review: mac. data link layer5-2 link layer: introduction terminology: hosts and routers are nodes...
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Data Link Layer 5-2
Link Layer: Introduction
Terminology:hosts and routers are nodes
communication channels that connect adjacent nodes along communication path are links
wired links wireless links LANs
layer-2 packet is a frame, encapsulates datagram
data-link layer has responsibility of transferring datagram from one node to physically adjacent node over a link
Data Link Layer 5-3
Link layer: context
datagram transferred by different link protocols over different links:
e.g., Ethernet on first link, frame relay on intermediate links, 802.11 on last link
each link protocol provides different services
e.g., may or may not provide rdt over link
transportation analogytrip from Princeton to Lausanne
limo: Princeton to JFK plane: JFK to Geneva train: Geneva to Lausanne
tourist = datagram
transport segment = communication link
transportation mode = link layer protocol
travel agent = routing algorithm
Data Link Layer 5-4
Link Layer Services
framing, link access: encapsulate datagram into frame, adding header, trailer channel access if shared medium “MAC” addresses used in frame headers to identify source,
dest different from IP address!
reliable delivery between adjacent nodes we learned how to do this already (chapter 3)! seldom used on low bit-error link (fiber, some twisted pair) wireless links: high error rates
Q: why both link-level and end-end reliability?
Data Link Layer 5-5
Link Layer Services (more)
flow control: pacing between adjacent sending and receiving nodes
error detection: errors caused by signal attenuation, noise. receiver detects presence of errors:
signals sender for retransmission or drops frame
error correction: receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without resorting
to retransmission
half-duplex and full-duplex with half duplex, nodes at both ends of link can transmit, but
not at same time
Data Link Layer 5-6
Multiple Access Links and ProtocolsTwo types of “links”:
point-to-point PPP for dial-up access point-to-point link between Ethernet switch and host
broadcast (shared wire or medium) old-fashioned Ethernet upstream HFC 802.11 wireless LAN
shared wire (e.g., cabled Ethernet)
shared RF (e.g., 802.11 WiFi)
shared RF(satellite)
humans at acocktail party
(shared air, acoustical)
Data Link Layer 5-7
Multiple Access protocols
single shared broadcast channel
two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes: interference collision if node receives two or more signals at the same time
multiple access protocol
distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share channel, i.e., determine when node can transmit
communication about channel sharing must use channel itself! no out-of-band channel for coordination
Data Link Layer 5-8
Ideal Multiple Access Protocol
Broadcast channel of rate R bps
1. when one node wants to transmit, it can send at rate R.
2. when M nodes want to transmit, each can send at average rate R/M
3. fully decentralized: no special node to coordinate transmissions no synchronization of clocks, slots
4. simple
Data Link Layer 5-9
MAC Protocols: a taxonomy
Three broad classes:
Channel Partitioning divide channel into smaller “pieces” (time slots, frequency,
code) allocate piece to node for exclusive use
Random Access channel not divided, allow collisions “recover” from collisions
“Taking turns” nodes take turns, but nodes with more to send can take
longer turns
Data Link Layer 5-10
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols: TDMA
TDMA: time division multiple access
access to channel in "rounds"
each station gets fixed length slot (length = pkt trans time) in each round
unused slots go idle
example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, slots 2,5,6 idle
1 3 4 1 3 4
6-slotframe
Data Link Layer 5-11
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols: FDMA
FDMA: frequency division multiple access
channel spectrum divided into frequency bands
each station assigned fixed frequency band
unused transmission time in frequency bands go idle
example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, frequency bands 2,5,6 idle
freq
uenc
y ba
nds
time
FDM cable
Data Link Layer 5-12
Random Access Protocols
When node has packet to send transmit at full channel data rate R. no a priori coordination among nodes
two or more transmitting nodes ➜ “collision”,
random access MAC protocol specifies: how to detect collisions how to recover from collisions (e.g., via delayed retransmissions)
Examples of random access MAC protocols: slotted ALOHA ALOHA CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA
Data Link Layer 5-13
Slotted ALOHA
Assumptions:all frames same sizetime divided into equal size slots (time to transmit 1 frame)nodes start to transmit only slot beginning nodes are synchronizedif 2 or more nodes transmit in slot, all nodes detect collision
Operation:when node obtains fresh frame, transmits in next slot
if no collision: node can send new frame in next slot
if collision: node retransmits frame in each subsequent slot with prob. p until success
Data Link Layer 5-14
Slotted ALOHA
Pros
single active node can continuously transmit at full rate of channel
highly decentralized: only slots in nodes need to be in sync
simple
Conscollisions, wasting slotsidle slotsnodes may be able to detect collision in less than time to transmit packetclock synchronization
Data Link Layer 5-15
Pure (unslotted) ALOHA
unslotted Aloha: simpler, no synchronization
when frame first arrives transmit immediately
collision probability increases: frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent in [t0-1,t0+1]
Data Link Layer 5-16
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
CSMA: listen before transmit:
If channel sensed idle: transmit entire frame
If channel sensed busy, defer transmission
human analogy: don’t interrupt others!
Data Link Layer 5-17
CSMA collisions
collisions can still occur:propagation delay means two nodes may not heareach other’s transmission
collision:entire packet transmission time wasted
spatial layout of nodes
note:role of distance & propagation delay in determining collision probability
Data Link Layer 5-18
CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)
CSMA/CD: carrier sensing, deferral as in CSMA collisions detected within short time colliding transmissions aborted, reducing channel wastage
collision detection: easy in wired LANs: measure signal strengths, compare transmitted,
received signals difficult in wireless LANs: received signal strength overwhelmed by local
transmission strength
human analogy: the polite conversationalist
Data Link Layer 5-20
“Taking Turns” MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocols: share channel efficiently and fairly at high load inefficient at low load: delay in channel access, 1/N bandwidth allocated
even if only 1 active node!
random access MAC protocols efficient at low load: single node can fully utilize channel high load: collision overhead
“taking turns” protocolslook for best of both worlds!
Data Link Layer 5-21
“Taking Turns” MAC protocols
Polling:
master node “invites” slave nodes to transmit in turn
typically used with “dumb” slave devices
concerns: polling overhead latency single point of failure
(master)
master
slaves
poll
data
data
Data Link Layer 5-22
“Taking Turns” MAC protocols
Token passing: control token passed
from one node to next sequentially.
token message concerns:
token overhead latency single point of failure
(token)
T
data
(nothingto send)
T
Data Link Layer 5-23
Summary of MAC protocols
channel partitioning, by time, frequency or code Time Division, Frequency Division
random access (dynamic), ALOHA, S-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD carrier sensing: easy in some technologies (wire), hard in
others (wireless) CSMA/CD used in Ethernet CSMA/CA used in 802.11
taking turns polling from central site, token passing Bluetooth, FDDI, IBM Token Ring
Computers for the next decades?
Computers are integrated small, cheap, portable, replaceable - no more separate devices
Technology is in the background computer are aware of their environment and adapt (“location awareness”) computer recognize the location of the user and react appropriately (e.g.,
call forwarding, fax forwarding, “context awareness”))
Advances in technology more computing power in smaller devices flat, lightweight displays with low power consumption new user interfaces due to small dimensions more bandwidth per cubic meter multiple wireless interfaces: wireless LANs, wireless WANs, regional
wireless telecommunication networks etc. („overlay networks“)
Mobile communication
Two aspects of mobility: user mobility: users communicate (wireless) “anytime, anywhere, with
anyone” device portability: devices can be connected anytime, anywhere to the
network
Wireless vs. mobile Examples stationary computer notebook in a hotel wireless LANs in historic buildings Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)
The demand for mobile communication creates the need for integration of wireless networks into existing fixed networks: local area networks: standardization of IEEE 802.11,
ETSI (HIPERLAN) Internet: Mobile IP extension of the internet protocol IP wide area networks: e.g., internetworking of GSM and ISDN
Applications I
Vehicles transmission of news, road condition, weather, music via DAB personal communication using GSM position via GPS local ad-hoc network with vehicles close-by to prevent accidents, guidance
system, redundancy vehicle data (e.g., from busses, high-speed trains) can be transmitted in
advance for maintenance
Emergencies early transmission of patient data to the hospital, current status, first
diagnosis replacement of a fixed infrastructure in case of earthquakes, hurricanes,
fire etc. crisis, war, ...
Typical application: road traffic
ad ho
cUMTS, WLAN,DAB, DVB, GSM, cdma2000, TETRA, ...
Personal Travel Assistant,PDA, Laptop, GSM, UMTS, WLAN, Bluetooth, ...
Mobile and wireless services – Always Best Connected
UMTS2 Mbit/s
UMTS, GSM384 kbit/s
LAN100 Mbit/s,WLAN54 Mbit/s
UMTS, GSM115 kbit/s
GSM 115 kbit/s,WLAN 11 Mbit/s
GSM/GPRS 53 kbit/sBluetooth 500 kbit/s
GSM/EDGE 384 kbit/s,DSL/WLAN 3 Mbit/s
DSL/ WLAN3 Mbit/s
Applications II
Travelling salesmen direct access to customer files stored in a central location consistent databases for all agents mobile office
Replacement of fixed networks remote sensors, e.g., weather, earth activities flexibility for trade shows LANs in historic buildings
Entertainment, education, ... outdoor Internet access intelligent travel guide with up-to-date
location dependent information ad-hoc networks for
multi user games
HistoryInfo
Location dependent services
Location aware services what services, e.g., printer, fax, phone, server etc. exist in the local
environment
Follow-on services automatic call-forwarding, transmission of the actual workspace to the
current location
Information services „push“: e.g., current special offers in the supermarket „pull“: e.g., where is the Black Forrest Cherry Cake?
Support services caches, intermediate results, state information etc. „follow“ the mobile
device through the fixed network
Privacy who should gain knowledge about the location
Mobile devices
performanceperformance
Pager• receive only• tiny displays• simple text messages
Mobile phones• voice, data• simple graphical displays
PDA• graphical displays• character recognition• simplified WWW
Palmtop• tiny keyboard• simple versions of standard applications
Laptop/Notebook• fully functional• standard applications
Sensors,embeddedcontrollers
www.scatterweb.net
Effects of device portability
Power consumption limited computing power, low quality displays, small disks due to
limited battery capacity CPU: power consumption ~ CV2f
C: internal capacity, reduced by integration V: supply voltage, can be reduced to a certain limit f: clock frequency, can be reduced temporally
Loss of data higher probability, has to be included in advance into the design
(e.g., defects, theft)
Limited user interfaces compromise between size of fingers and portability integration of character/voice recognition, abstract symbols
Limited memory limited value of mass memories with moving parts flash-memory or ? as alternative
Wireless networks in comparison to fixed networks
Higher loss-rates due to interference emissions of, e.g., engines, lightning
Restrictive regulations of frequencies frequencies have to be coordinated, useful frequencies are almost all
occupied
Low transmission rates local some Mbit/s, regional currently, e.g., 53kbit/s with GSM/GPRS
Higher delays, higher jitter connection setup time with GSM in the second range, several hundred
milliseconds for other wireless systems
Lower security, simpler active attacking radio interface accessible for everyone, base station can be simulated,
thus attracting calls from mobile phones
Always shared medium secure access mechanisms important
Areas of research in mobile communication
Wireless Communication transmission quality (bandwidth, error rate, delay) modulation, coding, interference media access, regulations ...
Mobility location dependent services location transparency quality of service support (delay, jitter, security) ...
Portability power consumption limited computing power, sizes of display, ... usability ...
Simple reference model used here
Application
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
Medium
Data Link
Physical
Application
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
Data Link
Physical
Network Network
Radio
Influence of mobile communication to the layer model
service location new applications, multimedia adaptive applications congestion and flow control quality of service addressing, routing,
device location hand-over authentication media access multiplexing media access control encryption modulation interference attenuation frequency
Application layer
Transport layer
Network layer
Data link layer
Physical layer