a l y s i s o f E n g l a n d ' s p o p u l a t i o n

h i s t o r y f r o m 1541 t o 1 8 7 1 , E ,A. W r i g l e y a n d R . S . S c h o f i e l d

a g g r e g a t e b i r t h s , d e a t h s t a n d m a r r i a g e s f r o m 404 A n g l i c a n

p a r i s h regis ters , t h e n c o r r e c t a n d a u g m e n t t h o s e ser ies f o r

i n t e r n a l b i a s , v a r i o u s f o r m s o f u n d e r - r e g i s t r a t i o n a n d t h e

a b s e n c e o f n o n - A n g l i c a n s . ( T h e y a l s o c h e c k some o f t h e i r

estimates a g a i n s t r e s u l t s o f a d o z e n E n g l i s h f a m i l y

r e c o n s t i t u t i o n s . ) They a re t h e n a b l e t o s h o w t among a g r e a t

many o t h e r t h i n g s , t h a t E n g l i s h mar i ta l f e r t i l i t y a c t u a l l y

rose d u r i n g t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h a t f l u c t u a t i o n s i n

m a r r i a g e p l a y e d a v e r y i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n a n n u a l f e r t i l i t y

f l u c t u a t i o n s t a n d t h a t m a r r i a g e ra tes t h e m s e l v e s r e s p o n d e d

s t r o n g l y to c h a n g e s i n wage l e v e l s ; r i s i n g wage l e v e l s

e n c o u r a g e d more p e o p l e t o m a r r y y o u n g e r . Ma1 t h u s ' P o s i t i v e

Check -- t h e r i se i n d e a t h r a t e s when p o p u l a t i o n o v e r r a n

s u b s i s t e n c e s -- had much l ess e f f e c t t h a n m o s t p e o p l e h a v e

b e l i e v e d . C o l l e c t i v e b i o g r a p h y t o o k W r i g l e y a n d S c h o f i e l d

t h r o u g h d r y - a s - d u s t t e c h n i c a l p r o c e d u r e s t o t h e d y n a m i c s o f

m a r r i a g e a n d b i r t h .

E s s e n t i a l l y t h e same p r o c e d u r e s y i e l d e s t i m a t e s o f

o c c u p a t i o n a l m o b i l i t y , o f t h e s o c i a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l

movements , o r o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w e a l t h , I n s t u d y i n g t h e

l a b o r i n g classes o f R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , f o r e x a m p l e , Samuel

Cohn J r , r e c o n s t r u c t e d w o r k e r s ' a n d p a t r i c i a n s ' n e t w o r k s o f

p e r s o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n f r o m b a p t i s m a l r e g i s t e r s a n d m a r r i a g e

c o n t r a c ts, t h e n i n t e g r a t e d t h e r e s u l t s w i t h e v i d e n c e f rom

c r i m i n a l p r o s e c u t i o n s t o r e v e a l t h e a c t i v a t i o n o f c i t y - w i d e

c o l i t i o n s o f w o r k e r s i n t h e t i m e o f t h e Ciompi i n s u r r e c t i o n s

( 1 3 4 2 - 1 3 8 3 ) .

I n q u i t e a d i f f e r e n t v e i n , K r i s t i a n H v i d t t r a n s c r i b e d

f r o m p o l i c e r e g i s t e r s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f 1 7 2 , 0 0 0 Danes

who e m i g r a t e d f r o m 1 8 6 8 t o 1 9 0 0 ; h i s a n a l y s i s d e m o n s t r a t e d ,

among o t h e r t h i n g s , t h e i n t i m a t e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f

r u r a l - u r b a n m i g r a t i o n within Denmark a n d t h e g r e a t f l i g h t t o

America. I n e s s e n c e , r e g i o n a l a n d t r a n s a t l a n t i c m i g r a t i o n

f o r m e d a s i n g l e s y s t e m .

A l t h o u g h i n t h e s e cases t h e u n i t s o b s e r v e d a r e m o s t

o f t e n s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l s , c o l l e c t i v e b i o g r a p h y sometimes

d e a l s w i t h h o u s e h o l d s , f i r m s , p r o p e r t i e s , e v e n e v e n t s . J o h n

B o h s t e d t , f o r e x a m p l e , b a s e d h i s s t u d y o f c o m m u n i t y p o l i t i c s

i n E n g l a n d a n d Wales f r o m 1 7 9 0 t o 1 8 1 0 on a c a t a l o g o f 6 1 7

e v e n t s f o u n d a c c o r d i n g t o a s t a n d a r d d e f i n i t i o n i n t h e A n n u a l

R e g i s t e r , t w o n e w s p a p e r s , a n d t h e g e n e r a l d o m e s t i c

c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f t h e H o m e O f f i c e . The l o g i c is t h e same a s

i n c o l l e c t i v e b i o g r a p h y o f i n d i v i d u a l s : c o m p a r a b l e

o b s e r v a t i o n s o n mu1 t i p l e u n i t s compounded i n t o s y s t e m a t i c

c o l l e c t i v e a c c o u n t s o f u n i t y a n d v a r i a t i o n .

How s y s t e m a t i c , h o w e v e r , is a q u e s t i o n t h a t h a s d i v i d e d

E u r o p e a n s o c i a l h i s t o r i a n s . T h e b e a u t y o f c o l l e c t i v e

b i o g r a p h y , i n p r i n c i p l e , is t h a t i t p e r m i t s i ts p r a c t i t i o n e r s

t o r e t a i n a l l t h e i d i o s y n c r a s y o f p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e w h i l e

i d e n t i f y i n g u n i f o r m i t i e s a n d v a r i a t i o n s a c r o s s many p e r s o n a l

e x p e r i e n c e s . I n p r a c t i c e , t h e b e a u t y f a d e s s o m e w h a t ; t h e

s i m p l i f i c a t i o n r e q u i r e d t o i d e n t i f y u n i f o r m i t i e s a n d

v a r i a t i o n s -- f o r e x a m p l e , ~ u d 6 ' s r e d u c t i o n o f t h e many

o c c u p a t i o n s o f a r r e s t e d p e r s o n s t o a l i m i t e d number o f

c a t e g o r i e s , o r W i r t z ' s g r o u p i n g o f B a d e n ' s m a n i f o l d v i o l e n t

i n c i d e n t s i n t o a h a n d f u l o f t y p e s -- o f t e n s u p p r e s s e s

p a r t i c u l a r i t y . I f t h e h i s t o r i a n h a s many i n s t a n c e s t o

e x a m i n e , h e o r s h e is l i k e l y t o a d o p t a c r u d e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n :

hand t a l l y i n g i n t o t w o o r t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s a t t h e e x t r e m e ,

p u n c h e s i n c a r d s r e p r e s e n t i n g c h o i c e s among n i n e o r t e n

m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e c a t e g o r i e s a s a s l i g h t l y more r e f i n e d

v e r s i o n o f t h e t a l l y i n g p r o c e d u r e .

A t t h e o t h e r e x t r e m e , some European s o c i a l h i s t o r i a n s

have abandoned t h e s e a r c h f o r common p r o p e r t i e s and

s y s t e m a t i c v a r i a t i o n s i n f a v o r o f t h e l o v i n g r e c o n s t r u c t i o n

o f e x e m p l a r y i n d i v i d u a l l i v e s . An o u t s t a n d i n g example is t h e

E n g l i s h h i s t o r i a n o f F r a n c e , R i c h a r d Cobb, C o b b l s e a r l y work

f e l l i n t o t h e s o r t o f c o l l e c t i v e b i o g r a p h y i n s p i r e d by t h e

g r e a t F r e n c h r e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r i a n G e o r g e s L e f e b v r e ; w h i l e

George ~ u d g examined r e v o l u t i o n a r y c r o w d s , w h i l e A l b e r t

Sobou l and o t h e r s d i d c o l l e c t i v e b i o g r a p h i e s o f

s a n s - c u l o t t e s , Cobb s t u d i e d t h e v o l u n t e e r r e v o l u t i o n a r y

a r m i e s t h a t p l a y e d s u c h a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n m o b i l i z i n g young

men t o t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y c a u s e and i n e n f o r c i n g t h e d e c i s i o n s

o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t i v i s t s . A s compared w i t h S o b o u l t R U ~ Q

and many o t h e r s t u d e n t s o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t i v i s t s , Cobb

n e v e r showed much e n t h u s i a s m f o r t a x o n o m i e s o r s t a t i s t i c s ,

N e v e r t h e l e s s , h i s s t u d i e s o f army u n i t s d i d c a t a l o g t h e

o f f i c e r s and d e s c r i b e t h e men i n g r e a t d e t a i l , c h a r a c t e r i z i n g

b o t h t h e i r o r i g i n s and ' t h e i r b e h a v i o r .

Then Cobb moved i n c r e a s i n g l y t oward t h e p o r t r a y a l o f

s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l s who i l l u s t r a t e d some p r i n c i p l e o f

r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t i o n , o r who s i m p l y l i v e d i n t e r e s t i n g l i v e s .

H e came t o d i s a p p r o v e o f t h e a p p r o a c h e s o f S o b o u l and Rude.

S p e a k i n g o f C o l i n Lu'cas ' r e m a r k a b l e work., Cobb commented t h a t

Lucas :

h a s p r o p o s e d c o l l e c t i v e d e f i n i t i o n s and g r o u p i n g s t h a t

are f a r more s o p h i s t i c a t e d t h a n t h e c r u d e j u m b l e s a l e o f

S o b o u l ' s mouvement d e masse o r R u d e ' s w e a r i s o m e l y

r e p e t i t i v e Crowd ( a l w a y s ' t e n d i n g ' t o d o s o m e t h i n g o r

o t h e r s p e n d i n g a l l i ts t i m e ' t e n d i n g ' w h e t h e r t o r i o t

o n a Mondayt o r t o g e t d r u n k i n a w i n e - s h o p r o r t o

d e s t r o y a t h r e s h i n g m a c h i n e i f i t d i d n o t l i k e a

t h r e s h i n g m a c h i n e r o r t o r i o t o n o r n e a r a m a r k e t r i f

t h e r e were a m a r k e t d a y r o r o n o r n e a r a g r a i n p o r t 1 i f

t h e r e were a l o t o f g r a i n c o m i n g t h r o u g h ) . 6

I n s t e a d r Cobb t o o k u p p o r t r a y a l s o f i n d i v i d u a l s s u f f e r i n g o r

p r o f i t i n g a t t h e R e v o l u t i o n ' s m a r g i n s . C o b b ' s s c i n t i l l a t i n g

p o r t r a i t s l e d t h e way o u t o f c o l l e c t i v e b i o g r a p h y .

I n p r i n c i p l e r w i t h g r e a t e f f o r t r a soc ia l h i s t o r i a n c a n

b o t h r e t a i n i n d i v i d u a l i t y a n d d e a l w i t h u n i f o r m i t y o r

s y s t e m a t i c v a r i a t i o n ; a l l i t t a k e s is a r e f i n e d r e c o r d i n g

s y s t e m a n d a way o f r e l a t i n g w e l l - d e s c r i b e d i n d i v i d u a l s t o

t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of a l l i n d i v i d u a l s . Few h a v e had t h e

p a t i e n c e r t h e e x p e r t i s e t o r t h e r e s o u r c e s t o b u i l d s u c h a

s y s t e m . I n p rac t i ce r E u r o p e a n soc ia l h i s t o r i a n s h a v e

commonly s t a t i o n e d t h e m s e l v e s s o m e w h e r e a l o n g t h i s c o n t i n u u m :

crude c a t e g o r i e s d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n many cases few cases

g r e a t uniformity much v a r i e t y q u a n t i f i c a t i o n q u a l i t a t i v e treatment

H a v i n g c h o s e n a p o s i t i o n on t h e c o n t i n u u m f o r a p a r t i c u l a r

a n a l y s i s r t h e y h a v e s t u c k t o i t . A s c o m p a r e d t o G e o r g e

~ u d g ' s , J o h n B r e w e r ' s s t u d i e s o f p o p u l a r p o l i t i c s g e n e r a l l y

t a k e u p t h e d e t a i l e d q u a l i t a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a f e w c a s e s

v a r y i n g c o n s i d e r a b l y f r o m e a c h o t h e r .

An u n n e c e s s a r y b u t u n d e r s t a n d a b l e d i v i s i o n a r o s e among

p e o p l e who had c h o s e n d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s o n t h e c o n t i n u u m -- b r o a d l y , a d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n " c o l l e c t i v i s t s " a n d

individualist^.^ C o l l e c t i v i s t s t e n d e d t o g r o u p many cases

i n t o c r u d e c a t e g o r i e s , a t t e m p t i n g t o e x a m i n i n g u n i f o r m i t i e s

among t h e i r cases b y q u a n t i t a t i v e m e a n s . I n d i v i d u a l i s t s

t e n d e d t o p r o v i d e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f a f e w c a s e s ,

s t r e s s i n g t h e i r v a r i e t y v i a q u a l i t a t i v e c o m p a r i s o n . W i t h t h e

i n c e s s a n t c r e a t i o n o f new s p e c i a l t i e s w h o l e s u b j e c t s

c l u s t e r e d n e a r a s i n g l e p o i n t o n t h e c o n t i n u u m . The s t u d y o f

t h e a d o p t i o n o f new t e c h n o l o g i e s t f o r e x a m p l e , came t o

c o n c e n t r a t e n e a r t h e " c o l l e c t i v i s t " e n d o f t h e r a n g e r w h i l e

t h e a t t e m p t t o d o p s y c h o h i s t o r y , t o u s e c o n t e m p o r a r y

p s y c h o l o g i c a l c a t e g o r i e s t o l a b e l a n d e x p l a i n h i s t o r i c a l

a c t i o n s , s e t t l e d n e a r t h e " i n d i v i d u a l i s t n e n d o f t h e r a n g e .

The German p r o g r a m o f s t u d y i n g A l l t a g s l e b e n , e v e r y d a y

l i f e r i l l u s t r a t e s t h e d i v i s i o n . C r i t i c i z i n g H a n s - U l r i c h

W e h l e r , A l f LL'dtke c o m p l a i n s o f t h e v i e w t h a t " e v e r y d a y l i f e

is almost n e c e s s a r i l y m a r k e d b y i t s d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e f o r c e s

a n d b a t t l e f i e l d s o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l process; e v e r y d a y l i f e

comes t o s i g n i f y m e r e l y t h e ' p r i v a t e ' s p h e r e n . LGdtke sees

t h a t s e g r e g a t i o n a n d r e l e g a t i o n o f e v e r y d a y l i f e a s a

cor re la te o f o v e r z e a l o u s q u a n t i f i c a t i o n . " R i g o r o u s

s t a t i s t i c s o f p r o d u c t i o n , c o n s u m p t i o n a n d l i f e c h a n c e s , " h e

c o u n t e r s , " o n l y become m e a n i n g f u l t o g e t h e r w i t h a q u a l i t a t i v e

a c c o u n t o f t h e v a r i o u s modes o f p r o d u c t i o n a n d o f t h e n a t u r e

o f t h e soc i a l r e l a t i o n s o f p r o d u c t i o n " .8 The s p e c i a l f e a t u r e

o f t h e a n a l y s i s o f e v e r y d a y l i f e , a s h e sees i t , is " i t s

a t t e m p t t o e x p o s e t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s a n d d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s o f

b o t h t h e modes a n d r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e c o n t e x t o f

t h e l i f e - s t y l e o f t h o s e a f f e c t e d : t o make t h e s e e v i d e n t a n d

t o e x p l a i n them."'

L s d t k e i l l u s t r a t e s t h e c o u n t e r - p r o g r a m w i t h h i s s t u d y o f

work b r e a k s i n German f ac to r i e s a t t h e e n d o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h

c e n t u r y . The a n a l y s i s i t s e l f f a l l s c l e a r l y a t t h e

" i n d i v i d u a l i s t " e n d o f t h e c o n t i n u u m . LGdtke d i s t i n g u i s h e s

b e t w e e n t h e b r e a k s b u i l t i n t o t h e s c h e d u l e a s a c o n s e q u e n c e

o f w o r k e r / b o s s s t r u g g l e s , a n d t h o s e b r e a k s w o r k e r s t o o k

i l l e g a l l y r a t t h e i r own i n i t i a t i v e :

The p e r m i t t e d b r e a k s s e r v e d m a i n l y t h e f u n c t i o n o f

p h y s i c a l r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d so were d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to

t h e b u s i n e s s o f p h y s i c a l s u r v i v a l . Even h e r e , t h o u g h t

t h e r e were moments o f 'mere' t o g e t h e n e s s r t h e b e g i n n i n g s

of p e r s o n a l a n d c o l l e c t i v e i d e n t i t y . I n t h e i l l e g a l

b r e a k s s u c h moments were p r e d o m i n a n t : t h e c a p a c i t y f o r

a c t i o n a n d t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f e x p r e s s i o n c o u l d b e

t e s t e d a n d d e v e l o p e d : t h e r e were f u r t h e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s

t o b e a l o n e a n d t o b e w i t h o t h e r s -- t o p u s h b a c k t h e

f o r c e s o f t h e f a c t o r y t e v e n w h i l e n o t d i r e c t l y f i g h t i n g

them. 1 0

~ i i d t k e r e g a r d s t h e mere c o u n t i n g o f b r e a k s r o r t h e s t u d y o f

s t r i k e s i n w h i c h t h e i s s u e o f b r e a k s came u p , a s a t b e s t

s e c o n d a r y a n d a t worst m i s l e a d i n g . T h a t is b e c a u s e t h e

m e a n i n g a n d u s e o f work b r e a k s , o r o f a n y o t h e r f e a t u r e o f

d a i l y work l i f e , loom much l a r g e r f o r him t h a n d o t h e b r u t e

f a c t s o f t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t i m e a n d s p a c e .

T h a t t h e c h o i c e is f a l s e , h o w e v e r , a p p e a r s f r o m a g o o d

l o o k a t a n o t h e r o u t s t a n d i n g work i n l a b o r h i s t o r y , M i c h e l l e

P e r r o t ' s L e s O u v r i e r s e n ~ r g v e . P e r r o t p a i n s t a k i n g l y

a s s e m b l e d i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g e v e r y s t r i k e s h e c o u l d f i n d

a n y w h e r e i n F r a n c e f r o m 1 8 7 0 t o 1 8 9 0 . S h e f o u n d a b o u t 3 r 0 0 0

s t r i k e s , S h e p r e p a r e d a c r u d e m a c h i n e - r e a d a b l e d e s c r i p t i o n

of e a c h o n e , a n d t a b u l a t e d t h e i n c i d e n c e o f s t r i k e s b y

i n d u s t r y , r e g i o n , y e a r , i s s u e , o u t c o m e , a n d a number o f o t h e r

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . P e r r o t t h e r e b y c o n s t r u c t e d a c o m p r e h e n s i v e

d e s c r i p t i v e g r i d f o r s t r i k e a c t i v i t y f r o m 1 8 7 0 t o 1 8 9 0 . S h e

b u i l t t h e m e a n s o f i d e n t i f y i n g u n i f o r m i t y a n d v a r i a t i o n b y

m e a n s o f a spec ia l s o r t o f c o l l e c t i v e b i o g r a p h y .

I f P e r r o t had s t o p p e d t h e r e , s h e would h a v e p r o v i d e d a

u s e f u l b o d y o f e v i d e n c e f o r o t h e r h i s t o r i a n s o f t h e p e r i o d ,

b u t w o u l d h a v e l e f t h e r s e l f v u l n e r a b l e t o t h e a c c u s a t i o n o f

i g n o r i n g t h e s t r i k e s ' m e a n i n g a n d u s e . B u t P e r r o t u s e d h e r

q u a n t i f i c a t i o n l a r g e l y t o s p e c i f y w h a t m u s t b e e x p l a i n e d --

why, f o r e x a m p l e , s u d d e n s t r i k e s w i t h o u t p r i o r w a r n i n g

o c c u r r e d more o f t e n i n i n d u s t r i e s w i t h l a r g e w o r k s i t e s , y e t

d e c l i n e d i n i m p o r t a n c e a s b i g i n d u s t r y g r e w . Her d i s c u s s i o n

o f t h a t s u b j e c t b e g i n s w i t h t h e s t a t i s t i c s , a n d e n d s w i t h t h e

c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e u n i o n i z a t i o n o f b i g i n d u s t r y r e d u c e d t h e

s c o p e f o r w o r k e r s ' s p o n t a n e i t y . I t moves f r o m s t a t i s t i c s t o

c o n c l u s i o n v i a n u m e r o u s i n d i v i d u a l e x a m p l e s d i s p l a y i n g t h e

v a r i e t y o f m e c h a n i s m s b y w h i c h s t r i k e s a c t u a l l y b e g a n , a s

w e l l a s t h e d i f f e r e n t w a y s i n w h i c h u n i o n l e a d e r s s o u g h t t o

c o n t a i n them. P e r r o t p u t t h e b u l k o f h e r e f f o r t i n t o t h e

c lose e x a m i n a t i o n of cases f a l l i n g i n t o d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s

w i t h i n h e r d e s c r i p t i v e g r i d : t h e a c t u a l c o n t e n t o f g r i e v a n c e s

c o n c e r n i n g h o u r s of w o r k , t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r w o r k e r s '

v i c t o r y , l o s s , o r compromise i n s t r i k e s , a n d so o n .

M i c h e l l e P e r r o t d i d n o t s i m p l y f i n d a h a p p y m i d p o i n t on

t h e c o n t i n u u m from q u a n t i t a t i v e / m a n y cases e t c . t o

q u a l i t a t i v e / f e w cases e t c . , or s p r i n g g r a c e f u l l y b e t w e e n t w o

h a p p y p o s i t i o n s , o n e a t e a c h e n d . N o r d o o t h e r f i r s t - r a t e

soc ia l h i s t o r i a n s . K e i t h W r i g h t s o n a n d D a v i d L e v i n e , f o r

e x a m p l e , u s e a c o m b i n a t i o n o f d e m o g r a p h i c a n a l y s i s a n d l o c a l

h i s t o r y t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f a s i n g l e E s s e x

v i l l a g e f r o m 1 5 0 0 t o 1 7 2 5 . D u r i n g t h e s i x t e e e n t h c e n t u r y ,

t h e y d e t e c t r a p i d p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h d u e to r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y

m a r r i a g e a n d r e s u l t i n g h i g h f e r t i l i t y . A f t e r 1 6 2 5 , t h e y

d i s c o v e r a s l o w i n g of p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h a s f e r t i l i t y d e c l i n e d

a n d " e x t r a " c h i l d r e n had f e w e r c h a n c e s t o s t a y i n t h e

v i l l a g e . The d e m o g r a p h i c f i n d i n g s t h e r e b y r a i s e p r e c i s e

q u e s t i o n s a b o u t s o c i a l c h a n g e i n t h e v i l l a g e .

S e a r c h i n g o u t t h a t c h a n g e , W r i g h t s o n a n d L e v i n e show t h e

c r e a t i o n of a s h a r p d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n a smal l1 d o m i n a n t

p r o p e r t y - h o l d i n g class a n d a l a r g e r s u b o r d i n a t e c lass o f

l a n d - p o o r a n d l a n d l e s s w o r k e r s . . . w i t h a r e l i g i o u s

i d e o l o g y r a c o m p l e x o f soc i a l d e f i n i t i o n s , a n d a se t o f L e g a l

c o n t r o l s t h a t r e i n f o r c e d t h e d i v i s i o n . R e a d i n g W r i g h t s o n a n d

L e v i n e l w e w a t c h t h e l oca l v e r s i o n o f c a p i t a l i s m e m e r g e a s a

c o n t i n g e n t p r o d u c t o f s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n t h e f e w a n d t h e many.

S u c h w o r k d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e c o n t i n u u m f r o m

" i n d i v i d u a l i s t " t o " c o l l e c t i v i s t " is i t s e l f a n i l l u s i o n , a n

u n f o r t u n a t e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n . T h e i l l u s i o n r e s u l t s f r o m

p l a c i n g o n e s e l f a l o n g t h e d i a g o n a l o f t h e s p a c e ' shown i n

F i g u r e 1.

FIGURE 1 ABOUT HERE

Work is easier a l o n g t h e d i a g o n a l t h a n a b o v e i t . Most

r e s u l t s below t h e d i a g o n a l a r e n o t v e r y u s e f u l . The u t i l i t y

of r e s u l t s rises more r a p i d l y w i t h a move t o w a r d r e f i n e d

v a r i e t y t h a n w i t h a move t o w a r d many cases. Y e t , i n

p r i n c i p l e t h e most u s e f u l r e s u l t s come f r o m s t a t i o n i n g

o n e s e l f n o t a t t h e u p p e r r i g h t - h a n d c o r n e r ( f e w c a s e s r

r e f i n e d v a r i e t y ) b u t n e a r t h e u p p e r left c o r n e r (many c a s e s r

r e f i n e d v a r i e t y ) . M i c h e l l e P e r r o t ' s work p u s h e s a b o v e t h e

d i a g o n a l t o w a r d t h a t c o r n e r . W i t h a n e f f o r t t w e c a n g o e v e n

f a r t h e r i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n .

The p r o g r a m o f " s o c i a l s c i e n c e h i s t o r y " s e e k s t o p u s h

soc ia l h i s t o r y a b o v e t h e d i a g o n a l . The term i t s e l f c o v e r s a

v a r i e t y o f e f f o r t s ; t h e y r u n f r o m t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f s o u n d

h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e i n t o c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i a l - s c i e n t i f i c

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t o t h e u s e o f s o c i a l - s c i e n t i f i c c o n c e p t s a s

i n t e r p r e t i v e d e v i c e s i n s t a n d a r d h i s t o r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .

The c o r e o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e h i s t o r y , h o w e v e r r h a s t h r e e

d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e s :

1. t h e e x p l i c i t s t a t e m e n t o f f a l s i f i a b l e a r g u m e n t s ;

2. t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f e v i d e n c e b e a r i n g o n t h e v a l i d i t y

o f t h o s e a r g u m e n t s b y m e a n s o f r i g o r o u s m e a s u r e m e n t ;

3. t h e u s e o f s y s t e m a t i c c o m p a r i s o n s among cases t o

v e r i f y o r f a l s i f y t h e a r g u m e n t s i n q u e s t i o n .

T h e s e f e a t u r e s e s t a b l i s h two d i f f e r e n t s o r t s o f t i e s b e t w e e n

c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i a l s c i e n c e a n d soc ia l h i s t o r y : F i r s t t h e y

p o i n t t o t h e d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e i n

g e n e r a l . S e c o n d t h e " f a l s i f i a b l e a r g u m e n t s " i n p l a y a r e

q u i t e l i k e l y t o come f r o m t h o s e d i s c i p l i n e s t h a t s p e c i a l i z e

i n t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y e q u i v a l e n t s o f p r e s s i n g s o c i a l - h i s t o r i c a l

q u e s t i o n s t t h e soc i a l s c i e n c e s .

T h u s w e f i n d s o c i a l s c i e n c e h i s t o r i a n s :

* a s k i n g how a n d why v a r i o u s E u r o p e a n p o p u l a t i o n s

p r o l e t a r i a n i z e d , u s i n g i dea s a b o u t t h e l o g i c o f

c a p i t a l i s t i c p r o d u c t i o n

* s e e k i n g t o e x p l a i n r e g i o n a l a n d t e m p o r a l v a r i a t i o n s i n

f e r t i l i t y , u s i n g ideas a b o u t t h e d e m o g r a p h i c

t r a n s i t i o n

* e x a m i n i n g t h e co r re l a t e s a n d e f f e c t s o f women 's

e m p l o y m e n t i n d i f f e r e n t E u r o p e a n c i t i e s , u s i n g i d e a s

a b o u t h o u s e h o l d e c o n o m i c s t r a t e g i e s

* s t u d y i n g t h e s p r e a d o f l i t e r a c y among c l a s ses a n d

c o m m u n i t i e s , c o m b a t t i n g s t a n d a r d i d e a s a b o u t

m o d e r n i z a t i o n

* r e v i e w i n g h i s t o r i c a l p a t t e r n s o f r u r a l - u r b a n m i g r a t i o n

i n E u r o p e , d r a w i n g o n i d e a s d e v e l o p e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s

o f c o n t e m p o r a r y T h i r d W o r l d m i g r a t i o n

~ l l t h e s e a d v e n t u r e s , a n d more, p r o f i t f r o m t h e i r c a s t i n g i n

a s o c i a l - s c i e n t i f i c mold.

A case i n p o i n t comes f r o m t h e s t u d y o f l i t e r a c y . On

o n e h a n d , a b i l i t i e s t o read a n d wri te v a r y e n o r m o u s l y i n

c o n t e m p o r a r y E u r o p e ; n o t o n l y t h e t e c h n i c a l s k i l l s b u t a l s o

t h e m e a n i n g s a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e a c t i v i t y d i f f e r f r o m o n e

p e r s o n t o t h e n e x t . N o s i m p l e s t a n d a r d -- so many y e a r s o f

s c h o o l , a b i l i t y t o s i g n o n e ' s name , or p e r h a p s p u r c h a s e o f

p r i n t e d matter -- c a p t u r e s t h e v a r i a t i o n s i n s k i l l , m e a n i n g s ,

a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f l i t e r a c y . Y e t E u r o p e a n s on t h e w h o l e

c l e a r l y have become much more l i t e r a t e d u r i n g t h e l a s t

c e n t u r y o r two. I t is h a r d t o e s c a p e t h e f e e l i n g t h a t t h e

a b i l i t y to r e a d and w r i t e ( a n d t h e i n c r e a s i n g demand t h a t

c i t i z e n s r e m p l o y e r s , s o l d i e r s , d r i v e r s , and o t h e r whole

c a t e g o r i e s o f p e o p l e b e l i t e r a t e ) a l t e r e d p e o p l e ' s d a i l y

e x p e r i e n c e . But how t o t r a n s l a t e t h a t f e e l i n g i n t o

h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h ?

F o r t h e p e r i o d s i n c e n a t i o n a l c h u r c h e s and s t a t e

b u r e a u c r a c i e s began i n t e r v e n i n g a c t i v e l y i n t h e d a i l y l i v e s

o f o r d i n a r y p e o p l e , European s o c i a l h i s t o r i a n s have drawn

t h e i r e v i d e n c e a b o u t p o p u l a r l i t e r a c y m a i n l y f rom t h e

b y - p r o d u c t s o f t h o s e i n t e r v e n t i o n s . S i g n i n g o f d o c u m e n t s r

e n r o l l m e n t i n s c h o o l r and s c r e e n i n g f o r a d m i s s i o n t o m i l i t a r y

s e r v i c e , p r i s o n , o r some o t h e r b u r e a u c r a t i z e d i n s t i t u t i o n

p r o v i d e t h e most a b u n d a n t e v i d e n c e . Us ing s u c h s o u r c e s f o r

d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s o f F r a n c e , t h e n d e l v i n g i n t o memoirs and

i n s p e c t i o n r e p o r t s , F r a n s o i s F u r e t and J a c q u e s Ozouf show

t h a t t h e s k i l l s o f r e a d i n g and w r i t i n g s p r e a d somewhat

s e p a r a t e l y f rom e a c h o t h e r ; F r e n c h P r o t e s t a n t s , f o r example r

commonly l e a r n e d enough r e a d i n g t o d e c i p h e r v e r s e s f rom t h e

B i b l e , b u t d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y l e a r n t o w r i t e . W r i t i n g

s k i l l s c o n n e c t e d c l o s e l y w i t h c o m m e r c i a l a c t i v i t y .

I n Sweden, a n a t i o n a l L u t h e r a n c h u r c h , s t r o n g l y backed

by t h e s t a t e r m o n i t o r e d t h e a b i l i t y t o r e a d c l o s e l y ; p a s t o r s

r e g u l a r l y t e s t e d ( a n d r e c o r d e d ) t h e s k i l l s o f t h e i r

p a r i s h i o n e r s a t r e a d i n g a n d i n t e r p r e t i n g s c r i p t u r e . From t h e

e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y o n w a r d , many u n s c h o o l e d S w e d e s l e a r n e d t o

r e a d a t home. A c c o r d i n g t o s t u d i e s o f c h u r c h e x a m i n a t i o n

r e g i s t e r s , m i l i t a r y r e c r u i t m e n t r e c o r d s t s c h o o l s t a t i s t i c s ,

a n d o t h e r s o u r c e s b y E g i l J o h a n s s o n a n d h i s c o l l a b o r a t o r s ,

e l e m e n t a r y r e a d i n g a b i l i t y became q u i t e g e n e r a l i n Sweden

b e f o r e t h e e n d o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , b u t t h e a b i l i t y t o

w r i t e o n l y g e n e r a l i z e d w i t h t h e e x t e n s i o n o f f o r m a l s c h o o l i n g

a f t e r 1800.

I n t h e F r e n c h a n d S w e d i s h i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f l i t e r a c y ,

t h e c o n c l u s i o n s r e s u l t e d f r o m close e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h o u s a n d s

of i n s t a n c e s . The s h e e r scale o f t h e i n q u i r i e s p u s h e d t h e

r e s e a r c h e r s t o w a r d t h e m e t h o d s o f t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s .

The r i s k s o f a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h i s t o r y a n d

c o n t e m p o r a r y soc ia l s c i e n c e a re o b v i o u s : w h o l e s a l e

e x p o r t a t i o n f r o m c o n t e m p o r a r y f r a m e s o f m o d e l s c o n c e p t s ,

a r g u m e n t s t a n d m e t h o d s t h a t f i t h i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e b a d l y ;

s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f f u n d a m e n t a l h i s t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n s to t h e

a g e n d a o f c o n t e m p o r a r y soc ia l s c i e n c e ; b u i l d i n g o f f a l s e

a n a l o g i e s b e t w e e n c o n t e m p o r a r y a n d h i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e o r

e v i d e n c e . Y e t t h e s e r i s k s a re a v o i d a b l e . And t h e p o t e n t i a l

b e n e f i t s a r e g r e a t .

Tasks of Social History

W h e t h e r p r a c t i c e d . i n a s o c i a l - s c i e n t i f i c mode or

o t h e r w i s e , t h e f u n d a m e n t a l w o r k o f E u r o p e a n soc ia l h i s t o r i a n s

r e m a i n s t h e same, I t c o n s i s t s o f a ) d o c u m e n t i n g l a r g e

s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e s , b ) r e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f

o r d i n a r y p e o p l e i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h o s e c h a n g e s , c ) c o n n e c t i n g

t h e t w o .

Documenting large structural changes i n v o l v e s a

m i s c e l l a n y o f a c t i v i t i e s , f r o m t h e c o m p i l a t i o n o f g o v e r n m e n t

s t a t i s t i c s t o t h e c o l l a t i o n of o b s e r v e r s ' o p i n i o n s , The

a v a i l a b l e d o c u m e n t a t i o n i t se l f r e f l e c t s t h e c o u r s e o f

E u r o p e a n h i s t o r y : p r o d u c e d m a i n l y b y t h e a g e n t s o f s t a t e s a n d

s e c o n d a r i l y b y t h e a g e n t s o f c h u r c h e s ; c o n s i s t i n g l a r g e l y o f

r e s i d u e s f r o m t a x a t i o n c o n s c r i p t i o n , c i v i l r e g i s t r a t i o n ,

p o l i c i n g , a n d o t h e r e f f o r t s a t c o n t r o l l i n g s u b j e c t

p o p u l a t i o n s ; i n c r e a s i n g e n o r m o u s l y i n v o l u m e o v e r time a s a

r e s u l t b o t h o f e x p a n d i n g b u r e a u c r a c y a n d o f s h e e r s u r v i v a l o f

more r e c e n t r e c o r d s ; c r y s t a l l ' i z i n g i n t o r e g u l a r l y r e p o r t e d

series m o n i t o r e d b y s p e c i a l i s t s c h i e f l y i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h

c e n t u r y . An i m p o r t a n t p a r t of s o c i a l - h i s t o r i c a l e x p e r t i s e

h a s g o n e i n t o u s i n g t h e d i s p a r a t e e v i d e n c e a v a i l a b l e f rom t h e

p e r i o d b e f o r e c e n s u s e s , s u r v e y s r a n d s t a t i s t i c a l s e r v i c e s t o

e x t e n d t h e s t a n d a r d r e c e n t ser ies b a c k i n t o t h e e i g h t e e n t h ,

s e v e n t e e n t h , o r e a r l i e r c e n t u r i e s .

Socia l h i s t o r i a n s h a v e made t h e i r most o r i g i n a l

c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e s e c o n d t a s k : r e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e

experiences of o r d i n a r y people. T h e g r e a t e s t d i s c o v e r y was

n o d i s c o v e r y a t a l l ; i t w a s t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t i f o r d i n a r y

p e o p l e l e f t f e w n a r r a t i v e s o f t h e i r l i v e s , i n n u m e r a b l e

d o c u m e n t s o f g r e a t d i v e r s i t y b o r e t races o f t h o s e l i v e s . The

t races c o u l d , w i t h care a n d e x p e r t i s e , f i t t o g e t h e r i n t o

s k e l e t a l h i s t o r i e s o f a g r e a t many l i v e s , R e l i g i o u s

r e g i s t e r s , n o t a r i e s ' f i l e s r j u d i c i a l p r o c e e d i n g s , t a x

r e c o r d s , c a d a s t e r s , c e n s u s e s , v o t i n g r o l l s 1 c i t y d i r e c t o r i e s ,

a c c o u n t b o o k s t a n d many o t h e r r o u t i n e r e s i d u e s o f c o n t a c t s

b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l s a n d l a r g e o r g a n i z a t i o n s a l l p r o v i d e d

v o l u m i n o u s i n f o r m a t i o n on many p e o p l e o u t s i d e t h e e l i t e ,

Long b e f o r e World War 11, p e o p l e who were t r a c i n g t h e i r

a n c e s t o r s h a d u s e d many o f t h e s e same s o u r c e s t o l o c a t e

i n d i v i d u a l s . C o l l e c t i v e b i o g r a p h y made t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m

s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l s t o w h o l e p o p u l a t i o n s ; o n e o f t h e c r i t i c a l

moments f o r soc i a l h i s t o r y , i n d e e d a r r i v e d when d e m o g r a p h e r

L o u i s H e n r y r e a l i z e d t h a t g e n e a l o g i e s w o u l d , i f p r o p e r l y

a n a l y z e d , y i e l d est imates o f c h a n g e s i n v i t a l raes:

f e r t i l i t y , m o r t a l i t y , a n d n u p t i a l i t y . ( O t h e r d e m o g r a p h i c

p r o c e s s e s , n o t a b l y m i g r a t i o n , came l a t e r ,) 4

A l t h o u g h c o l l e c t i v e b i o g r a p h i e s o f Roman s e n a t o r s , o f

B r i t i s h p a r l i a m e n t a r i a n s a n d o f o t h e r e l i t e s l o n g p r e c e d e d

t h e r e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f f a m i l y d e m o g r a p h i c h i s t o r i e s f r o m

g e n e a l o g i e s a n d f r o m p a r i s h r e c o r d s o f b i r t h s , d e a t h s , a n d

m a r r i a g e s , i t w a s t h e e x t e n s i o n o f c o l l e c t i v e b i o g r a p h y t o

r u n - o f - t h e - m i l l f a m i l i e s t h a t r e l e a s e d t h e c r e a t i v i t y o f

soc ia l h i s t o r i a n s . The s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e f o r p o p u l a r

c o l l e c t i v e b i o g r a p h y r a r e l y made i t p o s s i b l e t o a s s e m b l e

r i c h l y a n e c d o t a l h i s t o r i e s o f i n d i v i d u a l l i v e s . B u t t h e y

p e r m i t t e d a much c loser a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o a s t a n d a r d l i f e

h i s t o r y f o r o r d i n a r y p e o p l e t h a n e v e r b e f o r e ,

Connecting t h e aggregate observa t ions o f s t r u c t u r a l

change wi th the s o c i a l exper i ences s e t s t h e most d i f f i c u l t

c h a l l e n g e . On t h e w h o l e , E u r o p e a n s o c i a l h i s t o r i a n s h a v e m e t

t h e c h a l l e n g e w i t h less i m a g i n a t i o n t h a n t h e y h a v e b r o u g h t t o

t h e f i r s t t w o t a s k s , When t h e y h a v e n o t s e t t l ed f o r

i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c i n t e . r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e soc i a l e x p e r i e n c e ,

t h e y h a v e commonly r e l i e d o n c r u d e c o r r e l a t i o n s : d i v i d i n g t h e

e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n i n t o s e v e r a l r o u g h c a t e g o r i e s t o e s t a b l i s h

t h a t t h e i r soc ia l e x p e r i e n c e s d i f f e r e d , u s i n g l o c a l I

p o p u l a t i o n s a s p r o x i e s f o r d i s t i n c t s o c i a l g r o u p s , o r

p o i n t i n g t o a b r o a d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s

i n t i m e o f t h e m e a s u r e d soc ia l e x p e r i e n c e a n d o f a l a r g e

s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e , F o r e x a m p l e , many E u r o p e a n u r b a n

h i s t o r i e s d i v i d e u p t h e i r c i t i e s i n t o p a r i s h e s , t h e n u s e

c a r e f u l l y - a s s e m b l e d e v i d e n c e t o s h o w t h a t p a r i s h e s c o n t a i n i n g

many p o o r p e o p l e a l s o h a v e r e l a t i v e l y h i g h m o r t a l i t y , more

c r i m i n a l o f f e n d e r s , more f o u n d l i n g s , a n d so o n -- i m p o r t a n t

i n f o r m a t i o n , t o b e s u r e ! b u t a f a r c r y . f r o m a n a n a l y s i s o f

c a u s a l c o n n e c t i o n s among t h e p h e n o m e n a ,

S u c h c r u d e m e t h o d s o f mak ing t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n b i g

p r o c e s s e s a n d small-scale s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e e n t a i l a d o u b l e

l o s s , F i r s t , t h e y r e d u c e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a n y s t r o n g

s t a t e m e n t s o f c a u s a l p r i o r i t y : What c a u s e s w h a t ? S e c o n d ,

t h e y i g n o r e t h e p r e c i o u s i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d i n t h e

v a r i a t i o n f r o m o n e e x p e r i e n c e t o t h e n e x t . I t is h a r d t o

make m o u s s e w i t h a c e m e n t m i x e r .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , s o c i a l h i s t o r i a n s sometimes u s e f i n e

v a r i a t i o n i n t i m e a n d s p a c e t o t h e i r g r e a t a d v a n t a g e . Some

d o i t b y t a k i n g a small number o f i n s t a n c e s , a n d t h e n making

f u l l y - d o c u m e n t e d a n d p r e c i s e l y - c o n t r o l l e d c o m p a r i s o n s among

them. D a v i d G a u n t , f o r i n s t a n c e ! l o o k e d a t t h e v a r i e t i e s o f

f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e i n c e n t r a l Sweden d u r i n g t h e s e v e n t e e n t h a n d

e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y b y c lose c o m p a r i s o n o f j u s t f i v e p a r i s h e s ,

He d i d n o t c h o o s e t h e f i v e p l a c e s a s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a m p l e ;

h e c h o s e them b e c a u s e . t h e y h a d s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t

e c o n o m i c b a s e s , a n d b e c a u s e t h e y had r i c h s o u r c e s , i n c l u d i n g

o b i t u a r i e s o f t h e i r p a r i s h i o n e r s , One p a r i s h i n c l u d e d many

m i n e r s a n d small-scale m e t a l - w o r k e r s , a n o t h e r c o n s i s t e d

l a r g e l y o f p e a s a n t s who h a u l e d g o o d s i n t h e o f f - s e a s o n , a n d

t h r e e h o u s e d l a r g e es ta tes w h i c h e m p l o y e d many d a y - l a b o r e r s .

G a u n t ' s c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e p a r i s h e s b r o u g h t o u t t h e g r e a t

p o p u l a t i o n m o b i l i t y o f t h e e s t a t e - d o m i n a t e d p a r i s h e s : o f t h e

p e o p l e o v e r 60 who d i e d i n t h e p a r i s h e s t o n l y 5 t o 26 p e r c e n t

had b e e n b o r n i n t h e same p a r i s h , I n t h e p e a s a n t a n d

s e m i - i n d u s t r i a l p a r i s h e s r t h e p e r c e n t a g e s n a t i v e were 59 a n d

67. The p e a s a n t a n d s e m i - i n d u s t r i a l p a r i s h e s t f u r t h e r m o r e t

had s u b s t a n t i a l l y l a r g e r h o u s e h o l d s t more c o m p l e x h o u s e h o l d s

( e .g . i n c l u d i n g a d u l t o f f s p r i n g ) a n d more s i n g l e p e o p l e .

G a u n t r e l a tes t h e d i f f e r e n c e s e f f e c t i v e l y t o t h e h o u s e h o l d ' s

c o n t r o l o v e r i t s own l a n d a n d l i v e l i h o o d .

O t h e r s o c i a l h i s t o r i a n s s a c r i f i c e some o f t h e r i c h n e s s r

b u t s t i l l c a r r y o u t f i n e c o m p a r i s o n s o v e r l a r g e n u m b e r s o f

o b s e r v a t i o n s . T h a t almost a l w a y s r e q u i r e s q u a n t i f i c a t i o n .

S o o n e r o r l a t e r a l m o s t a l l a n a l y s t s o f i n d u s t r i a l c o n f l i c t

f i n d t h a t i n o r d e r t o k e e p t h e i r g r i p o n t h e many f a c t o r s

c a u s i n g s t r i k e s t o o c c u r a n d e n d u r e t h e y a re b e t t e r o f f u s i n g

q u a n t i t a t i v e c o m p a r i s o n s among i n d u s t r i e s t l o c a l i t i e s t a n d

p e r i o d s . A g a i n t h e n a t i o n a l s t u d i e s o f f e r t i l i t y d e c l i n e i n

E u r o p e c a r r i e d o n b y A n s l e y C o a l e a n d h i s a s s o c i a t e s h a v e

g e n e r a l l y f o l l o w e d a s e t o f smal l g e o g r a p h i c areas c o v e r i n g

a n e n t i r e c o u n t r y f r o m c e n s u s to c e n s u s f o r a c e n t u r y o r

more: o n l y q u a n t i f i c a t i o n h a s made t h a t e f f o r t f e a s i b l e .

S t i l l o t h e r s d o some o f e a c h : c o m b i n e a m o d e r a t e l y r i c h

a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a t i o n o v e r many cases w i t h a v e r y r i c h

a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a t i o n among a small number o f casest i n h o p e s

t h a t t h e two a n a l y s e s w i l l c o m p l e m e n t a n d c o n f i r m e a c h o t h e r .

T r a c i n g v a r i a t i o n s i n H u n g a r i a n h o u s e h o l d s t r u c t u r e r R u d o l f

A n d o r k a a n d Tdmas ~ a r a g 6 u n d e r t a k e c o m p a r i s o n s among e l e v e n

s c a t t e r e d c o m m u n i t i e s f o r w h i c h h o u s e h o l d l i s t i n g s a r e

a v a i l a b l e . F o r d i f f e r e n t s u b s e t s o f t h e c o m m u n i t i e s t t h e y

c o m p a r e o v e r a l l h o u s e h o l d c o m p o s i t i o n a g e d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f

d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f h o u s e h o l d m e m b e r s , a n d k i n s h i p r e l a t i o n s

w i t h i n h o u s e h o l d s . T h e n t h e y u s e c e n s u s e s t o c o m p a r e w h o l e

c o u n t i e s o v e r m o s t o f H u n g a r y . ' L i k e D a v i d G a u n t f o r Sweden

t h e y e s t a b l i s h i n H u n g a r y a s t r o n g r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

c o n t r o l o f p r o p e r t y ( a l t h o u g h i n H u n g a r y t h e w e a l t h i e r

p e a s a n t s w e r e o f t e n t e c h n i c a l l y s e r f s ) a n d l a r g e , c o m p l e x

h o u s e h o l d s . C o n t r a r y t o w i d e s p r e a d o p i n i o n t h e y a l s o f i n d

i n d i c a t i o n s o f more e x t e n s i v e b i r t h c o n t r o l a n d lower

f e r t i l i t y i n l a r g e , c o m p l e x h o u s e h o l d s . T h e i r l a r g e - s c a l e

a n d small-scale a n a l y s e s c o m b i n e t o p o r t r a y t h e c o m p l e x

h o u s e h o l d a s a n a r r a n g e m e n t t h a t s t a b i l i z e s t h e c o n n e c t i o n

b e t w e e n a l i n e a g e a n d i t s l a n d b y s t r o n g c o n s t r a i n t s o v e r t h e

m a r r i a g e , m i g r a t i o n , a n d w o r k o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f i t s members .

I n a l l t h e s e cases, s o c i a l h i s t o r i a n s f i n d t h e m s e l v e s

d o c u m e n t i n g l a r g e s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e s , d e p i c t i n g o r d i n a r y

peop le ' s e x p e r i e n c e s , a n d c o n n e c t i n g t h e t w o . R e s u l t :

i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f e v e r y d a y l i f e i n t o t h e g r e a t m o v e m e n t s o f

h i s t o r y .

Retouching t h e P o r t r a i t

A s a r e s u l t o f r e c e n t d e c a d e s ' work i n s o c i a l h i s t o r y ,

o u r p i c t u r e of g e n e r a l c h a n g e s i n E u r o p e a n l i f e o v e r t h e l a s t

f e w c e n t u r i e s h a s a l t e r e d g r e a t l y . N o t l o n g a g o , h i s t o r i a n s

t h o u g h t , a n d t a u g h t , a E u r o p e p e o p l e d m a i n l y b y a n i m m o b i l e ,

t r a d i t i o n a l p e a s a n t mass , d o m i n a t e d by c h u r c h a n d s t a t e ,

w h i c h b r o k e a p a r t a f t e r 1 7 5 0 w i t h a n i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n

f o l l o w e d b y a series o f d e m o c r a t i c r e v o l u t i o n s ,

W i t n e s s t h e 1 9 5 0 e d i t i o n of R , R . P a l m e r ' s f i r s t - r a t e

s u r v e y , A H i s t o r y o f t h e Modern World, P a l m e r ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n

o f modern E u r o p e o u t s i d e o f 1 t a l y b e g i n s w i t h t h e

f if t e e n t h - c e n t u r y N e w M o n a r c h s ( H e n r y V I I , L o u i s X I , a n d

o t h e r s ) who e s t a b l i s h e d r o y a l power a n d s t a b l e g o v e r n m e n t ,

a n d t h u s l a i d a p o l i t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n f o r a Commercial

R e v o l u t i o n . The C o m m e r c i a l R e v o l u t i o n i n c l u d e s a n e x p a n s i o n

o f c o t t a g e i n d u s t r y , i n w h i c h r u r a l p e o p l e p r o d u c e d a t home

o n o r d e r s f r o m l o c a l m e r c h a n t s . A s a r e s u l t o f r i s i n g

p r i c e s , p e a s a n t s p r o s p e r e d a n d l a n d l o r d s f a 1 tered i n w e s t e r n

E u r o p e ; i n e a s t e r n E u r o p e , h o w e v e r l a n d l o r d s t h e m s e l v e s

r e t a i n e d c o n t r o l o f p r o d u c t i o n , t h e r e b y t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f

p r i c e rises w h i l e s u b o r d i n a t i n g m a n o r i a l w o r k e r s t o t h e i r

p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l . P a l m e r ' s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t i n u e s : A s m o n a r c h s f o r t i f i e d

t h e i r s ta tes f o r war, c o n q u e s t , a n d i n t e r n a l c o n t r o l ,

w o r l d w i d e e x p l o r a t i o n a n d t h e g r o w t h o f s c i e n t i f i c t h i n k i n g

c o m b i n e d t o g e n e r a t e p r o s p e r i t y a n d modern ways :

. . . t h e g r e a t e s t s o c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h

c e n t u r y ! w i t h t h e p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e p r o g r e s s o f

k n o w l e d g e , w a s t h e f a c t t h a t E u r o p e ! or t h e A t l a n t i c

r e g i o n o f E u r o p e n o r t h o f S p a i n became i n c o m p a r a b l y

more w e a l t h y t h a n a n y o t h e r p a r t o f t h e w o r l d . The new

w e a l t h , i n t h e w i d e s t s e n s e ! m e a n i n g c o n v e n i e n c e s i n

e v e r y f o r m ! w a s p r o d u c e d b y t h e i n c r e a s i n g s c i e n t i f i c

a n d t e c h n i c a l k n o w l e d g e t w h i c h i n t u r n i t h e l p e d t o

p r o d u c e ; a n d t h e two t o g e t h e r ! more w e a l t h a n d more

k n o w l e d g e , h e l p e d t o f o r m o n e o f t h e most f a r - r e a c h i n g

i d e a s o f modern times! t h e i d e a o f p r o g r e s s " ( p p ,

2 6 4 - 2 6 5 ) .

P a l m e r p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e new w e a l t h d i d n o t d e p e n d o n

c o n c e n t r a t e d i n d u s t r y ! b u t " r e p r e s e n t e d t h e f l o w e r i n g o f t h e

o l d e r m e r c h a n t c a p i t a l i s m ! d o m e s t i c i n d u s t r y a n d m e r c a n t i l i s t

g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c i e s . . . " ( P - 264) . Then came t h e

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y :

The p r o c e s s e s o f i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n i n t h e l o n g r u n were

t o r e v o l u t i o n i z e t h e l i v e s o f men e v e r y w h e r e . I n t h e

s h o r t r u n t i n t h e g e n e r a t i o n f o l l o w i n g t h e p e a c e o f

V i e n n a ! t h e same p r o c e s s e s had p r o n o u n c e d p o l i t i c a l

e f f e c t s . The I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n b y g r e a t l y

e n l a r g i n g b o t h t h e b u s i n e s s a n d t h e w a g e - e a r n i n g

f a l l i n g d e a t h r a t e s r a t h e r t h a n t o i n c r e a s i n g b i r t h

r a t e s . P o p u l a t i o n s g r e w b e c a u s e more p e o p l e l i v e d

l o n g e r , n o t b e c a u s e more were b o r n . I t is p r o b a b l e t h a t

a b e t t e r p r e s e r v a t i o n o f c i v i l o r d e r r e d u c e d d e a t h r a t e s

i n b o t h A s i a a n d E u r o p e . I n E u r o p e t h e o r g a n i z e d

s o v e r e i g n s t a t e s , a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h

c e n t u r y , p u t a n e n d t o a l o n g p e r i o d o f c i v i l wars,

s t o p p i n g t h e c h r o n i c v i o l e n c e a n d m a r a u d i n g , w i t h t h e

a c c o m p a n y i n g i n s e c u r i t y o f a g r i c u l t u r e a n d o f f a m i i l y t

l i f e , w h i c h were more d e a d l y t h a n wars f o u g h t b y armies

b e t w e e n g o v e r n m e n t s . . . I n E u r o p e , s o o n e r t h a n i n

A s i a o t h e r c a u s e s o f g r o w t h were a t . work b e y o n d t h e

m a i n t e n a n c e o f c i v i l peace. They i n c l u d e d t h e

l i b e r a t i o n f r o m c e r t a i n e n d e m i c d i s e a s e s , b e g i n n i n g w i t h

t h e s u b s i d i n g o f b u b o n i c p l a g u e i n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h

c e n t u r y a n d t h e c o n q u e s t o f s m a l l p o x i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h ;

t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f a g r i c u l t u r a l o u t p u t , b e g i n n i n g

n o t a b l y i n E n g l a n d a b o u t 1 7 5 0 ; t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , w h i c h , b y r o a d c a n a l , a n d r a i l r o a d

made l o c a l i z e d f a m i n e a t h i n g o f t h e p a s t s i n c e f o o d

c o u l d b e moved i n t o a r e a s o f t e m p o r a r y s h o r t a g e ; a n d ,

l a s t l y , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m a c h i n e i n d u s t r y , w h i c h

a l l o w e d l a r g e p o p u l a t i o n s t o s u b s i s t i n E u r o p e b y

t r a d i n g w i t h p e o p l e s o v e r s e a s ( p . 569) .

T h e r e a f t e r E u r o p e a n s -- t h e F r e n c h f i r s t o f a l l -- b e g a n t o

c o n t r o l b i r t h s t a s m a l l - f a m i l y s y s t e m came t o p r e v a i l ! a n d

p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h s l o w e d . F a s t u r b a n i z a t i o n a n d v a s t

e m i g r a t i o n c o m p l e m e n t e d t h e f e r t i l i t y d e c l i n e . The h u g e ,

i m p e r s o n a l I anonymous c i t y e p i t o m i z e d t h e new s o c i e t y t h a t

emerged f r o m t h e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n .

P a l m e r ' s d e f t s u m m a r i e s o f E u r o p e a n s o c i a l h i s t o r y , a s

u n d e r s t o o d i n 1 9 5 0 1 p r o v i d e u s w i t h a b a s e l i n e f o r e x a m i n i n g

. w h a t s o c i a l h i s t o r i a n s h a v e a c c o m p l i s h e d s i n c e t h e n . A

P a l m e r w r i t i n g i n 1 9 8 5 would make s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s : H e

would a c k n o w l e d g e t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f f e r t i l i t y i n c r e a s e s t o

e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h I stress t h e

p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n o f t h e " p e a s a n t " p o p u l a t i o n b e f o r e 1 8 0 0 r

a n d d a t e a number o f c h a n g e s i n f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e w e l l b e f o r e

t h e i n d u s t r i a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d f e r t i l i t y d e c l i n e o f t h e

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . H e would less c o n f i d e n t l y a s s e r t

~ u r o p e ' s e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y e c o n o m i c s u p e r i o r i t y t o t h e rest

of t h e w o r l d . A 1 9 8 5 P a l m e r would r e d u c e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f

t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f s e c u l a r p r o l e t a r i a n

l i f e t a n d s h i f t e m p h a s i s f r o m t e c h n o l o g i c a l t o w a r d

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a n g e . S o c i a l h i s t o r i a n s h a v e o f f e r e d m a j o r

r e v i s i o n s t o 1 9 5 0 ' s k n o w l e d g e .

Some of t h e r e v i s i o n s are e s s e n t i a l l y t e c h n i c a l . A s a

c o n s e q u e n c e o f s o c i a l - h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h t f o r e x a m p l e t w e

now know t h a t E u r o p e a n p o p u l a t i o n s r e c u p e r a t e d v e r y q u i c k l y

f rom t h e g r e a t s h o c k s o f m o r t a l i t y o c c a s i o n e d b y f a m i n e a n d

disease -- n o t t o m e n t i o n t h a t i n t h e g r e a t f a m i n e s a f t e r

1 5 0 0 p e o p l e r a r e l y s t a r v e d t o d e a t h , b u t i n s t e a d became more

v u l n e r a b l e t o v a r i o u s d i s e a s s , C r i s e s a c c e l e r a t e d t h e d e a t h s

o f t h e k i n d s of p e o p l e who a l r e a d y had r e l a t i v e l y h i g h r i s k s

o f d e a t h , I n t h e a f t e r m a t h s o f c r ises , m a r r i a g e s g e n e r a l l y

a c e l e r a t e d a n d f e r t i l i t y r o s e . The m o s t p l a u s i b l e

e x p l a n a t i o n is t h a t t h e h e i g h t e n e d m o r t a l i t y o p e n e d u p n i c h e s

-- f a r m s t j o b s , h o u s e h o l d p o s i t i o n s -- p e r m i t t i n g m a r r i a g e t o

p e o p l e who w o u l d o t h e r w i s e h a v e m a r r i e d l a t e r , or n o t a t a l l .

T h a t series o f d i s c o v e r i e s d o e s n o t c o n t r a d i c t a n y m a j o r

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e modern e r a , b u t i t d o e s g i v e t h e l i e t o

two common n o t i o n s : first, t h a t b e f o r e r e c e n t c e n t u r i e s

E u r o p e a n p o p u l a t i o n s d e c l i n e d o r g r e w m a i n l y a s a r e s u l t o f

t h e p r e s e n c e or a b s e n c e o f wars a n d o t h e r d e m o g r a p h i c

d i s a s t e r s : s e c o n d t t h a t i n t h e a b s e n c e o f crisis E u r o p e a n

p r e i n d u s t r i a l p o u l a t i o n s were b r e e d i n g a t t h e l i m i t o f t h e i r

c a p a c i t y . T h u s a t e c h n i c a l r e v i s i o n s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t s

o u r s e n s e o f t h e m i s e r y o f soc i a l l i f e , a n d l i m i t s t h e

e x p l a n a t i o n s w e may p l a u s i b l y o f f e r f o r p o p u l a r a c t i o n o r

i n a c t i o n .

Some o f t h e r e v i s i o n s a re c h i e f l y f a c t u a l , S o c i a l

h i s t o r i a n s h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t b e f o r e 1 8 0 0

many E u r o p e a n v i l l a g e s had r a t e s o f p o p u l a t i o n t u r n o v e r w e l l

a b o v e 20 p e r c e n t p e r y e a r : r u r a l a reas w i t h many

w a g e - l a b o r e r s e s p e c i a l l y l e a k e d r e s i d e n t s i n c e s s a n t l y . The

f a c t c o n t r a d i c t s a n y d e p i c t i o n ' o f " p r e i n d u s t r i a l n

p o p u l a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y o f r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s t a s s t o d g i l y

i m m o b i l e . ' T h e f i n d i n g t h e r e f o r e raises d o u b t s a b o u t a c c o u n t s

o f n i n e t e e n t h - a n d t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y p o p u l a r p o l i t i c a l

movements a s r e s p o n s e s . t o r i s i n g m o b i l i t y a n d t o t h e b r e a k i n g

u p o f s e l f - c o n t a i n e d i m m o b i l e c o m m u n i t i e s , S i n c e s u c h

a c c o u n t s a b o u n d , t h e f a c t u a l r e v i s i o n m a k e s a d i f f e r e n c e t o

h i s t o r i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

Some r e c e n t s o c i a l h i s t o r y , f u r t h e r m o r e , h a s d i r e c t l y

a t t a c k e d p r e v a i l i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f E u r o p e a n h i s t o r i c a l

e x p e r i e n c e . A g e n e r a t i o n o f " h i s t o r i a n s f r o m below," f o r

e x a m p l e , h a v e n o t s u c c e e d e d i n c r e a t i n g a u n i f i e d p o p u l a r

h i s t o r y . B u t t h e y h a v e e f f e c t i v e l y d e s t r o y e d t h e o l d

c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f E u r o p e a n w o r k e r s a n d p e a s a n t s a s a dumb!

s low-moving mass t h a t r e a c t e d m a i n l y t o e x t r e m e h a r d s h i p a n d

o n l y d e v e l o p e d p o l i t i c a l a w a r e n e s s w i t h t h e v a r i o u s

m o b i l i z a t i o n s o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h a n d t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s .

Social h i s t o r i a n s h a v e r e p l a c e d t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n w i t h a

m u l t i p l i c i t y o f p e a s a n t s a n d w o r k e r s , e a c h g r o u p f o l l o w i n g a

r e l a t i v e l y w e l l - d e f i n e d p a t h o f c h a n g i n g i n t e r e s t s , e a c h

a c t i n g or f a i l i n g t o a c t a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h o s e c h a n g i n g

i n t e r e s t s ,

I n t h e v e r y p r o c e s s o f a r g u i n g o v e r t h e p r o p e r

d i s t i n c t i o n s , o v e r t h e i n c i d e n c e o f c r u c i a l c h a n g e s i n

p r o d u c t i o n a n d r e p r o d u c t i o n , a n d o v e r t h e e x a c t c o n d i t i o n s

p r o m o t i n g a c t i o n o r i n a c t i o n , f u r t h e r m o r e s o c i a l h i s t o r i a n s

h a v e g e n e r a l l y a d o p t e d a b r o a d l y M a r x i s t c o n c l u s i o n : t h a t

c h a n g i n g i n t e r e s t s r o o t e d i n t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o f p r o d u c t i o n

a c c o u n t f o r m a j o r a l t e r a t i o n s i n t h e c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n o f

E u r o p e ' s s u b o r d i n a t e classes. Here n o s i n g l e f a c t o r

t e c h n i c a l d i s c o v e r y is a t i s s u e ; s o c i a l h i s t o r y h a s i m p l a n t e d

a new i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a major se t o f c h a n g e s .

A t t h e b r o a d e s t l e v e l , E u r o p e a n s o c i a l h i s t o r i a n s h a v e

d i s l o d g e d t w o f u n d a m e n t a l i d e a s a b o u t E u r o p e a n h i s t o r y s i n c e

1500: 1) t h e i d e a o f a s i n g l e s h a r p b r e a k w i t h t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l p a s t 1 d i v i d i n g h i s t o r y i n t o b e f o r e a n d a f t e r , a

t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y - d r i v e n i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n r 2 ) t h e i d e a o f

a g e n e r a l p r o c e s s , f o l l o w e d i n c o u n t r y a f t e r c o u n t r y l i n

w h i c h a n i n e x o r a b l e l o g i c o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , d e p e n d i n g o n

t h e e x p a n s i o n o f m a r k e t s a n d t h e a d v a n c e o f t e c h n i c a l

k n o w l e d g e i m p e l s soc i a l e v o l u t i o n -- w h e t h e r " a d v a n c e " o r

" d e c l i n e " -- a n d t h u s p o s e s r e p e a t e d p r o b l e m s o f i n t e g r a t i o n

t o r a p i d l y - c h a n g i n g soc ie t ies . T h o s e c o n n e c t e d i d e a s l o n c e

t h e c h i e f d e v i c e s f o r o r d e r i n g t h e r e c e n t e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e

E u r o p e a n p o p u l a c e , a r e t h e p r i n c i p a l c a s u a l t i e s o f s o c i a l

h i s t o r y ' s v i c t o r i e s .

I n c r e a s i n g l y , t h e n , r e s e a r c h i n s o c i a l h i s t o r y h a s

f o r c e d a r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e g r e a t m o b i l i t y o f E u r o p e a n r u r a l

l i f e b e f o r e 1 7 5 0 ; o f s u b s t a n t i a l s w i n g s i n t h e ra tes o f

b i r t h , d e a t h , a n d m a r r i a g e l o n g b e f o r e o u r own time; o f

e x t e n s i v e r u r a l i n v o l v e m e n t i n r e g i o n a l n a t i o n a l a n d

i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t s ; o f w i d e s p r e a d m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d

s i g n i f i c a n t p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e w e l l b e f o r e

t h e d a y o f f a c t o r i e s a n d s t e a m p o w e r ; o f s t r u g g l e s b e t w e e n

e x p a n d i n g s t a t e s a n d p o p u l a t i o n s t h a t f o u g h t s t a t e m a k e r s '

d e m a n d s f o r more a n d more r e s o u r c e s ; o f t h e r o o t i n g o f

d e m a n d s f o r p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y i n r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e

a g g r a n d i z e m e n t s o f s t a t e s a n d c a p i t a l i s t s .

Capital and Coercion

A n o t h e r s h i f t i n o r i e n t a t i o n fo l lows f r o m t h e l a s t f e w

d e c a d e s t work i n E u r o p e a n s o c i a l h i s t o r y : a d i m i n u t i o n o f t h e

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ' s p l a c e a s t h e p i v o t o f modern s o c i a l

c h a n g e . The move t o w a r d i m p l o s i o n a n d c e n t r a l i z a t i o n r on t h e

o n e h a n d a n d t h e s h e e r q u a n t i t y o f d i s p l a c e m e n t , on t h e

o t h e r r c e r t a i n l y m a r k e d o f f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a s a

c r i t i c a l p e r i o d o f c h a n g e . Y e t t h e s t a t e m a k i n g o f t h e

s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s r t h e p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n

o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h a n d e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s r a n d t h e

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e x p a n s i o n o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y a l l r i v a l

t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s i n t h e i r i m p a c t on

r o u t i n e soc i a l l i f e .

The d r a m a o f " b e f o r e " a n d " a f t e r n s e r v e s p o o r l y a s a n

o r g a n i z i n g p r i n c i p l e f o r E u r o p e a n s o c i a l h i s t o r y , w h e t h e r t h e

p i v o t is t h e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n r t h e o n s e t o f

m o d e r n i z a t i o n o r s o m e t h i n g e l s e , The t r u e p r o b l e m f a l l s

i n t o t h r e e p a r t s :

1. s p e c i f y i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r t i m i n g a n d r e g i o n a l

i n c i d e n c e o f a ) t h e g r o w t h o f n a t i o n a l s t a t e s ! b )

t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c a p i t a l i s m ! c ) t h e i n t e r a c t i o n

b e t w e e n t h e m ; t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n m u s t k e e p s i g h t o f

t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p h e n o m e n a c a l l e d " s t a t e s n a n d

" c a p i t a l i s m n t h e m s e l v e s a l t e r e d r a d i c a l l y b e t w e e n

t h e s i x t e e n t h a n d t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s ! a n d t h a t

t h e r e f o r e n e i t h e r t h e g r o w t h o f n a t i o n a l s t a t e s n o r

t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f n a t i o n a l s t a t e s c o n s t i t u t e s a

u n i l i n e a r q u a n t i t a t i v e p r o g r e s s i o n o v e r t h e e n t i r e

p e r i o d s i n c e 1500;

2. t r a c i n g t h r o u g h t i m e a n d s p a c e t h e v a r y i n g

e x p e r i e n c e s o f small soc ia l u n i t s : i n d i v i d u a l s k i n

g r o u p s , h o u s e h o l d s , n e i g h b o r h o o d s ! s h o p s , commu-

n i t i e s ! a n d o t h e r s :

3. e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e c a u s e - a n d - e f f e c t c o n n e c t i o n s

b e t w e e n t h e two se t s o f c h a n g e s .

T h a t is a l a r g e p r o g r a m .

Before r e v i e w i n g t h e f a c t s o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c h a n g e ,

l e t u s c o n s i d e r t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p r o b l e m . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , w h a t

d o e s t h e t h r e e - p o i n t p r o g r a m e n t a i l ? C a p i t a l i s m is a s y s t e m

o f p r o d u c t i o n i n w h i c h p e o p l e who c o n t r o l c a p i t a l make t h e

basic d e c i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r o d u c t i v e u s e o f l a n d , l a b o r ,

a n d c a p i t a l , a n d p r o d u c e b y m e a n s o f l a b o r p o w e r b o u g h t f r o m

w o r k e r s w h o s e h o u s e h o l d s s u r v i v e t h r o u g h t h e sa le o f l a b o r

p o w e r . I n g e n e r a l terms, t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c a p i t a l i s m m a k e s

t h r e e c o n f l i c t s s a l i e n t :

1. t h e o p p o s i t i o n o f c a p i t a l a n d l a b o r

2. t h e o p p o s i t i o n o f c a p i t a l i s t s t o o t h e r s who claim

c o n t r o l o v e r t h e same f a c t o r s o f p r o d u c t i o n

3. m a r k e t c o m p e t i t i o n : b u y e r s - b u y e r s , b u y e r s - s e l l e r s ,

sellers-sellers

A l l t h r e e c o n f l i c t s c a n d i v i d e a n e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n i n t w o .

The g r o w t h o f n a t i o n a l s t a t e s m e a n s t h e i n c r e a s i n g

c o n t r o l of t h e r e s o u r c e s i n a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e , c o n t i g u o u s

t e r r i t o r y b y a n o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t is f o r m a l l y a u t o n o m o u s ,

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d f r o m o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s , c e n t r a l i z e d ,

i n t e r n a l l y c o o r d i n a t e d a n d i n p o s s e s s i o n o f major

c o n c e n t r a t e d means o f c o e r c i o n . L i k e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

c a p i t a l i s m , s t a t e m a k i n g f o l l o w s a t r i p l e l og i c :

1. t h e e x t r a c t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s f r o m t h e s u b j e c t

p o p u l a t i o n

2. c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n a g e n t s o f t h e s t a t e a n d a g e n t s

o f o t h e r g o v e r n m e n t s i n s i d e a n d o u t s i d e t h e

t e r r i t o r y

3. c o m p e t i t i o n among o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h a t a re s u b j e c t t o

t h e s t a t e f o r r e s o u r c e s c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e s t a t e

A g a i n , a l l t h r e e c o n f l i c t s c a n , i n p r i n c i p l e , p r o d u c e

f u n d a m e n t a l d i v i s i o n s o f t h e e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n .

I f c a p i t a l i s m a n d s t a t e m a k i n g were t o p r o c e e d

s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t w e m i g h t r e a s o n a b l y e x p e c t a c c o m o d a t i o n

b e t w e e n c a p i t a l i s t s a n d s t a t e m a k e r s . Here is a n i d e a l i z e d

s e q u e n c e :

early: c a p i t a l i s t p r o p e r t y c r e a t e d a s s t a t e m a k e r s

s t r u g g l e t o e x t r a c t r e s o u r c e s a n d c h e c k r i v a l s ; major

t h e m e s o f c o n f l i c t : e x p r o p r i a t i o n , i m p o s i t i o n o f s t a t e

c o n t r o l i m p o s i t i o n o f c a p i t a l i s t c o n t r o l t a n d

r e s i s t a n c e t o a l l o f them;

late: w i t h i n a n e x i s t i n g s t a t e a n d e s t a b l i s h e d

c a p i t a l i s t p r o p e r t y , major c o n f l i c t s : c a p i t a l - l a b o r

o p p o s i t i o n t m a r k e t c o m p e t i t i o n t a t t e m p t s t o c o n t r o l t h e

s t a t e a n d its r e s o u r c e s .

T h e s e a r e t e n d e n c i e s . R a t h e r t h a n a r a p i d t r a n s i t i o n w e

m i g h t e x p e c t a g r a d u a l s h i f t o f t h e b u l k o f c o n f l i c t s f r o m

t y p e 1 t o t y p e 2. I n a d d i t i o n t h e p a t t e r n s h o u l d d e p e n d o n

t h e r e l a t i v e r a p i d i t y o f t h e t w o processes; w h e r e c a p i t a l i s m

comes e a r l y a n d s t a t e m a k i n g l a t e , f o r e x a m p l e t w e may

r e a s o n a b l y e x p e c t t o f i n d c a p i t a l i s t s t h e m s e l v e s o p p o s i n g a

r e l a t i v e l y e f f e c t i v e r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e s t a t e ' s e x p a n s i o n o f

i ts e x t r a c t i v e a n d c o e r c i v e p o w e r . Where s t a t e m a k i n g l e a d s t

i n c o n t r a s t t w e a r e l i k e l y t o f i n d more i n t e n s e p o p u l a r

r e s i s t a n c e t o e x t r a c t i o n t i f o n l y b e c a u s e c a p i t a l i s t s h a v e

d o n e less t o e x p r o p r i a t e a n d m o n e t i z e t h e f a c t o r s o f

p r o d u c t i o n ,

So, a t l e a s t ; r u n s t h e t h e o r y . T h e s e s t a t e m e n t s f a l l

f a r s h o r t o f a d o c u m e n t e d h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t . I n d e e d t h e y

c o n t r a d i c t a c c o u n t s t h a t many p e o p l e h a v e f o u n d p l a u s i b l e -- n o t a b l y t h e c l a s s i c n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a c c o u n t s i n whch r a p i d

soc ia l c h a n g e d r i v e n b y d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n d t e c h n i c a l

i n n o v a t i o n , d i s r u p t s s t a b l e , immobile s o c i e t i e s a n d t h e r e b y

p r o m o t e s d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n d i s o r d e r , a n d p r o t e s t , My a c c o u n t

makes t h e c o n f l i c t s t h a t a c c o m p a n y c a p i t a l i s m a n d s t a t e m a k i n g

i n t r i n s i c t o t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t r c o n s e q u e n c e s o f o p p o s i n g

i n t e r e s t s b u i l t i n t o t h e i r v e r y s t r u c t u r e .

E u r o p e a n s o c i a l h i s t o r y h e r e sets y e t a n o t h e r c h a l l e n g e :

t o a d j u d i c a t e b e t w e e n t h e s o r t o f i n t e r e s t - o r i e n t e d a c c o u n t

. o f s t a t e m a k i n g a n d c a p i t a l i s m I h a v e s k e t c h e d a n d c l a s s i c

c h a n g e - d i s o r d e r a c c o u n t s o f t h e same c h a n g e s .

What Happened i n History

N i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y o b s e r v e r s who a r t i c u l a t e d t h e c l a s s i c

c h a n g e - d i s o r d e r a c c o u n t s were r i g h t o n o n e c o u n t : Great

a l t e r a t i o n s i n soc ia l l i f e were o c c u r r i n g . L e t m e o f f e r a

r a p i d summary o f t h e c h a n g e s b r o u g h t b y t h e n i n e t e e n t h

c e n t u r y r w i t h o u t g u a r a n t e e i n g t h a t most E u r o p e a n soc i a l

h i s t o r i a n s w o u l d a g r e e w i t h my a c c o u n t .

F o r s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h e n i n e t e e n t h , i n d u s t r i a l

e x p a n s i o n o c c u r r e d m a i n l y i n small t o w n s a n d r u r a l areas.

Small c a p i t a l i s t s m u l t i p l i e d r a p i d l y . T h e y d i d n o t work

c h i e f l y a s m a n u f a c t u r e r s i n o u r s e n s e o f t h e word . They

o p e r a t e d i n s t e a d a s m e r c h a n t s , g i v i n g o u t work t o f o r m a l l y

i n d e p e n d e n t g r o u p s o f w o r k e r s , most o f them o r g a n i z e d i n -

h o u s e h o l d s . The soc ia l r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n c a p i t a l i s t s a n d

w o r k e r s r a n g e d f r o m v a r i o u s " p u r c h a s e " a r r a n g e m e n t s i n w h i c h

p r o d u c e r s owned t h e t o o l s 1 p r e m i s e s , r a w m a t e r i a l s , a n d

f i n i s h e d g o o d s t o v a r i o u s " p u t t i n g - o u t " a r r a n g e m e n t s i n w h i c h

t h e m e r c h a n t owned some o r a l l o f t h e m ; o n t h e w h o l e t t h e

l e s s w o r k e r s o w n e d , t h e g r e a t e r t h e p o w e r o f m e r c h a n t s ,

T h e s e s y s t e m s a c c u m u l a t e d c a p i t a l , b u t s e t s e r i o u s l i m i t s on

i t s c o n c e n t r a t i o n . The m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f s e m i - i n d e p e n d e n t

p r o d u c e r s i n h o u s e h o l d s a n d small s h o p s t h e r e f o r e a c c o u n t e d

f o r most o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g ' s l a r g e i n c r e a s e .

C o n t r a r y t o l a t e r p r e j u d i c e s , t h e E u r o p e a n p o p u l a t i o n s

i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e m e r c h a n t - d o m i n a t e d f o r m s o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g

a n d i n commercial a g r i c u l t u r e moved a g r e a t d e a l . They

moved , h o w e v e r , m a i n l y w i t h i n r e g i o n a l l a b o r m a r k e t s o r i n

l a r g e s y s t e m s o f c i r c u l a r m i g r a t i o n . B o t h r e g i o n a l l a b o r

m a r k e t s a n d . l o n g - d i s t a n c e c i r c u i t s l e f t some m i g r a n t s i n

c i t i e s l b u t a l t o g e t h e r m i g r a t i o n f e r t i l i t y t a n d m o r t a l i t y

p r o d u c e d o n l y m o d e s t r a t e s o f u r b a n g r o w t h . C i t i e s i n c r e a s e d

a n d l o s t p o p u l a t i o n l a r g e l y a s a f u n c t i o n o f l e v e l s o f

a c t i v i t y i n t h e i r h i n t e r l a n d s .

The n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y c h a n g e d many o f t h e s e t r a i t s ,

C a p i t a l c o n c e n t r a t e d . I n d i v i d u a l c a p i t a l i s t s a n d o r g a n i z e d

f i r m s b e g a n t o c o n t r o l much g r e a t e r p r o d u c t i v e means t h n t h e y

had p r e v i o u s l y commanded. C a p i t a l i s t s s e i z e d h o l d o f

p r o d u c t i v e p r o c e s s e s . I n s t e a d o f c o n t i n u i n g t o o r g a n i z e

m a n u f a c t u r i n g a r o u n d s u p p l i e d o f s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g l abor t t h e y

i n c r e a s i n g l y p l a c e d p r o d u c t i o n n e a r m a r k e t s a n d s o u r c e s o f

e n e r g y o r raw materials . P r o d u c t i o n b e g a n t o e d g e o u t

e x c h a n g e a s t h e p i v o t o f c a p i t a l i s t soc i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

A s a r e s u l t , t h e a c t i v e s i t e s o f p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n

s h i f t e d from c o u n t r y t o c i t y . More a n d more p r o d u c t i o n w e n t

on i n l a r g e f i r m s e m p l o y i n g d i s c i p l i n e d w a g e - e a r n e r s .

W o r k e r s m i g r a t e d f r o m d i s p e r s e d i n d u s t r i a l h a m l e t s ! v i l l a g e s !

a n d t o w n s .

T h i s u r b a n i m p l o s i o n o f c a p i t a l a n d l a b o r a c c e l e r a t e d

r u r a l - u r b a n m i g r a t i o n ! s p u r r e d u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h /

d e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d l a r g e s e c t i o n s o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e a n d

a c c e n t u a t e d d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n town a n d c o u n t r y ; t h e

d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n i n d u s t r i a l c i t i e s a n d t h e i r a g r i c u l t u r a l

h i n t e r l a n d s r e a p p e a r e d w i t h a v e n g e a n c e . M e c h a n i z a t i o n o f

p r o d u c t i o n f a c i l i t a t e d t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c a p i t a l a n d t h e

s u b o r d i n a t i o n of l abor .

The c o i n c i d e n c e o f i m p l o s i o n a n d m e c h a n i z a t i o n c r e a t e d

t h e i l l u s i o n o f a n " i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n " d r i v e n b y

t e c h n o l o g i c a l c h a n g e . A l t h o u g h new t e c h n o l o g i e s c e r t a i n l y

c o n t r i b u . t e d t o t h e f i x i n g d i s c i p l i n i n g a n d i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n

of l a b o r t much o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y e x p a n s i o n o f

p r o d u c t i o n p r e c e d e d t h e s p r e a d o f t h e f a c t o r y a n d a s s e m b l y

l i n e , o c c u r r e d w i t h o u t s u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e s i n t h e a c t u a l

t e c h n i q u e s o f p r o d u c t i o n , a n d d e p e n d e d m a i n l y o n a l t e r a t i o n s

i n t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s o f p r o d u c t i o n . I n t e x t i l e s ,

c h e m i c a l s , a n d metal p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i c a l i n n o v a t i o n s

p r o m o t e d d r a m a t i c i n c r e a s e s i n t h e scale a n d i n t e n s i t y o f

p r o d u c t i o n . B u t f o r m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n g e n e r a l , two

e s s e n t i a l l y s o c i a l i n n o v a t i o n s p l a y e d a l a r g e r p a r t i n

t r a n s f o r m i n g p r o d u c t i o n : 1) t h e g r o u p i n g o f w o r k e r s i n l a r g e

s h o p s u n d e r c e n t r a l i z e d t i m e - d i s c i p l i n e 2 t h e

m o n o p o l i z a t i o n o f means o f p r o d u c t i o n b y c a p i t a l i s t s .

A t t h e s t a r t o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , many c a p i t a l i s t s

worked e s s e n t i a l l y a s m e r c h a n t s , b u y i n g a n d s e l l i n g t h e

p r o d u c t s o f w o r k e r s . N o n e e d t o e x a g g e r a t e : I n some b r a n c h e s

o f t e x t i l e s a n d metals, f u l l - f l e d g e d i n d u s t r i a l c a p i t a l i s t s

r a n l a r g e m i l l s a n d e m p l o y e d f u l l - t i m e wage-workers . I n

c o t t a g e i n d u s t r y , m e r c h a n t s o f t e n owned t h e l o o m s a n d t h e raw

mate r ia l s worked b y p o o r c o t t a g e r s . I n c a p i t a l i z e d s e g m e n t s

o f E u r o p e a n a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e d a i l y o r y e a r l y wage a l r e a d y

p r o v i d e d t h e p r i n c i p a l i n c o m e o f m i l l i o n s o f h o u e h o l d s .

N e v e r t h e l e s s r e l a t i v e l y f e w c a p i t a l i s t s knew how t o p r o d u c e

t h e g o o d s t h e y s o l d , a n d many w o r k e r s d i d . D u r i n g t h e

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , i n i n d u s t r y a f t e r i n d u s t r y , c a p i t a l i s t s

a n d w o r k e r s s t r u g g l e d o v e r k n o w l e d g e a n d c o n t r o l o f d e t a i l e d

p r o d u c t i o n d e c i s i o n s . By t h e e n d o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,

many c a p i t a l i s t s knew how t o make a w h o l e p r o d u c t , a n d f e w

w o r k e r s d i d . The c a p i t a l i s t s had won.

AS c a p i t a l i s m e n t e r e d a new p h a s e o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d

c o n t r o l , E u r o p e a n states were a l s o u n d e r g o i n g g r e a t

a l t e r a t i o n s . By t h e l a t e r e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , z e a l o u s

p r i n c e s , m i n i s t e r s a n d g e n e r a l s h a d made n a t i o n a l s t a t e s t h e

d o m i n a n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n m o s t p a r t s o f E u r o p e . The c h i e f

e x c e p t i o n s were t h e u r b a n - c o m m e r c i a l b a n d e x t e n d i n g f r o m

N o r t h e r n I t a l y a c r o s s t h e A l p s l down t h e R h i n e a n d i n t o t h e

Low C o u n t r i e s , a n d t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n f l a n k o f t h e c o n t i n e n t ,

w h e r e t r i b u t e - t a k i n g e m p i r e s , p o w e r f u l l i n e a g e s r a n d Islamic

p e o p l e s c o n c e n t r a t e d . Where n a t i o n a l s t a t e s h e l d s w a y , p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r w a r

became e x t e n s i v e a n d c o s t l y ; m i l i t a r y e x p e n d i t u r e a n d p a y m e n t

f o r war d e b t s o c c u p i e d t h e l a r g e s t s h a r e s o f most s t a t e

b u d g e t s . The s t r o n g e s t s t a t e s b u i l t g r e a t s t r u c t u r e s f o r t h e

e x t r a c t i o n of t h e m e a n s o f war: s u p p l i e s , f o o d , c o n s c r i p t s ,

a n d money.

P a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h e v e r y c o n s t r u c t i o n o f l a r g e m i l i t a r y

o r g a n i z a t i o n s r e d u c e d t h e a u t o n o m y o f m i l i t a r y men a n d

c r e a t e d l a rge c i v i l i a n b u r e a u c r a c i e s . The p r o c e s s of

b a r g a i n i n g w i t h o r d i n a r y p e o p l e f o r t h e i r a c q u i e s c e n c e a n d

t h e i r s u r r e n d e r o f r e s o u r c e s e n g a g e d t h e c i v i l i a n m a n a g e r s o f

s t a t e s w i l l y - n i l l y i n e s t a b l i s h i n g perimeters t o s t a t e

c o n t r o l , l i m i t s t o s t a t e v i o l e n c e , a n d r e g u l a r r o u t i n e s f o r

e l i c i t i n g t h e c o n s e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t p o p u l a t i o n . I n

s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l a n d T u d o r m o n a r c h s s u c c e e d e d i n

d i s b a n d i n g t h e i r g r e a t l o r d s t p r i v a t e armiest i n s n a t c h i n g

most f o r t r e s s e s f r o m p r i v a t e h a n d s t a n d i n r a d i c a l l y r e d u c i n g

t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f d i s p u t e s among n o b l e s b y f o r c e o f arms.

Y e t e v e n t h e s e i z u r e o f p r o p e r t y f r o m c h u r c h e s a n d r e b e l l i o u s

l o r d s d i d n o t f r e e T u d o r m o n a r c h s f r o m f i n a n c i a l d e p e n d e n c e

o n P a r l i a m e n t . Even t u a l l y t t h e c o n s e n t o f P a r l i a m e n t became

e s s e n t i a l t o r o y a l w a r m a k i n g t a n d t h u s t o s t a t e e x p a n s i o n

i t s e l f .

The b a r g a i n i n g p r o c e s s had a d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r y i n e a c h

s t a t e . B u t o v e r a l l i t l e d t o t h e s t a t e ' s c i v i l i a n i ~ a t i o n ~

a n d t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f r e g u l a r m e c h a n i s m s f o r c o n s u l t i n g

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e g o v e r n e d p o p u l a t i o n .

Up t o t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , E u r o p e a n s t a t e s c o n t i n u e d

t o r u l e i n d i r e c t l y . F o r r o u t i n e e n f o r c e m e n t o f t h e i r

d e c i s i o n s t c o l l e c t i o n o f r e v e n u e s , a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f p u b l i c

o r d e r , t h e y r e l i e d c h i e f l y o n l o c a l p o w e r h o l d e r s . The

p o w e r h o l d e r s d i d n o t d e r i v e t h e i r t e n u r e o r t h e i r power f r o m

t h e g o o d w i l l o f s u p e r i o r s i n a . g o v e r n m e n t a 1 h i e r a r c h y . They

r e t a i n e d room f o r m a n e u v e r o n b e h a l f o f t h e i r own i n t e r e s t s .

Much o f t h e work o f n a t i o n a l a u t h o r i t i e s t h e r e f o r e c o n s i s t e d

o f n e g o t i a t i n g w i t h r e g i o n a l a n d l o c a l p o w e r h o l d e r s . '

O r d i n a r y p e o p l e c a r r i e d on a c t i v e p o l i t i c a l l i v e s f b u t almost

e x c l u s i v e l y o n a r e g i o n a l o r l oca l l e v e l . When t h e y d i d

i n v o l v e t h e m s e l v e s i n n a t i o n a l p o w e r s t r u g g l e s t t h e y

o r d i n a r i l y d i d s o t h r o u g h . t h e m e d i a t i o n o f l o c a l

p o w e r h o l d e r s t o r i n a l l i a n c e w i t h them.

I n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ) t h i s s y s t e m d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m

much of E u r o p e . War k e p t g e t t i n g more e x p e n s i v e a n d d e a d l y )

b u t i t i n c r e a s i n g l y i n v o l v e d c o n q u e s t o u t s i d e o f E u r o p e

r a t h e r t h a n s t r u g g l e s among E u r o p e a n p o w e r s . R e v o l u t i o n a r y

a n d r e f o r m i s t g o v e r n m e n t s e x t e n d e d d i r e c t r u l e i n t o l o c a l

communi t ies. The F r e n c h r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s o f 1 7 8 9 a n d

t h e r e a f t e r were t h e f i r s t E u r o p e a n s t o s u c c e e d i n t h a t e f f o r t

a t t h e scale o f a l a r g e s t a t e ; r e v o l u t i o n a r y c o m m i t t e e s t

r e v o l u t i o n a r y m i l i t i a s ) a n d e v e n t u a l l y a r e v o l u t i o n a r y

b u r e a u c r a c y b r o u g h t i n d i v i d u a l c i t i z e n s f a c e t o f a c e w i t h t h e

n a t i o n a l s t a t e . The F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n was p r e c o c i o u s a n d

u n i q u e . B u t most E u r o p e a n s t a t e s s o o n u n d e r w e n t t h e i r own

t r a n s i t i o n s t o d i r e c t r u l e -- many o f t h e m ) i n f a c t l a s a

r e s u l t o f c o n q u e s t b y F r e n c h armies.

A s t h e y b a r g a i n e d w i t h l o c a l p e o p l e f o r e v e n g r e a t e r

r e s o u r c e s l s t a t e m a k e r s s o l i d i f i e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

i n s t i t u t i o n s r b i n d i n g n a t i o n a l e l e c t i o n s t a n d a number o f

o t h e r s means b y w h i c h l o c a l p e o p l e p a r t i c i p a t e d r e g u l a r l y i n

n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s . Here t h e v a r i a t i o n r a n e v e n w i d e r t h a n i n

t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f d i r e c t r u l e , A t t h e e n d o f t h e 1 9 t h

c e n t u r y ) t h e S w i s s f e d e r a t i o n t h e B r i t i s h p a r l i a m e n t a r y

s y s t e m , t h e I t a l i a n s t a t e ( f o r m a l l y v e r y c e n t r a l i z e d ,

i n f o r m a l l y v e r y f r a g m e n t e d ) , a n d t h e b u r e a u c r a t i z e d R u s s i a n

E m p i r e r e p r e s e n t e d v e r y d i f f e r e n t a l t e r n a t i v e s ,

Under p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n t s t m a n a g e r s o f most

s t a t e s t o o k o n r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f o r p u b l i c s e r v i c e s , e c o n o m i c

i n f r a s t r u c t u r e 1 a n d h o u s e h o l d w e l f a r e t o d e g r e e s n e v e r

p r e v i o u s l y a t t a i n e d . On t h e w h o l e , t h e y a l s o moved f r o m

r e a c t i v e t o a c t i v e r e p r e s s i o n : f r o m v i o l e n t r e a c t i o n s a g a i n s t

r e b e l l i o n a n d r e s i s t a n c e a f t e r t h e y o c c u r r e d t o w a r d a c t i v e

s u r v e i l l a n c e o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n a n d t o w a r d v i g o r o u s e f f o r t s t o

f o r e s t a l l r e b e l l i o n a n d r e s i s t a n c e , T h e s e a c t i v i t i e s s h o v e d

as ide a u t o n o m o u s l oca l or r e g i o n a l p o w e r h o l d e r s , a n d p u t

f u n c t i o n a r i e s i n t h e i r p l a c e s . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e I

p o w e r h o l d e r s l o s t much of t h e i r s t r e n g t h a n d a t t r a c t i v e n e s s

a s i n t e r m e d i a r i e s i n t h e a t tempts o f o r d i n a r y p e o p l e t o

r e a l i z e t h e i r i n t e r e s t s . T h o s e were t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ' s

g r e a t c h a n g e s .

O r so i t seems t o m e . I t is o n l y f a i r t o w a r n t h a t my

s y n t h e s i s r e m a i n s u n p r o v e n a n d c o n t e s t a b l e i n a number o f

r e g a r d s . C o n s i d e r f o r e x a m p l e , t h e q u e s t i o n o f m o b i l i t y a n d

c o n n e c t e d n e s s b e f o r e a n d a f t e r t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . When

Eugen Weber s e e k s t o d e t e r m i n e how F r a n c e ' s mu1 t i p l e

p e a s a n t r i e s coalesced i n t o a common F r e n c h n e s s d u r i n g t h e

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , h e f i x e s o n a w a r e n e s s o f n a t i o n a l i t y ,

i n v o l v e m e n t i n n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s , a n d r e s p o n s i v e n e s s t o

o p p o r t u n i t i e s o u t s i d e t h e l o c a l i t y a s t h e phenomena to b e

e x p l a i n e d . Weber l a y s o u t t h e materials o f f o l k l o r i s t s a n d

t r a v e l e r s b r i l l i a n t l y ; h e s h o w s u s a n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r u r a l

F r a n c e f r a g m e n t e d i n l a n g u a g e a n d c u s t o m , t h e n much s t i r r e d

b y t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e r a i l r o a d , o f o b l i g a t o r y p r i m a r y

e d u c a t i o n , o f w i d e s p r e a d m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e . I n Weberts v i e w a

c o n g e r i e s o f i m m o b i l e r u r a l s o c i e t i e s b r o k e o p e n , c o n n e c t e d , b e g a n t o move.

Y e t i t is d e b a t a b l e how much more i n t e n s e l y F r e n c h r u r a l

p e o p l e o f 1 9 0 0 were i n v o l v e d i n n a t i o n a l a f f a i r s t h a n were

t h e i r a n c e s t o r s o f 1 8 0 0 . The v a s t s y s t e m s o f t e m p o r a r y

m i g r a t i o n p o r t r a y e d b y A l a i n C o r b i n , A b e l C h a t e l a i n , a n d Abel

P o i t r i n e a u , f o r e x a m p l e , e s t a b l i s h e d i n t e n s e t ies b e t w e e n

A l p i n e v i l l a g e s a n d Marseille , b e t w e e n i m p o v e r i s h e d f a r m s o f

t h e L i m o u s i n a n d c e n t r a l P a r i s . T h o s e s y s t e m s t h r i v e d i n t h e

e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a n d a t r o p h i e d i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h , I n

c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s , t h e i n t e g r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h o s e d i s t a n t r u r a l

p l a c e s a n d t h e rest o f F r a n c e a c t u a l l y d e c l i n e d , T h a t is o n e

o f my r e a s o n s f o r d o u b t i n g t h e c l a s s i c a c c o u n t o f

m o b i l i z a t i o n , e v e n when p r e s e n t e d w i t h t h e r i c h n e s s a n d

s u b t l e t y o f W e b e r l s a n a l y s i s . B u t t h e p r e s e n c e o f W e b e r t s

a n a l y s i s a n d t h e c r e d e n c e many h i s t o r i a n s h a v e g i v e n i t

t e s t i f y t h a t my a l t e r n a t i v e a c c o u n t is n o t s e l f - e v i d e n t .

O r t a k e t h e e x t e n t o f p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n b e f o r e t h e

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . The e v i d e n c e o n E u r o p e a n p e o p l e ' s -- a n d

e s p e c i a l l y w h o l e h o u s e h o l d s t -- e m p l o y m e n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e

y e a r is q u i t e f r a g m e n t a r y . I t c o u l d t u r n o u t t h a t t h e

m a j o r i t y o f p e o p l e who worked i n c o t t a g e i n d u s t r y b e f o r e 1 8 0 0

a c t u a l l y s p e n t s o much o f t h e i r y e a r s ( o r t h e i r l i v e s )

c u l t i v a t i n g t h e i r own l a n d t h a t t h e term " p r o l e t a r i a n 1 '

d e s c r i b e s them b a d l y .

A l o t d e p e n d s l i n a n y casel o n how s t r i n g e n t a

d e f i n i t i o n o f " p r o l e t a r i a n " w e a d o p t : I f f o r i n s t a n c e l w e

i n s i s t o n f u l l - t i m e w a g e - e a r n e r s h o l d i n g c l o s e l y - s u p e r v i s e d

p o s i t i o n s w i t h i n l a r g e o r g a n i z a t i o n s l w a g e - e a r n e r s who h a v e

n o o t h e r e m p l o y m e n t l t h e n p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n c o n c e n t r a t e s b y

d e f i n i t i o n i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h a n d t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s .

The e f f e c t o f m i n i m i z i n g e m p l o y m e n t i n c o t t a g e i n d u s t r y

b e f o r e 1800 a n d a d o p t i n g a v e r y d e m a n d i n g d e f i n i t i o n o f

" p r o l e t a r i a n " is t o m a i n t a i n my s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t r e n d s b u t

t o d i s p l a c e t h e b u l k o f E u r o p e a n p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n i n t o t h e

n i n e t e e n t h a n d t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s . ( I n t h a t case, w e m u s t

i n v e n t a new t e r m i n o l o g y t o d e s i g n a t e t h e m i l l i o n s o f

E u r o p e a n h o u s e h o l d s before t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y l i n

m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d a g r i c u l t u r e a l i k e , t h a t came t o d e p e n d f o r

s u r v i v a l o n w a g e - l a b o r u n d e r c a p i t a l i s t s u p e r v i s i o n l b u t d i d

n o t work i n l a r g e f i r m s u n d e r t i m e - d i s c i p l i n e l a n d s o o n . )

The same s o r t o f d e b a t e -- p a r t l y f a c t u a l I p a r t l y

d e f i n i t i o n a l -- c a n e a s i l y a r i se a b o u t o t h e r e l e m e n t s o f my

summary. The g e n e r a l t r e n d s l n e v e r t h e l e s s l now seem w e l l

e s t a b l i s h e d .

Conclusions

Not t h a t s o c i a l h i s t o r y h a s s e t t l e d e v e r y t h i n g . F a r

f r o m i t ! I n c h a l l e n g i n g o l d ideas o f p o p u l a r i n v o l v e m e n t i n

b i g s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e s , E u r o p e a n s o c i a l h i s t o r i a n s h a v e

r e n e w e d a n d d i s p l a c e d t h e d e b a t e , b u t h a v e b y no means e n d e d

i t . T h e s e d a y s soc ia l h i s t o r i a n s o f E u r o p e a re d i s a g r e e i n g

a b o u t w h e t h e r a modern a f f e c t i o n a t e e g a l i t a r i a n f a m i l y

f o r m e d , a n d i f s o how1 when , a n d why. They a re w o r r y i n g

a b o u t t h e c o n d i t i o n s , i f a n y , u n d e r w h i c h soc ia l c l a s s e s

d e f i n e d b y t h e r e l a t i o n s o f p r o d u c t i o n become s i g n i f i c a n t

a c t o r s . They are p i t t i n g a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e

e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e g e n e r a l E u r o p e a n d e c l i n e i n f e r t i l i t y .

They are c o n s i d e r i n g t h e v i r t u e s a n d v i c e s o f o r a l h i s t o r y ,

o f e t h n o g r a p h i c a p p r o a c h e s t o h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s 1 o f

q u a n t i f i c a t i o n , o f n a r r a t i v e , o f m o s t o f t h e p r o c e d u r e s I

h a v e d e s c r i b e d a s a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s o f s o c i a l h i s t o r y . I n v e r y

r e c e n t y e a r s i t h a s become much c learer t h a t

s o c i a l - s c i e n t i f i c i n t e r v e n t i o n s i n s o c i a l h i s t o r y , w h e r e

s u c c e s s f u l t h a v e s e r v e d m a i n l y t o s p e c i f y w h a t is t o be

e x p l a i n e d a n d t o e l i m i n a t e bad e x p l a n a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n t o

s u p p l y new a n d more c o n v i n c i n g e x p l a n a t i o n s ; t h a t r e a l i z a t i o n

h a s come a s a d i s a p p o i n t m e n t t o h i s t o r i a n s who hoped f o r

c l o s u r e .

Y e t E u r o p e a n s o c i a l h i s t o r y h a s much t o ce lebra te .

F i r s t , i t h a s shown t h e way t o r e n e w o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

c o l l e c t i v e h i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e b y s y s t e m a t i c c o l l a t i o n o f

many, many i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e s ; h i s t o r i c a l d e m o g r a p h y

p r o v i d e s a d r a m a t i c e x a m p l e o f r e n e w e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h r o u g h

c o l l e c t i v e b i o g r a p h y . S e c o n d , E u r o p e a n s o c i a l h i s t o r y h a s

h u m a n i z e d a n d h i s t o r i c i z e d t h o s e r a t h e r a b s t r a c t a n d timeless

soc ia l s c i e n c e s t h a t h a v e come i n t o its s c o p e ; S O C ~ O ~ O ~ Y ~

p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e , a n d e v e n e c o n o m i c s h a v e e m e r g e d more

h i s t o r i c a l f r o m t h e i r e n c o u n t e r w i t h E u r o p e a n s o c i a l h i s t o r y .

T h i r d , t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f E u r o p e a n soc ia l h i s t o r y h a v e

r a d i c a l l y r e d u c e d t h e p l a u s i b i l i t y o f g e n e r a l h i s t o r i e s

p o r t r a y i n g o r d i n a r y p e o p l e a s a p a t h e t i c , i r r a t i o n a l , o r

s t u p i d masses, F i n a l l y -- a n d most i m p o r t a n t -- E u r o p e a n

soc ia l h i s t o r y h a s b u i l t new a c c o u n t s o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

c a p i t a l i s m a n d t h e f o r m a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l s t a t e s , a c c o u n t s i n

w h i c h t h e e x p e r i e n c e s a n d a c t i o n s o f o r d i n a r y p e o p l e s t a n d i n

c e n t e r s t a g e ,

NOTES

1. George Macaulay Trevelyan , English S o c i a l His to ry (London :

hngman, 1944), 1.

2. P e t e r Wlrke, Sociology and His to ry (London: George Allen &

Unwin , 1980), 31.

3. Jean-Pierre Bardet , Rouen aux XVIIe et XVIIIe sikles. L e s

Mutations d 'un Espace Urbain (Par i s : SEDESt 1983), I, 279.

4. John B r e w e r , "Theater and Counter-Thea ter i n Ceorg i a n

P o l i t i c s : The Mock E lec t ions a t Garrat ," Radical His tory Review 22

(Winter, 1979-80) , 8.

6. Richard Cobb, Reactions t o t h e French Revolution (London:

Oxford Univers i ty Press, 1972) , 121.

7. Alf G d t k e , "The Historiography of Everyday Life: The Personal

and the Political ," i n Raphael Samuel & Gareth Stedman Jones,

eds., Cul ture , Ideology and P o l i t i c s (London: Routledge & Kegan

Paul , 1982), 42.

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid. -

10. Ibid., 47. -

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